"Wise men should exchange sayings" the light of this quotation, discuss the

functions and transmission of ‘wisdom’ in Old English verse and to what extent is it helpful

to talk of a distinct genre of 'wisdom poetry' in Old English?

Old English 'wisdom literature' is a “a large and somewhat vague category” 1; arising more from

its relation to other literary traditions, than from internal sense. This is not to say that 'wisdom

literature' wasn't a “large and successful”2 genre in its day, but that our assumptions about the

genre largely rely on external comparisons. The term 'wisdom literature' is itself an example of

this, “a rubric used since the late nineteenth century to designate a group of Old Testament

writings”3. In the Old English tradition, it has also been described as “sententious verse”, and

“for centuries the term 'gnomic" has been tardily applied to … poetry in Anglo-Saxon" 4. All

these terms can seem overly general, after all "If you go looking for wisdom in Old English

literature, you find altogether too much of it" 5, and “if everything is wisdom, nothing is”6. The

state of 'wisdom literature' in the Old English appears much as Maxims II did to B. C. Williams

“a literary fabric [woven] from odds and ends of sententious material”7. It is an obvious irony

that we are attempting to succinctly define a genre whose material has commonly been noted to

1 Morton w Bloomfield , 'Understanding Old English Poetry', 1968

2 T.A. Shippey, ‘Old English Verse’, 1972

3 E.T. Hansen, “The Solomon Complex”, 1988
4 B.C. Williams, “Gnomic Poetry in Anglo-Saxon", 1914
5 E.T. Hansen, “The Solomon Complex”, 1988
6 ibid
7 Lynn L. Remly, "The Anglo-Saxon Gnomes as Sacred Poetry", 1971
be "over-general" 8. For We shall avoid this "total loss of objectivity" 9 by focusing on common

devices and effects of 'wisdom'; allowing us to practically talk of 'wisdom literature' as a genre.

The most general observation one can make of 'gnomes' within the literature, is their

generality. Indeed, "[they] never deal with individuals but are throughout totally generic" 10. This

universality is appropriate, as gnomes are never concerned with incidents, but with what “logicians

would term 'universal statements'” 11. This is a feature of ’wisdom literature’ was described by

Gerhard Von Rad as a “searching for rules”12. This abstract nature of the gnomes often leaves them

feeling isolated from the rest of the poem. This has been commented upon in both Maxims and

Beowulf, with the prior being disregarded as "metrical exercises"13, and the latter's gnomic sections

being viewed as digressions into the “doldrums of didacticism”14.

Rather than criticise this, we might choose to view it as an effective poetic technique. If

gnomes are to be 'jewels of wisdom', it is appropriate for them to be self-contained units. Each

gnome is its own truth, and must be approached in its own right. We could read into this discretion

a desire to separate the universal from the mundane. Both the uncoupling from the standard flow

8 T.A Shippey, “Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,

1977
9 ibid
10 Nigel F Barley, "Structure in the cotton Gnomes", 1977

11 ibid
12 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
13 R MacGregor Dawson, "The Structure of the Old English gnomic poems”, 1962

14 W.W. Lawrence , 'The Song of Deor', 1911

of a poem, and the ambiguity of the gnome creates a contemplative gap the audience seeks to fill

with their own insight.

One might also see this attitude in the Anglo-Saxon riddles. A riddle's purpose is to suggest

“something that is not expressed”15. likewise, the gnome suggests a universal truth which is not

specifically applied. As with the answer to the riddle, we come to the gnome's truth indirectly. The

ambiguity and 'distance' of the gnome is fitting for a device that describes the ”hidden order“16 of

the world. We see that the riddle and the gnome are both instruments of 'wisdom literature' that

serve similar function, the circumlocution of truth. "The Old English poet no less than Hamlet

worked by indirections" 17, and it is the wise man's duty to seek “out the hidden meanings”18 of

these devices.

Alternatively, the obscureness of the gnome may be a fault of the modern reader who sees

them as “linguistic phenomena devoid of social content”19. It has been suggested that their "built-

in ambiguity made them useful, tactful, a part of courtesy"20. An example of this is the gnome on

the importance of analysing speech carefully, found in precepts, that is used in context within

Beowulf. If we take Precepts as,” the raw material of poetry rather than poetry itself “ 21, a collection

15 Frederick Tupper , ’The Riddles Of The Exeter Book’, 1910

16 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
17 Roberta Frank, ”Germanic Legend In Old English Literature”, 2013
18 Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) 39:3

E.T. Hansen,”Hrothgar's 'sermon' in Beowulf as parental wisdom",1982

19

T.A Shippey,” Maxims in Old English Narrative: Literary Art or. Traditional
20

Wisdom?”, 1977
21 Derek Pearsall, ”Old English and Middle English Poetry”, 1977
of popular sentiments, then we can use similar expressions in Beowulf as an example of how the

device might be applied.

