Industrial Robot Applications

Open University Press Robotics Series

Edited by

P.G. Davey CBE MA MIEE MBCS C.Eng

This series is designed to give undergraduate, graduate and

practising engineers access to this fast developing field and provide
an understanding of the essentials both of robot design and of the
implementation of complete robot systems for CIM and FMS.
Individual titles are oriented either towards industrial practice and
current experience or towards those areas where research is actively
advancing to bring new robot systems and capabilities into
production.
The design and overall editorship of the series are due to Peter
Davey, Managing Director of Meta Machines Limited, Abingdon;
Fellow of St Cross College, Oxford University; and formerly
Co-ordinator of the UK Science and Engineering Research Council's
Programme in Industrial Robotics.
His wide ranging responsibilities and international involvement
in robotics research and development endow the series with
unusual quality and authority.

TITLES IN THE SERIES

Industrial Robot Applications E. Appleton and D.}. Williams

Robotics: An Introduction D. McCloy and M. Harris
Robots in Assembly A. Redford and E. Lo
Robot Sensors and Transducers R. Ruocco

Titles in preparation
Integration of Robots with R. Weston, C. Sumpter and
Manufacturing Systems }. Gascoigne

Unsolved Problems in Robotics R. Popplestone

Industrial Robot Applications

E. Appleton
D.I. Williams

HALSTED PRESS
John Wiley & Sons
New York- Toronto
and
OPEN UNIVERSITY PRESS
Milton Keynes
Open University Press
Open University Educational Enterprises Limited
12 Cofferidge Close
Stony Stratford
Milton Keynes MKlllBY, England
First Published 1987

Copyright © 1987 E. Appleton and D.J. Williams

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, without written
permission from the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Appleton, E.
Industrial robot applications. - (Open
University Press robotics series).
1. Assembling machines-Automatic control
2. Robots, Industrial
I. Title II. Williams, D.J.
670.42'7 TS178.4

ISBN-13:978-94-010-7905-1 e-ISBN :978-94-009-3125-1

DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-3125-1

Published in the U.S.A., Canada and Latin America by

Halsted Press, a Division of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York.

Text design: Clarke WilliamslBenmore Data Services

Interfacing: Getset (Bowden Typesetting Services) Ltd, Eynsham
lllustrationimake up: Marlborough Design, Oxford
Contents

Series Editor's Preface viii

Acknowledgements ix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 The robot industry 8
1.3 Statistics and exploitation 9

PART I
Chapter 2 Production engineering for robot applications 20
- I. Robot system considerations
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Classification and terminology of robotic systems 21
2.3 Robot choice 26
2.4 Performance testing 38

Chapter 3 Production engineering for robot applications 50

- II. Application design considerations
3.1 General system design considerations 50
3.2 Environmental factors 50
3.3 Reliability 56
3.4 End-effectors 57
3.5 The application of sensors 74
3.6 Workplace layout for robot applications 85
3 .7 Safety considerations 92
3.8 Robot application economics and financial justification 101
vi Contents

PART II
Chapter 4 Robot handling 112
4.1 Introduction 112
4.2 Industrial application 112
4.3 Advantages of robot handling 113
4.4 The handling task 113
4.5 Robot characteristics for handling 118
4.6 Robot handling case study - Machine tool loading 122
and unloading the 600 groups's SCAMP system
Chapter 5 Robot assembly 129
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Application characteristics 129
5.3 Case study - the assembly of steering gear tie rods 140
5.4 Case study - the assembly ·of electronic components 144
using an Adept
5.5 Future developments 149

Chapter 6 Robot welding 150

6.1 Introduction 150
6.2 The spot welding process 150
6.3 Robot spot welding 151
6.4 The robot task 152
6.5 Robot spot welding case study - automobile body 153
assembly Ford Sierra line
6.6 The arc welding process 162
6.7 Robot MIG welding 162
6.8 The robot task 163
6.9 Robot arc welding case study - garden furniture 165
manufacture G & C Home ~nd Leisure Supplies Ltd

Chapter 7 Machining with robots 170

7.1 Introduction 170
7.2 Application characteristics 170
7.3 Case study - drilling and routing 173
7.4 Case study - cut-off and fettling of castings 177
7.5 Other machining operations 184
7.6 Future developments 185

