PolyUMod Manual

Version: 4.5.
0
Copyright c Veryst Engineering, LLC.
All rights reserved.
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Veryst Engineering, LLC., makes no warranty regarding its products or use, and reserves the right to modify its products without
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or inaccuracies in this document or in the PolyUMod software.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Installation Instructions 2
2.1 Windows Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Linux Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Validation of the Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 User’s Guide 3
3.1 Material Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.1 Global User Material Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.2 Material Parameters in the Base State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Environmental Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Material Parameters in an External File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Time Incrementation for Implicit Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6 Non-Linear Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4 Common Material Model Theory 22

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Three-Dimensional Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Plane-Strain Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Plane-Stress Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Uniaxial Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 Linear Elastic Model 24

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.3 Plane Stress Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.4 Uniaxial Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Neo-Hookean Model 27
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.4 Uniaxial Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7 Eight-Chain Model 31
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.4 Uniaxial Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
i
ii CONTENTS
8 Bergström-Boyce (BB) Model 34

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.4 Uniaxial Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9 BB-Model with Mullins Effect 39

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10 Anisotropic BB Model with Mullins Effect 41

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11 Hybrid Model 43
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
12 M8 Model 47
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
12.2 Switching State Variable Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
12.3 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model (ID=1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.4 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Strain-Dependence (ID=2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.5 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model with Temperature Dependence (ID=3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.6 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Strain-Dependence and Temperature Dependence (ID=4) . . . . 50
12.7 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model with Viscoelastic Flow (ID=11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
12.8 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Viscoelastic Flow (ID=12, ID=112) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
12.9 Polynomial Hyperelastic with Temperature and Flow (ID=13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
12.10Eight-Chain Model with Temperature and Flow (ID=14, 114) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12.11Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Pressure-Dependent Viscoelastic Flow (ID=15, ID=115) . . . . 54
12.12Plasticity Model with Kinematic Hardening (ID=21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13 Arruda-Boyce Plasticity Model 57

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
14 Dual Network Fluoropolymer Model 60

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
15 Three Network Model 65

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
16 Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model 70

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
16.4 Uniaxial Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
17 Micromechanical Foam Model 74

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
CONTENTS iii
18 Parallel Network Model 79

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
18.2 Elastic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
18.2.1 Elastic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Linear elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Gent Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Hyperfoam Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bischoff Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model with Global Stiffening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Eight-chain Model with Rate-Dependent Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Four Parameter Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Ogden Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Small Strain Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with I2 -Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Eight-Chain Model with Different Stiffness in Tension and Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Hyperfoam Model with Different Stiffness in Tension and Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model with I2 -Dependence and Pressure Dependent Bulk Modulus . . . . . 88
Hyperfoam Model with Small Strain Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Alternative Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden-Bergstrom Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model with Non-Linear Bulk Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Extended Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden-Bergstrom Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model with Rate-Dependent Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the Elastic Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Linear temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Exponential temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Power-law temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Piecewise linear temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.2.3 Thermal Expansion of the Elastic Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Linear thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Quadratic thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Linear thermal expansion with plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Orthotropic linear thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Piecewise linear thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
18.2.4 Damage Accumulation of the Elastic Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Linear damage from plastic strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Exponential damage growth after initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect with temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Damage evolution from plastic strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Time-Based Damage evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
18.3 Network-Based Failure Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
18.3.1 Failure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Max Principal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Max Mises Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Max Principal Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Mises Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Chain Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
iv CONTENTS
Chain Strain from Viscous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Rate of Viscous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Plastic Hill Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
18.4 Flow Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
18.4.1 Flow Type Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Linear Viscoelastic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Power-Law Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Bergstrom-Boyce Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Exponential Energy Activated Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Anisotropic BB-type Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Bergstrom-Boyce Network-Dependent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Power-Law Flow with Strain-Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Power-Law Shear and Volumetric Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chaboche Non-Linear Kinematic Hardening Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Double Power-Law Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Sinh Energy Activation Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Bergstrom-Boyce Flow with Strain-Dependent m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Tsai-Wu Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Anisotropic Double Powerlaw-type Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Anisotropic BB-type Flow with Flow Cessation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Anisotropic BB-type Flow with Directionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Anisotropic BB-type Flow with Anisotropic Flow Cessation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Anisotropic BB-type Flow (tauHat, m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
18.4.2 Temperature Dependence of the Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Linear Temperature Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Temperature raised to a power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
18.4.3 Pressure Dependence of the Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Linear Pressure Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Truncated Linear Pressure Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Different Flow in Tension and Compresison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
18.4.4 Yield Evolution of the Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Piecewise Linear Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Increasing exponential evolution of the flow resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Anisotropic Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Linear Rate Evolution with Plastic Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Incremental Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance with Time-Based Damage . . . . . . . . 115
Triple Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Cosh Evolution of the Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
18.5 Global Failure Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
18.5.1 Failure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Max Principal True Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Mises True Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Max Principal True Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Mises True Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
True Chain Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
True Hill Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
True Hill Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
True Stress-Based Damage Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
True Strain-Based Damage Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
CONTENTS v
Anisotropic True Strain-Based Damage Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

2D Anisotropic True Chain Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Failure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Bischoff Anisotropic Eight-Chain Failure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Max True Stress Failure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Max True Strain Failure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Tsai-Hill Anisotropic Failure Model (2D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Tsai-Wu Anisotropic Stress-Based Failure Model (2D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Tsai-Wu Anisotropic Stress-Based Failure Model (3D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Polynomial Strain-Based Anisotropic Failure Model (2D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Polynomial Strain-Based Anisotropic Failure Model (3D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Max True Fiber Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rate-Dependent Damage Model 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rate-Dependent Damage Model 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
True Chain Strain (for Tensile Stress) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Max Principal True Strain (for Tensile Stress) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Mises Engineering Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Anisotropic True Stress-Based Damage Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
18.5.2 Damage Growth Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Exponential Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Powerlaw Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
18.5.3 Temperature Dependence of the Global Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Linear temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
18.5.4 Strain-Rate Dependence of the Global Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Linear strain-rate dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Exponential strain-rate dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Piecewise linear strain-rate dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Piecewise linear strain-rate dependence on logarithmic strain-rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
18.5.5 Output Safety Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Output Safety Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Output Risk Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
18.6 Through-Thickness Poisson’s Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Exponential Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
18.7 Residual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Constant Residual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
19 Three Network Foam Model 136

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
20 Dynamic Bergström-Boyce (DBB) Model 141

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
21 Silberstein-Boyce-1 Model 145

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
21.2 Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
22 Silberstein-Boyce-2 Model 150

22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
22.2 Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
vi CONTENTS
23 Flow Evolution Networks (FEN) Model 157

23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
23.2 Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
23.2.1 Network Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
23.2.2 Network Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
23.2.3 Failure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
24 Responsive Elastomer Foam (REF) Model 164

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
24.2 Material Model Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25 Elastic-Plastic Table (EPT) Model 172

25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
25.2 Material Model Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
26 Multi-Temperature Model 179

26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
27 Multi-Strain Rate Model 181

27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Bibliography 185
Chapter 1
Introduction
The PolyUMod Library, which is short for Polymer User Model Library, consists of a collection of useful material
models for Abaqus/Standard, Abaqus/Explicit, ANSYS, and LS-DYNA. The material models that are included
in the library specifically target the non-linear viscoelastic, time- and temperature-dependent response of various
polymeric materials. The material models enable significantly more accurate finite element simulations than what is
possible with the built-in models in these finite element programs.
To use the PolyUMod library it is sufficient to:

1. Install the shared library on the simulation computer,
2. Add a few lines to an environment file,
3. Specify the appropriate material parametes.
The finite element simulations will then automatically use the PolyUMod library as if it was a built-in feature.
The details of the installation and usage of the library is presented in the following chapters together with a detailed
discussion of the constitutive model theory and validation examples.
The PolyUMod library is currently available for the following computer platforms:
• A x86-32 computer running Linux, Microsoft Windows XP, Microsoft Windows Vista, or Microsoft Windows 7
• A x86-64 computer running Linux, Microsoft Windows XP, Microsoft Windows Vista, or Microsoft Windows 7
1
Chapter 2
Installation Instructions
The installation instructions provided here are not up to date. Please instead use the installation
software that comes with the software.
2.1 Windows Installation

The PolyUMod library can be installed using the following steps:
1. Run the installation file that was provide from the installation CD or from the download website. This file is
a Microsoft Installer file that will guide you through the installation. The installation procedure will ask for a
license code. You should have received this code by email.
2.2 Linux Installation

The PolyUMod library can be installed using the following steps:
1. Download the PolyUMod files and stored them in your home directory on the simulation computer.
2. Change directory to the location where you copied the installation files.
3. Run the Python installation file by tying typing the command python ./install PolyUMod Linux.py in a
terminal. The installation script will guide you through the installation. The installation procedure will ask
for a license code. You should have received this code by email.
2.3 Validation of the Installation

• To verify that the PolyUMod software has been installed correctly then run the test cases in the directo-
ries: ANSYS test cases, and Abaqus test cases. These directories are located in the PolyUMod installation
directory.
2
Chapter 3
User’s Guide
3.1 Material Parameters

The different material models that are available in the PolyUMod library are selected and specified by a set of
parameters that can be entered in Abaqus/CAE or ANSYS Workbench as illustrated in Figures 3.1 to 3.6, or can
be directly entered into the input deck as listed in Table 3.1. These examples show the parameters that are used
to specify the linear elastic material model that is available within the PolyUMod library. The material parameters
can also be imported into Abaqus/CAE using a plug-in file created by the Veryst material parameter extraction
program.
Table 3.1: Exemplar user-material parameters required to specify the linear elastic model within the PolyUMod
library.
*User Material, constants=18

** Linear Elastic
** Units: mm, N, kg, sec
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
** MM, ODE, JAC, ERRM, TWOD_S, VERB, VTIME, VELEM,
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
** VINT, ORIENT, NPROP, NHIST, MU, KAPPA, FAILT, FAILV,
0, 0, 18, 4, 3.85, 8.3, 0, 0,
** E, nu
10.0, 0.30
*Depvar, delete=4
4
*Density
1000.0e-12
The user material parameters can be divided into two categories:

1. Global parameters that specify which material model to use, characteristic features of the solution method,
etc.
2. Material parameters specifying the mechanical response of the material model.

The following sections specify the order and structure of these input parameters.
3
4 CHAPTER 3. USER’S GUIDE
Figure 3.1: Abaqus/CAE GUI interface for entering the material parameters. This example specifies the parameters
required to specify the linear elastic model within the PolyUMod library.
3.1. MATERIAL PARAMETERS 5
Figure 3.2: Specification of the user material state variables in Abaqus/CAE. This example specifies the state
variables needed by the linear elastic material model within the PolyUMod library.
Figure 3.3: The first step is to calibrate the material model using the MCalibration application, and then export
the parameters to ANSYS format. Use the built-in option if the material model is built-in feature of ANSYS, and
user-material model to use the PolyUMod library.
Figure 3.4: The second step is create the model in ANSYS Workbench as usual. To read in the material model,
right-click on solid, and then select insert commands.
Figure 3.5: The third step is to click on the Import... button, and then select the file that was created by
MCalibration in step 1.
Figure 3.6: Figure showing the material parameters that are read into ANSYS Workbench.
3.1.1 Global User Material Parameters

Each material model in the PolyUMod library requires the following 16 global variables in the specified order
Line 1:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
MM ODE JAC ERRM TWOD S VERB VTIME VELEM
Line 2:
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
VINT ORIENT NPROP NHIST MU KAPPA FAILT FAILV
The variables are specified as follows:

1. Material model id (MM)
The material material model id has to be one of the following:
1: Linear elastic (LE)
2: Neo-Hookean (NH)
3: Eight-chain (EC)
4: Bergstrom-Boyce (BB)
5: Bergstrom-Boyce with Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect (BBM)
6: Anisotropic Bergstrom-Boyce with Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect (ABBM)
7: Hybrid model (HM)
8: Multinetwork model (M8)
9: Arruda-Boyce viscoplasticity model (AB)
10: Dual Network Fluoropolymer (DNF) model
11: Three Network Model (TNM)
12: Anisotropic eight-chain model (AEC)
13: Micromechanical Foam Model (MFM)
14: Parallel network model (PNM) (Chapter 18)
15: Three Network Foam Model (TNFM)
16: Dynamic Bergstrom-Boyce model (DBB)
17: Silberstein-Boyce-1 (SB1)
18: Silberstein-Boyce-2 (SB2)
19: Flow Element Networks (FEN) model
20: Internal Proprietary model
23: Responsive Elastomer Foam (REF) model
24: Elastic-Plastic Table (EPT) model
99: Multi-Temperature model
Some of the material models (for example the BB-model and the TN-model) use a new faster alternative imple-
mentation when used with Abaqus/Explicit. The alternative implementation of these models uses a different
set of state variables, and can hence not be used in FE simulations that switch between Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit. The previous implementation of these models can be activated by setting the material id to
be be negative. As an example, if MM is -4, then the previous implementation of the BB-model will be used.
2. ODE solver id (ODE)

The following ODE solvers are supported:
0: Default method. The default solver is 3 for Abaqus/Standard, and 1 for Abaqus/Explicit. For LS-DYNA
the default solver is 3 if the time increment size is larger than 10−5 , and 1 otherwise1 .
1: Forward (explicit) Euler
2: Runge-Kutta 4th order
3: Variable step-size, predictor-corrector
4: Backwards (implicit) Euler. This ODE solver is currently mostly useful for single precision explicit sim-
ulations. For double precision explicit simulations the default error tolerance is too strict, causing the
implicit Euler solver to be slower than the variable step-size predictor-corrector solver (ODE=3).
The general guideline is to use the default method (ODE=0) for all cases. For implicit FE simulations, using
ODE=1 can be faster but the simulation will be less stable. For single precision explicit FE simulations, using
ODE=4 can be useful if the default solver has stability problems. For double precision explicit FE simulations,
using ODE=3 can be useful if the default solver has stability problems.
3. Jacobian calculation method (JAC)
0: Default method (same as method 2)
1: Linear elastic approximation
2: Model-specific closed-form approximation
3: Numerical approximation type 1A (small Jacobian, state variables frozen)
4: Numerical approximation type 1B (full unsymmetric Jacobian, state variables frozen)
5: Numerical approximation type 1C (small Jacobian, state variables can change)
6: Numerical approximation type 1D (full unsymmetric Jacobian, state variables can change)
9: Numerical approximation type 2
The numerical approximation 1 is based on the equation:
1 ∂∆(Jσ)
c= . (3.1)
J ∂∆
The numerical approximation 2 is based on the equation:
1 dτ
= c : ḞF−1 , (3.2)
J dt
This equation can be written:
1
{τij (F + δ[ek ⊗ el ]) − τij (F)}
cijkl = (3.3)
Jδ
The numerical approximate Jacobians 1A, 1B, 1C, and 1D can also be activated with an alternative formulation.
In the alternative formulation the Jacobian is calculated in the reference state and engineering shear strains
are used for the increments. The alternative formulations can be selected using a negative value for JAC. For
example, JAC=-3 selects the alternative formulation of numerical integration type 3.
4. Error recovery method (ERRM)
0: Try to fix the error and continue (default)
1: Stop the simulation if an error occurs
2: Try hard to fix the problem and continue (useful for certain explicit simulations)
5. Plane stress value (TWOD S)
This variable specifies the through-thickness Poisson’s ratio and should be set to a positive value when run-
ning an Abaqus/Explicit simulation that use plane stress, shell, or membrane elements. It is also used by
MCalibration to determine the through thickness strain. For all other simulations this value should be 0.
1 There is no way to determine from within an LS-DYNA subroutine if the simulation increment is implicit or explicit.
• If the specified value is 1, then the strain in the out-of-plane direction will be determined so that the
out-of-plane stress becomes zero.
• If the specified value is in ]0, 0.5], then the stress calculations will be performed assuming an incompressible
material response and the stress in the out-of-plane direction will be forced to be 0 by appropriately
selecting the undetermined pressure. For Abaqus/Explicit simulations the specified value will be used to
calculate and return the out-of-plane strain increment. For Abaqus/Standard simulations the out-of-plane
strain is always taken to be 0.
Note that using TWOD S=1 will be more numerically expensive than using a value in the range [0, 0.5] since the
out-of-plane deformation needs to be determined. Also note that all hyperelastic material models do not yet
support TWOD S=1.
6. Verbosity level (VERB)
The amount of debug statements that the UMAT should print during execution.
0: No debug statements are written (default value)
1: Print a message every time a runtime error occurs
2: Print a short message when the UMAT is called
3: Print more debug statements
...
9: Maximum verbosity level
The verbosity messages are mainly used during software development at Veryst Engineering.
7. Verbosity limit time (VTIME)
The VTIME specifies the simulation time after which debug messages with the specified verbosity VERB are
generated. If VTIME is 0 then debug messages are generated from the start of the simulation, and if VTIME > 0
then no debug messages will be generated before the simulation time reaches VTIME. The verbosity messages
are mainly used during software development at Veryst Engineering.
8. Verbosity element (VELEM)
The variable VELEM specifies for which element debug messages will be printed. If VELEM is 0 then all elements
will be considered. This variable is useful for limiting the amount of debug statements that are generated
for large multi-element simulations when VERB has a positive value. The verbosity messages are mainly used
during software development at Veryst Engineering.
9. Verbosity integration point (VINT)
The variable VINT specifies for which integration point debug messages will be printed. If VINT=0 then all
integration points will be considered. This variable is useful for limiting the amount of debug statements that
are generated for large multi-element simulations when VERB has a positive value. The verbosity messages are
mainly used during software development at Veryst Engineering.
10. Orientation flag (ORIENT)
• Abaqus/Standard
This flag is used during Abaqus/Standard simulations to determine if the material state should be rotated
according the current rigid body rotation. The models in the PolyUMod library should only rotate the
state if the simulation file is using a local coordinate system defined by an *ORIENTATION command, or
if an anisotropic viscoplastic material model is used. The following table shows the how the ORIENT flag
should be set when using Abaqus/Standard.
Material is not Material is
Abaqus/Standard
anisotropic and anisotropic and
viscoplastic viscoplastic
No *ORIENTATION Set ORIENT=0 Set ORIENT=3
With *ORIENTATION Set ORIENT=1 Set ORIENT=4

Another option is to set ORIENT=2, in this case the software will automatically attempt to determine if
the material state should be rotated by checking the value of the provided DROT variable. This approach,
however, is not quite reliable since the DROT variable can change in unpredictable ways.
• Abaqus/Explicit
If this flag is set to zero (0) then the right stretch tensor (U) will be used instead of the deformation
gradient. If this flag is set to one (1) then the total deformation gradient will be used and the final
calculated stress will be rotated to the intermediate coordinate system that is used by Abaqus/Explicit.
It is recommended to set ORIENT=0 if the material is isotropic hyperelastic or if the applied rigid body
rotations are small. In all other cases it is recommended to set ORIENT=1.
11. Total number of material parameters (NPROP)
Specification of the total number of material parameters, including the global parameters. This variable is
needed by LS-DYNA and is not used by Abaqus.
12. Total number of history variables (NHIST)
Specification of the total number of history variables that the model uses. This variable is needed by LS-DYNA
and is not used by Abaqus.
13. Effective shear modulus (MU)
Effective shear modulus of the material. When using Abaqus/Standard and the global parameter JAC=1, then
the absolute value of this variable is used to calculate the linear elastic Jacobian. When using Abaqus/Explicit,
if MU is a negative value, then the material response at times less than 0 will be calculated using linear elasticity
with a shear modulus of abs(MU) and a bulk modulus of abs(KAPPA).
14. Effective bulk modulus (KAPPA)
Effective bulk modulus of the material. When using Abaqus/Standard and the global parameter JAC=1, then
the absolute value of this variable is used to calculate the linear elastic Jacobian. When using Abaqus/Explicit,
if MU is a negative value, then the material response at times less than 0 will be calculated using linear elasticity
with a shear modulus of abs(MU) and a bulk modulus of abs(KAPPA).
15. Failure Criterion Type (FAILT)
The following failure criteria are available2 .
0: No failure model
1: Failure at a critical chain strain
The critical chain strain can be calculated from the ultimate strain in uniaxial tension, εm , by:
r
1 2εm
εch = ln [e + 2e−εm ].
3
In a general deformation model specified by the principal strains [ε1 , ε2 , ε3 ], the chain strain can be
calculated from: r
1 2ε1
εch = ln [e + e2ε2 + e2ε3 ].
3
2: Failure at a critical true Mises strain
The Mises strain is here defined by:
r
2
εM = ((ε1 − ε2 )2 + (ε2 − ε3 )2 + (ε3 − ε1 )2 ), (3.4)
9
where εi are the principal strains.
3: Failure at a critical max principal true strain.
4: Failure at a critical Mises true stress.
5: Failure at a critical max principal true stress.
6: Failure at a critical max principal engineering stress.
2 The PNM model supports a number of additional failure criteria.
7: Failure at a critical chain strain (but only if the stress state is tensile).
The stress state is considered tensile if tr[σ] > 0.
8: Failure at a critical true Mises strain (but only if the stress state is tensile).
9: Failure at a critical max principal true strain (but only if the stress state is tensile).
10: Failure with damage at a critical chain strain (but only if the stress state is tensile).
The stress state is considered tensile if tr[σ] > 0. Damage accumulation starts at the specified failue value.
Final failure occurs once the chain strain reaches a value that is 10% larger than the specified failure value.
The damage causes a linear reduction in the material stiffness until final failure occurs. This failure model
can be more robust since failed elements are not abruptly removed once a critical condition is reached.
11: Christensen’s polynomial stress-based failure model for isotropic ductile materials [1].
Material failure is taken to occur if:

1 1 1
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 > 1

− · (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) + (3.5)
T C 2T C
In this equation T is the uniaxial (true) tensile failure strength, and C is the uniaxial (true) compressive
failure strength. Note that T /C is always between 0 and 1. This failure model requires two material
parameters: (1) T , (2) T /C. These two material parameters should be given after all other material pa-
rameters have been specified. For example, the Neo-Hookean material model uses two material parameters
(µ and κ), the failure parameters T and T /C should be given as parameters 3 and 4 if used together with
this material model.
12: Christensen’s polynomial stress-based failure model with rate-dependence for isotropic ductile materials
[1].