'AÉghwæþres sceal

scearp scyldwiga gescád witan

worda ond worca' (287-289; Beowulf)

“He will --every sharp shield-warrior-- know the distinction between words and works”

Ongiet georne hwæt sy god oþþe yfel,

toscead simle scearpe mode

in sefan þinum,(45-47; Precepts)

“Distinguish clearly what is good or evil, and always separate them with acute discernment

in your understanding, and at all times choose the better for yourself! "

In the scene with the coastguard, we see the gnome is applied to defuse tension. Having

questioned Beowulf, the coastguard does not apologise or withdraw his suspicions, but allows

Beowulf to pass quoting the gnome above. This allows Beowulf and the coastguard to conclude

the encounter with neither of the two losing face. Here we see the gnome acting as a touchstone of
social interaction, binding the two "together in common assumptions"22. The ambiguity of the

gnome facilitates its use in social etiquette; blunting pointedness of an encounter within a maxim.

The use of a gnome in a ”polite but critical fashion“23 is an interesting example of how the ”high

tolerance for enigma"24 in Anglo-Saxon work is often a ”deliberate expressive strategy”25. Anglo-

Saxon 'wisdom literature' endorses giedda wis (41b; Precepts) and worda hyrda(42b; Precepts),

and similar sentiments are expressed in the literature of parallel traditions. In this we see the

gnomes are not only stores, but also tools of wisdom, that can be applied by 'wise men' to facilitate

what Robert Burlin describes as "societal interdependence"26

The utility of the gnome pairs with its ambiguity, perhaps, as an instrument in oral-

formulaic composition. It has been noted that “maxims are often put in positions of significance at

the beginning or end of a speech, a fitt or verse section, or poem”27. Similarly, we can note a

change in rhythm accompanying the gnomic sections of works like Beowulf - “certain passages in

Beowulf are marked by a high presence of C-type lines”28. This might be an aid for the oral poet

seeking to recite the poem from memory, using the gnomes as markers to organise his recitation.

22 T.A. Shippey,” Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,

1977
23 ibid
24 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988 (quoting T.A. Shippey)
25 ibid
26 Robert B. Burlin, ”Gnomic indirection of Beowulf”, 1975

27 Paul Cavill, ”Maxims In Old English Poetry”, 1996

28 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”,1988
“The heavy use of punctuation in the gnomes”29 , also suggests its function as a milestone within

the poem. The effect of this transition could only be fully appreciated if Beowulf was read aloud,

“adjacent stresses gives an impression of stability to these lines” 30, as well as a pause. The gnome's

change of pace allows the poet to draw his “audience more deeply into the significance of his

narrative”31 and “demand its active participation”32 - the bardic equivalent of a tap on the shoulder,

for someone whose attention is flagging. It also allows new listeners to engage with the narrative

without necessarily having heard the previous sections. We can note the gnomic sections of

Beowulf often are accompanied with historical digressions - they are tedious to the modern

audience - but “the heavy use of punctuation in the gnomes and historical episodes of Beowulf is

both deliberate and meaningful” 33. It suggests the importance of these segments; and the poet,

perhaps, relies upon an audience familiar with these tales. To invoke them allows those with this

knowledge to quickly acquaint themselves with the poem through relation to this larger tradition.

“The nature of oral culture is such that all deeds can only be evaluated by comparing them with

the legacy of stories about past deeds” 34 , and in the use of gnomes in Beowulf we see its

functionality as a tool in both the memorisation and performance of 'wisdom literature'. This see

the gnome's form not only stores ‘wisdom’, but also transmits it.

