Applied Sciences: Perspective On Double Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding

applied
sciences
Review
Perspective on Double Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding
Leilei Wang * ID
and Jiaxiang Xue *
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China University of Technology,
Guangzhou 510641, China
* Correspondence: lleiwang@scut.edu.cn (L.W.); mejiaxue@scut.edu.cn (J.X.); Tel.: +86-20-8711-4484 (J.X.)
Received: 18 July 2017; Accepted: 17 August 2017; Published: 1 September 2017
Abstract: Aluminum alloy welding suffers from problems such as solidification cracking and
hydrogen-induced porosity, which are sufficiently severe to limit its potential applications. Because
mitigated porosity incidence and solidification cracking are observed in aluminum welds using
double pulsed gas metal arc welding (DP-GMAW), a comprehensive review of the mechanism is
necessary, but absent from the literature. The oscillation of arc force and droplet pressure causes
a weld pool stir effect. The expansion and shrinkage of the weld pool cause unusual remelting
and resolidification of the previously solidified metal. DP-GMAW has an increased solidification
growth rate and cooling rate, compared with conventional pulsed welding at same heat input. Both
numerical and experimental results reveal the remarkable concept that refined microstructure in
the fusion zone is obtained by using DP-GMAW. The mechanism of microstructural refinement is
revealed as a weld pool stir effect and increased cooling rate. Hydrogen bubbles easily float out and
then release from the weld pool originated from the weld pool stir effect. Reduced solidification
cracking is achieved due to the refined solidification structure that originated from the increased
cooling rate. The advantages, evolution process, and future trend of DP-GMAW are discussed.
Keywords: double pulse welding; weld pool stir; solidification parameters; microstructural
refinement; solidification cracking susceptibility
1. Introduction
Lightweight engineering alloys serve an important role in aerospace, automotive, and naval
industries, for energy-saving and improved maneuverability [1,2]. Steels are progressively substituted
by lightweight engineering alloys in these applications [3,4]. Among various lightweight engineering
alloys, aluminum alloys have attracted considerable attention, due to their exceptional machinability,
acceptable strength, and excellent anti-corrosion properties [5,6]. However, aluminum alloy welding
suffers from problems such as solidification cracking and hydrogen-induced porosity, which restrict the
potential applications of aluminum alloys [7]. Researchers have made numerous attempts to mitigate
these defects. Double pulsed gas metal arc welding (DP-GMAW) is a novel welding method in the
manufacturing process [8]. Compared with conventional pulsed GMAW (CP-GMAW), DP-GMAW
features many advantages, such as reduced porosity incidence, and improved solidification cracking
susceptibility [9]. DP-GMAW has several aliases, e.g., pulsed GMAW with thermal pulsation, impulses,
Alu-Plus, pulse/pulse, and low-frequency pulsed GMAW [10–12]. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic
diagram current waveform of DP-GMAW [13]. The current waveform of DP-GMAW is comprised
of the rhythmic thermal base (TB) and thermal pulse (TP) phase, which are employed to modulate
the heat distribution without changing the heat input [14]. A thermal period equals the sum of times
during a TB phase and TP phase, and thermal frequency (TF) is defined as the reciprocal of the thermal
period. A thermal amplitude equals half of the subtraction value between the mean current of TP
phase and the average current of TB phase. Both the TB phase and TP phase contain several current
pulses (peak current and base current), which are used to generate a high electromagnetic force for
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894; doi:10.3390/app7090894 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 2 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 2 of 18
TP phase contain several current pulses (peak current and base current), which are used to generate
a high electromagnetic force for projected spray transfer [15,16]. The alternating TB phase and
projected
TP phase spray
producetransfer [15,16].inThe
a pulsation thealternating TB phase
welding current. and TP phase
Therefore, produce
the heat input aispulsation
periodicalinand
the
welding current. Therefore, the heat
time-dependent during a thermal period.input is periodical and time-dependent during a thermal period.
thermal amplitude (A)

thermal period = (IF - IS) / 2
IF
Current
thermal IS
pulse phase
thermal base
phase
Time
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram current
current waveform
waveform of
of double
double pulsed
pulsed gas
gas metal
metal arc
arc welding
welding (DP-GMAW).
(DP-GMAW).
DP-GMAW achieves grain and dendrite refinement of aluminum alloy welds due to periodical
DP-GMAW achieves grain and dendrite refinement of aluminum alloy welds due to periodical
heat input. Yamamoto et al. [17] found that the mean grain dimension could be reduced using
heat input. Yamamoto et al. [17] found that the mean grain dimension could be reduced using
DP-GMAW. In addition, the average grain dimension changed with an increase in the thermal
DP-GMAW. In addition, the average grain dimension changed with an increase in the thermal
frequency. Liu et al. [18] observed that weld microstructures by CP-GMAW consisted primarily of
frequency. Liu et al. [18] observed that weld microstructures by CP-GMAW consisted primarily
coarse dendrite grains; coarse dendrite grains significantly decreased and fine dendrite grains
of coarse dendrite grains; coarse dendrite grains significantly decreased and fine dendrite grains
increased using DP-GMAW. The dendrite refinement extent was relevant to the thermal frequency.
increased using DP-GMAW. The dendrite refinement extent was relevant to the thermal frequency.
Mitigated porosity incidence and solidification cracking are observed in aluminum welds using
Mitigated porosity incidence and solidification cracking are observed in aluminum welds using
double pulsed gas metal arc welding. Mathivanan et al. [19] conducted experiments on 6061
double pulsed gas metal arc welding. Mathivanan et al. [19] conducted experiments on 6061 aluminum
aluminum alloys produced by CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW. The results indicated that both welds
alloys produced by CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW. The results indicated that both welds contained
contained some amount of pores, but use of DP-GMAW minimized the porosity incidence.
some amount of pores, but use of DP-GMAW minimized the porosity incidence. Nakata et al. [20]
Nakata et al. [20] found that the weld bead cracking ratio was reduced by DP-GMAW during welding
found that the weld bead cracking ratio was reduced by DP-GMAW during welding of the A7N01
of the A7N01 aluminum alloy.
aluminum alloy.
Previous investigations indicate that the grain dimension, dendrite dimension, porosity incidence,
Previous investigations indicate that the grain dimension, dendrite dimension, porosity incidence,
and solidification cracking susceptibility of DP-GMAW and CP-GMAW differ. Although it is
and solidification cracking susceptibility of DP-GMAW and CP-GMAW differ. Although it is important,
important, a comprehensive review of the mechanism of reduced porosity incidence and improved
a comprehensive review of the mechanism of reduced porosity incidence and improved solidification
solidification cracking susceptibility by DP-GMAW is absent from the literature. Because previous
cracking susceptibility by DP-GMAW is absent from the literature. Because previous investigations are
investigations are sporadic, a summary of the thermal parameters, i.e., thermal frequency and
sporadic, a summary of the thermal parameters, i.e., thermal frequency and thermal amplitude on
thermal amplitude on weld profiles, microstructure, porosity incidence, and solidification cracking
weld profiles, microstructure, porosity incidence, and solidification cracking susceptibility is essential.
susceptibility is essential. At last, the advantages, previous evolution process, and future trend of
At last, the advantages, previous evolution process, and future trend of DP-GMAW are summarized
DP-GMAW are summarized and discussed.
and discussed.
2.
2. Process
Process and
and Weld
Weld Characteristic
Characteristic ofof DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
Pulsation
Pulsation in
in the
the welding
welding current
current by
by DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW generates
generates aa variation
variation of
of arc
arc force,
force, droplet
dropletpressure,
pressure,
weld pool, and cooling rate. The origin and physical process of reduced porosity
weld pool, and cooling rate. The origin and physical process of reduced porosity incidence and incidence and
improved
improved solidification
solidification cracking
crackingsusceptibility
susceptibilityby
byDP-GMAW
DP-GMAWare arerevealed
revealedbybythese
theseprocess
processvariables.
variables.
2.1.
2.1. Arc
Arc and
and Droplet
Droplet Transfer Characteristic
Transfer Characteristic
As
As shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 1,1, the
the average
average current
current of
of the
the TP
TP phase
phase is
is significantly
significantly greater
greater than
than the
the mean
mean
current of the TB phase. Greater welding current indicates a higher melting rate of filler
current of the TB phase. Greater welding current indicates a higher melting rate of filler wire. Therefore, wire.
Therefore, droplet
droplet transfer fromtransfer from
filler wire fillermetal
to base wire occurs
to baseprimarily
metal occurs
duringprimarily during
the TP phase. ThethebestTP phase.
situation
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 3 of 18
is that the wire feeding rate is synergistic with the welding current. Unfortunately, it is infeasible in
practice. Due to the mechanical inertia, the wire feeding system cannot catch up with the variation
of the welding current with sufficient speed. The delay of wire feeding usually causes an unstable
arc. Most welding machines utilize a constant speed wire feeding system. The TP phase has a higher
wire melting rate than the TB phase. The shortest arc length and the longest electrode extension are
achieved when the TB phase reaches its end. Conversely, the longest arc length and the shortest
electrode extension are obtained when the TP phase reaches its end [21]. The welding current sharply
decreases to a small value at the starting time of the TB phase; this little value current is occasionally
insufficient to maintain the longest arc. Therefore, the actual welding operation suffers the high
chance of arc quenching [22]. This “arc quenching drawback” reduces the welding process stability.
Mitigation of this “arc quenching drawback” by adding two transition current pulses is discussed in
the subsequent paragraph.
Both welding current and arc dimension are relatively small during the stage of base current.
Because arc force of the base current stage is significantly lower than the peak current stage, it is not
considered. Only the arc force during the peak current stage is calculated and discussed. The relation
between the arc force (FA ) and the welding current (I) is given as [23]:
µ0 I 2