1 1 1
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 > 1

− · (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) + (3.6)
T C 2T C
failure strength. Note that T /C is always between 0 and 1.
The failure stresses T and C are scaled by a strain-rate factor f :

f1
 if ε̇ < e1 ,
f = f2 if ε̇ > e2 , (3.7)

f1 + (f2 − f1 ) · (log(ε̇) − log(e1 ))/(log(e2 ) − log(e1)) otherwise.

In this equation e1 , f1 , e2 , f2 are material parameters. This failure model requires six material parameters:
(1) T , (2) T /C, (3) e1 , (4) f1 , (5) e2 , (6) f2 . These six material parameters should be given after all other
material parameters have been specified.
13: Same as failure model 12, but includes damage accumulation. Damage accumulation starts at the spec-
ified failue value. Final failure occurs once the failure value reaches a value that is 10% larger than the
specified critical failure value. The damage causes a linear reduction in the material stiffness until final
failure occurs. This failure model can be more robust since failed elements are not abruptly removed once
a critical condition is reached.
14: Christensen’s polynomial stress-based failure model with rate-dependence, temperature-dependence, and
damage [1]. This failure model needs the following material parameters:
1: T , tensile failure stress
2: T /C, tensile failure stress normalized by the compressive failure stresses
3: Eflag, use strain-rate dependence if set to 1
4: Tflag, use temperature dependence if set to 1
5: Bflag, also consider brittle failure if set to 1

6: Dflag, use damage accumulation if set to 1
7: e1 , lower strain value for strain-rate dependence
8: f1 , lower factor for strain-rate dependence
9: e2 , upper strain value for strain-rate dependence
10: f2 , upper factor for strain-rate dependence
11: θ0 , reference temperature for temperature dependence
12: Tθ , slope of temperature dependence of T
13: tensionFlag, can fail in both tension and compression if set to 1, can only fail in tension if set to 0
These 13 material parameters should be given after all other material parameters have been specified.

1 1 1
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 > 1.

− · (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) + (3.8)
T C 2T C
failure strength. Note that T /C is always between 0 and 1.
If Bflag=1, then failure is also taken to occur if σ1 > T , where σ1 is the max principal true stress.
If Eflag=1, then the failure stresses T and C are scaled by a strain-rate factor f :

f1
 if ε̇ < e1 ,
f = f2 if ε̇ > e2 , (3.9)

f1 + (f2 − f1 ) · (log(ε̇) − log(e1 ))/(log(e2 ) − log(e1)) otherwise.

If Tflag=1, then the failure stresses T and C are scale by a temperature-dependent factor g:
g = 1 + (θ − θ0 )Tθ , (3.10)
where θ is the current temperature.

If Dflag=1, then include damage accumulation. Damage accumulation starts at the specified failure value.
Final failure occurs once the failure value reaches a value that is 10% larger than the specified critical
failure value. The damage causes a linear reduction in the material stiffness until final failure occurs. This
failure model can be more robust since failed elements are not abruptly removed once a critical condition
is reached.
15: True Stress-Based Damage Accumulation. This failure model needs the following material parameters:
1: t0 , characteristic time constant
2: σref , stress factor
3: m, stress exponent
These 3 material parameters should be given after all other material parameters have been specified.
The rate of damage accumulation is given by:
m
dD 1 σe
= sinh , (3.11)
dt t0 σref
where σe is the Mises stress. At t = 0 there is no damage: D(0) = 0. Element failure is taken to occur
once D ≥ 1.
Note that element deletion is currently available in Abaqus/Explicit and LS-DYNA, but not in Abaqus/Standard.
16. Failure Criterion Value (FAILV)

If a failure criterion is specified, then element failure occurs when the critical failure value is reached.
3.1.2 Material Parameters in the Base State

Immediately after the global user material parameters are the material model specific parameters listed. The order
of these parameters is different for each individual model. The details of the required material model specification
parameters are described in detail in the following chapters.
17: First real material parameter
...
16+N Last real material parameter s
3.2 State Variables

All material models use at least 4 state variables. Some models use additional state variables. These additional state
variables are specified in the chapter for each individual model.
The structure of the state variables is as follows:

State Variable Index Description
1 Total simulation time at the previous time increment
2 Viscoplasticqstrain magnitude. Calculated from the Mises strain define
by: εeff = 29 [(e1 − e2 )2 + (e2 − e3 )2 + (e3 − e1 )2 ], where e1 , e2 , and
e3 are appropriately defined principal viscoplastic strains.
3 Current value of the failure model as specified by material parameter
15. If no failure model is specified then the chain strain is given.
4 Failure flag. If 1, then the element has not failed. If 0, then the
element has failed.
5 to X Material model specific state variables
(X+1) to (X+9) Previous deformation gradient F0 for use with LS-DYNA. Not used
by Abaqus.
As an example, the Bergstrom-Boyce model 8 takes an additional 9 state variables (to keep track of FvB ). To run this
model with Abaqus requires 4 + 9 = 13 state variables, and to run this model with LS-DYNA requires 4 + 9 + 9 = 22
state variables.
3.3 Environmental Variables

The PolyUMod material models use the optional environmental variables listed in Table 3.2.
The environmental variables can be set using the operating system, or by adding the following lines to the Abaqus
environment file:
import os
os.environ[’polyumod_gamdot_max’] = ’10.0’
del os
3.4 Material Parameters in an External File

In some cases it is desirable to store the material parameters in an external text file instead of the inside the input
file. The PolyUMod library will look for the material parameters in an external text file if the material model id
(MM) is 999, as shown in the following LS-DYNA example:
*MAT_USER_DEFINED_MATERIAL_MODELS
$ mid, ro, mt, lmc, nhv, iortho, ibulk, ig,
1, 2200e-12, 45, 4, 22, 0, 4, 3,
$ ivect, ifail, it, ihyper,
0, 1, 1, 1,
$ mid, matNr, mu, kappa
999, 4, 1.0, 100.0
3.4. MATERIAL PARAMETERS IN AN EXTERNAL FILE 17
Table 3.2: Environmental variables used by the PolyUMod library.
Environmental Variable Description

polyumod gamdot max This environmental variable specifies the maximum allowed viscoplastic flow rate.
For material models that have a low τbase /µ ratio and a high m value, the dif-
ferential equations governing the material response can become very stiff. The
speed and accuracy of these cases can sometimes be improved by specifying this
environmental variable. As an example, if the applied strain rate is 0.1/s, then a
suitable value of polyumod gamdot max is any value larger than, say, 0.5/s. This
way the simulation results are not influenced, only numerical effort needed to solve
the differential equations.
polyumod jac switch If a numerical Jacobian is used and one of Jac11, Jac22, or Jac33 is nega-
tive, then the default behavior is for PolyUMod to set a panic flag and ask
the FE solver to try the increment again with a smaller time increment size.
If polyumod jac switch is given a value of ’1’ then a panic flag is not set and
instead the Jacobian is calculated using the closed-form approximate method.
polyumod fast flow If the time increment size is larger than polyumod fast flow times the charac-
teristic relaxation time then the viscoelastic deformation gradient is set to its
maximum value corresponding to a fully relaxed state. This option is useful for
the Bergstrom-Boyce and the Parallel Network models when the flow rate is very
high. A common value to use in these cases is polyumod fast flow=10.
polyumod ode3 rtol The relative tolerance used by the variable step-size ODE solver (ODE=3) can
be modified using this environmental variable. In most cases the default value of
1e-6 is recommended, but on occasion it may be beneficial to use a different value.
polyumod ode3 atol The absolute tolerance used by the variable step-size ODE solver (ODE=3) can
be modified using this environmental variable. In most cases the default value of
1e-8 is recommended, but on occasion it may be beneficial to use a different value.
polyumod ode3 iter The number of internal substeps that the variable step-size ODE solver (ODE=3)
is allowed to use before giving up and requesting that the FE program restart
the time increment with a smaller dt can be changed using this environmental
variable. The default value is 500.
The corresponding example for Abaqus is as follows:

*Material, name=example_BB
** MM, matNr,
999, 4,
*Depvar
4
*Density
1000.0e-12
Here, the matNr variable specifies the file name of the external text file. For example, if matNr=4 then the external
file needs to be called material 4.txt. Note that the matNr variable has to be between 1 and 9.
The external material parameters file lists one parameter per line. Here is an example for an advanced parallel
network model:
14 MM 1
0 ODE 2
0 JAC 3
0 ERRM 4
0 ETIME 5
0 verbosity 6
0 VTIME 7
0 VELEM 8
0 VINT
0 STIFF0
50 NPROPS
22 NHIST
1.0 MU
100.0 KAPPA
0 FailT
0 FailV
4 Elast_T Network 1
19.8123 mu
10 lambdaL
100 kappa
101 Elast_TT
-1.35102 q
296 theta0
7 Elast_T Network 2
135.48 mu
10 lambdaL
1200 kappa
0 A1
0 B1
404.157 A2
1602.4 B2
349.126 A3
1453.42 B3
101 Elast_TT - elast-temp
-1.35102 q
296 theta0
203 Elast_DT - damage
-1.03925 q
402 Flow_T - flow
53.0124 tauHat
39.8518 m
503 Flow_TT - flow-temp
7.01549 q
4.98663 thetaF
294.722 theta0
703 Flow_ET - flow-evol
2.51695 f1
0.00512119 e1
-0.945867 f2
0.150555 e2
3.5 Time Incrementation for Implicit Simulations

Due to the non-linear nature of some of the material models it is often beneficial to allow Abaqus to use more
attempts per increment when running implicit simulations. The default time incrementation does sometimes not
reach an equilibrium state within the allowed number of attempts, causing Abaqus to cut the time increment size
which can lead to slower simulation times.
Many non-linear simulations run faster by increasing the number of allowed attempts as follows:
3.5. TIME INCREMENTATION FOR IMPLICIT SIMULATIONS 19
*Controls, parameters=time incrementation

** I0, IR, IP, IC, IL, IG
8, 16, 9, 50, 40, 30
These parameters can also be set in CAE by using the ”Step Module” and the ”General Solution Controls” menu
item, see Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Abaqus/CAE GUI interface for modifying the default time-incrementation.
3.6 Non-Linear Geometry

The user-material models in the PolyUMod library all use the deformation gradient to calculate the stresses and
state variables. This means that the non-linear geometry option must be activated when using the PolyUMod library.
You can activate non-linear geometry in an inp-file using the following command:
*Step, nlgeom=yes
The non-linear procedure can also be activated in CAE as shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.9.
Figure 3.8: Abaqus/CAE dialog window for activating non-linear geometry in a static step.
3.6. NON-LINEAR GEOMETRY 21
Figure 3.9: Abaqus/CAE dialog window for activating non-linear geometry in a dynamic explicit step.
Chapter 4
Common Material Model Theory
4.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes the foundation of the theory of the material models that are available in the PolyUMod
Library, and that are summarized in more detail in the following chapters. Each material model can be used for
various three-dimensional, two-dimensional, and one-dimensional elements. Which element types are supported is
listed in the validation section of each material model chapter.
The constitutive equations for a material model can be written in two formats: (1) a traditional continuum
mechanical tensor-based form, (2) a vector form suitable for numerical implementation. In the following sections
both of these formats will be used. The traditional continuum mechanics format is used to derive equations and
theories, and the vector form is used for the numerical implementations. In the vector form, second order tensors
are represented as column vectors with a length that is determined by the type of quantity and the element type.
When implementing a material model it is necessary to know not only the stress state for a given deformation
state, but also the Jacobian (tangent) stiffness matrix, the strain energy density, and the dissipated energy densities.
These quantities are also derived for each material model in the following sections.
The nomenclature in this manual follows modern continuum mechanics style, as exemplified by Holzapfel [2].
4.2 Three-Dimensional Theory

In a three-dimensional deformation state the stress and strain tensors can be represented in the following vector
forms:    
σ11 ε11
σ22  ε22 
   
σ33  ε33 
[σ]i =   , [ε]i = 
   (4.1)
σ
 12 
ε12 
 
σ13  ε13 
σ23 ε23
This order of the components is used in the following sections when calculating the Jacobian matrix:
1 ∂∆(Jσ)i
[c]ij = .
J ∂(∆ε)j
4.3 Plane-Strain Theory

The response in plane-strain can be directly obtained from the three-dimensional theory by setting ε33 =0, ε23 = 0,
and ε13 = 0. In this case the deformation gradient is given by:
 
F11 F12 0
F̃ = F21 F22 0 (4.2)
0 0 1,
22
4.4. PLANE-STRESS THEORY 23
which can be written in vector form as  

F11
F22 
[F̃]i =  
F12  (4.3)
F21
4.4 Plane-Stress Theory

Two-dimensional plane stress loading can be effectively modeled if the material is assumed to be incompressible. In
this case the deformation gradient can be written in the following reduced form1 :

F F12
F̃ = 11 . (4.4)
F21 F22
Similarly, the Cauchy stress and the logarithmic strain tensors can be written

σ σ12 ε ε12
σ̃ = 11 , ε̃ = 11 . (4.5)
σ12 σ22 ε12 ε22
Alternatively, these quantities be written in vector form as follows:

 
F11    
F22  σ11 ε11
[F̃]i =  , [σ̃] i = σ22  , [ε̃]i = ε22  . (4.6)
F12 
σ12 ε12
F21
Using the incompressibility assumption, the out-of-plane deformation is given by F33 = 1/J, ˜ where J˜ = det[F̃] is
the volumetric change of the reduced deformation gradient. The constitutive theories that are summarized in the
following sections use the following common terms:
2 2

> b11 b12 F11 + F12 (F11 F21 + F12F22 )
b̃ = F̃F̃ = = 2 2
b12 b22 (F11 F21 + F12 F22 ) F21 + F22 .
4.5 Uniaxial Theory

In uniaxial loading the deformation gradient is simply specified by F̃ = [F ], and b̃ = [F 2 ], σ̃ = [σ], and ε̃ = [ε].
1 The reduced quantities are represented with a superscript˜to indicate that they are different from the corresponding 3D variables.
Chapter 5
Linear Elastic Model
5.1 Introduction
Solver: Abaqus ANSYS LS-DYNA Abaqus with ANSYS with LS-DYNA with
PolyUMod PolyUMod PolyUMod
Supported: Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Linear elasticity is a simple linear constitutive model for solid materials. The model is computationally efficient
and robust, but rarely provides accurate predictions except for small deformations of certain materials. The required
material parameters for the linear elastic model are summarized in Table 5.1. Only two material parameters are
needed: the Young’s modulus (E) and the Poisson’s ratio (ν).
Table 5.1: Material parameters used by the linear elastic model.
Index Symbol Umat Unit* Description

Name
1 E E S Young’s modulus
2 ν nu - Poisson’s ratio
*where: - = dimensionless, S = stress
The state variables that are used by the PolyUMod implementation of the linear elastic model are summarized
in Table 5.1, and an exemplar input file material specification is shown in Table 5.3. The chain strain state variable
is defined by:
p
εchain = ln tr[b]/3. (5.1)
Table 5.2: State variables used by the linear elastic model.
Index State Variable Name

1 Simulation time
2 Viscoelastic strain magnitude, always 0
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag, not implemented yet
24
5.2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL THEORY 25
Table 5.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the linear elastic model.
*Material, name=example_LE
** Units: mm, N, kg, sec, MPa
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
** VINT, -, NPROP, NHIST, MU, KAPPA, FAILT, FAILV,
0, 0, 18, 4, 10.0, 10.0, 0, 0,
** E, nu
10.0, 0.30
*Depvar
4
*Density
1000.0e-12

The stress response for the linear elastic material model can be written in terms of the Lamé constants {µ, λ} as
follows:
σ = 2µε + λ tr[ε]I, (5.2)
where the Lamé constants can be determined from the Young’s modulus (E) and the Poisson’s ratio (ν) by the
following equations:
E
µ= , (5.3)
2(1 + ν)
Eν
λ= . (5.4)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
The logarithmic strain tensor ε in Equation (5.2) is given by

√
ε = ln[v] = ln FF> .
By definition the Jacobian (tangent) stiffness matrix is given by [3]:
∂∆σ
c= , (5.5)
∂∆ε
which in this case can be written in matrix notation
 
(λ + 2µ) λ λ 0 0 0

 λ (λ + 2µ) λ 0 0 0
∂σi  λ λ (λ + 2µ) 0 0 0 
[c]ij = = . (5.6)
∂εj  0 0 0 µ 0 0
 0 0 0 0 µ 0
0 0 0 0 0 µ
In the equation for the Jacobian the shear strains are represented as engineering shear strains: γij = 2εij , (i 6= j).
The strain energy density at a material point is given by:
1
Ψ= σij εij . (5.7)
2
5.3 Plane Stress Theory

The out-of-plane stress in a plane stress loading state is given by:
σ33 = 2µε33 + λ (ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) ≡ 0.

26 CHAPTER 5. LINEAR ELASTIC MODEL
Solving for ε33 gives

λ
ε33 = − (ε11 + ε22 ) .
2µ + λ
Using this expression the in-plane stresses can be calculated from
n o
2µ+2λ λ
ε11 + 2µ+λ ε22
 
σ11 n 2µ+λ o
σ22  = 2µ λ
ε11 + 2µ+2λ ε22  . (5.8)
 
 2µ+λ 2µ+λ
σ12
ε12
The Jacobian is given by:  

2µ+2λ λ
0
 2µ+λ
λ
2µ+λ
2µ+2λ
[c]ij = 2µ  2µ+λ 0 , (5.9)

2µ+λ
1
0 0 2
and the strain energy density is given by

1
Ψ= [σ11 ε11 + σ22 ε22 + σ12 γ12 ] . (5.10)
2
5.4 Uniaxial Theory

For a one-dimensional deformation state the out-of-plane stress is given by1 :
σ22 = 2µε22 + λ (ε11 + 2ε22 ) ≡ 0,
which when solved for ε22 gives

λ
ε22 = − ε11 = −νε11 .
2(µ + λ)
The axial stress is therefore given by
µ(3λ + 2µ)
σ11 = ε11 = Eε11 . (5.11)
λ+µ
The Jacobian is simply given by the Young’s modulus E, and the strain energy density is given by σε/2.
1 In a uniaxial deformation state the transverse strains ε22 and ε33 are equal. Here these quantities are both called ε22 for simplicity.
Chapter 6
Neo-Hookean Model
6.1 Introduction
The neo-Hookean (NH) material model is a simple hyperelastic material model that is useful due to its simplicity
and robustness. The model is suitable for large deformations, but is not accurate over a large range of strains for
many materials. The required material parameters for the NH model are summarized in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Material parameters used by the neo-Hookean model.
Index Symbol Parameter Unit* Description

Name
1 µ mu S Shear modulus
2 κ kappa S Bulk modulus
*where: S = stress
The state variables that are used by the PolyUMod implementation of the NH model are summarized in Table 6.2,
and an exemplar input material specification file is shown in Table 6.3. The chain strain state variable is defined by:
p
Table 6.2: State variables used by the neo-Hookean model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
27
28 CHAPTER 6. NEO-HOOKEAN MODEL
Table 6.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the neo-Hookean model. The selected shear modulus and bulk
modulus can be converted to a Poisson’s ratio using ν = (3κ − 2µ)/(6κ + 2µ), in this case giving ν = 0.495.
*Material, name=example_NH
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 18, 4, 1.0, 100, 0, 0,
** mu, kappa
1.0, 100.0
*Depvar
4
*Density
1000.0e-12

The compressible Neo-Hookean material model can be written1 :
µ
σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ (J − 1) I, (6.2)
J
where µ is the shear modulus, κ is the bulk modulus, J = det(F), b∗ = J −2/3 FF> is the distortional left Cauchy-
Green tensor, and σ is the Cauchy stress.
Example. Abaqus/Explicit requires that the stress is returned in a corotational coordinate frame:
σ̂ = RT σR. (6.3)
Since RT b∗ R = RT (F∗ F∗T )R = RT (RU∗ U∗ RT )R = U∗2 , the required stress becomes:

µ
σ̂ = dev[U∗2 ] + κ (J − 1) I, (6.4)
J

The Jacobian for this model is given by: c = ∂∆σ/∂∆ε. Here, due to space constraints, each column of [c]ij is
presented individually:
8b∗11 + 2b∗22 + 2b∗33
     
c11 J
c21  −4b∗11 − 4b∗22 + 2b∗33  J 
−4b∗11 + 2b∗22 − 4b∗33 
     
c31 
 = µ J 
c41 
 ∗
 + κ  , (6.5)
9J  3b12  0
∗
     
c51   3b13  0
∗
c61 −6b23 0
∗ ∗ ∗
     
c12 −4b11 − 4b22 + 2b33 J
c22   2b∗11 + 8b∗22 + 2b∗33  J 
 ∗
 2b11 − 4b∗22 − 4b∗33 
    
c32 
 = µ J 
c42 
 ∗
 + κ0 ,
 (6.6)
9J  3b 12

−6b∗13
     
c52    0
c62 3b∗23 0
1 An alternative formulation based on the total b instead of its deviatoric part is
µ
σ= (b − I) + κ (J − 1) I.
J
This formulation is not used in the PolyUMod library.
6.3. PLANE STRESS THEORY 29
−4b∗11 + 2b∗22 − 4b∗33

     
c13 J
c23   2b∗11 − 4b∗22 − 4b∗33  J 
   ∗ ∗ ∗ 
  
  = µ  2b11 + 2b22∗ + 8b33  + κ J  ,
c33    
(6.7)
c43  9J  −6b12  0
∗
     
c53   3b13  0
c63 3b∗23 0
∗
   
c14 2b12
c24   2b∗12 
 −4b∗12 
   
c34 
 = µ  ∗
c44  6J 3b11 + 3b∗22 
 (6.8)
 3b∗23
   
c54  
c64 3b∗13
2b∗13
   
c15
c25   −4b∗13 
 2b∗13
   
c35 
 = µ 
,
c45  6J  3b∗23

 (6.9)
 ∗
3b11 + 3b∗33 
  
c55 
c65 3b∗12
−4b∗23
   
c16
c26   2b∗23 
∗
   
  = µ  2b23
c36   
. (6.10)
c46  6J  3b∗13 
 3b∗12
   
c56  
∗ ∗
c66 3b22 + 3b33
The strain energy density for the neo-Hookean model is given by:
µ κ 2
Ψ(I1∗ , J) = (I1∗ − 3) + (J − 1) , (6.11)
2 2
where I1∗ = tr[b∗ ], and J = det[F].