29 Catherine Karkov and Robert Farrell, ”The Gnomic Passages of Beowulf”, 1990
30 E.T. Hanson, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988 (referring to Barbara Raw’s analysis of
Beowulf)
31 T.A. Shippey,” Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,
1977
32 E.T. Hanson, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
33 Catherine Karkov and Robert Farrell, ”The Gnomic Passages of Beowulf”, 1990
34 Robert W. Hanning, ”The individual in Twelfth Century Romance”, 1978
 This appropriate use of the gnomes in Beowulf causes us to question its appearance

elsewhere. Critics lament the “apparent lack of unity”35 within the Exeter book’s maxims, with

some dismissing them as being the product of a “stilted copybook”36, and others seeing them as

“essentially extraliterary...'linguistic play' at best"37. The unity and purpose of such cryptic pieces

has been pursued by some, with "accusations of faddishness"38 being their reward. Let us sidestep

the specific analysis of this and reflect on an incident that T.A. Shippey draws attention to. He

notes a gnome being applied with a “total loss of objectivity” 39 in Genesis (B 623-5), where the

poet apparently approves of the advise of the devil through a “compulsive” 40 interpolation of a

gnomic passage.

Swa hire eaforan sculon æfter lybban:

þonne hie lað gedoð, hie sculon lufe wyrcean,

betan heora hearran hearmcwyde ond habban his hyldo forð. Genesis (B 623-5),

35 Nigel F Barley, "Structure in the cotton Gnomes", 1977

36 Lynn L. Remly, "The Anglo-Saxon Gnomes as Sacred Poetry", 1971

37 Morton w Bloomfield, ”Understanding Old English Poetry”, 1958

38 E.T. Hanson, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988

39 T.A. Shippey,” Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,
1977
40 ibid
 "That is how her children must live ever after: whenever they do wrong, they must

do right, find a remedy for their lord's reproaches and have his favour from then on."

“One scarcely expects the poet to derive wisdom from the words of Satan”41 , and the most

apparent solution to this problem is a "clumsiness reflective of a rich literary tradition”42. Meaning,

the practice in composition of Old English poetry was to ground the composition in common

gnomic refrains. The purpose of this we have speculated above, but drawing attention to

the ”flatfootedness of the gnomic formula” 43 when done badly lets us appreciate it better as a part

of the craft of Old English composition.

That this technique seems to have been almost a compulsive part of so much poetry, hinders

our ability to talk of the gnome as a descriptive feature of the 'wisdom literature' genre.

Alternatively, we might reflect that all such literature was ideally an expression of eloquence, and

therefore the gnomes, with their “perception of their utility common among wise-men"44, are as

rudimentary to the Anglo-Saxon poet as alliteration is. This respect for wise speech is common in

all 'wisdom literature'.

Maxims I and II's implementation gnomes is more than clumsy, it entirely “unpalatable to

modern taste”45. However, this is only if we assume that the gnome is employed to the same way

41 ibid
42 ibid
43 ibid (quoting R.B. Burling "Gnomic indirection in Beowulf")

44ibid
45Betty S. Cox, ”Cruces of Beowulf”, 1971 (Here she refers to the gnomes in Beowulf
but the observation is common to a modern reader encountering the gnomes in the Exeter book)
in these poems as they are in Beowulf. Perhaps, in looking at how these poems apply gnomes

differently to Beowulf, we might see a function for them more than simple ”metrical exercises” 46.

Earlier we described how gnomes deal with what we might call “fundamental logical

relationships”47 in a universal form. This includes not only what they are, but what they are not.

This is appropriate for a device that seeks to solve ”recurrent social conflicts“ 48 - the contrast of

opposites ”projects the conflict and resolves it“49. This is visible in Beowulf with its ”bipolar view

of the moral universe” 50 being expressed at different levels. So far, we have highlighted the

gnome's internal logic, seeing it as a discrete unit. We see this in Beowulf, where opposites are

arrayed within a clause - æþeling aérgod unblíðe sæt (130; Beowulf).

However, at another level we see opposition between clauses - Wá bið þaém ðe sceal (183;

Beowulf) with wél bið þaém þe mót (186 ; Beowulf). This explicit contrast in Beowulf is implicit

in the Cotton Gnomes where there is a transition from geweorc(3a) to wind (3b) that only makes

sense if we accept that “significant contrast is as much a bridge as similarity” 51 .