Chapter 8 Spray painting applications 187

8.1 The spray painting process 187
8.2 Spray painting robot anatomy and characteristics 188
8.3 Programming techniques 193
8.4 Two typical commercial machines 196
8.5 Robot spray painting case study - interior and 198
exterior of commercial vehicles Freight Rover Ltd
 Contents vii

Chapter 9 Innovative robot applications 202

9. 1 Introduction 202
9.2 Robot applications in the automation of 202
manufacturing processes
9.3 Robot applications in assembly automation 206
9.4 Robot applications in inspection 209
9.5 Conduding comments 212

PART III IMPLEMENTATION

A Practical Guide to Implementing an Initial Robot Application 214
Al.1 Introduction 214
Al.2 Preliminary discussions 214
Al.3 Making a start 215
A 1.4 The plant survey 215
Al.5 Project management 221

Index 224
Series Editor's Preface

The hardest data for managers and engineers in charge of the design and
implementation of robot systems to acquire is also the most valuable: case studies
detailing best current practice and the return on investment actually achieved. It has
been a major goal of the British Robot Association, among other professional
groups, to organise meetings where such case studies are presented and discussed
between members; but the obvious restrictions of commercial confidentiality lead
to considerable difficulty, especially in relation to the best recent installations.
The authors of this book have been in the uniquely privileged position of lecturing
in the Cambridge University Production Engineering Tripos, a course specially
organised in conjunction with a number of leading companies applying robots and
automation. Actual case studies from these companies form an important part of
the course, making this book that has emerged from it a uniquely important addition
to our Open University Press series.
The contents include an account of what applications have been found really
suitable for industrial robots, and why; with pointers toward newer applications that
will be opened up by the latest developments in robot system design. Factors such as
design for safety and maintainability affecting good robot installations (long known
as crucial by practicing production engineers but seldom found in books) receive the
attention theey deserve. Actual procedures for launching a new robot installation
within a manufacturing company, necessarily including early consultation both with
the workforce concerned and with financial planners are outlined, probably for the
first time in a robotic text.
I believe the book will be found equally useful by students and practicing
engineers in manufacture, as well as by those researching and designing new robot
systems who wish to benefit the customer's view of what they are producing.

P.G. Davey
Acknowledgements

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following for material used in this book:
Figure 1.3 from Economic Commission for Europe, Production and use of Industrial
Robots, UN (1985); Figures 1.4-1.8 and 2.1 from British Robot Association (Dec.
1985); Figures 3.28, 4.1 and 8.2 from J. F. Engleberger, Robotics in Practice:
Management and applications o/industrial robots, Kogan Page, 1982; Figures 4.2, 5.7,
5.8 and 9.7 courtesy of Fairey Systems; Figures 4.3 (a) and 4.8-4.14 courtesy of
Scamp Systems Ltd, a member company of the 600 Group pIc; Figure 4.3 (b) courtesy
of Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen; Figure 4.4 from Industrial Engineering, April 1982,
copyright © Institute of Industrial Engineers, 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross,
Georgia, 30092, USA; Figure 4.5 reprinted courtesy of the Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, USA, copyrights 1979, from Technical Paper
MS79-246; Figure 4.6 courtesy of George Kuikka Ltd and ASEA of Vasteras,
Sweden; Figure 2.6 from Industrial Engineering, January 1982, copyright © 1982
Institute of Industrial Engineers, 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, Georgia,
30092, USA; Figures 3.23-3.25 from Industrial Engineers, 25 Technology Park/
Atlanta, Norcross, Georgia, 30092, USA; Figure 3.29 from Warnecke an" Schraft,
Industrial Robots: Application experience, IFS (Publications) Ltd, 1982; Figures 3.5,
3.6,3.11 and 4.7 from Gripper Review, IFS (Publications) Ltd, 1977; Figures 8.1 and
8.9 courtesy of The Devilbiss Company; Figures 8.3, 8.4 and 8.6 (b) courtesy of
Gaiotto Impianti; Figures 8.5, 8.6 (a), 8.10 and 8.12 courtesy of GEC Electrical
Projects Ltd; Figures 8.7 and 8.8 courtesy of The Machine Tool Trades Association;
Figure 5.4 and 9.4 courtesy of Unimation (Europe) Ltd; Figure 5.5 courtesy of IBM
United Kingdom Ltd; Figure 6.3 courtesy of the British Robot Association; Figures
3.4, 3.34-3.36 from D. MCCloy and M. Harris, Robotics: An Introduction, Open
University Press, 1986; Figure 6.5 courtesy of MIKO Maschinen Automation GmbH;
Figure 6.6 and 9.8 from Industrial Robot, Vol. 9, IFS (Publications) Ltd, 1982; Figures
6.7 and 6.8 from Machine and Production Engineering, October 1982, Findlay
Publications; Figures 6.11, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5 and 9.2 courtesy of ASEA Ltd; Figure 7.2
x