The plane stress implementation is based on an incompressibility assumption. This approach enables an efficient
numerical implementation and gives results that are quite similar to the compressible case. Using this approach the
Cauchy stress is given by
σ = µ dev[b] + pI, (6.12)
where p is an undetermined pressure that needs to be determined from the boundary conditions. In plane-stress
loading, the stress component σ33 ≡ 0, hence
σ33 = µ dev[b]33 + p ≡ 0,
giving
p = −µ dev[b]33 .
This expression for the pressure p can be simplified by considering the following definitions:
1
dev[b] = b − tr[b]I, (6.13)
3
F F12
F̃ ≡ 11 , (6.14)
F21 F22

b b
b̃ ≡ 11 12 , (6.15)
b12 b22
˜
J = det[F̃] = F11 F22 − F12 F21 , (6.16)
˜2
J = det[b̃], (6.17)
30 CHAPTER 6. NEO-HOOKEAN MODEL
which gives
h i 1
tr[b] = tr b̃ + .
˜
J2
Consequently,
1 1 1 2 h i
dev[b]33 = − tr[b] = − tr b̃ ,
J˜2 3 3 J˜2
and h i
µ 2
p= tr b̃ − .
3 J˜2
The total stress can therefore be written

1 h i 1 1 h i 2
σ̃ = µ b̃ − tr b̃ Ĩ − Ĩ + tr b̃ Ĩ − Ĩ ,
3 3J˜2 3 3J˜2
which can be simplified to:
1
σ̃ = µ b̃ − Ĩ . (6.18)
J˜2
In vector form, the left Cauchy-Green tensor is given by
2 2
   
b11 F11 + F12
b22  =  F21 2 2
+ F22 ,
b12 F11 F21 + F12 F22
and the Cauchy stress by

b11 − 1/J˜2
   
σ11
σ22  = µ b22 − 1/J˜2  (6.19)
σ12 b12
The Jacobian matrix is given by:
 
2 b11 + 1/J˜2 2/J˜2 b12
 
[c]ij = µ 
 2/J˜2 2 b22 + 1/J˜2 b12
,
 (6.20)
b12 b12 (b11 + b22 )/2
and the strain energy density for a given deformation state is given by
h i
µ 1
Ψ= tr b̃ + −3 . (6.21)
2 J˜2
6.4 Uniaxial Theory

For numerical efficiency, the response of the neo-Hookean model in uniaxial loading is taken to be incompressible.
This simplification eliminates the need to determine the transverse strains. In this case the stress response of the
neo-Hookean model can be written:
1
σ = µ λ2 − . (6.22)
λ
A parametric study shows that κ/µ > 500 is required in order for the incompressible solution to have a relative
error in the axial stress prediction that is less than 1% for all axial true strains between -1 and +1.
For the incompressible case the Jacobian is given by
[c]1 = µ 2λ2 + 1/λ ,

(6.23)
and the strain energy density is given by

µ 2
Ψ= λ + 1/λ − 3 . (6.24)
2
Chapter 7
Eight-Chain Model
7.1 Introduction
The Arruda-Boyce eight-chain model [4] is an extension of the neo-Hookean model that takes non-linear Langevin
chain statistics into account when deriving the strain energy density function. This model is suitable for large strain
predictions of elastomer-like materials. The required material parameters for the eight-chain model are summarized
in Table 7.1. The state variables that are used by the eight-chain model are summarized in Table 7.2, and an
Table 7.1: Material parameters used by the eight-chain model.

Name
1 µ mu S Shear modulus of network A
2 λlock lambdaL - Locking stretch
exemplar input file is shown in Table 7.3. The chain strain state variable is defined by:
p
Table 7.2: State variables used by the Eight-Chain model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
31
32 CHAPTER 7. EIGHT-CHAIN MODEL
Table 7.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the eight-chain model.
*Material, name=example_EC
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 19, 4, 1.0, 100, 0, 0,
** mu, lambdaL, kappa
1.0, 4.0, 100.0
*Depvar
4
*Density
1000.0e-12

The predicted stress response of the eight-chain model can be written
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (7.2)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
where µ is the shear modulus, κ the bulk modulus, and λL is the limiting chain stretch. The variable b∗ = J −2/3 b
is the distortional left Cauchy-Green tensor, and λ∗ is the applied chain stretch which can be calculated from
r
∗
tr[b∗ ]
λ = . (7.3)
3
In Equation (7.2), L−1(x) is the inverse Langevin function, where L(x) = coth(x) − 1/x, is the Langevin function,
and L−1(x) can be estimated from [5]:
(
−1 1.31446 tan(1.58986x) + 0.91209x, if |x| < 0.84136
L (x) ≈ (7.4)
1/(sign(x) − x), if 0.84136 ≤ |x| < 1.
For the purpose of calculating the Jacobian, the eight-chain model can be considered a version of the neo-Hookean
model in which the shear modulus is a function of the applied deformation. Specifically, the effective shear modulus
in the eight-chain model is given by
µ L−1(λ∗ /λL )
µeff λ∗ = ∗ · −1 . (7.5)
λ L (1/λL )
The total Jacobian is given by the same Jacobian as for the neo-Hookean model with µ replaced by µeff , plus the
following term
1 ∂µeff
[c]ij = dev[b∗ ]i . (7.6)
J ∂εj
The partial derivative of µeff with respect to εi can be simplified using the chain rule
1 ∂µeff ∂λ∗ ∂I1∗

[c]ij = dev[b∗ ]i .
J ∂λ∗ ∂I1∗ ∂εj
The following equations are useful for evaluating this equation:
∂µeff (λ∗ ) 1 ∂L−1(λ∗ /λL ) L−1(λ∗ /λL )

µ 1
= ∗ · −1 · −
∂λ∗ λ L (1/λL ) λL ∂(λ∗ /λL ) λ∗
(
dL−1(x) 2.08981 tan2 (1.58986x) + 3.0019, if x < 0.84136
=
dx 1/(1 − x)2 , if 0.84136 ≤ x < 1.
"r #
∂λ∗ ∂ I1∗ 1
= =
∂I1∗ ∂I1∗ 3 6λ∗
For practical purposes, however, it is often not necessary to consider the term in Equation (7.6), but instead simply
use the neo-Hookean Jacobian with the effective shear modulus in Equation (7.5).

The response of the eight-chain model in a 2D deformation mode can be derived using the same approach as for the
neo-Hookean model. In summary, the stress is given by:
µ L−1 λ/λL

1
σ̃ = b̃ − Ĩ , (7.7)
λ L−1 (1/λL ) J˜2
where λ is the chain stretch obtained from

r r
tr[b] 1
λ= = tr[b̃] + 1/J˜2 (7.8)
3 3
7.4 Uniaxial Theory

For a one-dimensional loading situation the eight-chain model stress is given by:
µ L−1 λ/λL

2 1
σ= F − . (7.9)
λ L−1 (1/λL ) F
Chapter 8
Bergström-Boyce (BB) Model
8.1 Introduction
Supported: Yes Yes - Yes Yes Yes
The Bergström-Boyce (BB) model [5–9] is an advanced model for predicting the time-dependent, large-strain
behavior of elastomer-like materials. The model has been been shown to be accurate for both traditional engineering
rubbers, and soft biomaterials.
The default behavior of MCalibration is to use an internal implementation of the BB-model that is using using a
different ODE solver than what is used in the PolyUMod library. MCalibration can be made to use the PolyUMod
implementation by setting the environmental variable MCAL USE POLYUMOD to the value 1.
The PolyUMod implementation of the BB model requires the material parameters in Table 8.1. The state variables
Table 8.1: Material parameters used by the Bergstrom-Boyce model.

Name
2 λL lambdaL - Locking stretch
4 s s - Relative stiffness of network B
5 ξ xi - Strain adjustment factor
6 C C - Strain exponential
7 τBase tauBase S Flow resistance
8 m m - Stress exponential
9 τ̂cut tauCut - Normalized cut-off stress for flow
that are used by the BB-model are summarized in Table 8.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in Table 8.3. The
LS-DYNA Explicit implementation is using 28 state variables.
The chain strain state variable is defined by:
p
Also note that if the unit for time is not seconds, then the variables τBase and τ̂cut need to be scaled appropriately.
34
For example, if milliseconds is used as the time unit, then the provided values should be: τBase := τBase · (10001/m ),
and τ̂cut := τ̂cut /(10001/m ).
Table 8.2: State variables used by the PolyUMod implementation of the Bergstrom-Boyce model. Note that the
Abaqus/Explicit and the LSDYNA Explicit implementations use a different set of material parameters (by default).
3D 2D Plane- 2D Plane- 1D State Variable

Strain Stress Name
1 1 1 1 Simulation time
2 2 2 2 Viscoelastic strain magnitude
3 3 3 3 Chain strain
4 4 4 4 Failure flag
5-13 5-9 5-8 5 Deformation gradient FvB
Table 8.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the BB-model.
*Material, name=example_BB
** Units: [length]=millimeter, [force]=Newton, [time]=seconds, [temperature]=Kelvin
** Material Model: Bergstrom-Boyce
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
** VINT, ORIENT, -, -, GMU, GKAPPA, FAILT, FAILV,
0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 500, 0, 0,
** mu, lambdaL, kappa, s, xi, C, tauBase, m,
1, 3.5, 100, 3, 0.05, -0.5, 4, 5,
** tauCut
0.01
*Depvar
13
*Density
1e-09
A simplified version of the Bergstrom-Boyce model is available in ABAQUS/Standard using the *Hysteresis
keyword, and in ANSYS using the TB, BB command.

In the Bergström-Boyce (BB) model the applied deformation gradient is acting on two parallel macromolecular
networks: F = FA = FB , see the rheological representation in Figure 8.1. The deformation gradient acting on
network B is further decomposed into elastic and viscoelastic components: FB = FeB FvB .
The response of network A is given by the eight-chain model:
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

σA = dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (8.2)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
The stress on network B is also given by the eight-chain model, but with a different effective shear modulus:
s µ L−1 λe∗

B /λL
σ B = e e∗ dev[be∗ e
B ] + κ(JB − 1)I, (8.3)
JB λB L−1 (1/λL )
where s is a dimensionless material parameter specifying the shear modulus of network B relative to network A, and
λe∗
B is the chain stretch in the elastic part of Network B. Using this representation the total Cauchy stress is given
by
σ = σA + σB . (8.4)
36 CHAPTER 8. BERGSTRÖM-BOYCE (BB) MODEL
Figure 8.1: Rheological representation of the Bergstrom-Boyce model.
The velocity gradient on network B, LB = ḞB F−1

B , can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components:

d −1
LB = (FeB FvB ) (FeB FvB )
dt
h i
−1 −1
= ḞeB FvB + FeB ḞvB (FvB ) (FeB )
−1 −1 −1
= ḞeB (FeB ) + FeB ḞvB (FvB ) (FeB )
= LeB + FeB LvB (FeB )−1
= LeB + L̃vB , (8.5)
where
−1
LvB = ḞvB (FvB ) = DvB + WB
v
, (8.6)
L̃vB = D̃vB + v
W̃B . (8.7)
v
To make the unloading unique, prescribe W̃B ≡ 0 [10]. The rate of viscous deformation of network B is constitutively
prescribed by:
D̃vB = γ̇B (σ B , be∗ v
B ) NB , (8.8)
where
dev[σ B ] dev[σ B ]
NvB = = . (8.9)
τ || dev[σ]B ||F
and τ is the effective stress driving the viscous flow. The time derivative of FvB can be derived as follows:
L̃vB = γ̇B
v
NvB , (8.10)
−1 −1
⇒ FeB ḞvB (FvB ) (FeB ) = v
γ̇B NvB ,
−1 dev[σ B ]
⇒ ḞvB = γ̇B
v
(FeB ) Fe Fv . (8.11)
|| dev[σ]B ||F B B
The rate-equation for viscous flow is given by [6]:

m
v
C τ
γ̇B = γ̇0 λvB − 1 + ξ R − τ̂cut , (8.12)
τbase
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant introduced to ensure dimensional consistency, R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function,
τ̂cut is a cut-off stress below which no flow will occur1 , and
r
v tr[bvB ]
λB = . (8.13)
3
is the viscoelastic chain stretch. The effective stress driving the viscous flow is:
q
τ = || dev[σ B ]||F = tr [σ 0B σ 0B ]. (8.14)

The stress in the BB-model is given by the sum of the stresses in the two networks:
σ̃ = σ̃ A + σ̃ B . (8.15)
In plane stress loading the stress in network A is given by
µ L−1 λ/λL

1
σ̃ A = b̃ − I , (8.16)
λ L−1 (1/λL ) J˜2
where r h i
1
λ= tr b̃ + 1/J˜2 , (8.17)
3
and J˜ = det[F̃] = F11 F22 − F12 F21 . The deformation gradient acting on network B is decomposed into elastic and
viscous components: F̃B = F̃eB F̃vB . The stress on network B is given by:
 
−1 e

sµ L λB /λL  e 1
σ̃ B = e b̃B − 2 I , (8.18)

−1
λB L (1/λL ) ˜
JBe
λeB is the chain stretch in the elastic part of Network B
s
1 h i 2
e
λB = tr b̃B + 1/ J˜B
e e . (8.19)
3
The time derivative of the viscoelastic deformation gradient of network B is given by
m
τ −1 dev[σ̃ ]
˙ v v
F̃B = γ̇0 λB − 1 + ξ
C
R − τ̂cut F̃eB
B
F̃, (8.20)
τbase τ
where s
1 h i 2
v
λB = tr b̃B + 1/ J˜B
v v ,
3
and τ = || dev[σ̃ B ]||F .
8.4 Uniaxial Theory

For uniaxial loading the total Cauchy stress is given by σ = σA + σB , where
µ L−1 λ/λL

2 1
σA = F − , (8.21)
λ L−1 (1/λL ) F
sµ L−1 λeB /λL

e 2 1
σB = e (FB ) − e . (8.22)
λB L−1 (1/λL ) FB
1 The ramp function is introduced in order to increase the numerical efficiency of the material model for cases when regions of the FE
mesh is not undergoing significant deformations.

38 CHAPTER 8. BERGSTRÖM-BOYCE (BB) MODEL
In this case the chain stretch terms are obtained from

s
1 2
2
λ= F + , (8.23)
3 F
s
1 2
λeB = (FBe )2 + e . (8.24)
3 FB
The time derivative of the viscoelastic deformation gradient of network B is given by the scalar equation
m
v
C 2|σB |
v
ḞB = γ̇0 λB − 1 + ξ R − τ̂cut sign[σB ]FBv , (8.25)
3τbase
where s
v 1 v 2 2
λB = (FB ) + v .
3 FB
Chapter 9
BB-Model with Mullins Effect
9.1 Introduction
Supported: - - - Yes Yes Yes
The Bergström-Boyce model with an enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins (BB-OR) effect predictions is the same
model as the BB-model, with the exception that the eight-chain hyperelastic network A (see Figure 8.1) include the
damage term η:
σ = η dev[σ] + vol[σ], (9.1)
where " #
max
1 Udev − αUdev
η = 1 − erf (9.2)
r max
Û + βUdev
max max
Udev = max [αUdev , Udev ] (9.3)
" min b #
Udev
α = max αmin , max (9.4)
Udev
(
max max
min Udev , if αUdev ≥ Udev
Udev = min
(9.5)
min αUdev , Udev , otherwise
This Mullins damage model is the same as ED Type=302 in the Parallel Network Model.
The BB-OR model requires the material parameters in Table 9.1. The state variables that are used by the BB-OR
model are summarized in Table 9.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in Table 9.3. The following is an exemplar
ABAQUS material model specification for the BB-OR model:
39
40 CHAPTER 9. BB-MODEL WITH MULLINS EFFECT
Table 9.1: Material parameters used by the BB-OR model.

Name
7 τbase tauBase S Flow resistance
9 r r - Mullins fraction
10 Û Uhat S Mullins energy
11 β beta - Mullins adjustment
12 αmin alphaMin - Mullins adjustment
13 b b - Mullins adjustment
14 τ̂cut tauCut - Normalized cut-off stress for flow (optional)
max
15 Udev0 UdevMax S Initial UdevMax (at t=0)
If τ̂cut is not specified then it is given a value of 0.
Table 9.2: State variables used by the BB-OR model for different element types.

Strain Stress Name
max
14 10 9 6 Max strain energy density Udev
min
15 11 10 7 Min strain energy density Udev
Table 9.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the BB-OR model.
*Material, name=example_BBM
** Material Model: Bergstrom-Boyce-Mullins
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 500, 0, 0,
1, 4, 100, 3, 0.05, -0.5, 4, 5,
** r, Uhat, beta, alphaMin, b
5, 4.5, 0.001, 0.85, 0.3
*Depvar
15
*Density
1e-09
Chapter 10
Anisotropic BB Model with Mullins

Effect
10.1 Introduction
The anisotropic Bergström-Boyce model with Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins (ABBM) model is the same as the
Bergström-Boyce model, except that each network (A and B) also contain an anisotropic stress-term:
σ A = σ 8chain (F) + [Af λ2f + Bf λf − (Af + Bf )]af ⊗ af , (10.1)
σ B = σ 8chain (FeB ) + [Af (λefB )2 + Bf λefB − (Af + Bf )]aefB ⊗ aefB , (10.2)

where σ 8chain is the hyperelastic Arruda-Boyce eight-chain model, af = Fa0 , âf = Fa0 /λf , λf = ||af ||, âefB =
FeB a0 /λefB , and λefB = ||aefB ||,
Damage is then introduced in both hyperelastic networks using an Ogden-Roxburgh damage model:
σ A = η dev[σ A ] + vol[σ A ], (10.3)
σ B = η dev[σ B ] + vol[σ B ], (10.4)

where the scalar damage magnitude is given by
" #
max
1 Udev − Udev
η = 1 − erf (10.5)
r max
Û + βUdev
max
and where Udev is the max deviatoric strain energy density of either network. That is, both networks experience
the same damage state.
The Mullins damage model that is used in the ABBM model is the same as ED Type=301 in the Parallel Network
Model. Note that The ABBM model requires the material parameters in Table 10.1. The state variables that are
used by the ABBM model are summarized in Table 10.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in Table 10.3.
41
42 CHAPTER 10. ANISOTROPIC BB MODEL WITH MULLINS EFFECT
Table 10.1: Material parameters used by the ABBM model.

Name
9 r r - Mullins fraction
10 Û Uhat S Mullins energy
11 β beta - Mullins adjustment
12 a0x a0x - X-component of initial fiber vector
13 a0y a0y - Y-component of initial fiber vector
14 a0z a0z - Z-component of initial fiber vector
15 Af Af S First anisotropic stress parameter
16 Bf Bf S Second anisotropic stress parameter
17 τ̂cut tauCut - Normalized cut-off stress for flow (optional)
If τ̂cut is not specified then it is given a value of 0.
Table 10.2: State variables used by the ABBM model for different element types.

Strain Stress Name
max
14 10 9 6 Max strain energy density Udev
Table 10.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the ABBM model.
*Material, name=example_ABBM
** Material Model: Anisotropic-Bergstrom-Boyce-Mullins
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
6, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 500, 0, 0,
1, 4, 100, 3, 0.05, -0.5, 4, 5,
** r, Uhat, beta, a0x, a0y, a0z, Af, Bf,
100, 4.5, 0.001, 1, 0, 0, 0.01, 0.0001,
*Depvar
14
*Density
1e-09
Chapter 11
Hybrid Model
11.1 Introduction
The Hybrid Model (HM) is an advanced material model specifically developed for predicting the large strain
time-dependent behavior of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) [11, 12]. This model can also be
used to predict the response of many other types of thermoplastics.
Table 11.1: Material parameters used by the hybrid model.

Name
2 ν nu - Poisson’s ratio
1 E E S Young’s modulus
3 µA muA S Shear modulus A
5 q q - Relative contribution of I2 of network A
7 sBi sBi - Initial stiffness B
8 sBf sBf - Final stiffness B
9 αB alphaB - Transition rate stiffness B
B
10 τbase tauBaseB S Flow resistance B
11 mB mB - Stress exponent B
12 p̂ pHat S Pressure dependence of flow
p
13 τbase tauBaseP S Flow resistance p
14 mp mP - Stress exponent p
*where: - = dimensionless, s = stress
The state variables that are used by the PolyUMod implementation of the HM are summarized in Table 11.3,
and an exemplar input file material specification is shown in Table 11.2.