These ”relationships of opposition and similarity between the parts of that total order“ 52 are

sometimes the only unifying stylistic choice in the more rudimentary Cotton Gnomes. Perhaps this

allows us to suggest it as a fundamental technique of this style of poetry. Even more generally, we

see an opposition in the overall poem. As Theodore Andersson has observed, "No sooner is one

mood established than it is superseded by its opposite. Hope gives way to disappointment, joy to

46 B. C. Williams, ”Gnomic Poetry In Anglo-Saxon", 1914

47 Paul Cavill , "Maxims in Old English Poetry", 1996 (quoting Nigel Barley)
48 ibid
49 ibid
50 E.T. Hansen, ”Hrothgar’s ’sermon’ as Parental wisdom”, 1982
51
Nigel F Barley, "Structure in the cotton Gnomes", 1977
52 ibid
grief and vice versa. It is not just a question of occasional tonalities, the main lines of the poem as

a whole can be analyzed according to this alternation" 53.

“Underlying the gnomic world view in Beowulf is the centrality of difference” 54 . The

progression of opposites in Beowulf illustrates the same pattern that makes sense of the enigmatic

gnomes of the Exeter book. Maxims I and II employs similar structural techniques ”to establish

relations"55 within the poem creating works of ”considerable internal unity“ 56. We can observe the

significance of the ”inherently structural” 57 arrangement of the Cotton Gnomes by comparing it

with Beowulf's employment of gnomes. With the Beowulf's "single line of thought, a clear

progression in time, treatment of a single subject throughout" 58 , we more easily make sense of

their function. With the lack thereof with the Cotton Gnomes we observe the ”richness of its

structure” 59 that we could otherwise not appreciate. This is an inference through absence that

reminds us of the ambiguity of the gnome itself, and the riddle. If wisdom is the ”rational clearing

up and ordering of the phenomena of the world“ 60 then being able to unify the apparently disparate

gnomes is itself an intellectual exercise befitting a literary culture that presupposed a hidden order.

53 Catherine Karkov and Robert Farrell, ”The Gnomic Passages of Beowulf”, 1990

(quoting Theodore Andersson)

54 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988

55 Nigel F Barley, "Structure in the cotton Gnomes", 1977
56 ibid
57 ibid
58 ibid
59 ibid
60 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
 We can infer that gnomes are part of a ‘wisdom genre’ also from their context. We have

noted the significance of structural relations above; no less important are the social relations

utilised in conveying the sententious verse we have analysed so far. Indeed, we should look at a

“wider tradition to which the gnomic mode itself belongs...parental instruction” 61. We see Old

English poetry often parallels the instruction literature of other wisdom traditions. In such poetry

we often find a straightforward presentation of a traditional wisdom that describes the wisdom

literature genre. "the literary type of those works which contain an instruction of a teacher to a

pupil (often in the form of an instruction of a father to his son) or the fiction of such an

instruction." 62

A good example of this is Precepts which “clearly exhibits the principal formal and

thematic characteristics of the genre”63. The gnomic advise in the poem is framed ten times as that

of a father to his son. We the same generic convention used in Beowulf where, while giving a

speech of ”gnomic character“ 64 , ”Hrothgar is specifically characterized as the wise father of

Beowulf”65 . That invoking the parental wisdom genre is the poet's intent is confirmed by the

observation that ”three times before the 'sermon' itself Hrothgar is identified as Beowulf's surrogate

father”66. Within the sermon, Hrothgrar mentions “his wide experience, his age and his memory”67;

to similarly frame him as a 'wise father figure'. The framing of the gnomes, in this ”set piece [ of ]

61 E.T. Hansen, ”Hrothgar’s ’sermon’ as Parental wisdom”, 1982

62 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
63 P.L. Henry, ”The Early English And Celtic Lyric”, 1966
64 Catherine Karkov and Robert Farrell, ”The Gnomic Passages of Beowulf”, 1990
65 E.T. Hansen, ”Hrothgar’s ’sermon’ in Beowulf as parental wisdom”, 1982
66 ibid
67 ibid
the fathers advise poem” 68 , fixes the ”preliminary generic conception” 69 within a genre the

audience would "familiar with ... and at least sympathetic to" 70 . If the gnomic sayings

"comfortably evoke the ideal norms of their society and their world“ 71 , then utilising the assumed

relationship between a father and son serves the same purpose. The impositions of the father-son

convention presupposes a ”moral nexus between story and audience” 72 . The device binds

the ”audience together in common assumptions too precious to be threatened” 73 establishing a

"societal interdependence" 74 . This function of the gnome is suggested by the second “most

common [gnome] being the one that defines the social role of a man“ 75. Mediating maxims that

prescribe social relations through the selfsame relations seems circular, but it is entirely

appropriate for a culture that presupposed truth. That such relationships are often invoked in

tandem with gnomes, and have parallel purposes to the gnomes they accompany, suggests it to us

as descriptive quality of the wisdom genre of Old English literature.