courtesy of British Aerospace pIc; Figure 7.1 courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Ltd;
Figure 5.2 from A. Redford and E. Lo, Robots for Assembly, Open University Press,
1986; Figure 9.6 courtesy of Reis Robot Ltd; Figure 9.1 courtesy of Robotics Today;
Figure 9.3 courtesy of IFS (Publications) Ltd; Figure 9.5 Mark Steele and American
Machinist.
Chapter 1

Introduction

In any book describing aspects of new technology it is necessary from the outset to
define the essential terms to be used and to introduce the framework and objectives
of the content. In the case of this book, in common with sister books in the series the
central characters are classed as industrial robots. Elsewhere in the series the robot
may be considered as a piece of machinery with an interesting control aspect, or as
a mechanical manifestation of the output of sophisticated computer software; in this
book the industrial robot is considered to be primarily a tool in manufacture. As such,
the industrial robot of the near future could represent the principle of man's tool-
building endeavours, giving freedom from the limitations of the physical body and
from the burden of manual labour .

1.1 Definition

In the evolution of technology, robotics is a mere infant in comparison with the

machine tool and the modern digital computer. Those involved in the extension of the
technology of robotics (or in the application of that technology today) are fortunate
to be chronologically close to the true significant origins of the subject in the 1950s.
This means that some of the original inventors and exploiters are still active, and their
pioneering influence can still be felt. In short, robotics is a young technology; there
remains much to be explored and exploited. With this in mind, it is appropriate to
consider the subject with a definition of the industrial robot credited to J.F.
Engelberger. Engelberger remains one of the true pioneers and visionaries of the
industrial robot and took the simple pragmatic approach of defining the robot in the
phrase "I know one when I see one". He may well have had in mind a robot
somewhat like the robot shown in Fig. 1.1 from his own company, or a larger robot
from a competitor, the Cincinnati T3 as shown in Fig. 1.2. However, Engelberger
is in an almost singular position in dealing with such a definition, and those that
2 Industrial Robot Applications

Gripper
'. ~nting

"~
Flange rotation

Figure 1.1 PUMA robot

Figure 1.2 Cincinnati T3 robot

follow him into an interest in the subject need something somewhat more substantial
in terms of definition.
Although this book starts from the assumption that the reader may be generally
familiar with the fundamentals of robotic systems, it will be useful to reconsider the
definition of such devices in relation to their place and function within manufacture,
 Introduction 3

taking a strong applications viewpoint. Several bodies around the world have
attempted to establish a comprehensive, non restrictive deflnition that does include
all other forms of programmable automation. A deflnition that shows considerable
agreement with many of the deflnitions proposed around the world is that used by the
International Standards Organisation, and is as follows:-
An automatic servo controlled programmable multifunctional manipulator having
multiple axes, capable of handling materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices
through variable programmed operations for the performance of a variety of tasks.

It is worthwhile for the purpose of introduction to give some attention to the details
of this defInition. Therefore, taking the highlighted words in tum consideration can
be given to the correspondence between this well established deflnition and the
reality of industrial robot applications.

Automatic

Although there is an important fleld of technology associated with the use of non-
automatic robots, in the form of remotely controlled arms or telecherics, this book
has restricted its attention to manufacturing, in which the overwhelming number of
applications involve robots that operate automatically. Although advances in
manufacture in the future may well indicate that the robot is a somewhat special tool,
it is still a member of a family of tools found under the general heading of automatic
machine tools-which would also include numerically controlled machining centres,
dedicated automatic assembly machines and many other special purpose automatic
machines.