The kinematic framework used in the HM is based on a decomposition of the applied deformation gradient into elastic
and viscoplastic components: F = Fe Fp , see Figure 11.1. The model can also be represented using the rheological
43
44 CHAPTER 11. HYBRID MODEL
Table 11.2: State variables used by the hybrid model.
3D 2De 2Ds 1D State Variable Name

5 - 13 5-9 5-8 5 Fp
14 - 22 10 - 14 9 - 12 6 FBv
23 15 13 7 sB
Table 11.3: State variables used by the hybrid model for three-dimensional elements.

1 Viscoplastic strain magnitude
2 Viscoelastic strain magnitude
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 - 13 Fp
14 - 22 FBv
23 sB
Table 11.4: Exemplar user material parameters for the hybrid model.
*Material, name=Example_HM
** Hybrid Model
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
7, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 30, 23, 1000, 5000, 0, 0,
** E, nu, muA, lamLockA, q, kappaA, sBi, sBf,
2452.0, 0.46, 9.21, 2.83, 0.20, 5000.0, 40.00, 10.00,
** alphaB,tauBaseB, mB, pHat, tauBaseP, mP
27.0, 24.60, 9.50, 200.0, 8.00, 3.30
*Depvar
23
*Density
1000.0e-12
Figure 11.1: Deformation map used in the Hybrid Model.
representation shown in Figure 11.2.
Figure 11.2: Rheological map of the Hybrid Model.
The Cauchy stress for the HM at a given deformation state is given by the isotropic linear elasticity expression:
1
σ = e (2µEe + λ tr[Ee ]I) , (11.1)
J
where Ve left stretch tensor, Ee = ln[Ve ] is the logarithmic strain, J e = det[Fe ] is the relative volume change, and µ
and λ are the Lamé constants that can be obtained from the Young’s modulus (E) and the Poisson’s ratio (ν) from
E
µ= ,
2(1 + ν)
Eν
λ= .
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
The stress acting on the equilibrium portion of the backstress network A is given by the eight-chain model (see
Chapter 7) with first order I2 dependence1
( )
p∗
µA L−1 λp∗ /λL

1 µ A 2I
σA = dev [bp∗ ] + κ(J p − 1)I, +q I1∗ bp∗ − 2 I − (bp∗ )2 , (11.2)
1 + q J p λp∗ L−1 (1/λL ) J 3
1 This representation is similar to the Mooney-Rivlin model with non-Gaussian chain statistics.
46 CHAPTER 11. HYBRID MODEL
where J p = det[Fp ], bp∗ = (J p )−2/3 FF> is the distortional part of the left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor,
1/2
λp∗ = (tr[bp∗ ]/3) is the chain stretch in network A. This hyperelastic network requires four material parameters:
a shear modulus µA , a locking stretch λlock , an I2 component q, and a bulk modulus κ.
The kinematics of the viscoelastic flow portion of the backstress network B is represented by an approach similar
to the Bergstrom-Boyce model (see Chapter 8). Specifically, the deformation gradient is decomposed into elastic and
viscoelastic components: Fp = FeB FvB . The stress driving the viscoplastic flow of the backstress network is obtained
from the eight-chain model:
( )
µA L−1 λe∗

µA ∗ e∗ 2I2e∗

sB B /λL e∗ e e∗ 2
σB = e λe∗ L−1 (1/λ )
dev [bB ] + κ(JB − 1)I + q I1 b − I − (b ) , (11.3)
1 + q JB B L J 3
e −2/3 e
where JB e
= det[FeB ], be∗
B = (JB ) FB (FeB )> , λe∗ e∗
B = (tr[bB ]/3)
1/2
, and sB is a dimensionless parameter specifying
the relative stiffness of network B compared to network A. At small deformations the stiffness of the backstress
network is constant and the material response is linear elastic. At intermediate applied deformations viscoplastic
flow is initiated by molecular chain sliding. With increasing amount of viscoplastic flow, the crystalline domains
become distorted and start to provide additional molecular material to the backstress network. This is manifested
by an initial reduction in the effective stiffness of the backstress network with imposed strain and is represented in
the model by allowing the parameter sB to evolve during the plastic deformation as follows
ṡB = −αB · (sB − sBF ) · γ̇p , (11.4)
where αB is a material parameter specifying the transition rate of the distributed yielding, and sB in the undeformed
state is sBi , and sBf in the fully transformed state. The quantity γ̇P is the rate of viscoplastic flow and is given by
Equation (11.6).
The time derivative of the viscoelastic deformation gradient of network B is given by
mB
τB dev[σ B ] p
ḞvB = LvB FvB = γ̇0 · (FeB )−1 v
F ≡ γ̇B NeB , (11.5)
τBbase [1 + R(pB /p̂)] τB
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant that is introduced to maintain dimensional consistency, τB = || dev[σ B ]||F is the effective
shear stress driving the viscoelastic flow, pB = − tr[σ B ]/3 is the hydrostatic pressure, R(·) is the ramp function, and
τBbase , mB , and p̂ are material parameters.
The time rate of change of the plastic flow of network P is captured using a similar energy activation approach
as for network B mp
τp p

p p p e > dev[T ] e p
Ḟ = L F = γ̇0 · p (R ) R F ≡ γ̇ p Np , (11.6)
τbase [1 + R(pp /p̂)] τp
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant that is introduced to maintain dimensional consistency, τ p = || dev[Tp ]||F is the effective
p
shear stress driving the plastic flow, pp = − tr[Tp ]/3 is the hydrostatic pressure, and τbase , mp , and p̂ are material
parameters.
In total, the Hybrid Model requires 13 material parameters: 2 small strain elastic constants (Ee , νe ), 3 hyperelastic
constants for the back stress network (µA , λL , κ), 6 flow constants for the backstress network (sBi , sBf , αB , τBbase ,
p
mB , p̂), and two yield and viscoplastic flow parameters (τbase , mp ).
Chapter 12
M8 Model
12.1 Introduction
The material model specific parameter are listed after the 16 global PolyUMod parameters. The material model
parameters need to have the following structure:
• The first four (4) material parameters are material model specific control parameters: MaxLoop, FvMix, tauNCut,
OriRot. These control parameters have the following meanings:
1. MaxLoop
Controls the maximum number of streamline loops can is allowed when searching for streamline conver-
gence. This variable is only used during a SST analysis.
2. FvMix
Controls how the state variables are combined during a stream line iteration. The new viscoplastic
deformation gradients are calculated from: Fv1 = (1 − FvMIX) · Fv0 + FvMIX · Fv1 . Note, FvMIX should be
between 0 and 1. This variable is only used during a SST analysis.
3. tauNCut
Controls a limit on the flow resistance below which there will be no viscoplastic flow. That is, if τ /τ̂ <
tauNCut then no flow will occur. This variable is used in all analyzes.
4. OriRot
Controls if the deformation gradients and tensorial state variables should be rotated by the ORI variable
that is provided by Abaqus. This variable is only used during a SST analysis.
• The next material parameter specifies the total number of networks. This value has to be a positive integer.
The number of networks is called N in the following.
• The following N control values are integers specifying the type of each of the N networks. Each network type
has to be one of the following:
1 : Polynomial hyperelastic network

2 : Eight-chain hyperelastic network
3 : Polynomial hyperelastic network with temperature dependence
4 : Eight-chain hyperelastic network with temperature dependence
11 : Polynomial hyperelastic network with viscoelastic flow
12 : Eight-chain hyperelastic network with viscoelastic flow
47
48 CHAPTER 12. M8 MODEL
13 : Polynomial hyperelastic network with viscoelastic flow with temperature dependence

14 : Eight-chain hyperelastic network with viscoelastic flow with temperature dependence
15 : Eight-chain hyperelastic network with pressure-dependent viscoelastic flow
112 : Same as type 12, but with the standard PolyUMod ODE solvers (specified by the ODE flag). This
model can be more stable than network type 12.
21 : Plasticity network
As an example, if the parameters are: 2, 2, 12; then that specifies a two network model where the first network
is an eight-chain hyperelastic network (id=2) and the second network is a eight-chain network with viscoelatic
flow (id=12).
• After the control parameters comes the actual material parameters for each network.
Here is an example of an Abaqus input file that is using two networks. The first network is a polynomial
hyperelastic network, and the second network is an eight-chain hyperelastic network with viscoelastic flow.
*Material, name=mat
** Calibrated with MCalibration
** Units: [length]=mm, [force]=Newton, [time]=seconds, [temperature]=Kelvin
** Material Model: M8
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
** VINT, ORIENT, NPROP, NHIST, GMU, GKAPPA, FAILT, FAILV,
0, 0, 39, 0, 1, 500, 0, 0,
**MaxLoop, FvMix, tauNCut, OriRot, N, NType, NType, mui,
10, 1, 0.01, 1, 2, 2, 12, 4,
** muf, ehat, lambdaL, kappa, mui, muf, ehat, lambdaL,
3, 0.01, 4, 500, 4, 3, 0.01, 4,
** kappa, xi, C, tauH, mi, mf, epsT
500, 0.001, -0.1, 0.5, 4, 3, 0.1
*Density
1e-09
The number of state variables that are required for a specific material model can be determined by adding the
required number of state variables for each network.
12.2 Switching State Variable Behavior

The flow behavior of individual networks can be activated / deactivate based on field variable 1. For example, this
field variable can be used to switch between the full non-linear viscoelastic model and a simplified version of the
model in which some of the viscoelastic network legs have a hyperelastic response corresponding to the long-term
behavior. The switching is implemented by using a field variable value where each digit corresponds to a network
leg.
For each network, a value of 1 means that the network is using the full non-linear viscoelastic solution, a value of
2 means that the network is fully relaxed (the viscoelastic flow is set equal to the applied deformation), and a value
of 3 means that the state variables are frozen.
As an example, for a four network model with one hyperelastic and three viscoelastic network legs, a field variable
of 1123 would correspond network 1 and 2 using a full solution, network 3 has a relaxed state, and network 3 has a
frozen internal state.
12.3. POLYNOMIAL HYPERELASTIC MODEL (ID=1) 49
12.3 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model (ID=1)

This material model is a polynomial hyperelastic material model with cubic dependence on I1∗ (material parameters
C10 , C20 , C30 ), and with linear I2∗ dependence (material parameters C01 ). The volumetric response is represented
using a linear dependence on J.
The following table summarizes the required material parameters:
Index Text Representation Symbol Unit* Description

1 C10 C10 S linear term in I1∗
2 C20 C20 S quadratic term in I1∗
3 C30 C30 S 3rd order term in I1∗
5 kappa κ S bulk modulus
The Cauchy stress for the polynomial model is given by:

2n 2
o 2C01 I1∗ ∗ 2C01 ∗ 2 4I2∗ C01
σ= C10 + 2C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + b − (b ) − I + κ(J − 1)I. (12.1)
J J J 3J
This network model uses no state variables.
12.4 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Strain-Dependence (ID=2)

This material model is a modified version of the Arruda-Boyce Eight-Chain model [4] with an optional strain-
dependent shear modulus.

1 mui µi S initial shear modulus
2 muf µf S final shear modulus
3 epsH ε̂ - transition strain for mu
4 lambdaL λL - locking stretch
The Cauchy stress is given by:

µeff L−1 λ∗ /λL

σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (12.2)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
where the effective shear modulus is given by:
−εeff

ε̂
µeff = µf + (µi − µf ) 1 − exp , (12.3)
ε̂ εeff
and where εeff is the global Mises strain. Note that if ε̂ = 0 then µeff = µi .
12.5 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model with Temperature Dependence

(ID=3)
This material model is a polynomial hyperelastic material model with cubic dependence on I1∗ (material parameters
C10 , C20 , C30 ), and with linear I2∗ dependence (material parameters C01 ). The volumetric response is represented
using a linear dependence on J.

6 N N - Number of temperature dependent terms
7 T1 T1 T Temperature 1
8 f1 f1 - Temperature factor 1
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
5+2N TN TN T Temperature N
6+2N fN fN - Temperature factor N
The Cauchy stress for the polynomial model is given by:
2C01 I1∗ ∗ 2C01 ∗ 2 4I2∗ C01

n
2 ∗ ∗ 2
o
∗
σ = f (T ) C10 + 2C20 (I1 − 3) + 3C30 (I1 − 3) dev[b ] + b − (b ) − I + κ(J − 1)I
J J J 3J
(12.4)
The function f (T ) is a piecewise linear function that is defined by the [(T1 , f1 ), (T2 , f2 ), ..., (TN , fN )] values.
12.6 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Strain-Dependence and Tem-

perature Dependence (ID=4)
This material model is a modified version of the Arruda-Boyce Eight-Chain model [4] with an optional strain-
dependent shear modulus and piecewise linear temperature dependence.

··· ··· ··· ··· ···
6+2N fN fN - Temperature factor N
*where: - = dimensionless, S = stress, T = temperature

" #

∗
σ = f (T ) dev[b ] + κ(J − 1)I (12.5)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
12.7. POLYNOMIAL HYPERELASTIC MODEL WITH VISCOELASTIC FLOW (ID=11) 51
−εeff

ε̂
µeff = µf + (µi − µf ) 1 − exp , (12.6)
ε̂ εeff
and where εeff is the global Mises strain. The function f (T ) is a piecewise linear function that is defined by the
[(T1 , f1 ), (T2 , f2 ), ..., (TN , fN )] values.
Note that if ε̂ = 0 then µeff = µi , and that N has be be a positive integer that is less than 100.
12.7 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model with Viscoelastic Flow (ID=11)

This material model consists of a polynomial hyperelastic model in series with a non-linear viscoelastic flow element.
The hyperelastic response is given by the model presented in Section 12.3. The viscoelastic flow is given by the
Bergstrom-Boyce flow model [6, 8, 9].

6 xi ξ - Strain adjustment factor
7 C C - Strain exponent
8 tauH τ̂ S Shear flow resistance
9 mi mi - Initial shear flow exponent
10 mf mf - Final shear flow exponent
11 epsT ε̃ - Shear flow exponent transition strain

2n 2
o 2C01 I1∗ ∗ 2C01 ∗ 2 4I2∗ C01
σ= C10 + 2C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + b − (b ) − I + κ(J − 1)I. (12.7)
J J J 3J
The rate of viscoelastic flow is given by the following equation:
meff
C τ
γ̇ = γ̇0 [λ − 1 + ξ] , (12.8)
τ̂
where
meff = (mi − mf ) · e−ε/ε̃ + mf (12.9)
Note that if ε̃ = 0 then meff = mi . This network model uses 9 state variables.
12.8 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Viscoelastic Flow (ID=12,

ID=112)
This material model consists of a modified version of the Arruda-Boyce Eight-Chain model [4] with an optional
strain-dependent shear modulus. The hyperelastic response is given by the model presented in Section 12.4. The
viscoelastic flow is given by the Bergstrom-Boyce flow model [6, 8, 9].



σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (12.10)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
−εeff

ε̂
µeff = µf + (µi − µf ) 1 − exp , (12.11)
ε̂ εeff
and where εeff is global Mises strain. Note that if ε̂ = 0 then µeff = µi .
τ meff
C
γ̇ = γ̇0 [λ − 1 + ξ] , (12.12)
τ̂
where
meff = (mi − mf ) · e−ε/ε̃ + mf (12.13)
Note that if ε̃ = 0 then meff = mi . This network model uses 9 state variables.
12.9 Polynomial Hyperelastic Model with Viscoelastic Flow and Tem-

perature Dependence (ID=13)
This material model consists of a polynomial hyperelastic model in series with a non-linear viscoelastic flow element.
The hyperelastic response is given by the model presented in Section 12.3. The viscoelastic flow is given by the
Bergstrom-Boyce flow model [6, 8, 9].

12.10. EIGHT-CHAIN MODEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND FLOW (ID=14, 114) 53

14 f1 f1 - Temperature factor f1
15 g1 g1 - Temperature factor g1
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
11+3N fN fN - Temperature factor fN
12+3N gN gN - Temperature factor gN

2n ∗ ∗ 2
o
∗
σ = f (T ) C10 + 2C20 (I1 − 3) + 3C30 (I1 − 3) dev[b ] +
J
2C01 I1∗ ∗ 2C01 ∗ 2 4I2∗ C01

+ b − (b ) − I + κ(J − 1)I (12.14)
J J 3J

meff
C τ
γ̇ = γ̇0 [λ − 1 + ξ] , (12.15)
g(T )τ̂
where
meff = (mi − mf ) · e−ε/ε̃ + mf (12.16)
Note that if ε̃ = 0 then meff = mi .
The function g(T ) is a piecewise linear function that is defined by the [(T1 , g1 ), (T2 , g2 ), ..., (TN , gN )] values.
This network model uses 9 state variables.
12.10 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Viscoelastic Flow and Tem-

perature Dependence (ID=14, ID=114)


14 f1 f1 - Temperature factor f1
15 g1 g1 - Temperature factor g1
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
11+3N fN fN - Temperature factor fN
12+3N gN gN - Temperature factor gN

" #

∗
σ = f (T ) dev[b ] + κ(J − 1)I , (12.17)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
−εeff

ε̂
µeff = µf + (µi − µf ) 1 − exp , (12.18)
ε̂ εeff

meff
C τ
γ̇ = γ̇0 [λ − 1 + ξ] , (12.19)
g(T )τ̂
where
meff = (mi − mf ) · e−ε/ε̃ + mf (12.20)
Note that if ε̃ = 0 then meff = mi .
The function g(T ) is a piecewise linear function that is defined by the [(T1 , g1 ), (T2 , g2 ), ..., (TN , gN )] values.
12.11 Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Pressure-Dependent Vis-

coelastic Flow (ID=15, ID=115)

12.11. EIGHT-CHAIN HYPERELASTIC MODEL WITH PRESSURE-DEPENDENT VISCOELASTIC FLOW (ID=15, ID=115

11 epsT ε̃ - Shear flow exponent
12 aa a - Pressure dependence factor transition strain

σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (12.21)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
eff
−ε ε̂
µeff = µf + (µi − µf ) 1 − exp eff
, (12.22)
ε̂ ε

meff
C τ
γ̇ = γ̇0 [λ − 1 + ξ] , (12.23)
τ̂ + aR(p)
where
meff = (mi − mf ) · e−ε/ε̃ + mf , (12.24)
p = −[(σ)11 + (σ)22 + (σ)33 ]/3 is the hydrostatic pressure, R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function. Note that if
ε̃ = 0 then meff = mi . This network model uses 9 state variables.
12.12 Plasticity Model with Kinematic Hardening (ID=21)

The stress in this plasticity model is given by a linear elastic spring with a shear modulus µ and a bulk modulus κ.
The plastic flow is given by the Chaboche [13] non-linear kinematic hardening model:
2α ||ε̇p ||
σ̇ back = σy ε̇p − σ back , (12.25)
3β β
where σ̇ back is the time-derivative of the back stress, and ε̇p the time-derivative of the plastic strain. The parame-
ter σy is the initial yield stress, ασy is the final yield stress, and β is the transition strain for the yield stress evolution.
The model uses the material parameters given in the following table.
Table 12.1: Material parameters used by plasticity model.

1 mu µ S Initial elastic shear modulus
2 kappa κ S Initial elastic bulk modulus
3 alpha α S Hardening parameter 1
4 beta β - Hardening parameter 2
5 sigmaY σy S Initial yield stress

Chapter 13
Arruda-Boyce Plasticity Model
13.1 Introduction
The Arruda-Boyce (AB) model was developed [10, 14, 15] for predicting the large strain, time- and temperature-
dependent response of glassy polymers. The behavior of this class of materials when subjected to gradually increasing
loads is characterized by an initial linear elastic response followed by yielding and then strain hardening at large
deformations. This evolution in material response with applied loads is directly incorporated into the AB model.
The AB model requires the material parameters in Table 13.1. The state variables that are used by the AB-model
Table 13.1: Material parameters used by the AB model.

Name
1 Ee Ee S Shear modulus of network A
2 νe nue - Poisson’s ratio
3 µA muA S Shear modulus
5 γ̇i gDoti S Bulk modulus
6 Gdk Gdk - Relative stiffness of network B
7 s0 s0 - Strain adjustment factor
8 sss sss - Strain exponential
9 h h S Flow resistance
are summarized in Table 13.2, and an exemplar ABAQUS material model specification for the AB model is shown
in Table 13.3.

In the AB framework, the total deformation gradient is decomposed into elastic and plastic components, F = Fe Fp .
As is shown in the one-dimensional rheological representation in Figure 13.1, this decomposition can be interpreted
as two networks acting in series: one elastic network (e) and one plastic network (p). Using this decomposition of
57
58 CHAPTER 13. ARRUDA-BOYCE PLASTICITY MODEL
Table 13.2: State variables used by the AB model.