Hrothgar's sermon is framed not only as him being a father-figure, but also as a king.

Indeed, Betty S. Cox claims that above the section is a “natural outgrowth of patristic and

biblical instruction … an expected speech by a king” 76. As above, the figure of the king

68 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988

69 E.D. Hirsch, ”Validity in interpretation” , 1967
70 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988 (Here Hansen is quoting Krapp in the

opinion that the audience of wisdom literature had common expectations from the genre)
71 R.B. Burlin, ”Gnomic Indirection”, 1975
72 ibid
73 ibid
74 ibid
75 T.A. Shippey, ” Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,

1977
76 E.T. Hansen, ”Hrothgar's 'sermon' in Beowulf as parental wisdom”, 1982
facilitates "societal interdependence" and is perhaps more significant to the Anglo-Saxon

audience, as ”the ruler was himself a centre of the societal cult” 77. Kingship was universal in

Germanic cultures and perhaps the 'kingly wisdom' of Hrothgar is a more appropriate expression

of the parental instruction genre in the Anglo-Saxon context. That ”twenty six synonyms for

'king' are used by the Beowulf poet alone”78 demonstrates this concern. P. B. Taylor observes

that ”much of an epithet's force in context derives from the manner in which ... characters ...

draw attention to latent meanings”79. Epithets, like gnomes, can often only be realized in context,

and placing gnomes in the mouth of a wise king has an appositive effect. This is not unique to

Old English literature. We see in the biblical tradition, the deference towards the king as a wise

man in the figure of Solomon. Appropriately, Solomon appears within the Old English poems

'Solomon and Saturn', suggesting the Anglo-Saxon poets might be familiar with this literary

convention. We can't know if Hrothgar is imitating Solomon, or if Anglo-Saxon conceptions of

Kingship were complementary to the biblical tradition of the 'wise king'; regardless, we can place

it within the genre of 'wisdom literature' and see it play a parallel role to the 'parental wisdom'

conventions we outlined above.

The poet's intent is not always so direct as to put words in their appropriate place. Often

the context of characters add meaning to words that we grasp only through their jarring effect. In

the scene directly following the slaying of Grendal, the ”appellations for the king seem curiously

77 W.A. Chaney, ”The Cult Of Anglo-Saxon Kingship”, 1970

78 ibid
79 P.B. Taylor, ”The Epithetical Style Of Beowulf”, 1990
out of place”80. Having just described Beowulf's fierce combat in the hall of the king, the poet

describes the king's movement back to reclaim his hall.

swylce self cyning

of brýdbúre béahhorda weard

tryddode tírfæst getrume micle

cystum gecýþed ond his cwén mid him

medostigge mæt mægþa hóse. (Beowulf; 920b-24)

the king himself too

from his wife's bower, the ward of the ring-hoard,

stepped out splendid with his great troop,

famed for his excellence, and his queen with him,

passed down the meadhall path, accompanied by maidens.

“The poet needs to move the king to Heorot, but why should he dwell on the details of

the retinue?”81. The apparently "insignificant detail“82 is embedded with kennings for kingship.

The conventional béahhorda weard83 and tírfæst84 king is flanked by his wife and her maidens;

and the procession begins at his wife's bedchamber. This juxtaposition could be dismissed as

clumsiness, if we didn't already appreciate the Anglo-Saxon taste for circumlocution. The

80 ibid
81 ibid
82 ibid
83
”ward of the ring-hoard"
84 ”glory assured”
inappropriateness of the scene matches the that of the king relying on Beowulf to defend his seat

of power. Indeed ” 'tirfaest' is more appropriate for Beowulf than for Hrothgar“ 85, who has been

in his wife's bedchamber with a retinue of women. This confirms the importance of context in

framing such devices. Epithets, like gnomes, are not discrete islands of meaning and they are

often transformed by how they are employed. Likewise, the predilection of Old English literature

for 'indirection' is again demonstrated. As with riddles, the solution to the kenning must be

known before the ”fine literary experience”86 can be appreciated. The enigmatic nature of many

aspects of the poetry is proper for a medium was the domain of 'wise-men'. The literate man, in

a period where literacy was uncommon, would always have a gnomic bent that ensured all of

what they wrote had at least one foot in the door of the ’wisdom genre’. Therefore, 'wisdom',

rather than being a discrete genre of Old English poetry, might be viewed more properly as a

prevailing temperament of the Anglo-Saxon poet.