Servo controlled

These words relate to the control of individual motions of the robot device. By their
inclusion, the ISO deflnition restricts the devices to those that monitor aspects of the
robot motion, such as the position of a robot arm or its velocity and use these signals
in a control feedback loop. In general industrial usage within manufacture, this
aspect of the deflnition is far too restricting, and there are considerable numbers of
robots applied within manufacture that work by driving axes of motion between
preset mechanical endstops with no servo-control feedback loop, and hence almost
no facility for controlling the motion between the endstops or controlling the
coordination of different axes. In spite of their simplicity and limitations, devices in
this classiflcation are commonly used for simple repetitive handling applications;
hence a wider deflnition is more appropriate.
In addition (from a strict deflnition of the terms), robots which are moved by
means of stepper motors will also fall outside consideration, because this form of
drive does not usually involve feed-back signals. Although stepper motor driven
robots have not shared the general acceptance compared with the use of other drives,
many of the educational robots being controlled by microcomputers use stepper
motors. There is increasing use of this form of drive on certain joints and end-
effectors. It is generally thought that the potential for this form of drive has not yet
been fully explored.
4 Industrial Robot Applications

Programmable

This word is a key to many of the advances that have taken place since the
introduction of the digital computer. In many ways the industrial robot is an
electromechanical manifestation of the important concept behind the
microprocessor. Within electronics the miniaturisation of circuits using solid state
components and the manipulation of data in digital form (rather than analogue form)
has allowed the design and manufacture of general purpose electronic devices to
carry out tasks such as data storage, arithmetic manipulation or communication.
Progress in this field has been phenomenal, and gave immediate benefits in the design
of the modern computer and more recently to the introduction of microcomputers and
everyday objects, including digital watches, pocket calculators and the like. The
principle behind the commercial success of microelectronics is that general purpose
electronic devices are produced in large, and hence economic, quantities. These
general purpose devices are subsequently programmed to perform specific, narrow
application tasks. The exploitation of this concept had immediate impact on the
generation, storage and transmission of data particularly in the form of word
processors and data bases in the office environment. A similar revolution is now
taking place on the shop floor through the introduction of computer aided design and
manufacture, CADCAM. Within this general process the robot is an important
device because it is an adaptive and versatile servant, acting upon the computers'
instructions, translating instructions step by step into physical actions in the real
manufacturing environment. The ability to reprogramme an action gives the users of
these machines the opportunity to reprogramme their devices to meet changing
circumstances. In the simplest form, robots are programmed by setting adjustable
end-stops or respecifying the order in which actions are to take place. More
sophisticated programs can include logic and arithmetic routines with interactive use
of sensor-generated data. All programs are essentially similar and consist of an
ordered list of computer instructions, each of which has an output in the form of a
particular robot movement or change in controller condition.
Speed of reprogramming is achieved by use of systems that allow existing
programs to be stored, selected and used quickly with little effort. Most commercial
robot systems allow the user to store a small number of programs within the
dedicated robot controller for immediate use. Long term storage of programs is
usually achieved by means of magnetic media such as tapes or floppy discs. In more
demanding applications a large number of programs may be held in a supervisory
computer ready for loading into the robot controller via a computer link. The actual
method used to program and reprogramme varies from system to system, but more
attention will be given to this topic later.

Multifunctional

This is another important phrase that differentiates the industrial robot from most
other forms (if not all other forms) of automation. The pioneers of robotics made the
important link that, if in the future the automatic and versatile computer was to act
as the instruction generator, then the device which would be required to translate the
instructions into action must also be versatile. Those with a commercial eye also
recognized that the traditional use of automation was in the area of mass
 Introduction 5

manufacture, because only in that manufacturing stratum was it possible to recover