1 Time of current increment
2 Viscoplastic strain magnitude
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 13 Viscoelastic deformation gradient Fv
14 Parameter s
Table 13.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the AB-model.
*Material, name=example_AB
** Units: [length]=millimeter, [force]=Newton, [time]=seconds, [temperature]=Fahrenheit
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
9, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 25, 23, 1, 500, 0, 0,
** Ee, nuE, muA, lambdaLA, gDot, Adk, s0, sss,
500, 0.33, 100, 3, 3e+07, 441.68, 21.9, 19.1,
** h
315
*Depvar
14
*Density
1000.0e-12
Figure 13.1: Rheological representation of the Arruda-Boyce Model.

the deformation gradient the Cauchy stress can be calculated from the linear elastic relationship:
1
T= (2µe Ee + λ tr[Ee ]I) , (13.1)
Je
where Ee = ln[Ve ] is the logarithmic true strain, J e = det[Fe ], and µe , λe are Lamé’s constants. The stress driving
the plastic flow is given by the tensorial difference between the total stress and the convected back stress
1 e p e >
T∗ = T − F T (F ) , (13.2)
Je
where the deviatoric back stress is given by the incompressible eight-chain model which can be written

p L
−1
λP /λp
µ lock
Tp = p −1 (1/λp
dev[bp ] (13.3)
λ L lock )
with µp , λplock being physically motivated material constants, bp = Fp (Fp )> , λp = (tr[bp ]/3)1/2 the effective chain
stretch based on the eight-chain topology assumption, and L−1(x) the inverse Langevin function.
In the original work the plastic flow rate was given by
τ 5/6
p As
γ̇ = γ̇0 exp − 1−
kB θ s
where γ̇0 , A, s are material constants, kB is Boltzmanns constant, and θ is the absolute temperature. It has been
shown by Hasan and Boyce [16] that the difference in behavior between a stress exponent of 5/6 and 1 is very small.
By taking the stress exponent to be 1 and grouping material constants together the expression for the plastic flow
rate can be simplified to
τ
γ̇ p = γ̇i exp , (13.4)
τbase
where γ̇i and τbase are material parameters. The focus of the current work is on isothermal deformation histories,
to explicitly include temperature effects the parameter τbase can be replaced by kB θ/A. The scalar equivalent
stress τ is here taken as the Frobenius norm of the deviatoric part of the driving stress τ = || dev[T∗ ]||F , where
||A||F ≡ (Aiij Aij )1/2 . The rate of plastic deformation is given by
γ̇ p
DP = dev[T∗ ] (13.5)
τ
and the plastic spin is taken to be zero [10], i.e. Wp = 0, which uniquely specifies the rate kinematics. The
time-derivative of Ḟ is given by
γ̇ p
Ḟp = Dp Fp = dev[T∗ ]Fp .
τ
Note that the original Boyce model also allows for modeling of strain softening through an evolution equation of
the athermal shear resistance, s:
s
ṡ = h 1 − γ̇ p , (13.6)
s0
where h, and sss are material parameters.
Chapter 14
Dual Network Fluoropolymer Model
14.1 Introduction
The Dual Network Fluoropolymer (DNF) model is an advanced material model capable of predicting the large-
strain, time- and temperature-dependent behavior of various types of fluoropolymers and other types of thermo-
plastics. The DNF model requires the material parameters in Table 14.1. The state variables that are used by the
Table 14.1: Material parameters used by the DNF model.

Name
1 µ0A muA0 S Shear modulus of network A
2 θ0 theta0 T Reference temperature
3 θbase thetaBase T Temperature factor
6 sB sB - Relative stiffness of network B
10 β beta - Pressure dependence of flow
12 n n - Temperature exponential
13 ηvol etaVol S Volumetric flow viscosity
14 a a - Plastic flow ratio
15 b b - Plastic flow exponent
16 σ0 sigma0 S Plastic flow strength
17 α alpha T−1 Thermal expansion coefficient
DNF-model are summarized in Table 14.2, and an exemplar ABAQUS material model specification for the DNF
model is shown in Table 14.3.
60
14.1. INTRODUCTION 61
Table 14.2: State variables used by the DNF model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 13 Viscoelastic deformation gradient Fv
14 − 22 Plastic deformation gradient Fp
23 Plastic onset strain
Table 14.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the DNF-model.
*Material, name=example_DNF
** DNF
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
10, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1,
1, 0, 32, 23, 10, 500, 0, 0,
** muA0, theta0, thetaBas, lamLock, kappa, sB, xi, C,
10.0, 293.0, 100.0, 3.0, 500, 4.0, 0.05, -0.50,
** tauBase, beta, m, n, etaVol, a, b, sigma0,
20.0, 0.01, 4.00, 10.0, 1.0e5, 0.02, 1.10, 10.00,
** alpha
1.0e-6
*Depvar
23
*Density
1000.0e-12
62 CHAPTER 14. DUAL NETWORK FLUOROPOLYMER MODEL

Fluoropolymers, as well as other thermoplastics, exhibit a complicated non-linear response when subjected to external
loads. At small deformations, the material response is linear viscoelastic. At larger strains, the material undergoes
distributed yielding, unrecoverable deformation, viscoplastic flow, and finally, gradual material stiffening at large
deformations until ultimate failure occurs. It is also known that the material response is strongly dependent on
strain-rate and temperature: higher deformation rates and lower temperatures increase the stiffness of the material.
In this work we have developed a new model for predicting these experimentally observed characteristics. The
proposed model is an extension of previous work by [6, 8, 9] and [15] for elastomers and glassy polymers.
There are a number of different candidate material models that are documented in the literature for predicting
the behavior of general thermoplastics (e.g. [12, 15, 17, 18]). Development of advanced constitutive models for
polymers is an active area of research that is continuously evolving and improving. Up until the last few years,
there were no constitutive models specifically developed for fluoropolymers, and the most useful models were either
classical isotropic plasticity, linear viscoelasticity models, or general models for thermoplastics [8, 15]. In the last few
years, however, constitutive models specifically developed for fluoropolymers have emerged [19, 20]. These models
are typically better at predicting the experimentally observed characteristics of fluoropolymers than traditional
isotropic plasticity or viscoelasticity models, but have limitations of isothermal conditions only. In this work we have
developed a new framework for predicting the thermomechanical behavior of fluoropolymers. In the following, this
new constitutive model is referred to as the Dual Network Fluoropolymer (DNF) model.
The DNF model incorporates experimental characteristics by using a decomposition of the material behavior into
a viscoplastic response, corresponding to irreversible molecular chain sliding (due to the lack of chemical crosslinks
in the material) and a time-dependent viscoelastic response. The viscoelastic response is further decomposed into
the response of two molecular networks acting in parallel: a first network (A) captures the equilibrium (long term) of
the viscoelastic response and a second network (B) the time-dependent (short term) deviation from the viscoelastic
equilibrium state. A one-dimensional rheological representation of this constitutive framework and a schematic
illustrating the kinematics of deformation are shown in Figure 14.1. The total deformation gradient Fappl contains
(a) (b)
Figure 14.1: (a) Rheological representation of the constitutive model; (b) Kinematics of deformation.
both a thermal expansion part Fth = [1 + α(θ − θ0 )] I, and a mechanical deformation part F:
Fappl = F Fth .
The deformation gradient F is multiplicatively decomposed into viscoplastic and viscoelastic components:
F = Fve Fp . (14.1)
The Cauchy stress acting on network A is given by the eight-chain representation [4, 8]:
µ0A (θ) L−1 λve∗ /λL

ve ve ve∗ κ ln[J ve ]
σ = f8ch (F ) = ve ∗ dev [B ] + 1, (14.2)
J λ L−1 (1/λL ) J ve
where J ve = det[Fve ], µ0A (θ) is a temperature-dependent initial shear modulus, λL is the chain locking stretch,
1/2
bve∗ = (J ve )−2/3 Fve (Fve )T is the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, λve∗ = (tr[bve∗ ]/3) is the effective chain
stretch based on the eight-chain topology assumption [4], L−1 (x) is the inverse Langevin function, where L(x) =
coth(x) − 1/x, and κ is the bulk modulus. By explicitly incorporating the temperature-dependence of the shear
modulus it is possible to capture the stiffness variation of the material over a wide range of temperatures. The
following expression is found to accurately capture the experimentally observed temperature dependence of the shear
modulus for temperatures between 20◦ C and 200◦ C:

θ0 − θ
µA (θ) = µ0A exp , (14.3)
θbase
where θ is the current temperature, and µ0A , θ0 , and θbase are material parameters.
The viscoelastic deformation gradient acting on network B is decomposed into elastic and viscous parts:
Fve = Fe Fv . (14.4)
The Cauchy stress acting on network B is obtained from the same eight-chain network representation that was
used for network A. For simplicity, the response of network B is taken as a scalar factor sB (a specified material
parameter) times the eight-chain expression that was used for network A applied on the deformation gradient Fe :
σ e = sB · f8ch (Fe ), (14.5)
where f8ch (·) is the tensorial function defined in Equation (14.2). Using this framework, the total Cauchy stress in
the system is given by σ = σ ve + σ e . The total velocity gradient of network B, Lve = Ḟve (Fve )−1 , can similarly be
decomposed into elastic and viscous components: Lve = Le + Fe Le Fe−1 = Le + L̃v , where Lv = Ḟv Fv−1 = Dv + Wv
and L̃v = D̃v + W̃v . The unloading process relating the deformed state with the intermediate state is not uniquely
defined, since an arbitrary rigid body rotation of the intermediate state still leaves the state stress free. The
intermediate state can be made unique in different ways [10], one particularly convenient way that is used here is
to prescribe W̃v = 0. This will, in general, result in elastic and inelastic deformation gradients both containing
rotations. The rate of viscoplastic flow of network B is constitutively prescribed by D̃v = γ̇dev v
Nvdev + γ̇vol
v
Nvvol ,
where the first term gives the deviatoric viscoelastic flow and the second term gives the volumetric viscoelastic flow.
The tensors Nvdev and Nvvol specify the directions of the driving deviatoric and volumetric stresses of the relaxed
v v
configuration convected to the current configuration, and the terms γ̇dev and γ̇vol specify the effective deviatoric and
e
volumetric flow rates. Noting that σ is computed in the loaded configuration, the driving deviatoric stress on the
relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration is given by σ e 0 = dev[σ e ], and by defining an effective
1/2
stress by the Frobenius norm τ e = ||σ e 0 ||F ≡ tr[σ e 0 σ e 0 ] , the direction of the driving deviatoric stress becomes
Nvdev = σ e 0 /τ e . The effective deviatoric flow rate is given by the reptation-inspired equation [8]:
m n
τe

v
C θ
γ̇dev = γ̇0 λv − 1 + ξ · · , (14.6)
τbase + βR(pe ) θbase
p
where λv = tr[Bv∗ ]/3 is an effective viscoelastic chain stretch,
Bv∗ = (J v )−2/3 Fv (Fv )T is the Cauchy-Green deformation tension, R(·) is the ramp function, pe = −(σ e11 + σ e22 +
e
σ 33 )/3 is the hydrostatic pressure, γ̇0 is a constant taken as 1/s (1 reciprocal second) that is needed for dimensional
consistency, and C, β, m, τbase , n, and θbase are specified material parameters. In this framework, the temperature
dependence of the flow rate is taken to follow a power law form. Due to the high bulk modulus of PTFE the effective
volumetric flow rate is small and is here simply represented with a constant viscosity ηvol :
v
γ̇vol = −pe /ηvol . (14.7)
In summary, the velocity gradient of the viscoelastic flow can be written

e

v dev[σ ]
Ḟv = Fe−1 γ̇dev + γ̇ v
vol I Fve . (14.8)
τe
64 CHAPTER 14. DUAL NETWORK FLUOROPOLYMER MODEL
The rate of plastic flow is captured by a simple phenomenological representation:

(
p ab( − 0 )b−1 ˙ if τ > σ0
γ̇ = (14.9)
0 otherwise
where a > 0, b > 0 and σ0 > 0 are material parameters, τ = || dev[σ]||F is the Frobenius norm of the deviatoric
portion of the Cauchy stress σ, and 0 is the effective strain at which τ becomes equal to σ0 . The effective strain in
Equation (14.9) is obtained from = ||Eln ||F , where Eln = ln[V] is the logarithmic strain, and ˙ is the rate of change
of the effective strain. The key feature of Equation (14.9) is that it predicts the rate of plastic flow to be proportional
to the applied strain rate and the magnitude of the current strain. By inserting F = Fve Fp into L = ḞF−1 , the
expression for the velocity gradient can be expanded to L = Lve + Fve Lp Fve = Lve L̃p . By taking W̃p = 0, the
viscoplastic velocity gradient can be written L̃p = γ̇ p dev[σ]/τ giving
dev[σ]
Ḟp = γ̇ p Fve−1 F, (14.10)
τ
specifying the rate kinematics of the plastic flow.
Chapter 15
Three Network Model
15.1 Introduction
The three network model (TNM) is a material model specifically developed for thermoplastic materials. It has
many features that are similar to the hybrid model, but is designed to be more numerically efficient. The TNM is
also a specialization of the more general Parallel Network Model.
The default behavior of MCalibration is to use an internal implementation of the TN-model that is using using a
different ODE solver than what is used in the PolyUMod library. MCalibration can be made to use the PolyUMod
implementation by setting the environmental variable MCAL USE POLYUMOD to the value 1.
The TNM model requires the material parameters listed in Table 15.1. There are currently two implementations
of the TN model. The default implementation is used by all solvers except Abaqus/Explicit. The implementation
that is used by Abaqus/Explicit is a newer implementation that is more numerically efficient, but only supports one
choice of ODE solver and uses a different set of state variables. By setting global material parameter 1 to -11 (instead
of 11), Abaqus/Explicit will use the default implementation instead of the new implementation.
The state variables that are used by the TN model are summarized in Tables 15.2 and 15.3, and an exemplar ma-
terial model specification in Abaqus input file format is shown in Table 15.4. The LS-DYNA Explicit implementation
is using 44 state variables.

As specified by its name, the kinematics of the three-network model consists of three parts, or molecular networks,
acting in parallel, see the rheological representation in Figure 15.1.
The total deformation gradient Fappl contains both a thermal expansion part Fth = [1 + α(θ − θ0 )] I, and a
mechanical deformation part F:
Fappl = F Fth .
The deformation gradient acting on network A is multiplicatively decomposed into elastic and viscoplastic compo-
nents:
F = FeA FvA . (15.1)
The Cauchy stress acting on network A is given by a temperature-dependent version of the eight-chain representation
[4, 8]:
θ − θ0 L−1 λe∗

µA A /λL
σ A = e e∗ 1 + dev [be∗ e
A ] + κ(JA − 1)1, (15.2)
JA λA θ̂ L−1 (1/λL )
65
66 CHAPTER 15. THREE NETWORK MODEL
Table 15.1: Material parameters used by the three-network model. Material parameters 18 to 23 are optional and
only used by Abaqus/Explicit.

Name
1 µA muA S Shear modulus of network A
2 θ̂ thetaHat T Temperature factor
5 τ̂A tauHatA S Flow resistance of network A
6 a a - Pressure dependence of flow
7 mA mA - Stress exponential of network A
9 µBi muBi S Initial shear modulus of network B
10 µBf muBf S Final shear modulus of network B
11 β beta - Evolution rate of µB
12 τ̂B tauHatB S Flow resistance of network B
13 mB mB - Stress exponential of network B
14 µC muC S Shear modulus of network C
15 q q - Relative contribution of I2 of network C
16 α alpha T−1 Thermal expansion coefficient
17 θ0 theta0 T Thermal expansion reference temperature
*where: - = dimensionless, S = stress, T = temperature, f = frequency
Table 15.2: State variables used by the three-network model for all solvers except Abaqus/Explicit and LS-DYNA
Explicit.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 13 Viscoelastic deformation gradient FvA
14 − 22 Plastic deformation gradient FvB
23 Shear modulus of network B: µB
Table 15.3: State variables used by the three-network model when used with Abaqus/Explicit.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 10 Viscoelastic Finger deformation tensor of network A
11 − 16 Viscoelastic Finger deformation tensor of network B
Table 15.4: Exemplar Abaqus UMAT parameters for the three-network model.

** TNM (parameters for GUR1050 XL110)
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
11, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 33, 23, 200, 4000, 0, 0,
** muA, thetaHat, lambdaL, kappa, tauHatA, a, mA, n,
192.15, 999, 3.11, 2000, 7.256, 0.000122, 9.729, 0,
** muBi, muBf, beta, tauHatB, mB, muC, q, alpha,
131.929, 48.259, 11.122, 25.399, 9.729, 8.3466, 0.20, 1.0e-6,
** theta0,
293
*Depvar
23
*Density
1000.0e-12
Figure 15.1: Rheological representation of the constitutive model. For the model to work as intended, Network A
should be stiffer and yield earlier than network B. That is: µA > µBi > µBf , and τ̂A < τ̂B .
68 CHAPTER 15. THREE NETWORK MODEL
e
where JA = det[FeA ], µA is the initial shear modulus, λL is the chain locking stretch, θ is the current tempera-
ture, θ0 is a reference temperature, θ̂ is a material parameter specifying the temperature response of the stiffness,
e −2/3 e 1/2
e∗
bA = (JA ) FA (FeA )> is the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, λe∗ e∗
A = (tr[bA ]/3) is the effective chain stretch
−1
based on the eight-chain topology assumption [4], L (x) is the inverse Langevin function, where L(x) = coth(x)−1/x,
and κ is the bulk modulus. By explicitly incorporating the temperature dependence of the shear modulus it is possible
to capture the stiffness variation of the material over a wide range of temperatures. Note if θ̂ = 0 then temperature
dependence of the stiffness is disabled.
The viscoelastic deformation gradient acting on network B is decomposed into elastic and viscoplastic parts:
F = FeB FvB . (15.3)
The Cauchy stress acting on network B is obtained from the same eight-chain network representation that was used
for network A.
θ − θ0 L−1 λe∗

µB B /λL
σ B = e e∗ 1 + dev [be∗ e
B ] + κ(JB − 1)1, (15.4)
JB λB θ̂ L−1 (1/λL )
e −2/3 e
where JBe
= det[FeB ], µB is the initial shear modulus, be∗B = (JB ) FB (FeB )> is the Cauchy-Green deformation
e∗ e∗ 1/2
tensor, and λB = (tr[bB ]/3) is the effective chain stretch based on the eight-chain topology assumption [4].
In Equation (15.4), the effective shear modulus is taken to evolve with plastic strain from an initial value of µBi
according to:
µ̇B = −β [µB − µBf ] · γ̇A , (15.5)
where γ̇A is the viscoplastic flow rate defined in Equation (15.7). This equation enables the model to better capture
the distributed yielding that is observed in many thermoplastics. Note, to make this feature work as intended
the flow of network A should occur before the flow of network B. That is, τ̂A should be less than τ̂B .
Also, µBi should be larger than µBf .
The Cauchy stress acting on network C is given by the eight-chain model with first order I2 dependence1 :
 
−1 λ∗
θ − θ0 L ∗

1  µC λL µ 2I
σC = 1+ dev [b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)1 + q c I1∗ b∗ − 2 I − (b∗ )2 , (15.6)
1 + q  Jλ∗ θ̂ L−1 1 J 3 
λL
where J = det[F], µC is the initial shear modulus, b∗ = J −2/3 F(F)> is the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, and
1/2
λ∗ = (tr[b∗ ]/3) is the effective chain stretch based on the eight-chain topology assumption [4].
Using this framework, the total Cauchy stress in the system is given by σ = σ A + σ B + σ C .
The total velocity gradient of network A, L = ḞF−1 , can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components:
L = LeA + FeA LvA Fe−1
A = LeA + L̃vA , where LvA = ḞvA Fv−1
A = DvA + WAv
and L̃vA = D̃vA + W̃A
v
. The unloading process
relating the deformed state with the intermediate state is not uniquely defined since an arbitrary rigid body rotation
of the intermediate state still leaves the state stress free. The intermediate state can be made unique in different
v
ways [10], one particularly convenient way that is used here is to prescribe W̃A = 0. This will, in general, result
in elastic and inelastic deformation gradients both containing rotations. The rate of viscoplastic flow of network
A is constitutively prescribed by D̃vA = γ̇A NA . The tensor NA specifies the direction of the driving deviatoric
stress of the relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration, and the term γ̇A specifies the effective
deviatoric flow rate. Noting that σ A is computed in the loaded configuration, the driving deviatoric stress on the
relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration is given by σ 0A = dev[σ A ], and by defining an effective
1/2
stress by the Frobenius norm τA = ||σ 0A ||F ≡ (tr[σ 0A σ 0A ]) , the direction of the driving deviatoric stress becomes
0
NA = σ A /τA . The effective deviatoric flow rate is given by the reptation-inspired equation [8]:
mA n
τA θ
γ̇A = γ̇0 · · , (15.7)
τ̂A + aR(pA ) θ0
1 This representation is similar to the Mooney-Rivlin model with non-Gaussian chain statistics.
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant introduced for dimensional consistency, pA = −[(σ A )11 + (σ A )22 + (σ A )33 ]/3 is the
hydrostatic pressure, R(x) = (x+|x|)/2 is the ramp function, and τ̂A , a, mA , and n are specified material parameters.
In this framework, the temperature dependence of the flow rate is taken to follow a power law form. In summary,
the velocity gradient of the viscoelastic flow of network A can be written
dev[σ A ]
ḞvA = γ̇A Fe−1
A F. (15.8)
τA
The total velocity gradient of network B can be obtained similarly to network A. Specifically, L = ḞF−1 can
e−1
be decomposed into elastic and viscous components: L = LeB + FeB LvB FB = LeB + L̃vB , where LvB = ḞvB Fv−1
B =
v v v v v
DB + WB and L̃B = D̃B + W̃B . The unloading process relating the deformed state with the intermediate state
is not uniquely defined since an arbitrary rigid body rotation of the intermediate state still leaves the state stress
free. The intermediate state can be made unique in different ways [10], one particularly convenient way that is
v
used here is to prescribe W̃B = 0. This will, in general, result in elastic and inelastic deformation gradients both
containing rotations. The rate of viscoplastic flow of network B is constitutively prescribed by D̃vB = γ̇B NB . The
tensor NB specifies the direction of the driving deviatoric stress of the relaxed configuration convected to the current
configuration, and the term γ̇B specifies the effective deviatoric flow rate. Noting that σ B is computed in the loaded
configuration, the driving deviatoric stress on the relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration is
1/2
given by σ 0B = dev[σ B ], and by defining an effective stress by the Frobenius norm τB = ||σ 0B ||F ≡ (tr[σ 0B σ 0B ]) ,
0
the direction of the driving deviatoric stress becomes NB = σ B /τB . The effective deviatoric flow rate is given by
the reptation-inspired equation [8]:
mB n
τB θ
γ̇B = γ̇0 · · , (15.9)
τ̂B + aR(pB ) θ0
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant introduced for dimensional consistency, pB = −[(σ B )11 + (σ B )22 + (σ B )33 ]/3 is the
hydrostatic pressure, and τ̂B , a, mB , and n are specified material parameters. In this framework, the temperature
dependence of the flow rate is taken to follow a power law form. In summary, the velocity gradient of the viscoelastic
flow of network B can be written
dev[σ B ]
ḞvB = γ̇B Fe−1
B F. (15.10)
τB
Chapter 16
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain

Model
16.1 Introduction
The Bergstrom anisotropic eight-chain (AEC-BER) model is an extension of the isotropic Arruda-Boyce eight-
chain model [4] in which anisotropic behavior is introduced by the addition of three orthogonal families of fibers.
Each family of fibers is contributing to the stiffness response in a given direction. The required material parameters
for the anisotropic eight-chain model (AEC) are summarized in Table 16.1. The state variables that are used by the
Table 16.1: Material parameters used by the anisotropic eight-chain model.