R2
FA = 1 + 2 ln (1)
8π R1
where µ0 is the magnetic permeability of the vacuum, R1 and R2 are the radius of the arc at the welding
electrode and base metal, respectively. Based on Equation (1), Liu et al. [24] discussed the variation in
the arc force during a thermal period. The results indicate that the arc force of CP-GMAW lies between
the largest and smallest values of arc force generated by DP-GMAW. Another outcome is that the arc
force of the TP phase is significantly greater than that of the TB phase. Therefore, an oscillation of arc
force originated from pulsation in the welding current appears during DP-GMAW.
The main driving force for the metal transfer of CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW is the high
electromagnetic force generated by a current pulse. After detachment from the welding wire tip,
the droplets are accelerated by the electromagnetic force, and impact into the weld pool with high
speed. The droplet pressure is generated in this manner. Liu et al. [24] generalized a method for
calculation of the droplet pressure (PD ) during welding of 5754 aluminum alloy:
h i1
2
PD = 1.8492 f 35.55Ib 2 + 19.6 h D + 0.2662I p 2 (2)
where f is the frequency of the droplet transfer, h D is the trajectory height of a overheated droplet,
Ib is the base current, and I p is the peak current. Based on Equation (2), Liu et al. [24] calculated the
droplet pressure on the weld pool of CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW. For CP-GMAW, the peak current,
base current, and current frequency maintain the same value with time. The metal transfer frequency
and trajectory distance versus time are the same, which ensures a constant droplet pressure. However,
the frequency of droplet transfer, and the base current (Ib ) during TP phase are greater than the TB
phase during DP-GMAW. Thus, the droplet pressure of the TP phase is more than twice the droplet
pressure of the TB phase. An oscillation of droplet pressure that originated from the pulsation in the
welding current is observed during DP-GMAW.
The oscillation of arc force and droplet pressure are synchronous; the pressure on the surface of
molten pool periodically changes. The liquid metal centrifugally moves during the TP phase, and
centripetally moves during the TB phase, with a certain frequency. This feature is defined as the
weld pool stir effect. An enhanced weld pool convection is generated by the weld pool stir effect [25].
As a result, additional fragmentations of the dendrite tip in the mushy zone are produced. Once
the dendrite fragments survive in the weld pool, they act as nucleation sites for new grain. Grain
refinement is achieved due to dendrite fragment and a larger number of nucleation sites [26]. The weld
pool stir effect is identified as the first mechanism of microstructural refinement during DP-GMAW.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 4 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 4 of 18
2.2. Weld
2.2. Weld Pool
Pool and Bead Characteristic
and Bead Characteristic
Yamamoto et
Yamamoto et al.
al. [17]
[17] discovered
discovered that that the the weld
weld pool
poolstir
stirfrequency,
frequency, f v,, coincided
coincided with withthe
theTF,
TF, f s,,
for frequencies less than 30 Hz. Once exceeded 30 Hz, reached its
for frequencies less than 30 Hz. Once f s exceeded 30 Hz, f v reached its maximum, and f v decreasedmaximum, and decreased
with aa greater
with greater f , ,instead
insteadofoffollowing
followingf . Nakata. Nakata et et
al.al. [20]
[20] found
found that
that thetheweldweld
pool pool
stir stir amplitude,
amplitude, Av ,
s s
, increased sharply, with values ranging from 0 to 10 Hz.
increased sharply, with f s values ranging from 0 to 10 Hz. Av reached its maximum and remained reached its maximum and
remained almostwith constant, with
of fvalues of ranging from 10 to 30 Hz. decreased gradually with
almost constant, values s ranging from 10 to 30 Hz. Av decreased gradually with f s , whereas
f s, exceeded
whereas 30 exceeded
Hz. DP-GMAW 30 Hz. DP-GMAW
with f s = 0 with = 0 Hz istoequivalent
Hz is equivalent CP-GMAW. to CP-GMAW.
Therefore, DP-GMAWTherefore,
DP-GMAW generates a fiercer weld pool
generates a fiercer weld pool stir effect than does CP-GMAW. stir effect than does CP-GMAW.
Wang et
Wang et al.
al. [27]
[27] and
and Zhang
Zhang et et al.
al. [28]
[28] observed
observed palpable
palpable weld
weld ripples
ripples generated
generated by by DP-GMAW.
DP-GMAW.
The weld crest is produced at the end of the TP phase, whereas
The weld crest is produced at the end of the TP phase, whereas the weld trough is generatedthe weld trough is generated at the
at
end of the TB phase. Alternating weld crests and weld troughs
the end of the TB phase. Alternating weld crests and weld troughs produce weld ripples. Anotherproduce weld ripples. Another
outcome isisthat
outcome thatthethe ripple
ripple wave wave
length length
reduced reduced with TF.
with higher higher TF.2 illustrates
Figure Figure 2 theillustrates the weld
weld penetration
penetration versus time of CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW [29].
versus time of CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW [29]. The results indicate that the weld penetration The results indicate that the weldof
penetration of the CP-GMAW lies between the maximum
the CP-GMAW lies between the maximum weld penetration and minimum weld penetration of weld penetration and minimum weld
the
penetration for
DP-GMAW of the
theDP-GMAW for the
same heat input. same
Weld heat input.increases
penetration Weld penetration increases
with time during thewith time during
TP phase due to
the TP phase due to high-level heat input. Maximum weld penetration
high-level heat input. Maximum weld penetration occurs at the end of TP phase. Weld penetration occurs at the end of TP phase.
Weld penetration
decreases with time decreases
during the with
TBtime
phase, during
due tothe TB phase,
low-level heatdue to low-level
input. Minimum heat
weld input. Minimum
penetration is
weld penetration is generated at the end of the TB phase. Therefore,
generated at the end of the TB phase. Therefore, the weld pool shape and weld bead dimension of the weld pool shape and weld
bead dimension
DP-GMAW of DP-GMAW
are different are different
from CP-GMAW. Withfrom
a highCP-GMAW. With a high
thermal frequency, thermal frequency,
the oscillation the
of penetration
oscillation
depth of penetration
decreases due to thedepth
shortdecreases
acting time dueof to
TPthe
and short acting time of TP and TB phase.
TB phase.
3.0
CP-GMAW
Weld penetration, mm
2.5 DP-GMAW
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time, s
Figure
Figure 2. Weld penetration
2. Weld penetration versus
versus time
time of
of CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and
and DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW (reproduced
(reproduced with
with permission
permission
from [29], Copyright Elsevier, 2017).
Main driving forces for molten pool convection are buoyancy, buoyancy, electromagnetic,
electromagnetic, and and Marangoni
Marangoni
[30]. Wang
force [30]. Wangetetal.al.[29]
[29]developed
developed a well-tested,
a well-tested, transient,
transient, andand three-dimensional
three-dimensional heatheat transfer
transfer and
and fluid
fluid flowflow
modelmodel of DP-GMAW,
of DP-GMAW, by solving
by solving the equations
the equations of conservation
of conservation of mass,
of mass, momentum,
momentum, and
and energy.
energy. The results
The results indicate
indicate thatmolten
that the the molten
pool pool
expandsexpands
duringduring thephase,
the TP TP phase,
due todue to high-level
high-level heat
heat input,
input, and and subsequently
subsequently shrinks
shrinks during
during thethe
TB TB phase,
phase, due
due to to low-levelheat
low-level heatinput.
input.TheThe calculated
calculated
results exhibit
exhibit suitable
suitable agreement
agreementwith withexperimentally
experimentallyobserved
observedresults [31].
results This
[31]. expansion
This expansionof the
of
molten
the moltenpoolpool
causes unusual
causes unusual remelting
remelting andandresolidification
resolidificationofofthethepreviously
previously solidified
solidified metal.
To examine
To examine this
this phenomenon,
phenomenon, Figure 3 records the weld pool boundaries of DP-GMAW along the
longitudinal section during the TP phase. Although Although the the heat source is moving along the welding welding
direction, the molten pool trailing edge moves in opposite to the welding direction, from 1.24 s to 1.3 s.
It isisstrikingly
strikinglydifferent
different from
from CP-GMAW.
CP-GMAW. As weld
As the the weld pool expansion
pool expansion speed
speed is higheris than
higher
the than the
welding
welding
speed speed
from 1.24 from 1.24
s to 1.3 s to 1.3 s, of
s, remelting remelting of the solidified
the previously previously solidified
fusion metalfusion
occursmetal
at the occurs
trailingatedge
the
trailing edge of the weld pool. This remelting and resolidification phenomenon produces a change in
the mean solidification growth rate.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 5 of 18
of the weld pool. This remelting and resolidification phenomenon produces a change in the mean
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 5 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7,growth
solidification 894
rate. 5 of 18
T: 925 K 1100 K 1400 K