the high cost for special purpose machine development. In contrast, the modern
industrial robot offers a relatively low cost form of automation because the
considerable development cost can be recovered over a large number of general
purpose machines that are subsequently tooled and programmed for a particular task
by the user. It is intended that the content of this book will be of interest to thosein
industry and education that are involved with this aspect of robot technology.
From the outset the manufacturers of industrial robots have pursued the goal of
a robot design that covered the widest range of applications, indeed some have been
seeking the somewhat dubious Eldorado of trying to produce a robot that can directly
replace the human operator in manufacture. The aspiration is practically and
commercially dubious because it not only contains the commendable technical aims
of high level sensing, voice instruction input and output, mobility, intelligent
behaviour, and high flexibility in application to a wide range of tasks, but also
restricts the range of such machinery in respect of strength, durability and speed. In
short, why base the design of a robot on a model that is probably too slow, too small,
too weak, too frail, and in many ways totally unsuited to tasks in manufacture?
The idea of a multifunctional device spreads beyond the bounds of simply
reprogramming a robot arm to carry out a different task. Thus it is recognized that
multi functionality feeds back to the details of machine selection, machine design and
in some instances as far back as crystallizing the broad product concept for a whole
robot range.
This topic can be focused by consideration of a piece of robot history. In the
early days of this technology the concept of the universal robot was strong, but the
existing technology was only able to make a feeble attempt to furnish industry with
such a device. Indeed, so limited were these early machines that the whole idea
nearly faltered after the first few applications. In general, the limited power of the
controllers restricted robots to simple handling tasks. Even with these limitations,
machines of that generation found ready application as spot welding gun
manipulators in the manufacture of automobile bodies. The importance of this
application remains paramount even today. Having established a tentative but viable
base in the motor industry for spot welding, the early machines were tried in a wide
range of other applications including arc welding, forging, and machining. Their
limitations were almost totally overwhelming and it was some time before the next
landmark was achieved. Early in the 1960s Trallfa Nils Underhaug A/S in Norway
decided to apply the idea of a programmable arm to the spray painting process. At a
stroke Trallfa opened up a widespread application area that could be satisfied by the
technology that was available at that time, and produced a machine which remains
today as a classic design concept for a spray painting robot. Having produced a
machine which demonstrated the considerable advantage of restricting the task range
of a robot, and designing the machine to closely meet those specific demands, many
still failed to read the signs and the attraction of the universal robot persisted-and
even Trallfa tried to put their robot to other applications but without the SPcc!:lcular
achievement of their first attempted generic application.
In more recent years robot producers have become more adept at producing
machines that remain multifunctional but offer design characteristics which are a
good match for a number of related generic applications. The evolution of assembly,
process and handling machines is now clearly identifiable with decreasing overlap.
6 Industrial Robot Applications

Clearly robot designs are evolving into types and the identification of these types and
their association with individual applications is a topic requiring the attention of the
manufacturing engineer.

Manipulator

Throughout the brief history of industrial robotics, robots have been used as
manipulators handling materials, parts, tools and other specialized devices. The use
of robotics devices in the form of automata for entertainment or novelty can be traced
back into history, and even today robot science fiction characters are a favourite with
children and adults alike. However, mechanization of this kind does not fall within
our scope and attention will be restricted to the less fanciful exploitation of the
technology!
In order to earn the title of a manufacturing tool, the robot needs a capacity to
influence its environment in a constructive way-and so far the usual manner for
doing this is in the form of a mechanical arm. Simple mechanical manipulators have
existed for some time but it is only with the advent of the industrial robot that
manipulators have gained a measure of independence from a human operator. The
common understanding of a manipulator is a fixed base, mechanical arm equipped
with some form of tool at the limit of the arm. This tool is usually referred to as an
end-effector. This concept could be considered to be restricted to movement over a
small physical range, but where the path of the manipulator could be complex and
rapid. In contrast, other robotic devices such as automatic guided vehicles (AGVs,
which are clearly robotic in nature, being multifunctional and reprogrammable
automation) fall outside the definition because they are only manipulators in the
broadest sense. AGVs deal with the transportation of tools and workpieces rather
than their manipulation. In addition, it is common for the movements of a robot to be
intimately involved in the manufacturing process, an activity which is beyond the
capacities of even sophisticated transportation systems such as AGVs. The
combination of both industrial robots and AGV s is a powerful facility used at the
heart of many flexible manufacturing systems.
To date the "arm" concept of a robot has dominated their design, and it is only
recently that the industrial robot has broadened its horizons and taken up a wider
range of guises. In the future the demarcation between industrial robots, AGVs,
programmable assembly machines and the like may become less distinct and
individual. At this relatively early date it is interesting to speculate on how
extensively the idea of a tool manipulating robot can be considered to encompass our
idea of conventional machine tools, and what effect the emerging, inherently more
flexible technology will have on the next generation of the broader spectrum of
manufacturing tools.