That the poet can use these epithets in such an indirect way would rely upon a rich

literary tradition of good kingship. We see this tradition invoked in the beginning of Beowulf

where the positive example of Scyld Scéfing is lauded as þæt wæs gód cyning (Beowulf;11b).

This theme is continued throughout the poem, and often these digressions are about various

problems that might befall a king's rule. This relies upon other poems being known by the

audience about these figures (who are often kings), and suggests a rich genre of poetry with

which we would find many parallels in Scandinavian Skaldic poetry. Hints at a poetic genre that

85 ibid
86
A.H. Stewart, ”The Solution To The Old English Riddle”, 1981
was concerned with the proper behaviour of kings is in Maxims I and II which contain gnomes

describing the proper behaviour of Kings; with similar epithets as those outlined in Hrothgar's

procession. We can compare béahhorda weard with beagas dælan(29a ; Maxims II) , and

tryddode tírfæst with tirfæstra getrum87 ( 32a; Maxims II) . This concern with good kingship is

reflected in the northern-european tradition of specula principium or furstenspiegel ; notably in

the Carolingian dynasty. Likewise, we see in Tecosca Cormaic, “collections of gnomic sayings

and instructions given by kings or foster-fathers to their sons and heirs”88. The topic of good

kingship can be found throughout the Old English corpus, and can be viewed as a subgenre

of ’wisdom’ poetry. It is naturally paired with 'parental advise' , but had a more specific and

developed role within the Anglo-Saxon court. The 'good king' is not just another face of the

'instructional wisdom poem' (like a teacher or a father); he embodies the fate of his people. 'Good

kingship' must be a interest of all 'wise men'; as it concerns all men. "The king is above all the

intermediary between his people and the gods"89, and, in the 'wisdom poetry' genre, this allows

the poet to relate the individual's behaviour to their larger consequences. The king is

the ”linchpin of social structure”90 , and the material on the behaviour and qualities of an ideal

king reflects the ”need for order and authority” 91 that underlies the larger 'wisdom genre' it is

appositional to.

87 ”gloryfirm troop”
88 E.T. Hansen, ”Hrothgar's 'sermon' in "Beowulf" as parental wisdom”, 1982

89 W.A. Chaney, ”The Cult Of Anglo-Saxon Kingship”, 1970

90 Nigel Barley, ”Structure In The Cotton Gnomes”, 1977
91 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
 A catalogue of qualities and skills of men are, presented in various Old English poetry.

However, the apparent lack of an “internal order” 92 to such lists and their ”haphazard lists of

endowments“93 has puzzled Anglo-Saxon scholars. Some have dismissed the desire for an

organising principle as ”neither to be expected nor to be considered adequate“ 94; with the genre

alone of list-poetry being enough to describe these poems. The Anglo-Saxonist is able to see in

these poems ”the more list-like quality of the Irish prose works"95 such as Tecosca Cormaic ;

and, to the extent that they seem "Shockingly disorganised"96, they are dismissed as frivolous

or ”linguistic play”97.

Scholars have despaired at the "failure to derive a principle of order from its subject" 98 in

the Gifts of Men and have found it "distinctly inferior"99 to other catalogues, whose organising

principle is more apparent (such as the Fortunes of Men). What does versecraft (vv. 49-50, 52)

have to do with skill in combat (vv. 39-40), and generalship (vv.76-77). However, much of this

attitude comes from a modern assumption of what virtues a noble man might have. Following

from the prior paragraph, which shows a concern with kingship expressed in gnomes, we see the

poetic form of 'catalogues' employed in enumerating ”aristocratic virtues“ 100. This is done by

drawing upon parallels in skaldic verse which show ”how seemingly trivial skills could figure in

the reputation of an important man”101. For example a list of Olaf Tryggvason's skills by Snorri

92 N. Howe, ”The Old English catalogue poems”, 1989

93 G.R. Russom, ” Germanic Concept of Nobility in the gifts of men and Beowulf”, 1978
94 N. Howe, ”The Old English catalogue poems”, 1989
95 E.T. Hansen, ” Hrothgar's 'sermon' in "Beowulf" as parental wisdom”, 1982