T: 925 K 1100 K 1400 K
1.20 s
1.20 s
1.24 s
1.24 s
1.30 s 0.3
0.3
cm
1.30 s
Z,Z,cm
0.2
0.2
1 m/s
welding direction 1 m/s
welding direction
0.1
0.1
4.4
4.4 4.5
4.5 4.6
4.6 4.7
4.7 4.8
4.8 4.9
4.9 55 5.1
5.1 5.2
5.2
X, cm
X, cm
Figure
Figure 3. Weld
Weld pool boundary of 6061 aluminum alloy by DP-GMAW during
during thermal pulse
pulse phase.
Figure 3. Weld pool boundary of 6061 aluminum alloy by DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW during thermal
thermal pulse phase.
phase.
Figure 4 demonstrates the temporal variation of the solidification growth rate ( ) of CP-GMAW
Figure
Figure 44 demonstrates
demonstrates the the temporal
temporal variation
variation of of the
the solidification
solidification growth
growth rate rate ((R)) of
of CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW
and DP-GMAW [29]. The value R was calculated at molten pool tail on the top surface using the
and DP-GMAW [29].
and DP-GMAW [29]. The
The value
value R R was
was calculated
calculated at at molten
molten pool pool tail on the
tail on the top
top surface
surface using
using thethe
following relation
following relation
following relation
∆
∆d
R= =∆ s (3)
(3)
= ∆t∆ (3)
∆
where ∆d ∆ isis the
the displacement
displacement of of the
the trailing
trailing edge
edge during
during aa short
short time
time interval
interval of of ∆t.
∆ . The cooling
where ∆ s is the displacement of the trailing edge during a short time interval of ∆ . The cooling
rate was calculated at weld pool tail on on the
the top
top surface
surface forfor the
the microstructure
microstructure evaluation.
evaluation. Unlike
rate was calculated at weld pool tail on the top surface for the microstructure evaluation. Unlike
CP-GMAW,
CP-GMAW, the thesolidification
solidification growth
growth raterate of DP-GMAW
of DP-GMAW is time-dependent.
is time-dependent. The solidification
The solidification growth
CP-GMAW, the solidification growth rate of DP-GMAW is time-dependent. The solidification
growth rate decreases
rate decreases with time with time0from
from 0 s s,
s to 0.1 to because
0.1 s, because the weld
the weld pool pool expands
expands fromfrom 0 s0.1
0 s to to s0.1 s with
with its
growth rate decreases with time from 0 s to 0.1 s, because the weld pool expands from 0 s to 0.1 s with
its trailing
trailing edge
edge moving
moving in in a direction
a direction oppositetotothe
opposite thewelding
weldingdirection.
direction.Despite
Despitethe the constant
constant welding
its trailing edge moving in a direction opposite to the welding direction. Despite the constant welding
speed, thethe trailing
trailing edge
edge comes
comesto toaastandstill
standstillwithwithaadecrease
decreaseininthe thesolidification
solidificationgrowth growthrateratefrom
from0
speed, the trailing edge comes to a standstill with a decrease in the solidification growth rate from 0
mm/s
0 mm/s at at
0.04 s, s,
0.04 which
which indicates
indicatesthatthatthe
theexpansion
expansionspeed speedofofthetheweld
weldpool
poolat at its
its trailing
trailing edge is same
mm/s at 0.04 s, which indicates that the expansion speed of the weld pool at its trailing edge is same
as the
the welding
weldingspeed.
speed.The Thegrowth
growth rate
rate is negative
is negative between
between 0.040.04
s and s 0.1
ands,0.1 s, because
because the expansion
the expansion speed
as the welding speed. The growth rate is negative between 0.04 s and 0.1 s, because the expansion
speed of thepool
of the weld weldispool
much is greater
much greater
than the than the welding
welding speed,speed, remelting
remelting occurs,occurs, and solidification
and solidification stops
speed of the weld pool is much greater than the welding speed, remelting occurs, and solidification
stops
near thenear the trailing
trailing edge of edge of thepool
the molten molten pool0.04
between between
s and 0.10.04s. sDue
andto0.1
thes.remelting
Due to the remelting
phenomenon,
stops near the trailing edge of the molten pool between 0.04 s and 0.1 s. Due to the remelting
phenomenon,
the effective lengththe of effective lengthmetal
the solidified of the solidified metal
of DP-GMAW is longerof DP-GMAW is longer than
than that of CP-GMAW, whereasthattheof
phenomenon, the effective length of the solidified metal of DP-GMAW is longer than that of
CP-GMAW,
solidification whereas the solidification
time of DP-GMAW is shorter time
thanofthatDP-GMAW
of CP-GMAW. is shorter thanthe
Therefore, that of CP-GMAW.
mean value of the
CP-GMAW, whereas the solidification − time of DP-GMAW is shorter than that of CP-GMAW.
Therefore,
solidification thegrowth
mean valuerate of the
R is 10.8 mm s 1 forgrowth
solidification rate
the DP-GMAW is 10.8
weld. mm s−1
This for
value the DP-GMAW
is greater thanweld.
the
Therefore, the mean value of the solidification − 1
growth rate is 10.8 mm s−1 for the DP-GMAW weld.
This value
constant R is
ofgreater
SP-GMAW, than which
the constant
is 8.0 mmofs SP-GMAW,
. which is 8.0 mm s . −1
This value is greater than the constant of SP-GMAW, which is 8.0 mm s−1.
CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW
30
30 DP-GMAW
mm/s
DP-GMAW
rate,mm/s
20
20
Solidificationrate,
10
10
Solidification
00
-10
-100.0
0.0 0.2
0.2 0.4
0.4 0.6
0.6 0.8
0.8
Time,
Time, ss
Figure 4. Solidification
Solidification growth
growth rate
rate versus
versus time
time of
of CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and
and DP-GMAW (reproduced
(reproduced with
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Solidification growth rate versus time of CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW (reproduced with
with
permission
permission from
from [29],
[29], Copyright
Copyright Elsevier,
Elsevier, 2017).
2017).
permission from [29], Copyright Elsevier, 2017).
The cooling rate ( ) is defined as the product of the temperature gradient ( ) and the
The cooling rate ( ) is defined as the product of the temperature gradient ( ) and the
solidification growth rate ( ). The increase in produces a greater , and the mean cooling rate of
solidification growth rate ( ). The increase in produces a greater , and the mean cooling rate of
DP-GMAW is higher at the same heat input. Note that the value of the solidification structure is
DP-GMAW is higher at the same heat input. Note that the value of the solidification structure is
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 6 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 6 of 18