Multiple axes

The basic structure of today' s robots consist of articulated chains formed by a series
of links and joints. The joints operate independently or in combination to allow the
end ofthe robot arm to move in its workspace. Typically, robots have three axes (or
degrees of freedom) associated with the arm and three axes associated with the wrist.
The diagram in Fig. 1.2 illustrates this arrangement for a typical robot configuration.
 Introduction 7

The joints along the arm are often referred to as waist, shoulder and elbow, and the
motions of the wrist as roll, pitch and yaw. A total of six degrees of freedom gives
the robot the ability to position and orientate the last member of the chain in any
position and orientation within the workspace, provided that physical joint design
constraints are not exceeded.
In future, the use of terms such as axes or degrees of freedom may be far too
restricting. The whole technology known as robotics sprang from a solution seeking
a problem. That is, the robot arm in the form of an electro-mechanical device
appeared before the concept of robotics was refined. Thus, even up to the present the
robot is defined in arm terms. A wider definition of a robot for the future would be
based upon well recognized human or lower animal abilities such as sight, hearing,
or speech. Today, vision systems for automation are often referred to as robot vision,
and it can be expected that hearing and speaking robots may soon appear and that
these machines may well have no need for mUltiple axes to carry out their tasks.
However, within manufacturing the usual requirement will be the performance of
some manipulative task which will invariably involve the use of arm-like devices
having several axes, and so this form of robot device will remain the central theme
of this book.

Handling

As in the previous section, the use of the term handling may restrict the future scope
of what is considered to be an industrial robot, but for the present there can be little
doubt that such machines are predominantly used for the handling of tools or work
pieces within automatic manufacturing cells or systems. Typically, robots are used
for handling tools such as arc- or spot-welding guns, or for feeding or unloading
presses and moulding machines.
The tool or end-effector used at the end of the arm may be general purpose in
the form of a gripper, or may be more specific (for example, a welding torch or glue
gun). In some instances the robot may be able to change its end-effector
automatically and in others tool changes may require human intervention. The
handling task may be simply a matter of moving the workpiece or tool from point to
point through the workspace or may involve the more complex coordination with a
process such as welding. In some applications the handling task involves
coordination with a moving conveyor and this type of facility is known as line
tracking.
It is important for a robot applications engineer to understand the nature of the
handling task, and topics relevant to this understanding are covered in later chapters.

Variable

This is another word that relates to the flexibility of this form of automation. In
traditional hard automation systems the task is broken down into individual elements,
and each element is performed by a device following a simple, (but strictly set)
program of operation. These systems can be reset to carry out a slightly different task
by resetting cams, end stops or the sequence stored in a programmable logic
controller. Further variability in the task to be carried out can be accommodated by
route deviations through an otherwise fixed program of sub-tasks. The essentially
8 Industrial Robot Applications

different aspect between hard and soft automation is the ease and sophistication of the
facilities for reprogramming. In modem robot-based systems reprogramming is
usually simple and speedy, with little requirement for retooling and jigging. The
sophistication of a robot and its variability depends largely upon the power of the
programming instruction set. Variability can be achieved by simple instruction
devices such as conditional statements, repetitive loops with counters and the like.
For example, a robot may be programmed to carry out a task as long as parts are fed
to the input position. A simple sensor can detect the presence of a part and the robot
system will respond by carrying out the programmed task. If the input position is
vacant the robot may be programmed to automatically switch to a second task for
which the parts are available. Similarly, parts may be presented to a robot in one of
a few known orientations. Simple sensors can be used to detect which of the
orientations is being used and the robot controller can automatically select the
appropriate sub-program for the robot to pick up the part and reorientate it before
moving on to the main program task.
The ability of robots to vary their response to changing task requirements allows
such systems to respond to low levels of disorder in the manufacturing environment.
Our understanding of this aspect of robotics is immature, but there can be little doubt
that considerable advances are being made and that in the near future robots with
intelligence will become a reality in manufacture. The future promises to be very
exciting indeed, as new technology produces robots that not only carry out their tasks
unaided within a relatively disordered environment, but are able to plan and replan
their programs using decision-making routines and specialized expert knowledge of
the task requirements.

