ELECTRICAL THEORY

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Magnetism is a force of attraction between ferromagnetic metals such as

IRON NICKEL COBALT

And a force of repulsion between diamagnetic materials such as

ANTIMONY BISMUTH

MAGNET displays the properties of MAGNETISM

is coiling insulated wire around an iron core and running current through
the wire

When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field or a mag-

netic field is moved across a fixed conductor, a voltage is pro-
duced in the conductor. The voltage causes current to flow
through the conductor. When this happens, current flow is in-
duced in the conductor and the phenomenon is called induc-
tion.Current flows in one direction when the conductor moves
down through the magnetic field, and it reverses direction when
the conductor moves up through the field. When the conductor is
stationary, there is no current flow.
ELECTRICAL THEORY
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

DIRECT CURRENT

Current flow in one direction in circuit

ALTERNATING CURRENT

is a continuous reversal of the direction of

current flow such that at a point in time the
current flow is in one direction and at another
point in time it is in the reverse direction.

The change from one direction to the next

and back again is called a cycle.

Frequency is the term that describes cycles f=1/Period

per second. It is expressed in hertz (Hz).
Period is the time to create one cycle
ELECTRICAL THEORY
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING CURRENT
A waveform is a representation of how AC varies with time.

In an AC circuit voltage is never constant but is changing rapidly. Voltage produced by an AC power
source is specified by its average voltage.

Voltage from an AC power source goes from zero to the maximum voltage and back to zero every half
cycle; as polarity instantaneously reverses, voltage goes from zero to maximum voltage and back to
zero for the second half of the cycle. Change in voltage is typically in the form of a sine wave. This fluc-
tuating “push” and “pull” of voltage results in an oscillating current flow.

Because of the voltage fluctuation, there is a fluctuation in current flow. An incandescent lamp on
an AC circuit fluctuates in light intensity 120 times a second; that is, for an instant it glows bright-
ly and then dims slightly each time the voltage changes from zero to maximum. One cannot see
the light intensity fluctuate because it is beyond the flicker threshold of the human eye.
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
TRANSFORMING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers an alternating current and voltage from one circuit to another using the
induction phenomenon. The device is used in a circuit to change voltage, current, phase, and other electrical characteris-
tics. As shown in Figure 17.16, a simple transformer consists of sets of wire coils or windings around an iron core. The
expanding and collapsing magnetic field in the primary winding of the transformer induces voltage in the secondary wind-
ing. The primary winding receives energy from an AC source. Power transfer is accomplished completely by the expand-
ing and collapsing magnetic field—that is, the windings are not connected to each other in any way.

Transformers serve as an efficient way of converting power at a primary voltage and amperage to the equivalent power
at a different secondary voltage and amperage. In a simple transformer composed of two coils, the ratio of the alternating
current output voltage to the AC input voltage is approximately equal to the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary
coil to the number of turns in the primary coil.

Thus, the theoretical relationship between primary (Ep) and secondary (Es) voltages is proportional to
the number of windings in the primary (Np) and secondary (Ns) windings is expressed as:

Primary voltage can be stepped up to a higher secondary voltage or stepped down to a lower secondary voltage based
on the ratio of number of windings:
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 225 kVA transformer located outside a building is used to step down the voltage for the building. It is con-
nected to a 7200 V AC power source. The ratio of the number of primary windings to the number of secondary windings
on the transformer is 30 to 1.

a.Approximate the voltage provided to the building.

b. Approximate the current available in the building, in amps.

 ELECTRICAL THEORY
IMPEDANCE AND POWER FACTOR

INDUCTORS
An inductor is a coil of wire that creates an electromagnetic field.
The inductive effect on a series AC circuit causes the phase of the current to lag behind the phase of the voltage—that is,
peak amperage lags peak voltage.

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is composed of metal plates separated by air or a dielectric material such as paper, ceramic, or mica. Capaci-
tors store electrical energy in an electrostatic field and release it later, much like your body stores and releases static
electricity as you rub your feet across the carpet and touch a grounded object.
The capacitive effect on a series AC circuit causes the phase of the current to lead the phase of the voltage—that is,
peak voltage lags peak current.

Although there are no inductive and capacitive effects on a DC circuit, current flow on an AC circuit is impeded by induct-
ance and capacitance.
Impedance (Z) is a measure of resistance to current flow on an AC circuit due to the combined effect of resistance, in-
ductance and capacitance.
Impedance is measured in ohms (Ω). Ohm’s Law for AC circuits is:

E=IZ
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The impedance values of incandescent lamps with three wattage ratings are noted below. With a voltage of 120 V
on an AC circuit, determine the impedance of each lamp.

a. 100 W (121 Ω)

b. 75 W (161 Ω)

c. 40 W (300 Ω)
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
Power Factor
DC and AC circuits perform differently with respect to power use.

DC Circuit AC Circuit
the product of measured voltage and measured am- the computed volt-amperage is different than power
perage equals wattage consumed (wattage); that is, the product of the meas-
ured voltage and amperage (V ・ A) does not equal
wattage (VA W). This phenomenon is directly related
to the inductive effects in circuits powering motors,
transformers, and magnetic ballasts as described
earlier Inductors section.