The cooling rate (GR) is defined as the product of the temperature gradient (G) and the
solidification growth by
significantly affected ratethe
(R). The increase
cooling in Rprevious
rate. From producesstudies, theGR,
a greater and the
relation mean the
between cooling rate
primary
of DP-GMAW
dendrite is higher
arm spacing ( at the and
) [32] samesecondary
heat input. Note that
dendrite armthe value(of )the
spacing solidification
[32,33], structure
and the cooling is
rate
(significantly
), is givenaffected
as by the cooling rate. From previous studies, the relation between the primary
dendrite arm spacing (λ1 ) [32] and secondary dendrite arm/ spacing (λ2 ) [32,33], and the cooling rate
= (4)
(GR), is given as
λ1 = a( G × GR)−1/4 (4)
(5)
=
where = 0.33 to 0.5, and are coefficient; GR)−values
λ2 = b(their n
are dependent on the alloy system. (5)
Therefore, bothto 0.5,and
where n = 0.33 a and bdecrease with an
are coefficient; increase
their valuesinarethe solidification
dependent on thegrowth rate and
alloy system. cooling
Therefore,
rate. Therefore, DP-GMAW will produce refined grains and dendrites as increased cooling
both λ1 and λ2 decrease with an increase in the solidification growth rate and cooling rate. Therefore, rate.
The increased cooling rate is identified as the second mechanism of microstructural
DP-GMAW will produce refined grains and dendrites as increased cooling rate. The increased cooling refinement
during DP-GMAW.
rate is identified as the second mechanism of microstructural refinement during DP-GMAW.
2.3. Solidification
Solidification Structure
Two types of physical processes regarding grain refinement by DP-GMAW are revealed: (1) the
weld pool stir effect originated from the oscillation of arc and droplet pressure, and (2) the increased
cooling rate
rate originated
originatedfrom
fromthethe remelting
remelting andand resolidification
resolidification phenomenon.
phenomenon. The mechanisms
The mechanisms of
of grain
grain refinement
refinement by DP-GMAW
by DP-GMAW are revealed.
are revealed. GrainGrain refining
refining of welds
of welds is attractive
is attractive because
because finerfiner grains
grains can
can improve
improve mechanical
mechanical properties
properties and and solidification
cracking susceptibility
susceptibility [34,35].
[34,35].
Figure 5 illustrates aa typical
typical solidification
solidification structure
structure of 1060 aluminum
aluminum weldswelds by
by CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and
DP-GMAW with same heat input. The metallography is obtained from the central longitudinal plane
of welds
welds using
using aa polarized
polarized microscope.
microscope. The
The results
results indicate
indicate that
that DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW significantly reduces the
mean grain dimension compared with CP-GMAW. CP-GMAW.
Solidification structure
Figure structure of
of 1070
1070 aluminum
aluminum welds
welds by
by CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and
and DP-GMAW with same
heat input.
heat
Table
Table 11 shows
shows the
the microstructural
microstructural refinement
refinement of
of aluminum
aluminum alloy
alloy welds
welds via
viaDP-GMAW
DP-GMAW [16,18–20,22,29].
[16,18–20,22,29].
The
The results
results indicate
indicate that
that DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW produces
produces finer
finer grain
grain and
and dendrite
dendrite than
than CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW withwith the
the
same heat input; these experimentally observed results are powerful evidence that microstructural
same heat input; these experimentally observed results are powerful evidence that microstructural
refinement can be achieved using DP-GMAW. Grain dimension is very important for controlling the
welding quality; finer grain indicates better mechanical properties [36]. This finding reveals the new
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 7 of 18
refinement
Appl. Sci. 2017,can be
achieved using DP-GMAW. Grain dimension is very important for controlling
7, 894 7 ofthe
18
welding quality; finer grain indicates better mechanical properties [36]. This finding reveals the new
concept
concept that
that variations
variations of
of the
the microstructure
microstructure can be achieved
can be achieved by
by changing
changing the
the pulsing
pulsing parameters
parameters
instead of changing the heat input.
instead of changing the heat input.
Table
Table 1.
1. Microstructural
Microstructural refinement
refinement of
of aluminum
aluminum alloy
alloy welds
welds by
by DP-GMAW.
DP-GMAW.
Materials Object CP-GMAW DP-GMAW References
Materials Object CP-GMAW DP-GMAW References
5052 grain coarse refined [16]
5052 5754 grain
dendrite coarse
coarse finerefined [18] [16]
5754 dendrite coarse fine [18]
A7N01A7N01 grain
grain 140 140
μmµm ≤135≤μm 135 µm [20] [20]
6061 6061 dendrite
dendrite finefine finerfiner [19] [19]
6061 6061 dendrite
dendrite coarse
coarse fine fine [22] [22]
6061 6061 SDAS
SDAS 13.4 ± 2.3 µm 10.2
13.4 ± 2.3 μm 10.2 ± 0.8 μm± 0.8 µm [29] [29]
Among
Among the various welding
welding parameters
parameters of of DP-GMAW, the thermal parameters, i.e., thermal
frequency and thermal amplitude have a significant influence on the weld microstructures. Figure 6
demonstrates the the mean
meangrain
graindimension
dimensionversus
versus thermal
thermal frequency
frequency of CP-GMAW
of CP-GMAW andand DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW [17].
[17]. The results
The results indicate
indicate thatthat
the the grain
grain dimension
dimension produced
produced bybyDP-GMAW
DP-GMAWisissmaller smallerthan
than that
that of
CP-GMAW, regardless
regardless of ofthe
thechanges
changesininthethe
thermal
thermal frequency.
frequency.TheThe
graingrain
dimension decreases
dimension with
decreases
TF less than 30 Hz, and subsequently increases
with TF less than 30 Hz, and subsequently increases with with higher TF, once the TF exceeds 30
TF, once the TF exceeds 30 Hz. The Hz.
The optimized
optimized TF forTFgrain
for refinement
grain refinement
ranges ranges fromHz.
from 10~30 10~30
TheHz.
weldThe weld
pool has apool has a resonance
resonance frequency
frequency of about 15 Hz. When the TF ranges from 10~30 Hz, the most forceful
of about 15 Hz. When the TF ranges from 10~30 Hz, the most forceful weld pool stir and weld weld pool stirpool
and
weld pool are
convection convection
achieved, are
and achieved,
the greatestand
levelthe greatest
of grain level of
refinement grain refinement
is produced. is produced.
The beneficial effect of
The beneficial
an increase effect
in the of an amplitude
thermal increase inisthe thermal in
a decrease amplitude is a decrease
grain dimension. in grain to
It is possible dimension. It is
achieve grain
possible to achieve grain refinement of fusion zone by increasing the thermal amplitude
refinement of fusion zone by increasing the thermal amplitude in a large section, assuming that the in a large
section,
weldingassuming that theiswelding
process stability process[37].
not considered stability is not considered [37].
500
CP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
400
Mean grain size, um
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Thermal frequency, Hz
Figure 6.6.Mean
Meangrain dimension
grain versus
dimension thermal
versus frequency
thermal of CP-GMAW
frequency and DP-GMAW
of CP-GMAW and (reproduced
DP-GMAW
with permission from [17], Copyright Taylor & Francis, 1993).
(reproduced with permission from [17], Copyright Taylor & Francis, 1993).
Although
Although thethe mean
mean welding
welding current
current and
and welding
welding speed
speed ofof CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and and DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW are are the
the
same, DP-GMAW produces unique microstructures. The diversity of grain orientation
same, DP-GMAW produces unique microstructures. The diversity of grain orientation by DP-GMAW by DP-GMAW
is observedininthethe
is observed experiments.
experiments. Figure
Figure 7a shows
7a shows the experimentally
the experimentally observed observed grains
grains that that are
are generated
generated during the TB phase, some columnar grains appear bent and exhibit an obtuse
during the TB phase, some columnar grains appear bent and exhibit an obtuse angle with the welding angle with
the
direction. The calculated longitudinal view of the weld pool boundaries during 1.3 s to 1.5 s sare
welding direction. The calculated longitudinal view of the weld pool boundaries during 1.3 to
1.5 s areinshown
shown Figurein7b.Figure 7b. The
The results resultsthat
indicate indicate
weld that
pool weld pool dimension
dimension significantly
significantly decreases
decreases during the
during the beginning period of the TB phase. Therefore, solidification occurs near the front
beginning period of the TB phase. Therefore, solidification occurs near the front edge of the weld edge of
the weld pool. For CP-GMAW (steady-state), this phenomenon does not occur. The grain growth
direction is along the direction of temperature gradient, and normal to the solid/liquid interface near
the weld pool boundary. The calculated columnar grain grows according to an obtuse angle with the
welding direction at 1.3 s, which is represented by a red arrow. The calculated columnar grain grows
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 8 of 18
pool. For CP-GMAW (steady-state), this phenomenon does not occur. The grain growth direction is
along the direction of temperature gradient, and normal to the solid/liquid interface near the weld
Appl. Sci.
pool 2017, 7, 894
boundary. 8 of 18
The calculated columnar grain grows according to an obtuse angle with the welding
direction at 1.3 s, which is represented by a red arrow. The calculated columnar grain grows according
according to an obtuse angle, with the welding direction at 1.4 s, which is denoted by a blue arrow.
to an obtuse angle, with the welding direction at 1.4 s, which is denoted by a blue arrow. Until 1.5 s,
Until 1.5 s, the grain grows according to an acute angle with the welding direction, which is
the grain grows according to an acute angle with the welding direction, which is represented by a
represented by a purple arrow. During the TB phase, the starting region of some columnar grains
purple arrow. During the TB phase, the starting region of some columnar grains appear bent, and
appear bent, and show an obtuse angle with the welding direction.
show an obtuse angle with the welding direction.
Figure 7.7. Grain