Task

This is the last important key word to introduce the reader to explain the relationship
between what has already been defined as a robot and the task it is to carry out. The
following chapters will deal with different application areas in detail, but at this stage
it is useful to identify that modem industrial robots are used for a wide and ever-
widening range of tasks within manufacture. Within the short history of robot
technology certain applications have established themselves as the conventional
manner of automating certain tasks. From this point of view it is useful to see
application asks as "windows" of potential for robot technology. In some instances
the "window" is large and robots have found reading numerous applications.
Technical progress and changes in the relative economics of the alternatives may
meanthat the "window" changes. Most changes seem to lead to the expansion of the
robot application "window".
The main task areas are Handling, Assembly, Welding, Machining and Surface
coating. These application areas are dealt with in detail in individual chapters of this
book, where the general principles are supported with case material.

1.2 The robot industry

It is only in very recent years that it has been possible to talk of a robot industry,
because previously robot producers were a disparate group of relatively small
 Introduction 9

companies with very different backgrounds and philosophies. Today the situation is
quite different, with the whole of the scene being dominated by large multi-national
companies in Japan, USA and Europe. There seems to have been two main
mechanisms by which this dominance has arisen. Firstly, because of entrepreneurial
flair or technical ability, several groups of technologists in the USA have formed
small companies that in the main have set the pace for the advancing technology. As
robots have become accepted by industry, the financial requirement to establish and
support a robot producing and marketing facility has increased, and the rapid
expansion necessary has only been possible by allowing takeovers by the more
powerful industrial concerns. It is interesting to note that the rapid advance of the
technology maintains a place for small pioneering concerns that are technically able
to operate at the very front of the technology. Elsewhere, in Japan (and Europe in
particular) the situation has been somewhat different in that industrial involvement
has been stimulated by policy decisions in large companies. In many instances these
companies have seen the newly emerging robot market as a welcome expansion of
their traditional product base. This is particularly noticeable in the machine tool area
but equally applies to the electrical machine producers. It can be seen that the
automobile industry was the first major user of industrial robots and since that time
they have, with exceptions, become major producers.
The various relationships that exist within the industry can be seen in the chart
reproduced in Fig. 1.3.
From a study of Fig. 1.3 it can be concluded that the industry is truly
international and based upon rapid innovation, using new technology and consumer
driven exploitation.

1.3 Statistics and exploitation

Unfortunately data on new technology are more perishable than yesterday's news and
consequently there is little point in devoting space and time to the details of robot
numbers around the world. Any reader wishing to find the latest numericat
information on the exploitation of robots should search out the latest figures
published by the robot associations in various countries. The British Robot
Association was the first to publish figures relating to the numbers of robots applied
during each year. Since the early days of that association the BRA has improved the
scope and the detail of its annual figures and has served as a model for several of the
other associations in this area. Currently, most of the robot associations issue their
figures at the end or beginning of each calendar year. One of the difficulties in
comparing the figures from each country is the difference in the way in which
different associations define a robot. Fortunately most of the associations are now
moving towards a common definition and the international comparisons are
becoming much more useful.
From the point of view of this book the historical trends and new developments
indicated by the figures are invaluable for defining the most relevant content; not
only do they indicate the important applications of today, but they also show what
aspects of the technology will be important as exploitation progresses.
Those readers who are not familiar with the robot industry may find some
indication of scale useful in terms of how many robots are used by industry and how
 International co-operation in the field of industrial robots

NORTH AMERICA JAPAN EUROPE

nmation
(Germany.
Fed.Rep.of)

n,mat
Telford
(United Kingdom)

Nokia
(Finland)

Stokvis
(Funce)

Stokvis
(Netherlands)

'984
,B%
SUM
10% +12%
S 12.1M

I r~
Nanf.r Tllberg
IF"nce) IFinllnd)

Martin & Cia

" - - = - -.... Automltix Inc....... . Geveke

. '--'---' i=
IFr.ncel (Netherlands!

F
L----,,.,_-..J (CADI
Zeppelin T....
(Germ.ny,

,-.,~ ~.i:
(Belgium)
Fed.Rep.of)

L.····.. Durr Bergerat·Dutry

t--=='-'-+-:::---:-::::-:--i
(Germany.
Fed.Rep.otl (luxembourg)

Lansing Robots Siems & Klein

(United Kingdom) (Austri.,
(Licence granted to :
General Electric. USA) I :. Haden Drysy. oem.n
Engineering

• (United Kingdom)
~----~===--'
(Sweden)

Figure 1.3