96 G.R. Russom, ” Germanic Concept of Nobility in the gifts of men and Beowulf”, 1978
97 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
98 N. Howe, ”The Old English catalogue poems”, 1989
99 ibid
100
G.R. Russom, ” Germanic Concept of Nobility in the gifts of men and Beowulf”, 1978
101 ibid
Sturlison ”observes with evident admiration that Olaf could juggle three daggers at once, always

catching them by the hilts, and that he was able to walk from oar to oar outside the railing of his

longship while the men were rowing”. 102 Geoffrey R. Russom's paper on this goes on to

convincingly contextualise the supposed ”Anglo-Saxon frivolities”103 as ”gentlemanly

accomplishments”104 (iþrottir105). The parallels in Irish ’wisdom literature’ of catalogues

contianing búaid106 and geis107 that ”kings are most often subject to”108, can also be noted. In

this we see the concern of 'wisdom literature' in Old English to prescribe the proper behaviour of

high-status men; with catalogues being a common form across various northern European

traditions with the same intent.

We have seen so far that 'wisdom poetry' often utilises techniques that rely upon the

audience's active participation. The passive reader gets little from the more obscure writings of

Anglo-Saxon literature. Consequently, if we view sapiential verse as "a continual negotiation

between the individual and the group"109 , then dialogue must be the most obvious tool of the

poet. Unfortunately, the traditional form doesn't seem to have been particularly popular, with

the ”only one extant example”110 being Solomon and Saturn II. One might stop here and decide

dialogue isn't a part of the wisdom literature of Old English. However, opinions vary on what is

technically considered a dialogue. If we look beyond the templates of platonic dialogues, we see

102 ibid
103 ibid
104 ibid
105 noble skills
106 ’unlucky practices’
107 ’lucky practices’
108 Rees and Rees, ” Celtic Heritage”, 1961
109
E.V. Thornbury, ”Becoming a Poet in Anglo-Saxon England”, 2014
110 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988
other examples of the form in “The Old English Adrian and Ritheus and the Prose Solomon and

Saturn”111. Despite being seen as ”not terribly convincing as a dialogue” 112, these poems ”have

been (and may still be) called dialogues”113; but they also overlap with other literary forms we

have discussed already. We see in Prose Solomon and Saturn an example of catalogues, lists of

gnomic lines, which we have seen often identify 'wisdom literature'. In the list of questions, we

see the "riddling quality"114 and an overall "lack a distinguishing logical sequence" 115 we have

grown to expect from Old English literature. Also, we see in the dialogue between the questioner

and answerer a presupposition of hidden truth and a demand for authority and order, which we

have noted as a common mood of all ’wisdom literature’. However, unlike the gnomes and

digressions above, we cannot say this poetry is part of a proverbial wisdom tradition, as often the

questions ”are based on scripture or writings arising from scripture” 116. This pairs with the

observation that the dialogue form is not common in Old English, and perhaps only arises from a

cloistered environment familiar with more classical forms, exampled in Ælfric's latin colloquies.

The monastic bent of the poem might be observed in its ”fantastic superstition and childish

literalism”117. Indeed, the weirdness of the poems sets it apart from the Medieval Latin sapiential

tradition which is “for the most part, more conventional and 'sensible' than these Old English

poem”118. One can see in this peculiar extravagance the same tendency that characterises the

111 J.E. Cross, ”The Prose Solomon and Saturn and Adrian and Ritheus”, 1982
112 K. Powell, ”Orientalist fantasy in the poetic dialogues of ’Solomon and Saturn’”, 2005

113 E. Merill, ”The Dialogue in English Literature”, 1911

114 J.E. Cross, ”The Prose Solomon and Saturn and Adrian and Ritheus”, 1982
115 ibid
116 ibid
117 R.J. Menner, "The poetical dialogues of solomon and saturn", 1944
118 J.E. Cross, ”The Prose Solomon and Saturn and Adrian and Ritheus”, 1982
hermeneutic writings of monks like Aldhelm 119 . Some scholars go further saying that the author

of these poems

“may have been St. Dunstan; if not he almost certainly knew their authors personally,

and was probably taught by them. These texts would have found a receptive audience at