Figure Graingrowth
growthdirection of of
direction 5052 aluminum
5052 alloy
aluminum by DP-GMAW
alloy during
by DP-GMAW the thermal
during base phase.
the thermal base
(a) Experimental result. (b) Calculated result.
phase. (a) Experimental result. (b) Calculated result.
Two
Two significant
significant outcomes
outcomes areare as
as follows:
follows: (1)
(1) DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW features
features microstructural
microstructural refinement
refinement
compared with CP-GMAW at at the
the same
same heat
heat input,
input, and
and the
the grain
grain dimension
dimension can
can be
be adjusted
adjusted by
by
thermal frequency and thermal amplitude.
changing the thermal frequency and thermal amplitude. (2) DP-GMAW features a diverse grain
diverse grain
orientation due
orientation due to
to the
the variation
variation in
in the
the weld
weld pool
pool dimension.
dimension.
3.
3. Advantages
Advantages of
of DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
The
The mechanisms
mechanisms of of reduced
reduced porosity
porosity incidence
incidence and
and improved
susceptibility
are
are revealed
revealedininthis section.
this TheThe
section. benefits of DP-GMAW,
benefits such assuch
of DP-GMAW, precise current adjustment
as precise and excellent
current adjustment and
gap bridging ability, are also discussed.
excellent gap bridging ability, are also discussed.
3.1.
3.1. Reduced
Reduced Porosity
Porosity Incidence
Incidence
DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW features
features the
the reduced
reduced porosity
porosity incidence
incidence due
due to to the
the weld pool stir
weld pool stir effect.
effect.
Kumagai et al. [38] and Pal et al. [39] stated that porosity content in welds could be
Kumagai et al. [38] and Pal et al. [39] stated that porosity content in welds could be reduced using reduced using
DP-GMAW.
DP-GMAW.Mathivanan
Mathivananetetal.al.[19]
[19]conducted
conducted experiments on on
experiments aluminum
aluminum alloy 60616061
alloy by CP-GMAW
by CP-GMAW and
DP-GMAW. The results indicated that both welds contained a certain amount
and DP-GMAW. The results indicated that both welds contained a certain amount of hydrogen- of hydrogen-included
pores, butpores,
included DP-GMAW minimized
but DP-GMAW the porosity
minimized the incidence. Wang et al.
porosity incidence. Wang[22]etfound that
al. [22] the weld
found by
that the
CP-GMAW contained
weld by CP-GMAW several pores,
contained severaland fracture
pores, occurred
and fracture at three
occurred at continuous
three continuous pores.pores.
BothBoth
the
pore volume and number were reduced using DP-GMAW. Yamamoto et al. [16,40]
the pore volume and number were reduced using DP-GMAW. Yamamoto et al. [16,40] systematically systematically
investigated
investigated the
the porosity
porosity incidence
incidence byby DP-GMAW.
DP-GMAW.Here, Here,porosity
porosityincidence
incidenceis is defined
defined asas the
the number
number
of pores per 10 mm length of welds. Figure 8 illustrates the porosity incidence versus the thermal
frequency of DP-GMAW with different welding speeds [40]. DP-GMAW with the thermal frequency
of 0 Hz is equal CP-GMAW. Welding current and arc voltage are the same for all experiments.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 9 of 18
of pores per 10 mm length of welds. Figure 8 illustrates the porosity incidence versus the thermal
frequency of DP-GMAW with different welding speeds [40]. DP-GMAW with the thermal frequency
of 0 Hz
Appl. is equal
Sci. 2017, 7, 894CP-GMAW. Welding current and arc voltage are the same for all experiments. 9 of 18
25
v=20cm/min
Porosity incidence, N/10 mm

v=40cm/min
20 v=60cm/min
15
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 8. Porosity
Porosity incidence
incidence versus
versus thermal
thermal frequency
frequency of
of DP-GMAW with different welding speed
(reproduced with permission from [40], Copyright Taylor
Taylor &
& Francis,
Francis, 1994).
1994).
The
The following
following conclusions
conclusions are are drawn:
drawn: (1)(1) DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW achieves
achieves aa reduced
reduced porosity
porosity incidence
incidence
compared with CP-GMAW, and is an efficient method for the suppression of
compared with CP-GMAW, and is an efficient method for the suppression of porosity. (2) The porosity porosity. (2) The
porosity
incidenceincidence
decreasesdecreases withTF
with higher higher
to 20TFHztoand
20 Hz and subsequently
subsequently increasesincreases with TF
with higher higher
onceTF once
the TF
the TF exceeds 20 Hz. (3) The optimized TF for the suppression of porosity incidence
exceeds 20 Hz. (3) The optimized TF for the suppression of porosity incidence ranges from 10~25 Hz. ranges from
10~25
(4) TheHz. (4) Theincidence
porosity porosity incidence
exhibits anexhibits
upward antrend
upwardwithtrend
a highwith a highspeed.
welding weldingThespeed.
weldThepool weld
stir
pool
effectstir effect originated
originated from thefrom the oscillation
oscillation of arc,
of arc, and theand the droplet
droplet pressure pressure
improvesimproves the fluidity
the fluidity of the
of thepool
weld weld[18].
poolWith
[18]. improved
With improved
fluidityfluidity
of the of the pool,
weld weld apool, a larger
larger number number of hydrogen
of hydrogen bubblesbubbles
have
have a chance to float out and be released from the weld pool, and fewer
a chance to float out and be released from the weld pool, and fewer hydrogen bubbles are trappedhydrogen bubbles are
trapped in the solidification
in the solidification wall of thewall
weld of pool.
the weld pool. the
Therefore, Therefore,
reducedthe reduced
porosity porosityis incidence
incidence observed in is
observed in the
the experiments. experiments.
3.2.
3.2. Improved
Improved Solidification
Solidification Cracking
Cracking Susceptibility
Susceptibility
Zhang
Zhang et et al.
al. [12]
[12] found
found that
that aa cracking-free
cracking-free weld
weld joint
joint was
was produced
produced by by DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW during during
welding
welding of of 8 mm thick
8 mm thick magnesium
magnesium alloy. alloy. Zhang
Zhang et et al.
al. [28]
[28] noted
noted thatthat no
no cracks were detected
cracks were detected
in
in the fusion zone generated by DP-GMAW during welding of 30Cr–4Mo ferritic stainless steel.
the fusion zone generated by DP-GMAW during welding of 30Cr–4Mo ferritic stainless steel.
Da Silva et
Da Silva etal.
al.[9]
[9] observed
observed that
that DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW reduced reduced cracking
cracking in in the
the fusion
fusion zone
zone compared
compared with with
CP-GMAW. This performance was dependent on the thermal amplitude.
CP-GMAW. This performance was dependent on the thermal amplitude. Nakata et al. [20] found Nakata et al. [20] found that
the bead cracking ratio was reduced by DP-GMAW during welding
that the bead cracking ratio was reduced by DP-GMAW during welding of the A7N01 aluminum of the A7N01 aluminum alloy.
Harada et al. [41]
alloy. Harada observed
et al. no cracking
[41] observed defect during
no cracking defectwelding
during of 5083 aluminum
welding alloy. Figure
of 5083 aluminum 9
alloy.
illustrates the solidification cracking rate versus the thermal frequency
Figure 9 illustrates the solidification cracking rate versus the thermal frequency of CP-GMAW andof CP-GMAW and DP-
GMAW
DP-GMAW [17].[17].
Here, cracking
Here, raterate
cracking (%)(%)
is defined asas
is defined the
thedivision
divisionofofthethecrack
cracklength
lengthby by the
the specimen
specimen
length
length in inthe
theHouldcroft
Houldcroft cracking
cracking test.test. The results
The results indicateindicate
that thethat the solidification
cracking rate rate
produced
produced by DP-GMAW is less than CP-GMAW, regardless of the changes
by DP-GMAW is less than CP-GMAW, regardless of the changes in the TF. The solidification cracking in the TF. The
solidification
rate decreasescracking
with TF rate decreases
less than 30 Hz,with
andTF less than 30increases
subsequently Hz, and subsequently
with a high TFincreases
once thewith a high
TF exceeds
TF once the TF exceeds 30 Hz. The optimized TF for the mitigation of
30 Hz. The optimized TF for the mitigation of solidification cracking ranges from 10~30 Hz. solidification cracking ranges
from 10~30 Hz.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 10 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 10 of 18
80
CP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
Cracking rate, CS (%)