The three components of AC power

Real power Reactive power Apparent power

is the “working power” that performs
useful effort in a circuit (e.g., creating
heat, light, and motion); it is expressed
in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
is the power that generates the mag-
netic field required for inductive devic-
es to operate. It dissipates no energy
in the load but which returns to the
source on each alternating current
cycle; it is expressed in units called
volt-amps-reactive (VAR) or kilovolt-
amperes reactive (kVAR), rather than
is the “power available to use.” It is
expressed in volt-amperes (VA) or
kilovolt-ampere (kVA), because it is
the simple product of voltage and cur-
rent.
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
Power Factor
POWER FACTOR PHASE ANGLE
The power factor (PF or cos) for a single-phase circuit is True power and apparent power can be though of as form-
the ratio between real power and apparent power in a cir- ing the adjacent and hypotenuse sides of a right triangle,
cuit: so the power factor ratio is also equal to the cosine of that
phase angle (). For this reason, equipment nameplates
The power factor is a number between 0 and 1 (frequently
and manufacturer information will frequently abbreviate
expressed as a percentage, e.g., a 0.7 PF =70% PF).
the power factor as cos
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

A circuit consumes 3000 W of real power when the apparent power is 3600 VA.

a. Determine the power factor.

b. Determine phase angle 

An AC circuit is powering an electric heater (i.e., pure resistance, PF = 1.0). Assume the voltage is 240 V and a current
draw of 10 A. Compute the apparent power and real power.

An AC circuit is powering a motor (i.e., inductive load, PF <1.0). Assume the voltage is 240 V and a current draw of 10 A.
Compute the real power, assuming a power factor of 0.833.
ELECTRICAL THEORY
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER
A utility company will charge its customers for the electrical energy consumed and, for all but small users
(e.g., most residential customers), the rate at which energy is consumed. These charges make up the largest part of a
typical electric bill and will be discussed in the following sections.

Energy Charge
The energy charge is simply the cost of electrical energy consumed (Phpenergy). This may be computed by the following
equation, where energy consumption (q) is expressed in kilowatt-hours and unit cost of electricity (Php/kWh) is ex-
pressed in dollars per kilowatt-hours:

Phpenergy=(q)(Php/kWh)

The energy charge is based on energy consumed by the customer during a billing period, say once a month or every 30
days. Energy consumed is determined by reading the electric meter.
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 60 W lamp remains lighted for 24 hr a day for 30 days. Determine the electrical energy consumed over
this period. Calculate the energy charge for the billing period at a rate of Php6.0118/kWh.

A large residence consumes 1155 kWh of electrical energy over a billing period. Determine the total charge for the billing
period based on the rate schedule provided .

following charges are found:

 ELECTRICAL THEORY
COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER
Power “Demand” Charge
Commercial and industrial consumers (and some all-electric residential users) are assessed an additional charge based
on the highest rate that energy is consumed. Maximum demand is the user’s highest rate at which energy is consumed in
kilowatts (kW) over a small time interval (usually 15 min but sometimes 30 or 60 min) that is measured by the electric
meter during a billing period. A demand charge is the billing fee related to maximum demand. Depending on the billing
rate, a high demand charge may remain at that rate for 12 months even though the demand for succeeding months is
significantly lower.
 ELECTRICAL THEORY
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

A small manufacturing plant on a single three-phase service consumes 104 000 kWh of electrical energy over a monthly
billing period. Peak demand is measured at 400 kW during the day and 200 kW at night. Determine the total monthly
charge based on the rate schedule provided in Table 17.3.

From Table 17.3, the following billing rates are found:

 ELECTRICAL THEORY
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Much like in the previous sample problem, a small manufacturing plant on a single three-phase service consumes 126
000 kWh of electrical energy over a monthly billing period. Peak demand is typically measured at 400 kW during the day
and 200 kW at night. However, because of an abnormality in plant operation, demand for power increases to 1200 kW
over a 15-min period on one day during the month. Determine the total monthly charge based on the rate schedule pro-
vided in Table 17.3.

From Table 17.3, the following billing rates are found:

 ELECTRICAL THEORY
Demand Limiting and Load Shedding
It is more profitable for the utility company and thus more economical for the consumer to keep demand uni-
form. When demand is uniform, the utility more effectively utilizes its generating, transmission, and distribution system.
The demand penalty imposed by the utility to keep demand uniform encourages the consumer to level off demand peaks.
Leveling demand is achieved many ways.
Demand limiting is accomplished by disconnecting loads that are not needed during periods of high demand.
Load shedding is a method by which nonessential equipment and appliances are deliberately switched off to maintain a
uniform load and thus limit demand.
Load shifting moves nonessential loads to periods of low demand.
In small installations, load shedding and shifting may by accomplished manually by scheduling the startup and shutdown
of a piece of equipment during certain periods of the day when known peaks occur. In sophisticated commercial and in-
dustrial installations, load shedding and shifting are accomplished with an energy management system that monitors de-
mand and sheds and shifts loads in a prioritized manner.
Energy storage and alternate sources of energy can also be used to reduce demand peaks, a technique that is called
peak shaving.
Time-of-Use Rates
The time-of-use (TOU) rate rewards the user for reducing power consumption during periods when electrical demand is
highest and a lower rate for the remainder of the year. In most climates, this peak period occurs during the midday and
early evening hours during the cooling season, because the weather is hottest and power consumption is greatest. For
example, one utility charges its peak TOU rate between 1 PM and 7 PM daily, June through September

Additional Charges
Additional surcharges for service and fuel adjustment may also be assessed. The service or billing charge covers the
cost of metering and bill collecting activities such as meter reading and preparing and mailing billing statements. This
charge is assessed even if no electricity was consumed. The fuel adjustment charge reflects periodic changes in the cost
of purchasing, delivering, handling, and storing raw fuel (e.g., coal, natural gas) that is used to produce electricity. It is
typically applied to each kilowatt consumed.