Name
4 A1 A1 S Quadratic stiffness coefficient in the 1-direction
5 B1 B1 S Linear stiffness coefficient in the 1-direction
anisotropic eight-chain model are summarized in Table 16.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in Table 16.3. The
chain strain state variable is defined by: p
70
Table 16.2: State variables used by the anisotropic eight-chain model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
Table 16.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the anisotropic eight-chain
model.
*Material, name=example_AEC
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
12, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
** VINT, -, RES1, RES2, RES3, RES4, RES5, RES6,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
** mu, lambdaL, kappa, A1, B1, A2, B2, A3,
1.0, 4.00, 100.0, 0.20, 0.010, 0.01, 0.001, 0.01,
** B3
0.001
*Depvar
4
*Density
1000.0e-12
72 CHAPTER 16. BERGSTROM ANISOTROPIC EIGHT-CHAIN MODEL

The predicted stress response of the anisotropic eight-chain model can be written
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I + (16.2)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
X3 2
+ Ai λfi + Bi λfi − (Ai + Bi ) âi ⊗ âi . (16.3)
i=1
where µ is the shear modulus, κ the bulk modulus, λL is the limiting chain stretch, Ai and Bi are the anisotropic
fiber coefficients. The vectors âi = Fai0 /λfi = Fei /λfi , and λfi = ||ai ||. The variable b∗ = J −2/3 b is the distortional
left Cauchy-Green tensor, and λ∗ is the applied chain stretch which can be calculated from
r
tr[b∗ ]
λ∗ = . (16.4)
3
In Equation (16.2), L−1(x) is the inverse Langevin function, where L(x) = coth(x) − 1/x, is the Langevin function,
and L−1(x) can be estimated from [5]:
(
1.31446 tan(1.58986x) + 0.91209x, if |x| < 0.84136
L−1 (x) ≈ (16.5)
1/(sign(x) − x), if 0.84136 ≤ |x| < 1.
For the purpose of calculating the Jacobian, the eight-chain model can be considered a version of the neo-Hookean
model in which the shear modulus is a function of the applied deformation. Specifically, the effective shear modulus
in the eight-chain model is given by
µ L−1(λ∗ /λL )
µeff λ∗ = ∗ · −1 . (16.6)
λ L (1/λL )
The total Jacobian is given by the same Jacobian as for the neo-Hookean model with µ replaced by µeff , plus the
following term
1 ∂µeff
[c]ij = dev[b∗ ]i . (16.7)
J ∂εj
The partial derivative of µeff with respect to εi can be simplified using the chain rule
1 ∂µeff ∂λ∗ ∂I1∗

[c]ij = dev[b∗ ]i .
J ∂λ∗ ∂I1∗ ∂εj
The following equations are useful for evaluating this equation:
∂µeff (λ∗ ) 1 ∂L−1(λ∗ /λL ) L−1(λ∗ /λL )

µ 1
= · · −
∂λ∗ λ∗ L−1(1/λL ) λL ∂(λ∗ /λL ) λ∗
(
dL−1(x) 2.08981 tan2 (1.58986x) + 3.0019, if x < 0.84136
=
dx 1/(1 − x)2 , if 0.84136 ≤ x < 1.
"r #
∂λ∗ ∂ I1∗ 1
∗ = ∗ = ∗
∂I1 ∂I1 3 6λ
For practical purposes, however, it is often not necessary to consider the term in Equation (16.7), but instead simply
use the neo-Hookean Jacobian with the effective shear modulus in Equation (16.6).

The response of the eight-chain model in a 2D deformation mode can be derived using the same approach as for the
neo-Hookean model. In summary, the stress is given by:
µ L−1 λ/λL

1
σ̃ = b̃ − Ĩ , (16.8)
λ L−1 (1/λL ) J˜2
16.4. UNIAXIAL THEORY 73
where λ is the chain stretch obtained from

r r
tr[b] 1
λ= = tr[b̃] + 1/J˜2 (16.9)
3 3
16.4 Uniaxial Theory

For a one-dimensional loading situation the eight-chain model stress is given by:
µ L−1 λ/λL

2 1
σ= F − . (16.10)
λ L−1 (1/λL ) F
Chapter 17
Micromechanical Foam Model
17.1 Introduction
The micromechanical foam model (MFM) is an advanced model for predicting the time-dependent, non-linear
large-strain behavior of polymer foams. The MF-model is unique in that it not only considers the viscoelastic response
of the material but also explicitly takes into account the density of the foam and the initial pore pressure inside the
foam. The model has been been shown to be accurate for both low density and high density foams.
The PolyUMod implementation of the MFM model requires the material parameters in Table 17.1. The state
Table 17.1: Material parameters used by the Micromechanical foam model.

Name
1 Es Es S Young’s modulus when no porosity
2 αE alphaE - Modulus density scaling factor
3 hE hE - Modulus density scaling factor
4 ν0 nu0 - Poisson’s ratio in the limit of 100% porosity
5 νs nus - Poisson’s ratio in the limit of no porosity
6 ρr rhor - Reduced density of the material
7 λL lambdaL - Limiting chain stretch
9 p0 p0 S Initial gas pressure inside the foam voids
12 τ̂ tauHat S Normalized flow resistance
13 m m - Stress exponent
variables that are used by the MF-model are summarized in Table 17.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in
Table 17.3.
An example of the predictions of the micro-foam model is shown in Figure 17.1 illustrating the good agreement
between the micro-foam model and the experimental data for a polyurethane foam testing in uniaxial compression,
plane strain compression, and simple shear at two different rates. The foam that is examined in this example had a
reduced density of 0.4, and the material response was captured using the parameters in Table ??. Figure 17.2 shows
74
Table 17.2: State variables used by the PolyUMod implementation of the MF model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 13 Deformation gradient FvB
Table 17.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the MF-model.
*Material, name=example_MFM
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 29, 13, 1.0, 100, 0, 0,
** Es, alphaE, hE, nu0, nus, rhor, lamL, sB,
1.0, 4.0, 100.0, 0.5, 0.05, 0.5, 4.00, 5.00,
** p0, xi, C, tauHat, m
0.0, 0.05, -0.5, 1.0, 5.0
*Depvar
13
*Density
1000.0e-12
Figure 17.1: Comparison between the experimental data for a soft foam and predictions from the micro-foam model.
76 CHAPTER 17. MICROMECHANICAL FOAM MODEL
the predicted response for a hypothetical material that is made from the same raw material as the foam shown in
Figure 17.1 but without any porosity.
Figure 17.2: Prediction of the stress-strain response of the raw material without any porosity.

One of the main variables of a foam is its reduced density, ρr = ρ/ρs , where ρ is the density of the foam, and ρs is
the density of the foam in its solid state.
In the MFM, the Young’s modulus of the foam is given by
hE
ρr + αE
E(ρr ) = Es · , (17.1)
1 + αE
where Es is the Young’s modulus of the solid foam, and αE and hE are material parameters. For many foams it has
been shown [21] that αE = 0.0056, and hE = 3.12.
Similarly, the Poisson’s ratio for many foams has been shown to vary linearly with reduced density [21]. By
specifying the Poisson’s ratio in the limit of zero density (ν0 ) and in the limit of fully dense (νs ), the Poission’s ratio
at any density can be written:
ν(ρr ) = ν0 + (νs − ν0 )ρr . (17.2)
For closed-cell foams the initial gas pressure inside the cells (p0 ) can contribute to the overall response of the
foam. By assuming the gas follows the ideal gas law it can be shows that the stress resulting from a volumetric
deformation is given by

1
σ G = p0 − 1 I. (17.3)
J
The deformation resistance from the cell walls is obtained by considering the deformation gradient to acting on two
parallel macromolecular networks: F = FA = FB , see the rheological representation in Figure 17.3. The deformation
Figure 17.3: Rheological representation of the micromechanical foam model.
gradient acting on network B is further decomposed into elastic and viscoelastic components: FB = FeB FvB .
The response of network A is given by a compressible eight-chain model:
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

σA = dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (17.4)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
The stress on network B is also given by a compressible eight-chain model, but with a different effective shear
modulus:
s µ L−1 λe∗

B /λL
σB = dev[be∗ e
B ] + κ(JB − 1)I, (17.5)
JB λe∗
B
L−1 (1/λL )
λe∗
B is the chain stretch in the elastic part of Network B. Using this representation the total Cauchy stress is given
by
σ = σA + σB + σG . (17.6)
78 CHAPTER 17. MICROMECHANICAL FOAM MODEL
The velocity gradient on network B, LB = ḞB F−1B , can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components:

d −1
LB = (F F ) (FeB FvB )
e v
dt B B
h i
−1 −1
−1 −1 −1
= LeB + FeB LvB FeB
= LeB + L̃vB , (17.7)
where
−1
v
, (17.8)
L̃vB = D̃vB + v
W̃B . (17.9)
v
prescribed by:
B ) NB , (17.10)
where
dev[σ B ] dev[σ B ]
NvB = = . (17.11)
τ || dev[σ]B ||F
and τ is the effective stress driving the viscous flow. The time derivative of FvB can be derived as follows:
L̃vB = γ̇B
v
NvB , (17.12)
−1 −1
⇒ FeB ḞvB (FvB ) (FeB ) v
= γ̇B NvB ,
−1 dev[σ B ]
⇒ ḞvB = γ̇B
v
(FeB ) Fe Fv . (17.13)
|| dev[σ]B ||F B B
The rate-equation for viscous flow is given by [6]:

m
v
C τ
γ̇B = γ̇0 λvB − 1 + ξ , (17.14)
τbase
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant introduced to ensure dimensional consistency,

hE
ρr + α E
τbase = τ̂ · (17.15)
1 + αE
is the effective flow resistance, and

r
tr[bvB ]
λvB = . (17.16)
3
is the viscoelastic chain stretch. The effective stress driving the viscous flow is:
q
τ = || dev[σ B ]||F = tr [σ 0B σ 0B ]. (17.17)
Chapter 18
Parallel Network Model
18.1 Introduction
The parallel network model (PNM) is a very versatile model that can be used to simulate the behavior of many
different types of polymeric materials.
• Elastic components (section 18.2.1)
• Temperature dependence of the elastic component (section 18.2.2)
• Thermal expansion of the elastic component (section 18.2.3)
• Damage accumulation of the elastic component (section 18.2.4)
• Network failure models (section 18.3.1)
• Flow components (section 18.4.1)
• Temperature dependence of the flow model (section 18.4.2)
• Pressure Dependence of the Flow Model (section 18.4.3)
• Yield evolution of the flow model (section 18.4.4)
• Global failure model (section 18.5)
• Damage growth models (section 18.5.2)
• Temperature dependence of the global failure (section 18.5.3)
• Strain-rate dependence of the global failure (section 18.5.4)
• Output safety factor (section 18.5.5)
• Residual stress (section 18.7)
The structure of the PNM can be represented as a number of parallel networks as shown in Figure 18.1.
The material parameters for the PNM are specified for each network at a time. All networks must have an
elastic component specified by an type id variable, followed by optional specifications of the temperature, damage,
and failure properties of the elastic component; followed by an optional flow component parameters, with optional
temperature, pressure, and yield evolution dependence.
The following sections specify the different components that are available and their material parameters.
79
80 CHAPTER 18. PARALLEL NETWORK MODEL
Figure 18.1: Rheological representation of the parallel network model.
18.2 Elastic Response

Each network needs to have an elastic component. The following lists the component types are available. For each
component type is a set of parameters given. This set is the required parameter for that component. For example,
the linear elastic component takes three parameters: (1) type id = 1, selecting the linear elastic component (2) A
Young’s modulus (3) A Poisson’s ratio
The elastic components do not require any state variables.
18.2.1 Elastic Components

Linear elastic
Index Value Symbol Name Unit* Description
1 1 - EType - Elastic component type
2 - E E S Young’s modulus
3 - ν nu - Poisson’s ratio
The Cauchy stress for the linear elastic element is given by:
σij = 2µεij + λεkk δij , (18.1)
where µ = E/[2(1 + ν)], and λ = Eν/[(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)].
Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Model

2 - µ mu S shear modulus
3 - κ kappa S bulk modulus
The Cauchy stress for the neo-hookean element is given by:

µ
σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ (J − 1) I. (18.2)
J
18.2. ELASTIC RESPONSE 81
Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Model

2 - C10 C10 S I1 coefficient
The Cauchy stress for the Mooney-Rivlin model is given by:
2I1∗ C10 4I2∗ C01

2 ∗ ∗ 2C01 ∗ 2
σ = (C10 + C01 I1 ) b − (b ) + κ(J − 1) − − I. (18.3)
J J 3J 3J
Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model

3 - λL lambdaL - locking stretch
The Cauchy stress for the eight-chain model [4] is given by:
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (18.4)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model

2 - C10 C10 S linear term in I1
3 - C20 C20 S quadratic term in I1
4 - C30 C30 S 3rd order term in I1
The Cauchy stress for the Yeoh model [22] is given by:
2n 2
o
σ= C10 + 2C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I. (18.5)
J
Gent Hyperelastic Model

3 - Jm Jm - large-strain specification
The Cauchy stress for the Gent model [23] is given by:
µ 1
σ= · ∗ dev[b∗ ] + κ[J − 1] I. (18.6)
J 1 − I1 −3
Jm
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model

5 - A1 A1 S anisotropic parameter A (1-dir)
6 - B1 B1 S anisotropic parameter B (1-dir)
11 - α alpha - compression factor
The Cauchy stress for the anisotropic eight-chain model is given by:
3
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

X 2
∗ f f f
σ= dev[b ] + κ(J − 1)I + f (λi ) Ai λi + Bi λi − (Ai + Bi ) âi ⊗ âi , (18.7)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL ) i=1
where f (λfi ) = [(1 − α) · H(λfi − 1) + α], H(x) is the Heaviside step function, α is a material parameter between 0 and
1, ai = Fei = λfi âi , and λfi = ||ai ||. With this definition the function f (λfi ) is equal to 1 if the fibers are stretched
and equal to α when the fibers are in compression. If α = 1 then the fibers contribute as much in compression as in
tension, and if α = 0 then the fibers do not contribute to the compressive response.
Hyperfoam Model
2 - N N - Number of terms
3 - µ1 mu1 S shear modulus 1
4 - α1 alpha1 - shape parameter 1A
5 - β1 beta1 - shape parameter 1B
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- µN muN S shear modulus N
- αN alphaN - shape parameter NA
- βN betaN - shape parameter NB
The Cauchy stress for the hyperfoam model is given by:

3 X N
X 2µj αj
λi − J −αj βj n̂i ⊗ n̂i .

σ= (18.8)
i=1 j=1
Jαj
P P
The initial shear modulus is given by: µeff = µi , the initial bulk modulus is given by: κeff = 2µi · (1/3 + βi ).
The parameter βi can be approximated from: βi = νi /(1 − 2νi ), and νi = βi /(1 + 2βi ).
Bischoff Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model

4 - a1 a1 - RVE size in the 1-dir
The Cauchy stress in the Bischoff model [24] is given by:

4 3 2
X 3µ L−1 (λf /λL ) X ai
σ= −1
(Fâf ) ⊗ (Fâ f ) − 3µ ei ⊗ ei + κ(J − 1)I. (18.9)
4Jλf L (1/λL ) i=1
λL
f =1
where
• µ is the shear modulus,
• κ is the bulk modulus,
• a1 , a2 , a3 are the side lengths of the unit cell in the undeformed configuration,
• J = det(F),
• L−1(·) is the inverse Langevin function,
p
• λL = a21 + a22 + a23 ,
• â1 = [+a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 ]/λL ,
• â2 = [+a1 e1 + a2 e2 − a3 e3 ]/λL ,
• â3 = [+a1 e1 − a2 e2 + a3 e3 ]/λL ,
• â4 = [+a1 e1 − a2 e2 − a3 e3 ]/λL ,
• λf = ||Fâf || = [âf · Câf ]1/2 where f = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model with Global Stiffening

5 - β beta - stiffening parameter
The Cauchy stress for the Yeoh model is given by:

2n 2
o
σ= vg C10 + 2vg C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3vg C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I. (18.10)
J
where vg = 1 + βεeff , and εeff is the applied global chain strain.
Eight-chain Model with Rate-Dependent Stiffness

5 - µR muR - strain-rate magnitude
6 - ε̇of f epsDOff 1/t strain-rate offset
*where: - = dimensionless, S = stress, t = time
The Cauchy stress for the eight-chain model with strain rate dependent stiffness is given by:
−1 ∗
L

µ ε̇eff λ /λL
σ= 1 + µR ln 1 + dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (18.11)
Jλ∗ ε̇off L−1 (1/λL )
Four Parameter Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model

The Cauchy stress for four-parameter eight-chain model is given by:

" #
1 µ2 L−1 λ∗ /λL
σ= µ1 + ∗ −1 dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (18.12)
J λ L (1/λL )
This modification of the original eight-chain model enables the predicted stress-strain behavior to be fit better to
experimental data, specifically for large deformation cases. The effective shear modulus for the model is given by
µ1 + µ2 .
Ogden Model
2 - N N - number of terms
4 - α1 alpha1 - exponent 1
5 - D1 D1 - volumetric term 1
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- µN muN S shear modulus N
- αN alphaN - exponent N
- DN DN - volumetric term N
The principal stresses σi , i ∈ [1, 2, 3] for the Ogden model [25], are given by
N XN
2 X µk 1 2k 2k−1
σi = (λ∗i )αk − [(λ∗1 )αk + (λ∗2 )αk + (λ∗3 )αk ] + (J − 1) . (18.13)
J αk 3 Dk
k=1 k=1
Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with Small Strain Softening

1 14 - EType - elastic component type
2 - µi mui S initial shear modulus
3 - µf muf S final shear modulus
4 - ε̂ epsH - transition strain for mu


σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (18.14)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
eff
−ε ε̂
µeff = µf + (µi − µf ) 1 − exp , (18.15)
ε̂ εeff
and where εeff is global Mises strain.

Eight-Chain Hyperelastic Model with I2 -Dependence

1 15 - EType - elastic component type
5 - q q - relative contribution of I2
The Cauchy stress for the eight-chain model [4] with linear I2 dependence is given by:
 
−1 λ∗
1  µ L λL

µ ∗ ∗ 2I2 ∗

σ= dev [b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)1 + q I b − I − (b∗ )2 , (18.16)
1 + q  Jλ∗ L−1 1 J 1 3 
λL
where J = det[F], µ is the initial shear modulus, b∗ = J −2/3 F(F)> is the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, and
1/2
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden Model
2 - C10 C10 S Yeoh coefficient C10
5 - κ kappa S Bulk modulus
6 - k1 k1 S Fiber stiffness parameter 1
7 - k2 k2 - Fiber stiffness parameter 2
8 - d dispersion - Fiber dispersion parameter
9 - a1x a1x - x-direction of fiber family 1
10 - a1y a1y - y-direction of fiber family 1
11 - a1z a1z - z-direction of fiber family 1
The Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden (HGO) model [26, 27] is an anistropic hyperelastic material model that is a built-in
feature of Abaqus. The version of the model that is implemented here is using a Yeoh hyperelastic model as the matrix
response (Abaqus uses a neo-Hookean matrix material). The material model is using up to three different families
of fibers. The initial fiber directions are given by the three vectors [a1x , a1y , a1z ], [a2x , a2y , a2z ], and [a3x , a3y , a3z ].
The three fiber directions do not have to be orthogonal. If a fiber direction is specified as a zero vector then that
fiber family will not be used in the analysis.
The strain energy function for the model is given by the following function:
3
k1 X h k2 hEi i2 i
Ψ = ΨYeoh + e −1 (18.17)
2k2 i=1
where
• the energy term Ei is: Ei = d(I1∗ − 3) + (1 − 3d)[I4i

∗
− 1]
• d is the dispersion
∗
• I4i = (F∗ ai ) · (F∗ ai )
• hxi = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function
• H(x) is the Heaviside step function
If d = 0 then the fibers are perfectly aligned, and if d = 1/3 the fibers are randomly oriented giving an isotropic
response.
Eight-Chain Model with Different Stiffness in Tension and Compression

2 - µT muT S shear modulus in tension
3 - µC muC S shear modulus in compression
4 - µS muS S shear modulus in shear
5 - r00 r0p - Slope of dr/dx at x = 0
7 - κ̂ kappaHat - bulk modulus normalized by the shear modulus
The Cauchy stress for the eight-chain model with different stiffness in tension and compression is given by:
µ L−1 λ∗ /λL

σ= dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (18.18)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL )
where
µ = rµT + (1 − r)µC , (18.19)
and r is a factor that controls the shear modulus depending on the nature of the stress field. Specifically, the factor
r depends on x ≡ tr[σ]/σm , using a 3rd-order polynomial: r(x) = Ax3 + Bx2 + y00 x + y0 . The parameters A and B
are given by the conditions: r(−1) = 0, r0 (−1) = 0, r(1) = 1, r0 (1) = 0.
The shear modulus in shear is given by: µS = r(0)µT + (1 − r(0))µC . Here µS is specified, hence r(0) =
(µS − µC )/(µT − µC ). Typically, the shear modulus in shear should be between the shear modulus in tension and
the shear modulus in compression.
In these equations, σM is the Mises stress, and κ = κ̂µ. The material model has the same Poisson’s ratio in
tension and compression.
The following figures illustrate the functional dependence of r on the stress ratio x:
A common value of r00 is 0.5.