60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure
Solidificationcracking
crackingrate
rate versus
versus thermal
thermal frequency
frequency ofof CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and
and DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
(reproduced
(reproduced with permission from [17], Copyright Taylor
Taylor && Francis,
Francis, 1993).
1993).
Kimura
Kimura et et al.
al. [42]
[42] noted
noted that
that finer grain dimension
finer grain dimension featured
featured lower solidification cracking
lower solidification cracking
susceptibility
susceptibility during
during thethe solidification
solidification ofof AC7A
AC7A aluminum
aluminum alloy. alloy. Tang
Tang et et al.
al. [43]
[43] found
found thatthat cracking
cracking
susceptibility
susceptibility ofof6082
6082aluminum
aluminum alloy
alloy decreased
decreased with with finer grains
finer grains when the when
grainthe grain dimension
dimension exceeded
exceeded 25 μm. Numerous
25 µm. Numerous investigations
investigations reveal thatreveal
grainthat grain refinement
refinement of weld
of weld metal is metal is an effective
an effective method
method for reducing the solidification cracking susceptibility [44–46]. Finer
for reducing the solidification cracking susceptibility [44–46]. Finer grain has a larger grain has a larger area
area of
of
grain–boundary per unit volume, which produces a lower tensile strain generated
grain–boundary per unit volume, which produces a lower tensile strain generated by solidification by solidification
shrinkage
shrinkage [42].
[42]. Finer
Finergrain cancan
grain deform
deformto accommodate
to accommodate contraction strains
contraction moremore
strains easilyeasily
[47]. The
[47].
variation
The variation of grain orientation inhibits the growth of solidification cracking. Solidification cracking
of grain orientation inhibits the growth of solidification cracking. Solidification cracking
cannot
cannot grow
grow long,
long, because
because aa crack
crack has
has to
to change
change its
its direction
direction periodically.
periodically.
Improved
Improved solidification
susceptibility isis achieved
achieved due due to
to refined
refined solidification
solidification structures
structures
and
and variable grain orientation during DP-GMAW. As DP-GMAW method features microstructural
variable grain orientation during DP-GMAW. As DP-GMAW method features microstructural
refinement,
refinement, reduced
reduced porosity
porosity incidence,
incidence, and and improved
cracking susceptibility,
susceptibility,
improvements
improvements in mechanical properties are reported in the literature. Mathivanan et
in mechanical properties are reported in the literature. Mathivanan et al.
al. [19,48]
[19,48] found
found
that
that both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength could be increased by using DP-GMAW during
both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength could be increased by using DP-GMAW during
welding
welding of of6061
6061aluminum
aluminum alloy
alloy andand310S310S austenitic
austenitic stainless
stainless steel. steel.
WangWang et al.
et al. [22] [22]that
found found that
ultimate
ultimate tensile strength could by increased by using DP-GMAW due
tensile strength could by increased by using DP-GMAW due to reduced porosity incidence. to reduced porosity incidence.
3.3.
3.3. Precise
Precise Current
Current Adjustment
Adjustment and
and Excellent
Excellent Gap
Gap Bridging
Bridging Ability
Ability
For
For DP-GMAW,
DP-GMAW, the precise current
the precise current adjustment
adjustment is accomplished by
is accomplished by changing
changing the the following
following
parameters:
parameters:(1) (1)the
thebase
base current
currentof of
thethe
TP TP
phase andand
phase the TBthephase, (2) the
TB phase, (2)base
the current duration
base current of the
duration
TP phase and the TB phase, and (3) the number of current pulses during the
of the TP phase and the TB phase, and (3) the number of current pulses during the TP phase and theTP phase and the TB
phase. The precise current adjustment of DP-GMAW renders it suitable for additional
TB phase. The precise current adjustment of DP-GMAW renders it suitable for additional applications applications
and
and situations.
situations.
During
During thethe TP
TP phase
phase of of DP-GMAW,
DP-GMAW, aa largelarge dimension
dimension arc arc can
can melt
melt both
both sides
sides of
of the
the joint
joint to
to
mitigate
mitigate the lack-of-fusion defect [49]. Researchers discovered that DP-GMAW has an excellent gap
the lack-of-fusion defect [49]. Researchers discovered that DP-GMAW has an excellent gap
bridging
bridging ability during lap
ability during lapjoint
jointwelding
weldingwithwitha a3 3mm
mm thick
thick 5052
5052 aluminum
aluminum alloy.
alloy. Figure
Figure 10 displays
10 displays the
the critical gap bridging ability versus the welding speed of CP-GMAW
critical gap bridging ability versus the welding speed of CP-GMAW and CP-GMAW [16]. The results and CP-GMAW [16].
The results
indicate thatindicate that the
the allowable gapallowable
for DP-GMAWgap foris DP-GMAW
wider than the is wider thangap
allowable theforallowable
CP-GMAW. gap The
for
CP-GMAW. The subtraction value of the allowable gap width of CP-GMAW
subtraction value of the allowable gap width of CP-GMAW and CP-GMAW is approximately 1 mm. and CP-GMAW is
approximately 1 mm. CP-GMAW barely bridges the gap once the welding
CP-GMAW barely bridges the gap once the welding speed exceeds 1 m/min. However, DP-GMAW speed exceeds 1 m/min.
However,
can easily DP-GMAW
bridge the 2 can easily bridge
mm-wide the 2welding
gap at this mm-wide gap at this welding speed.
speed.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 11 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 11 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 11 of 18
3
3
mmmm
2
Gap,
Gap, 1 CP-GMAW gap bridging success
1 CP-GMAW gap bridging
CP-GMAW gap bridging success
failure
DP-GMAW gap bridging
CP-GMAW gap bridging failure
success
DP-GMAW gap bridging failure
DP-GMAW gap bridging success
0
0 20DP-GMAW
40gap bridging
60 failure80 100
20 40 60 80 100
Welding speed, cm/min
Welding speed, cm/min
Figure
Figure 10. Critical
Critical gap
gap bridging
bridging ability
ability versus
versus welding
welding speed
speed ofof CP-GMAW
CP-GMAW and
and DP-GMAW
(reproduced
Figure with permission
10. Critical from [16],
gap bridging Copyright
ability Taylor &
versus Taylor
welding& Francis,
Francis,of
speed 1992).
1992).
CP-GMAW and DP-GMAW
(reproduced with permission from [16], Copyright Taylor & Francis, 1992).
In
In summary, DP-GMAW is
summary, DP-GMAW is suitable
suitable for
for more
more applications
applications andand situations,
situations, especially
especially in in the
the field
field
of
of high-speed welding of aluminum alloys. DP-GMAW has many applications in industry, such
high-speed
In summary, welding
DP-GMAWof aluminum
is alloys.
suitable for DP-GMAW
more has
applications many
and applications
situations, in industry,
especially in the as
field
such as
Double
of pulse
high-speed (Fronius
welding ®
® ),
of AUTOMIG
aluminum II (Migatronic
alloys. DP-GMAW ®®), and
Double pulse (Fronius ), AUTOMIG II (Migatronic ), and Super pulse (EASB ). Super
has manypulse (EASB
applications®®). in industry, such as
Double pulse (Fronius®), AUTOMIG II (Migatronic®), and Super pulse (EASB®).
4. Evolution
Evolution Process
Process andand Future
Future Trends of DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
4. Evolution Process and Future Trends of DP-GMAW
Evolution Process
4.1. Evolution Process of
of DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
4.1. Evolution
The arc Process
arc quenching
quenchingof DP-GMAW
drawbackdiscussed
discussedininSection
Section2.12.1reduces
reduces
The drawback thethe welding
welding process
process stability
stability of
of DP-GMAW.
DP-GMAW.
The arcSeveral Several researchers
researchers
quenching have
havediscussed
drawback developed
developedina method a method
Section for for
2.1migrationmigration
reduces theof the of the
“arc quenching
welding “arc quenching
drawback”
process stability of
drawback”
by adding two
DP-GMAW. by adding
Severaltransitiontwocurrents
researchers transition currents
during
have developed the during
TP
a methodphasethemigration