Glastonbury”120

Others have read into the nature of the poem a different influence; while noting that much

of the “esoteric lore in the dialogues was transmitted through Irish sources” 121, they go onto

suggest that the poem's style intentionally, ”parodies of the Irish wisdom tradition“ 122. With all

of this confusion about the poem, we can draw some conclusions about its place within the Old

English ’wisdom genre’. The poem seems very experimental, pulling influences from

everywhere. While it does indeed share many features of ’wisdom literature’, their presence is

only significant to the extent they occur outside of these poems. Those features being the gnomic

quality of the lines, riddles, authoritative tone, and the catalogue form. Following this, the

119 M. Lapidge, ” The hermeneutic style in tenth-century Anglo-Latin literature”, 1975

120 Daniel Anlezark, ” The Old English Dialogues of Solomon and Saturn”, 2009
121 C.D. Wright, ” The Old English Dialogues of Solomon and Saturn by Daniel Anlezark

Review by: Charles D. Wright”, 2012

122 ibid
dialogue form seems to be a latin influence, and itself cannot be extrapolated to be descriptive of

the Old English ’wisdom genre’. Solomon and Saturn is ’wisdom literature’, but it seems too

much like the personal project of a zealous monk burning too much midnight oil to be useful as a

representative of any greater generic convention in Old English. 123

We brushed upon the "riddling quality" 124 of Solomon and Saturn, and suggested it to be

evidence of it belonging to the 'wisdom genre'. Likewise, we have explained the more enigmatic

qualities of the poems through analogy to riddles, suggesting that confusion and indirection are

often intentional. 'Wisdom poetry' shares with riddles this common observation, "[it is] after we

decide to look beyond the content...these poems also become most interesting" 125. Scholars have

more fruitfully explored the ”theory of riddling”126 than have attempted to definitively solve

them. Similarly, the process of transmitting wisdom seems to be more useful than trying to

analyse the particular wisdom. The riddle is the epitome of the Old English 'wisdom literature'

genre, which is characterised by a desire to play with ”symbolic systems generally“127. In

elements such as kennings we see it shares in common with the riddle the reliance on the

audience to bridge the gap of meaning, and even to spot where the obvious meaning might be

inappropriate. In gnomes, we see a detached generality that can only be understood when applied

in context, and even then the meaning is not explicit. These elements all have a sense of testing

123 I want to retract this a bit, because this prompts the question, ”to what extent can you
meaningfully distinguish between the Monastic tradition and the vernacular”, which is something
I have not the capacity to fully explore here. I would underline that ’Solomon and Saturn’ is very
Anglo-Saxon in its peculiarity, but feels more like a wayward branch, cultivated in a monastic
environ, than representative of the general poetry.
124 J.E. Cross, ”The Prose Solomon and Saturn and Adrian and Ritheus”, 1982

125 E.T. Hansen, ”The Solomon Complex”, 1988

126 ibid
127 N. Barley, 'Structural Aspects of the Anglo-Saxon riddle', 1974
from a position of authority, they serve as a “thieves‘ argot” 128 that demand reciprocation to be

appreciated; this might be why the poems have been poorly received by modern audiences who

are used to literature which "spoon-feeds us"129. Perhaps 'wisdom literature' doesn't fully describe

what we are seeing here; it implies a series of tenets, a code of behaviour that isn't essential to

what we are observing.

Like the riddle's answer, the specific wisdom is often not relevant to the encounter. What

is more apparent is the common desire of the Anglo-Saxon poet to promote ”societal

interdependence”130. In using the term 'wisdom poetry' we often describe a mode of poetry,

whose identity was realised in the community, who read and recognised it. Consequently, if we

use 'wisdom' to describe the features we see; relying on parallels external to Old English to

define the genre - without understanding the ”games the Anglo-Saxons loved to play”131 - we

find the poems ”incomprehensible”132 and without artistic merit. Old English ’wisdom’ is its own

genre, whose defining quality is its playful ambiguity; often not dictating ’wisdom’ but only

partially circumscribing. It is for the ’wise-men’ in the audience to ’join the dots’.

128E.V. Thornbury, ” Becoming a Poet in Anglo-Saxon England”, 2014

129N.F. Barley, ”Structure in the Cotton Gnomes”, 1977
130T.A Shippey, ” Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,

1977

131 N. Barley, 'Structural Aspects of the Anglo-Saxon riddle', 1974

132 T.A Shippey, ” Maxims in Old English narrative: literary art or traditional wisdom?”,
1977