The Poisson’s ratio can be obtained from κ̂ from:
3κ̂ − 2
ν= , (18.20)
6κ̂ + 2
and κ̂ can be obtained from the Poisson’s ratio from:
2 + 2ν
κ̂ = , (18.21)
3 − 6ν
which is also summarized in the following table:
ν κ̂ = κ/µ
0.10 0.92
0.20 1.33
0.30 2.17
0.40 4.67
0.45 9.67
0.49 49.67
This model requires one (1) state variable.
Hyperfoam Model with Different Stiffness in Tension and Compression

2 - µt/c mutc - Shear modulus in tension divided by the shear
modulus in compression
3 - µs/c musc - Shear modulus in shear divided by the shear
modulus in compression
4 - r00 r0p - Slope of dr/dx at x = 0
6 - µ1 mu1 S shear modulus 1 (in compression)
7 - α1 alpha1 - shape parameter 1A
8 - β1 beta1 - shape parameter 1B
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- µN muN S shear modulus N (in compression)
- αN alphaN - shape parameter NA
- βN betaN - shape parameter NB
3 X N
X 2µj rµt/c + (1 − r) αj
λi − J −αj βj n̂i ⊗ n̂i .

σ= (18.22)
i=1 j=1
Jα j
P
The initial effective
shear modulus
is given by: µeff = µi rµt/c + (1 − r) , the initial bulk modulus is given by:
P
κeff = 2µi rµt/c + (1 − r) · (1/3 + βi ). The parameter βi can be approximated from: βi = νi /(1 − 2νi ), and
νi = βi /(1 + 2βi ).
The factor r is a parameter that controls the value of the shear modulus depending on the nature of the stress
field. Specifically, the factor r depends on x ≡ tr[σ]/σm , using a 3rd-order polynomial: r(x) = Ax3 + Bx2 + y00 x + y0 .
The parameters A and B are given by the conditions: r(−1) = 0, r0 (−1) = 0, r(1) = 1, r0 (1) = 0.
The shear modulus in shear is given by: µis = r(0)µt/c µi + (1 − r(0))µi . Here µs/c is specified, hence r(0) =
(µs/c − 1)/(µt/c − 1). Typically, the shear modulus is shear should be between the shear modulus in tension and the
shear modulus in compression. Note, if µs/c is given a value that is less than zero, then (µs/c − 1) is taken to be
(µt/c − 1)/2.
In these equations, σM is the Mises stress, and κ = κ̂µ. The material model has the same Poisson’s ratio in
tension and compression.
This model requires one (1) state variable.
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model with I2 -Dependence and Pressure Dependent Bulk Modulus
7 - P̂ Phat S Reference pressure
The Cauchy stress for the Yeoh model with I2 dependence is given by:
2n 2
o 2
C10 + 2C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + C01 I1∗ b∗ − (b∗ )2

σ= (18.23)
J J
4 ∗
+κ/(1 − κ · (J − 1)/P̂ )I − I C01 I, (18.24)
3J 2
where P is the pressure.
Hyperfoam Model with Small Strain Softening

3 - µ1i mu1i S initial shear modulus 1
4 - µ1f mu1f S final shear modulus 1
5 - ε̂1 epsH1 - transition strain for mu 1
6 - α1 alpha1 - shape parameter alpha 1
7 - β1 beta1 - shape parameter beta 1
··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- µN i muNi S initial shear modulus N
- µN f muNf S final shear modulus N
- ε̂N epsHN - transition strain for mu N
- αN alphaN - shape parameter alpha N
- βN betaN - shape parameter beta N

3 XN
X 2µj αj
λk − J −αj βj n̂k ⊗ n̂k .

σ= (18.25)
j=1
Jαj
k=1

eff
−ε ε̂
µj = µjf + (µji − µjf ) 1 − exp eff
, (18.26)
ε̂ ε
and where εeff is global
P
P Mises strain. The initial shear modulus is given by: µeff = µj , the initial bulk modulus
is given by: κeff = 2µj · (1/3 + βj ). The parameter βi can be approximated from: βi = νi /(1 − 2νi ), and
νi = βi /(1 + 2βi ).
Alternative Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Model

The strain energy function for the alternative neo-Hookean hyperelastic material is given by:
µ κ 2
Ψ= (I1 − 3) − µ ln(J) + (J − 1) . (18.27)
2 2
The Cauchy stress for the alternative neo-hookean element is given by:
µ
σ= (b − I) + κ (J − 1) I. (18.28)
J
This formulation can be useful for materials with low bulk modulus that are exposed to large compressive strains.
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden-Bergstrom Model
6 - k11 k11 S Fiber stiffness parameter 1 (for family 1)
10 - ˆ epsHat - Transition strain for k
11 - g0 g0 - initial stiffness scale factor
22 - α alpha - stiffness factor in compression
The Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden-Bergstrom (HGOB) model is an anisotropic hyperelastic material model that is an

extenson of the original HGO model [26, 27]. The version of the model that is implemented here is using a Yeoh
hyperelastic model as the matrix response (Abaqus uses a neo-Hookean matrix material). The material model is
using up to three different families of fibers. The initial fiber directions are given by the three vectors [a1x , a1y , a1z ],
[a2x , a2y , a2z ], and [a3x , a3y , a3z ]. The three fiber directions do not have to be orthogonal or normalized. If a fiber
direction is specified as a zero vector then that fiber family will not be used in the analysis.
The strain energy function for the model is given by the following function:
3
1 X h 2
i
Ψ = ΨYeoh + f (Ei ) k̂1i ek̂2 ·(Ei ) − 1 (18.29)
2k̂2 i=1
where
• The energy term Ei is: Ei = d(I1∗ − 3) + (1 − 3d)[I4i
∗
− 1]
• The function f (Ei ) = (1 − α) · H(Ei ) + α. The parameter α has to be between 0 and 1. If α = 0 then the
fibers have no stiffness in compression, if α = 1 then the fibers are equally stiff in tension and compression.
• gk () is the strain correction factor for the fiber stiffnesses and is given by gk () = 1 − (1 − g0 ) · exp(−m /ˆ
),
where m is the Mises strain acting on the elastic element.
• k̂1i = k1i · gk () , k̂2 = k2 · gk ().
• d is the dispersion
∗
• I4i = (F∗ ai ) · (F∗ ai )
• H(x) is the Heaviside step function
If d = 0 then the fibers are perfectly aligned, and if d = 1/3 the fibers are randomly oriented giving an isotropic
response.
Yeoh Hyperelastic Model with Non-Linear Bulk Response

5 - κ1 kappa1 S bulk modulus
6 - κ3 kappa3 S Third-order bulk response
7 - κ5 kappa5 S Fifth-order bulk response
The Cauchy stress for the Yeoh model [22] is given by:
2n 2
o
C10 + 2C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + κ1 (J − 1) + κ3 (J − 1)3 + κ5 (J − 1)5 I.

σ= (18.30)
J
Extended Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden-Bergstrom Model

13 - ˆ epsHat - Transition strain for k
14 - g0 g0 - initial stiffness scale factor
34 - α alpha - stiffness factor in compression
The Extended Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden-Bergstrom (HGOB) model is an anisotropic hyperelastic material model that
is an extenson of the HGOB model (Etype=22). This model is using 6 fiber families.
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model with Rate-Dependent Stiffness

5 - µR muR - strain-rate magnitude
6 - ε̇of f epsDOff 1/t strain-rate offset
13 - α alpha - compression factor
The Cauchy stress for the anisotropic eight-chain model is given by:
3
aµ L−1 λ∗ /λL

X 2
∗ f f f
σ= dev[b ] + κ(J − 1)I + a f (λ i ) A i λi + B λ
i i − (A i + Bi ) âi ⊗ âi , (18.31)
Jλ∗ L−1 (1/λL ) i=1
where a = 1 + µR ln(1 + ε̇eff /ε̇off ), f (λfi ) = [(1 − α) · H(λfi − 1) + α], H(x) is the Heaviside step function, α is a
material parameter between 0 and 1, ai = Fei = λfi âi , and λfi = ||ai ||. With this definition the function f (λfi ) is
equal to 1 if the fibers are stretched and equal to α when the fibers are in compression. If α = 1 then the fibers
contribute as much in compression as in tension, and if α = 0 then the fibers do not contribute to the compressive
response.
18.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the Elastic Component

The elastic component can be made temperature dependent by specifying the multiplication factors given in this
section. The specification of temperature dependence of the elastic component is optional. Each temperature model
gives a scalar factor that is used to scale the stress that is calculated by the elastic component.
The temperature dependence models for the elastic components do not require any state variables.
Linear temperature dependence

1 101 - ET Type - Elastic temperature type
2 - q q - Temperature scaling factor
3 - θ0 theta0 T Reference temperature
*where: - = dimensionless, T = temperature
The total stress is scaled by the factor:

θ − θ0
fθ = 1 + q · (18.32)
θ0
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if q = −2.93 then fθ = 0.9 when the temperature is 10◦ C higher
than the reference temperature (θ0 ).
Exponential temperature dependence


θ − θ0
fθ = exp q · (18.33)
θ0
than the reference temperature.
Power-law temperature dependence

3 - θF thetaF T Factor temperature

fθ = q (θ−θ0 )/θF (18.34)
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if q = 0.9, then fθ goes down by a factor of 0.9 for each increase
in temperature of θF .
Piecewise linear temperature dependence

3 - θ1 theta 1 T Temperature #1
4 - f1 f1 - fθ value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- θN theta N T Temperature #N
- fN fN - fθ value #N
The total stress is scaled by the factor fθ . The number of terms (N ) has to be less than 100.
18.2.3 Thermal Expansion of the Elastic Component

The elastic component can undergo thermal expansion if the temperature is changing. The specification of the
thermal expansion is optional.
Linear thermal expansion

1 201 - ETE Type - Elastic thermal expansion type
2 - α alpha 1/T linear thermal expansion coefficient
The deformation gradient caused by thermal expansion is given by:
Fth = (1 + α∆θ)I, (18.35)
where ∆θ = θ − θ0 is the difference between the current temperature and the reference temperature. This thermal
expansion model requires no state variables.
Quadratic thermal expansion

2 - A A T First temperature coefficient
3 - B B T Second temperature coefficient

" 2 #
th ∆θ ∆θ
F = 1+ + sign(B) I, (18.36)
A |B|
Linear thermal expansion with plasticity

2 - α alpha 1/T Linear thermal expansion coefficient
4 - θbase thetaBase T Temperature resistance level
5 - m m - Power exponent
6 - ff ff - Evolution factor
7 - εbase epsBase - Transition strain
8 - a a 1/t Pre-factor
9 - εmax
th epsThMax - Max transformation strain
Fth = (1 + α∆θ + εpth )I, (18.37)
where  m
a · θ , if |εpth | < εmax
ε̇pth = fε θbase th
(18.38)
0, otherwise.
−|εpth |

fε = ff + (1 − ff ) exp , (18.39)
εbase
and ∆θ = θ − θ0 is the difference between the current temperature and the reference temperature. This model is
designed to capture the change in strain that is introduced with increasing temperature for a phase changing material,
or a material with initial built-in residual strains. This thermal expansion model requires one state variable.
Orthotropic linear thermal expansion

2 - α1 alpha1 1/T linear thermal expansion coefficient in the 1-dir

 
1 + α1 ∆θ 0 0
Fth =  0 1 + α2 ∆θ 0  (18.40)
0 0 1 + α3 ∆θ
Piecewise linear thermal expansion

2 - θ0 theta0 - Reference temperature
4 - θ1 theta1 T Temperature #1
5 - α1 alpha 1 - α value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- αN alpha N - α value #N
Fth = (1 + α(θ)∆θ)I, (18.41)
expansion model requires no state variables. The number of terms (N ) has to be less than 100.
18.2.4 Damage Accumulation of the Elastic Component

The stiffness of the elastic component can be decreased due to damage accumulation. This damage accumulation
acts to scale either the stiffness or the overall stress state. The specification of damage accumulation is optional.
The following damage component types are available:
Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect

1 301 - ED Type - Elastic damage type
2 - r r - Magnitude of Mullins effect
3 - Û Uhat S Energy reference
4 - β beta - Parameter
In the Ogden-Roxburgh damage model the effective stress is given by
σ = η dev[σ] + vol[σ], (18.42)
where the scalar damage magnitude is given by

" #
max
1 Udev − Udev
η = 1 − erf (18.43)
r max
Û + βUdev
max
The Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect model requires two state variables: (1) damage magnitude η, (2) Udev .
Enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect

2 - r r - Magnitude of Mullins effect
4 - β beta - Parameter
5 - αmin alphaMin - Parameter
6 - b b - Parameter
The enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect model was developed by J. Bergstrom and is an extension of the
original model that better captures the damage accumulation during cyclic loading.
The stress response of the enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh model is given by
σ = η dev[σ] + vol[σ], (18.44)
where " #
max
1 Udev − αUdev
η = 1 − erf (18.45)
r max
Û + βUdev
max max
" min b #
Udev
Udev
(
max max
Udev = min
(18.48)
max min
The enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect model requires three state variables: (1) Udev , (2) Udev , (3) η.
Linear damage from plastic strain

2 - q q - Damage accumulation coefficient
*where: - = dimensionless
This damage model was developed by J. Bergstrom to capture the reduction in tangent modulus after strain reversal
that occurs with increasing strain magnitude for certain polymers.
The damage factor is given by
η = max[1 + qεp , 0], (18.49)
where εp is the plastic strain magnitude.
The damage-based stress response is given by
σ = η dev[σ] + vol[σ]. (18.50)
The linear damage from plastic strain model requires one state variables.
Exponential damage growth after initiation

2 - - d type - Type of damage initiation condition
3 - Emax EMax - Critical strain at damage initiation
4 - A A - Damage growth factor A
5 - B B - Damage growth factor B
This damage evolution model was developed by J. Bergstrom in order to enable a gradual transition in the mechanical
response from damage initiation to final failure. The model is useful, for example, in explicit simulations where
elements are deleted at a critical failure strain. In this case better convergence properties can be obtained by adding
this damage growth model in order to more gradually disperse the energy that is stored in the failing element before
it gets eliminated.
The type of elastic damage initiation condition (d type) has to be one of the following:
1 : mises strain
2 : max principal strain
3 : chain strain
The stress response of the damage model is given by:
σ damage = ησ, (18.51)
where
η = min[η̂; ηmin ] (18.52)
(
1, if ε < εmax
η̂ = (18.53)
A + (1 − A)eB(ε−εmax ) , otherwise
This damage evolution model requires one state variable (ηmin ). Examples of the damage evolution model are shown
in the following figure:
Enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect with temperature dependence

2 - r0 r0 - Magnitude of Mullins effect at T0
4 - β beta - Offset parameter
5 - αmin alphaMin - Recovery parameter
6 - b b - Recovery exponential
7 - T0 T0 T Reference temperature
8 - T̂ That T Temperature factor
The enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect model was developed by J. Bergstrom and is an extension of the
original model that better captures the damage accumulation during cyclic loading.
The stress response of the enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh model is given by
σ = η dev[σ] + vol[σ], (18.54)
where " #
max
1 Udev − αUdev
η =1− erf (18.55)
r(θ) max
Û + βUdev
max max
" min b #
Udev
Udev
(
max max
Udev = min
(18.58)

θ − T0
r(θ) = r0 exp . (18.59)
T̂
max min
The enhanced Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect model requires three state variables: (1) η, (2) Udev , (3) Udev .
Damage evolution from plastic strain

This damage model was developed by J. Bergstrom to capture the reduction in tangent modulus after strain reversal
that occurs with increasing strain magnitude for certain polymers. This damage model is similar to ED Type=303,
but is may provide more robust predictions since the damage level is controlled to always be in the range [1, ηss ].
2 - ηss eta ss - Steady-state damage state
3 - h h - Characteristic transition rate
The damage factor is given by

dη
= h(ηss − η)γ̇ p , (18.60)
dt
where η = 1 at t = 1.
The damage-based stress response is given by
σ = η dev[σ] + vol[σ]. (18.61)
The damage evolution from plastic strain model requires one state variables.
Time-Based Damage evolution

This damage model was developed by J. Bergstrom to capture the time-dependent degradation of bioabsorbable
polymers such as PLLA. The model is based on the equation:
dη
= −Aη − B (18.62)
dt
where η is the degradation state, and the variables A and B are considered constant (but may be stress or strain
dependent for some materials). Based on this assumed model structure the degradation state can be calculated from:
η(t) = (1 − ηss ) · e−t/t̂ + ηss . (18.63)

The variable t̂ is the characteristic degradation time, and ηss is the steady-state degradation values.
This model needs the following material parameters:
18.3. NETWORK-BASED FAILURE CRITERION 99

3 - t̂ tt t Characteristic degradation time
*where: - = dimensionless, t = time
The degradation state is η = 1 at t = 1. The damage-based stress response is given by
σ dam = ησ. (18.64)
The damage evolution model does not require any state variables.
18.3 Network-Based Failure Criterion

The stress prediction from the elastic component can be coupled with a failure criterion. Once the pre-defined failure
condition has been reached the integrity, and stress, of the current network is eliminated. The global failure flag is
set once all networks have failed.
18.3.1 Failure Models

Max Principal Stress
1 401 - NF Type - Elastic failure condition
2 - σ1max S1Max S Max Maximum principal stress
This failure model requires one state variable.
Max Mises Stress

max
2 - σm SMisesMax S Max Mises stress
Max Principal Strain

2 - εmax
1 E1Max - Max maximum principal strain
Mises Strain
2 - εmax
m EmisesMax - Max Mises strain

Chain Strain
2 - εchain EChainMax - Max chain strain
The chain strain state is defined by: p

εchain = ln tr[b]/3. (18.65)
Chain Strain from Viscous Flow

The chain strain state is obtained from Fv by:

p
εchain = ln tr[bv ]/3. (18.66)
Rate of Viscous Flow

2 - Ḟmax
v FvDotMax 1/t Max rate of viscous flow
The rate of visous flow is calculated from:

||Fv (t + dt)|| − ||Fv (t)||
||Ḟv || = . (18.67)
dt
The visous flow velocity can be compared to the dilatation wave speed. In a quasi-static simulation the following
condition should be satisfied: s
E
||Ḟv || < α , (18.68)
L2 ρ
where α is a dimensionless scale factor. If the rate of visous flow is exceeded the element is immediately removed.
Hence this failure condition is really a network-based global failure condition. This failure model requires two state
variable. The first state variable is a flag indicating if the failure condition has been reached yet, the second state
variable contains the current value of the rate of visous flow.
Plastic Hill Strain

1 408 - NF Type - Global failure condition
2 - εM EpsM - Critical Hill strain
3 - F F - Anisotropic parameter F
4 - G G - Anisotropic parameter G
5 - H H - Anisotropic parameter H
6 - L L - Anisotropic parameter L
7 - M M - Anisotropic parameter M
8 - N N - Anisotropic parameter N
18.4. FLOW RESPONSE 101
The total plastic Hill strain is calculated from:

p p
εtot tot
H (t + dt) = εH (t) + ||εH (t + dt) − εH (t)||, (18.69)
where the viscoplastic Hill strain is defined by:

n2 4 o1/2
εpH (t) = F (εp22 − εp33 )2 + G(εp33 − εp11 )2 + H(εp11 − εp22 )2 + L(εp23 )2 + M (εp31 )2 + N (εp12 )2 (18.70)
9 3
where εpij is the viscoplastic strain. If F = G = H = 1 and L = M = N = 1, then the Hill strain becomes identical
to the Mises strain.
This failure model requires two state variables.
18.4 Flow Response

Each network can contain a flow component in addition to the elastic component. The following lists the available
specifications of flow type component. The specification of a flow type component is optional.
The flow type components require 9 state variables for three-dimensional elements, 5 state variables for plane
strain and axisymmetric elements, 4 state variables for plane stress and shell elements, and 1 state variable for
one-dimensional elements.
18.4.1 Flow Type Components

Linear Viscoelastic Flow
1 501 - FType - Flow Model Type
2 - τ̂ tauHat S Shear flow resistance
The flow rate for the linear viscoelastic model is given by:

p τ
γ̇ = . (18.71)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where τ is the applied shear stress, and τ̂ is the shear resistance. Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero
at all times. If the initial Young’s modulus is given by E, then the characteristic relaxation time is given by τ̂ /E,
and in constant strain-rate (ε̇) loading the characteristic transition strain is given by ε̇τ̂ /E.
Power-Law Flow
3 - m m - Shear flow exponent
The flow rate for the power-law model is given by:

m
p τ
γ̇ = . (18.72)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times.
Bergstrom-Boyce Flow
2 - ξ xi - Strain adjustment factor
3 - C C - Strain exponent
The flow rate for the Bergstrom-Boyce flow model is given by:
m
p C τ
γ̇ = [λL − 1 + ξ] · . (18.73)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where λL is the chain stretch. Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times.
Exponential Energy Activated Flow

2 - γ̇0 gDot 1/t Attempt frequency
3 - G/K Gdk T Activation volume
4 - τ̂ tauHat S Flow resistance
*where: - = dimensionless, S = stress, t=time, T=temperature
The flow rate for the exponential energy activated flow model is given by:

p (G/K) τ
γ̇ = γ̇0 exp − 1− . (18.74)
θ fp fεp fθ τ̂
The parameter gDot = γ̇0 , and the parameter Gdk = G/K. Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at
all times.
Anisotropic BB-type Flow

2 - ξ xi - strain correction factor
3 - C C - strain exponential
5 - m m - stress exponent
6 - F F - Hill parameter F
7 - G G - Hill parameter G
8 - H H - Hill parameter H
9 - L L - Hill parameter L
10 - M M - Hill parameter M
11 - N N - Hill parameter N
m
p

v
C τhill
γ̇ = λ − 1 + ξ · , (18.75)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where r
tr[bv ]
λv =
3
is the chain stretch in the flow component. The effective Hill stress is given by:
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

τhill = F (σ22 − σ33 ) + G (σ33 − σ11 ) + H (σ11 − σ22 ) + 2Lσ23 + 2M σ31 + 2N σ12 (18.76)
The effective Hill stress becomes equal to the Mises stress if: F = G = H = 1, and L = M = N = 3. Note that if
τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times.
Bergstrom-Boyce Network-Dependent Flow

This flow model is a modification of the original Bergstrom-Boyce flow model in which the flow resistance stress is
dependent on the network state through a factor fv . The reason for the modification is that most elastomer-like
materials are experimentally shown to have less strain-rate dependence during unloading than during loading. This
flow model introduces the the ability to capture this response.