for TP the
and phaseTB and thequenching
phase.
of the “arc TB phase.
Thus, Thus, a
a trapezoidal
drawback”
trapezoidal
modulation-pulsed
by adding two modulation-pulsed
GMAWcurrents
transition GMAW
(TP-GMAW)
during(TP-GMAW)
istheevolved.
TP phaseisFigure
evolved.
and 11theFigure
displays11 displays
TB phase. theThus, the
schematic schematic
current
a trapezoidal
current waveform
waveform
modulation-pulsed of
GMAWthe trapezoidal
of the trapezoidal (TP-GMAW) modulation-pulsed
modulation-pulsed GMAW
is evolved. GMAW
[18].
Figure TP-GMAW[18]. TP-GMAW
11 displays differs from differs
the schematic DP-GMAW from
current
DP-GMAW
by two setsof
waveform ofby
thetwo sets impulses,
transition
trapezoidalof transition
whichimpulses,
decelerate
modulation-pulsed which
the decelerate
GMAW variation theof
rate
[18]. TP-GMAW variation
thediffers
weldingrate of the
current
from welding
[50].
DP-GMAW
current
by [50].of transition impulses, which decelerate the variation rate of the welding current [50].
two sets
Current
Current
Time
Figure 11. Schematic diagram current
Time
waveform of
trapezoidal modulation pulsed GMAW
(reproduced
Figure 11. with permission
Schematic from
diagram [18],
currentCopyright
waveform Elsevier,
of 2013).
trapezoidal
Figure 11. Schematic diagram current waveform of trapezoidal modulation
modulation pulsed
pulsed GMAW GMAW
(reproduced
(reproduced with permission from [18], Copyright Elsevier,
with permission from [18], Copyright Elsevier, 2013). 2013).
When the base current fluctuates in a sinusoidal waveform manner, DP-GMAW evolves into
sinusoid
Whenmodulation-pulsed GMAW (SP-GMAW).
the base current fluctuates Figure
in a sinusoidal 12 illustrates
waveform a schematic
manner, DP-GMAW waveform
evolvesofinto
the
When the base current fluctuates in a sinusoidal waveform manner, DP-GMAW evolves into
welding current
sinusoid of SP-GMAW
modulation-pulsed [22]. The
GMAW mode of metal
(SP-GMAW). transfer
Figure is the projected
12 illustrates spraywaveform
a schematic transfer. Aofsine
the
sinusoid modulation-pulsed GMAW (SP-GMAW). Figure 12 illustrates a schematic waveform of
waveform
welding can beofderivable
current SP-GMAW in any
[22].order. The current
The mode variation
of metal transferrate of projected
is the SP-GMAW becomes
spray smooth
transfer. in
A sine
this manner.
waveform can SP-GMAW
be derivableachieves a more
in any order. stable and
The current reliable
variation ratewelding
of SP-GMAWprocess compared
becomes smooth with
in
this manner. SP-GMAW achieves a more stable and reliable welding process compared with
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 12 of 18
the welding current of SP-GMAW [22]. The mode of metal transfer is the projected spray transfer.
A sine
Appl. Sci.waveform
2017, 7, 894 can be derivable in any order. The current variation rate of SP-GMAW becomes
7, 894 12 of
of 18
18
Appl. Sci. 2017, 12
smooth in this manner. SP-GMAW achieves a more stable and reliable welding process compared with
DP-GMAW [51].
DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW [51].SP-GMAW
[51]. SP-GMAW
SP-GMAW succeeds
succeedsthe the
succeeds advantages
the of DP-GMAW.
advantages
advantages of DP-GMAW.
of DP-GMAW.In addition, SP-GMAW
In addition,
In addition, achieves
SP-GMAW
SP-GMAW
accurate
achieves heat
achieves accurate input
accurate heatcontrol
heat inputand unified
input control
control and regulation
and unified of the welding
unified regulation
regulation of
of the current
the welding [52,53].
welding current
current [52,53].
[52,53].
Current
Current
Time
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Schematic diagram
diagram current waveform
waveform of sinusoid
sinusoid modulation pulsed
pulsed GMAW (reproduced
(reproduced
Figure 12. Schematic
Schematic diagram current
current waveform ofof sinusoid modulation
modulation pulsed GMAW
GMAW (reproduced
with permission
with
with permission from
permission from [22],
from [22], Copyright
[22], Copyright Springer,
Copyright Springer, 2016).
Springer, 2016).
2016).
4.2. Future
4.2. Future Trend of
of DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
4.2. Future Trend
Trend of DP-GMAW
4.2.1.
4.2.1. Cold
4.2.1. Cold Metal
Cold Metal Transfer
Metal Transfer and Pulsed
Transfer and
and Pulsed GMAW
Pulsed GMAW (CMT-Pulse)
GMAW (CMT-Pulse)
(CMT-Pulse)
When
When
When the theTB
the TBphase
TB phase
phase is replaced
is replaced
is replaced by thebyCMT
by the CMT
the CMT process,
process,
process, DP-GMAW DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW evolves
evolves evolves
into into CMT-Pulse.
into
CMT-Pulse. CMT-Pulse.
Figure 13
Figure
Figure 13 illustrates
13 illustrates
illustrates a schematic
a schematica waveform
schematic of waveform
waveform
the welding of the
of the welding
welding
current current of CMT-Pulse
current of[54].
of CMT-Pulse CMT-Pulse
The mode [54].
[54]. The mode
The mode
of metal of
of
transfer
metal
metal transferofis
transfer
is a mixture isthe
aa mixture
mixture of the
of
projected the projected
projected
spray transferspray
spray transfer
transfer
during during
the during the pulse
the
pulse period, pulse period,
period,
and and the
and
the short the short
short
circuit circuit
circuit
transfer
transfer
transfer
during the during
during
CMT the CMT
theperiod period
CMT period
[55]. Weld[55]. Weld
[55]. Weld penetration
penetration
penetration can becan
can be adjusted
be adjusted
adjusted by changing
by changing
by changing either
either
either the
thethe number
number
number of
of
of pulses
pulses during
during the
the pulse
pulse period,
period, or
or the
the number
number of
of CMT
CMT short
short circuits
circuits
pulses during the pulse period, or the number of CMT short circuits during the CMT period [56].during
during the
the CMT
CMT period
period [56].
[56].
Numerous
Numerous investigations indicate
Numerous investigations
investigations indicate that
indicate that the
that the CMT
the CMT process
CMT process features high
process features
features high deposition
high deposition rates
deposition rates [56],
rates [56], low
[56], low heat
low heat
heat
input
input [57,58],
[57,58],and
input [57,58], and small
andsmall
small deformations
deformations
deformations [59].
[59].[59]. During
During
During arc additive
arc additive
arc additive manufacturing,
manufacturing,
manufacturing, the CMT-Pulse
the CMT-Pulse
the CMT-Pulse process
process
process is
is characterized
characterized by
by aa reduced
reduced porosity
porosity incidence
incidence compared
compared with
with
is characterized by a reduced porosity incidence compared with CMT [60]. CMT-Pulse may benefit CMT
CMT [60].
[60]. CMT-Pulse
CMT-Pulse may
may
benefit
benefit
from both from
from both DP-GMAW
both DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW and CMT. and
and CMT. However,
CMT. However,
However, comparisonscomparisons
comparisons between DP-GMAW
between DP-GMAW
between DP-GMAW and CMT-Pulse and CMT-
and CMT-
have
Pulse
Pulse have
have
not been not been
not
reported. been reported.
reported.
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
0 Pulse period
period CMT period
period CMT period
period
Pulse CMT CMT
Time
Figure 13.
Figure Schematic diagram
13. Schematic diagram current
current waveform
waveform of
of CMT-Pulse
CMT-Pulse GMAW
GMAW (reproduced
(reproduced with permission
with permission
permission
Figure 13. Schematic diagram current waveform of CMT-Pulse GMAW (reproduced with
from
from [54],
[54], Copyright
Copyright Elsevier,
Elsevier, 2016).
2016).
4.2.2. Variable
4.2.2. Variable Polarity
Polarity Double
Double Pulsed
Pulsed GMAW
GMAW (VPDP-GMAW)
(VPDP-GMAW)
When the
When the base
base current
current reduces
reduces to
to aa value
value that
that is
is less
less than
than zero
zero (electrode
(electrode negative),
negative), DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW
evolves into
evolves into variable
variable polarity
polarity double
double pulsed
pulsed GMAW
GMAW (VPDP-GMAW).
(VPDP-GMAW). FigureFigure 14
14 provides
provides aa schematic
schematic
waveform of the welding current of VPDP-GMAW [61]. The pulse current during
waveform of the welding current of VPDP-GMAW [61]. The pulse current during the electrode the electrode
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 13 of 18
4.2.2. Variable Polarity Double Pulsed GMAW (VPDP-GMAW)

When the base current reduces to a value that is less than zero (electrode negative), DP-GMAW
evolves into variable polarity double pulsed GMAW (VPDP-GMAW). Figure 14 provides a schematic
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 13 of 18
waveform of the welding current of VPDP-GMAW [61]. The pulse current during the electrode
positive phase
positive phase is is used
usedtotogenerate
generateaahigh
highelectromagnetic
electromagnetic force forfor
force projected spray
projected transfer.
spray During
transfer. the
During
electrode negative phase, the welding arc climbs to the solid part of the welding wire, and
the electrode negative phase, the welding arc climbs to the solid part of the welding wire, and the arc the arc root
completely
root completely covers the droplet
covers surface
the droplet [62]. [62].
surface Arc energy concentrates
Arc energy primarily
concentrates on the
primarily onwelding wire
the welding
and droplet. The highest rate of electrode extension burn off and droplet growth
wire and droplet. The highest rate of electrode extension burn off and droplet growth occurs duringoccurs during the
electrode negative phase, whereas the least heat is transferred to the weld
the electrode negative phase, whereas the least heat is transferred to the weld pool [63].pool [63].
EP
Current
EN
Time
Figure
Figure 14.
14. The
The schematic
schematic diagram
diagram current
current waveform
waveform ofof low-frequency
low-frequency variable
variable polarity
polarity GMAW
GMAW
(reproduced
(reproduced with
with permission
permission from [61], Copyright
from [61], Copyright Taylor
Taylor &
& Francis,
Francis, 2001).
2001).
VP-GMAW has the following advantages compared with conventional GMAW: (1) High melting
VP-GMAW has the following advantages compared with conventional GMAW: (1) High melting
rate [64]. (2) Low heat input characteristic [65] and associated advantages, such as shallow penetration
rate [64]. (2) Low heat input characteristic [65] and associated advantages, such as shallow penetration
for welding of sheets, average low temperature [66] and decreased distortion [67]. (3) Weld pool stir
for welding of sheets, average low temperature [66] and decreased distortion [67]. (3) Weld pool stir
property and associated advantages, such as reduced porosity, grain refinement [68] and improved
property and associated advantages, such as reduced porosity, grain refinement [68] and improved
mechanical properties [69].
mechanical properties [69].
Joining of Fe–Al dissimilar material by VPDP-GMAW has been reported [70,71]. Kumagai et al. [38]
Joining of Fe–Al dissimilar material by VPDP-GMAW has been reported [70,71].
revealed that VPDP-GMAW featured reduced porosity incidence due to the stirring action of weld
Kumagai et al. [38] revealed that VPDP-GMAW featured reduced porosity incidence due to the stirring
pool. Su et al. [72] observed that VPDP-GMAW could effectively reduce the heat input. For the same
action of weld pool. Su et al. [72] observed that VPDP-GMAW could effectively reduce the heat input.
welding current and voltage, VPDP-GMAW exhibited thinner intermetallic compounds than did
For the same welding current and voltage, VPDP-GMAW exhibited thinner intermetallic compounds
DP-GMAW. Other benefits of VPDP-GMAW from VP-GMAW and DP-GMAW have not been reported.
than did DP-GMAW. Other benefits of VPDP-GMAW from VP-GMAW and DP-GMAW have not
been reported.
4.2.3. Hybrid Laser DP-GMAW
4.2.3.When
Hybrid theLaser
laserDP-GMAW
beam is superimposed as a leading heat source, DP-GMAW evolves into
a hybrid laser DP-GMAW.
When the laser beam is The welding mode
superimposed as isa the keyhole
leading heatmode;
source,thus, the laser evolves
DP-GMAW heat source
into
dominates the weld penetration. Hybrid laser-arc welding has the following
a hybrid laser DP-GMAW. The welding mode is the keyhole mode; thus, the laser heat source advantages: (1) Greater
weld penetration
dominates the weld [73–75]. (2) Higher
penetration. Hybridwelding speed
laser-arc [76,77].
welding has(3)
theSmaller
followingwelding deformation
advantages: and
(1) Greater
stress [78,79]. (4) Lower heat input and shallow heat-affect-zone [80,81]. Hybrid
weld penetration [73–75]. (2) Higher welding speed [76,77]. (3) Smaller welding deformation and laser DP-GMAW
may
stressbenefit
[78,79].from both heat
(4) Lower laserinput
welding
and and DP-GMAW.
shallow However,
heat-affect-zone research
[80,81]. regarding
Hybrid hybrid laser
laser DP-GMAW may
DP-GMAW
benefit from both laser welding and DP-GMAW. However, research regarding hybrid laserhybrid
is not presented in the literature. Numerical and experimental studies of laser
DP-GMAW
DP-GMAW are essential
is not presented to promote
in the literature. its potential
Numerical application. studies of hybrid laser DP-GMAW are
and experimental
essential to promote its potential application.
5. Conclusions
The process characteristics of DP-GMAW and their effect on solidification structure are
systematically discussed. Advantages of DP-GMAW and their origin are revealed. At last, previous
evolution process and future trends of DP-GMAW are summarized. Below are the specific findings
of DP-GMAW:
(1) A periodical welding current generates an oscillation of arc force and droplet pressure, which
produces a weld pool stir effect.
(2) Periodical heat input generates expansion and shrinkage of the weld pool, which causes an
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 14 of 18
5. Conclusions
The process characteristics of DP-GMAW and their effect on solidification structure are
systematically discussed. Advantages of DP-GMAW and their origin are revealed. At last, previous
evolution process and future trends of DP-GMAW are summarized. Below are the specific findings of
DP-GMAW:
(1) A periodical welding current generates an oscillation of arc force and droplet pressure, which
produces a weld pool stir effect.
(2) Periodical heat input generates expansion and shrinkage of the weld pool, which causes an
unusual remelting and resolidification of the previously solidified metal. DP-GMAW has an
increased solidification growth rate and cooling rate compared with conventional pulsed welding
at the same heat input.
(3) Microstructural refinement of fusion metal by DP-GMAW is reported by several researchers.
The mechanism of microstructural refinement is revealed as combined effect of the weld pool
stir effect and an increased cooling rate. The numerical and experimental results indicate that a
refined microstructure can be achieved by adjusting the pulsing parameters instead of changing
the heat input. DP-GMAW features diverse grain orientation due to the expansion and shrinkage
of the weld pool.
(4) The weld pool stir effect improves the fluidity of liquid metal in the molten pool. Therefore,
a larger number of hydrogen bubbles have a chance to float out and release from the molten pool,
and fewer hydrogen bubbles are trapped in the solidification wall and form pores.
(5) Improved solidification cracking susceptibility is achieved due to refined solidification structures
by DP-GMAW.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for the financial support for this research from the High-level Leading
Talent Introduction Program of GDAS (2016GDASRC-0106) and Industry-university-research of Guangdong
Province and Ministry of Education (2013B090600098).
Author Contributions: Leilei Wang and Jiaxiang Xue conceived the idea. Leilei Wang wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Applied Sciences: Perspective On Double Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding

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Received: 18 July 2017; Accepted: 17 August 2017; Published: 1 September 2017

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894; doi:10.3390/app7090894 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

thermal amplitude (A)

T: 925 K 1100 K 1400 K

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 894 6 of 18

Figure 7.7. Grain

Porosity incidence, N/10 mm

Cracking rate, CS (%)

4.2.2. Variable Polarity Double Pulsed GMAW (VPDP-GMAW)

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