6 - α alpha - Flow stress factor
The flow rate for the Bergstrom-Boyce network-dependent flow model is given by:
m
p m τ
γ̇ = [λL − 1 + ξ] · . (18.77)
fv fp fεp fθ τ̂
where λL is the chain stretch, and

fv = max[0.1, 1 + αε : εe ],
where ε = ln[v], εe = ln[ve ]. Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times.
Power-Law Flow with Strain-Dependence

This model is an extension of the power-law flow model in which the stress expoment m is dependent on the plastic
strain magnitude. The purpose of this model is to enable accurate predictions of elastomers both at small and large
strains. At small strains the m value is often smaller than at larger strains.

3 - mi mi - Strain exponent at small strains
4 - mf mf - Strain exponent at large strains
5 - ε̂ epsH - Transition strain
The flow rate for the power-law flow model with strain-dependence is given by:
meff
p τ
γ̇ = . (18.78)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where meff is given by:

p
meff = [mi − mf ] e−ε /ε̂
+ mf (18.79)
and where εp is the Mises strain from Fp . Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times.
Power-Law Shear and Volumetric Flow

This model is an extension of the power-law flow model in which the flow occurs due to both shear and volumetric
deformation. The purpose of this model is to enable accurate predictions of compressible materials.
3 - ms ms - Shear stress exponent
4 - p̂ pHat S Volumetric flow resistance
5 - mv mv - Pressure exponent
The deviatoric flow rate is given by: ms

p τ
γ̇dev = . (18.80)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
The volumetric flow rate is given by: mv
|pe |

p
γ̇vol = , (18.81)
fp fεp fθ p̂
where the hydrostatic stress is pe = tr[σ e ]/3.
Chaboche Non-Linear Kinematic Hardening Plasticity

This plasticity flow element is based on Chaboche non-linear kinematic hardening. This flow element can only be
used in combination with a linear elastic spring element with temperature dependence. The spring cannot have
thermal expansion or damage. Similarly, the the plastic flow cannot be combined with pressure dependence or yield
evolution.
2 - σy sigmaY S Initial yield strength
3 - α alpha - Normalized saturated hardening stress
4 - β beta - Transition hardening strain
The stress is given by a linear elastic spring with a Young’s modulus E and a Poisson’s ration ν. The plastic flow is
given by the Chaboche non-linear kinematic hardening model:
2α ||ε̇p ||
σ̇ back = σy ε̇p − σ back , (18.82)
3β β
where σ̇ back is the time-derivative of the back stress, and ε̇p the time-derivative of the plastic strain. The parameter
σy is the initial yield stress, ασy is the final yield stress, and βC is transition strain for the yield stress evolution.
This flow model is using 12 state variables (1-6 are σ back , and 7-12 are σ).
Double Power-Law Flow

2 - τ̂1 tauHat1 S Shear flow resistance 1
3 - m1 m1 - Shear flow exponent 1
4 - τ̂2 tauHat2 S Shear flow resistance 2
5 - m2 m2 - Shear flow exponent 2
The flow rate for the power-law model is given by:

m1 m2
τ τ
γ̇ p = + . (18.83)
fp fεp fθ τ̂1 fp fεp fθ τ̂2
Note that if τ̂1 < 0 or τ̂2 < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times. This model can be used to capture
two different flow mechanisms that have the same stiffness response. The implementation is almost as fast as the
standard power-law flow model. This model can be used to capture the strain-rate dependence of the initial Young’s
modulus that is observed in some thermoplastic materials.
Sinh Energy Activation Flow

2 - γ̇ 0 gammaDot0 1/t Attempt frequency
3 - ∆G/kB dGdK T Activation volume
*where: - = dimensionless, t=time, T=temperature, S=stress
The flow rate for the sinh energy activation flow model is given by:

p 0 −∆G ∆G τ
γ̇ = γ̇ exp × sinh . (18.84)
kB θ kB θ τ̂
In this equation, ∆G is the activation energy, τ̂ is the isotropic shear resistance, kB is Boltzmann’s constant, and θ
is the absolute temperature.
Bergstrom-Boyce Flow with Strain-Dependent m

5 - mi mi - Initial shear flow exponent
6 - mf mf - Final shear flow exponent
7 - ε̂ epsH - Transition strain
The flow rate for the Bergstrom-Boyce flow model is given by:
meff
p C τ
γ̇ = [λL − 1 + ξ] · . (18.85)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where λL is the chain stretch, and
meff = (mi − mf ) · e−ε/ε̂ + mf , (18.86)
and where ε is the Mises strain from Fp . Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times, and if
ε̂ = 0 then meff ≡ mi .
Tsai-Wu Power Flow

1 513 - F Type - Flow model type
4 - F1 F1 - Parameter F1
The flow rate is given by: m

σTW
γ̇ p = , (18.87)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
The effective Tsai-Wu stress is obtained by solving for σTW in:
1 1 2 2 2 2 2
[F1 σ11 + F2 σ22 + F3 σ33 ] + F11 σ11 + F22 σ22 + F33 σ33 + F44 σ23 + F55 σ31 +
σT W σT2 W
2
F66 σ12 + 2F12 σ11 σ22 + 2F13 σ11 σ33 + 2F23 σ22 σ33 ] = 1, (18.88)
The Tsai-Wu model is described in more detail in the section about global failure model 918 (see also Eq. (18.149)).
Note that if τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times.
Anisotropic Double Powerlaw-type Flow

2 - τ̂1 tauHat1 S Flow resistance 1
3 - m1 m1 - Stress exponent 1
4 - τ̂2 tauHat2 S Flow resistance 2
5 - m2 m2 - Stress exponent 2
m1 m2
p τhill τhill
γ̇ = + . (18.89)
fp fεp fθ τ̂1 fp fεp fθ τ̂2
The effective Hill stress is given by:

h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

Note that if τ̂1 < 0 or τ̂2 < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times. This model can be used to capture
two different flow mechanisms that have the same stiffness response. The implementation is almost as fast as the
standard power-law flow model. This model can be used to capture the strain-rate dependence of the initial Young’s
modulus that is observed in some thermoplastic materials.
Anisotropic BB-type Flow with Flow Cessation

12 - αc alphaC - Cutoff orientation
m
α/αc − 1 C (α/αc )τhill
γ̇ p =

· λv − 1 + ξ · , (18.91)
α0 /αc − 1 fp fεp fθ τ̂
where r
tr[bv ]
λv =
3
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times. The molecular orientation angle α is defined in [28]. Typically,
αc is about 0.05.
Anisotropic BB-type Flow with Directionality

12 - A A - Parameter for σ11
13 - B B - Parameter for σ22
14 - C C - Parameter for σ33
The flow rate for the exponential energy activated flow model is the same as for FType=505 except that is contains
additional directionality dependence by parameters A, B, and C:
m
p
C τhill + A|σ11 | + B|σ22 | + C|σ33 |
γ̇ = λv − 1 + ξ · , (18.93)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where r
tr[bv ]
λv =
3
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

Anisotropic BB-type Flow with Anisotropic Flow Cessation

12 - αc alphaC - Cutoff orientation
13 - a1 a1 - Unit cell size 1
16 - p p - Power exponent for flow cessation
p m
α C τhill
γ̇ p = R

− αc · λv − 1 + ξ · , (18.95)
α0 fp fεp fθ τ̂
where r
tr[bv ]
λv =
3
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

The molecular angle α is given by the smallest angle between the diagonal in the unit cell [a1 , a2 , a3 ] mapped to
its deformed shape by the deformation gradient F and the edges of the mapped unit cell. The parameter αc specifies
the limiting angle below which no viscoelastic flow will occur.
Anisotropic BB-type Flow (tauHat, m)

2 - ξ xi - Strain correction factor
3 - C C - Strain exponential
5 - m1 m1 - Stress exponent in 1-dir
m
p

v
C τhill
γ̇ = λ − 1 + ξ · , (18.97)
fp fεp fθ τ̂
where r
tr[bv ]
λv =
3
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

τ̂ < 0 then the flow is taken to be zero at all times. The parameter m is given by:
 1/2
ε21 + ε22 + ε23
, (18.99)
 
 2 2 2 
ε1 ε2 ε3
m1 + m2 + m3
and [ε1 , ε2 , ε3 ] are principal strains.
18.4.2 Temperature Dependence of the Flow Model

The flow model can be modified to include temperature dependence using one of the following functional expressions.
The specification of temperature dependence of the flow model is optional.
The temperature dependence of the flow models do not require any state variables.
Linear Temperature Dependence

1 601 - FT Type - Flow temperature type
The flow rate is scaled by the factor:

θ − θ0
fθ = 1 + q · (18.100)
θ0
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if q = −3.66 then fθ = 0.5 when θ − θ0 = 40, and θ0 = 293 K.


θ − θ0
fθ = exp q · (18.101)
θ0
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if q = 20.3 then fθ = 2 when θ − θ0 = 10, and θ0 = 293 K.


fθ = q (θ−θ0 )/θF (18.102)
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if q = 2.0 and θF = 10K, then fθ goes up by a factor of 2.0 for
each increase in temperature of θF .

2 - - N - Number of terms
4 - f1 f1 - fθ value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
The flow rate is scaled by the factor fθ . The number of terms (N ) has to be less than 100.
Temperature raised to a power

2 - n n - Power exponent

n
θ
fθ = (18.103)
θ0
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if n = 10 and θ0 = 293K, then fθ = 1.4 when θ = 303K.
18.4.3 Pressure Dependence of the Flow Model

The flow model can be modified to include pressure dependence of yield. This effect can be experimentally observed
when comparing tension and compression predictions with corresponding experimental data. The specification of
pressure dependence is optional.
The pressure dependence of the flow models do not require any state variables.
Linear Pressure Dependence

1 701 - FP Type - Flow pressure type
2 - p̂ phat S Pressure scaling factor
The flow resistance τ̂ is pre-multiplied by the factor:
fp = [1 + p/p̂] (18.104)
where p = − tr[σ]/3 is the current pressure.
Truncated Linear Pressure Dependence

2 - p̂ phat S Pressure scaling factor
fp = [1 + R(p)/p̂] (18.105)
where p is the current pressure, and R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function.
Different Flow in Tension and Compresison

2 - τt/c tautc - flow resistance in tension divided by the flow
resistance in compression
fp = rτt/c + (1 − r) (18.106)
The parameter r is given by: 
0,
 if tr[σ]/σm ≤ −1
r = 1, if tr[σ]/σm ≥ 1 (18.107)
 tr[σ]
+ 21 , otherwise

2σm
where σM is the Mises stress. In this model, fp = τt/c in uniaxial tension, fp = 1 in uniaxial compression, and a
value in [1, τt/c ] for other loading modes.
18.4.4 Yield Evolution of the Flow Model

The flow resistance in the flow model can be taken to evolve with applied effective Mises plastic strain:
r
2 v
εp = [(ε − εv2 )2 + (εv2 − εv3 )2 + (εv3 − εv1 )2 ] (18.108)
9 1
This approach is commonly used to represent the evolution (increase) in yield stress with plastic strain and/or strain
softening of glassy polymers beyond initial yield. This idea is here extended by directly specifying the target flow
resistance as a function of applied plastic strain. The specification of a yield evolution model is optional. The
following yield evolution models are available.
Piecewise Linear Flow Resistance

1 801 - FYE Type - Flow evolution type
2 - h h 1/t Rate of evolution
3 - - N - Number of terms
4 - ε0 eps 0 - Plastic strain #1
5 - g0 g0 - Target resistance value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- εN eps N - Plastic strain #N
- gN gN - Target resistance value #N
The flow resistance τ̂ is scaled by the factor fεp .

The yield evolution correction factor is controlled by the differential equation:

dfεp fεp
=h 1− . (18.109)
dt g(εp )
This flow evolution model requires one state variable.
Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance

2 - ff ff - Final value of fεp
3 - ε̂ epsHat - Characteristic transition strain
The flow evolution factor fεp is given by

−εp
fεp = ff + (1 − ff ) exp .
ε̂
An example of this flow resistance model is shown in the following figure. In this example ff = 0.5 and ε̂ = 0.2.
This flow evolution model requires no state variables.

Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance

2 - f1 f1 - Final value of fεp for exponential 1
3 - e1 e1 - Characteristic transition strain for exponential
1
2

1 −εp −εp
fεp = f1 + (1 − f1 ) exp + f2 + (1 − f2 ) exp .
2 e1 e2
An example of this flow resistance model is shown in the following figure. In this example f1 = 2.5, f2 = −0.8,
e1 = 0.005, and e2 = 0.14.
Increasing exponential evolution of the flow resistance

2 - ff ff - Final value of fεp
3 - ε̂ epsHat - Characteristic transition strain
This yield evolution model is the same as model 802, except that the flow evolution factor is monotonically increasing.
Here, fεp is given by
max
−εp
fεp = ff + (1 − ff ) exp .
ε̂
This flow evolution model requires one state variables, the max strain εmax
p .
Anisotropic Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance

3 - e1 e1 - Transition strain for exponential 1
5 - e2 e2 - Transition strain for exponential 2

1 −εp −εp
fεp = f1 + (1 − f1 ) exp + f2 + (1 − f2 ) exp ,
2 e1 e2
where εH is the Hill strain defined by:

n2 4 o1/2
εp = F (εp22 − εp33 )2 + G(εp33 − εp11 )2 + H(εp11 − εp22 )2 + L(εp23 )2 + M (εp31 )2 + N (εp12 )2 . (18.110)
9 3
Note that:
• If F = G = H = 1 and L = M = N = 1, then the Hill strain becomes identical to the Mises strain.
p
• For incompressible uniaxial loading in the 1-direction the Hill strain becomes εH = ε (G + H)/2.
p
• For incompressible uniaxial loading in the 2-direction the Hill strain becomes εH = ε (F + H)/2.
p
• For incompressible uniaxial loading in the 3-direction the Hill strain becomes εH = ε (F + G)/2.
Linear Rate Evolution with Plastic Strain

2 - h h - Rate of flow evolution constant
3 - f0 f0 - Initial resistance value
4 - fmax fmax - Final resistance value
5 - g g - Interaction parameter 1
6 - n n - Interaction parameter 2
The flow resistance is evolving with plastic strain following:
fεp = f1 (εp ) + g · (λnchain − 1),
where λchain is the chain stretch given by p

λchain = tr[b]/3.
The function f1 (εp ) is given by:
f1
f˙1 = h × 1 − × γ̇ p .
fmax
This flow evolution model requires one state variables, the current value of fεp .
Incremental Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance

1
2

1 −εp.tot −εp.tot
fεp = f1 + (1 − f1 ) exp + f2 + (1 − f2 ) exp .
2 e1 e2
where
εp.tot (t + dt) = εp.tot (t) + max[0, ∆εp.tot ].
An example of this flow resistance model is shown in the following figure. In this example f1 = 2.5, f2 = −0.8,
e1 = 0.005, and e2 = 0.14.
This flow evolution model is the same as model 803, but the plastic strain is monotonically increased based on the
incremental plastic strain. This flow evolution model requires one state variable (total plastic strain).
Double Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance with Time-Based Damage

1
2
7 - t̂ tt t Characteristic degradation time

h
1 −εp −εp i
fεp = f1 + (1 − f1 ) exp + f2 + (1 − f2 ) exp · (1 − ηss ) · e−t/t̂ + ηss
2 e1 e2
This flow evolution model requires no state variables. The purpose of this model is to capture first-order changes to
the yield stress due to physical ageing or degradation through time-dependent processes.
Triple Exponential Evolution of the Flow Resistance

1
2
3

1 −εp −εp −εp
fεp = f1 + (1 − f1 ) exp + f2 + (1 − f2 ) exp + f3 + (1 − f3 ) exp . (18.111)
3 e1 e2 e3
Cosh Evolution of the Flow Resistance

2 - A A - Width of the yield evolution peak
3 - B B - Height of yield evolution peak
4 - F F - Drop in yield evolution factor after peak
B
fεp = [cosh(−1) − cosh(2εp /A − 1)] + 1, (18.112)
0.543
if x < A, otherwise
fεp = (1 − F ) + F exp [−(εp − A)/(AF/ cosh(1))] . (18.113)
18.5 Global Failure Criterion

The total stress and strain predictions can be coupled with a global failure criterion. A global failure criterion
specified as part of the PNM model enables the same functionality as the global parameters 15 and 16, with the
additional benefit that it can use more than one material parameter and hence can be based on a more advanced
failure model. Note that multiple global failure criteria can be defined and active at the same time.
18.5. GLOBAL FAILURE CRITERION 117

Max Principal True Stress
1 901 - GF Type - Global failure condition
2 - σ1max S1Max S Max Maximum principal stress
This failure model requires one state variable (the current value of the failure model).
Mises True Stress

max
Max Principal True Strain

2 - εmax
Mises True Strain

2 - εmax
m EmisesMax - Max Mises strain
True Chain Strain


εchain = ln tr[b]/3. (18.114)
True Hill Stress

2 - σH SigH S Critical Hill stress
The failure of the material is taken to occur when:

1 2 1/2
F (σ22 − σ33 )2 + G(σ33 − σ11 )2 + H(σ11 − σ22 )2 + 2Lσ23
2 2

√ + 2M σ31 + 2N σ12 ≥ 1, (18.115)
2σH
where σ is the true stress. The failure model requires six parameters that can be determined from experimental
failure data:

2 1 1 1
F = σH + − 2 , (18.116)
X22 X32 X1

2 1 1 1
G = σH + − 2 , (18.117)
X12 X32 X2

2 1 1 1
H = σH + − , (18.118)
X12 X22 X32
σ2
L = H2 , (18.119)
X23
σ2
M = H2 , (18.120)
X13
σ2
N = H2 (18.121)
X12
where X1 , X2 , and X3 are the maximum true stresses in the 1-, 2-, and 3-directions, X12 , X13 , X23 are the maximum
shear stresses in the 1-2, 1-3, and 2-3 planes.
If F = G = H = 1 and L = M = N = 3, then the Hill stress becomes identical to the Mises stress.
As an example, if F > 1, G = H = 1, and L = M = N = 3, then the failure strain is larger in the 1-direction
than the 2- or 3-directions. This failure model requires one state variable (the current value of the left-hand-side in
Eq. (18.115)).
True Hill Strain

2 - εM EpsM - Critical Hill strain
The Hill strain is defined by:
n2 4 2 o1/2
εH = F (ε22 − ε33 )2 + G(ε33 − ε11 )2 + H(ε11 − ε22 )2 + Lε23 + M ε231 + N ε212 (18.122)
9 3
If F = G = H = 1 and L = M = N = 1, then the Hill strain becomes identical to the Mises strain.
The following cases illustrate the use of the Hill strain condition.
• If F > 1, G = H = 1, and L = M = N = 1, then the failure strain is larger in the 1-direction than the 2- or
3-directions.
• If a highly anisotropic film has a strain to failure in the 2-direction that is 60% larger than in the 1-direction,
then the failure of that film can be modeled using F = 0.35, G = 3.0, H = 1.
p
• If an incompressible material is uniaxially loaded in the 1-direction by the strain ε then: εH = ε (G + H)/2.
p
• If an incompressible material is uniaxially loaded in the 2-direction by the strain ε then: εH = ε (F + H)/2.
p
• If an incompressible material is uniaxially loaded in the 3-direction by the strain ε then: εH = ε (F + G)/2.
This failure model requires one state variable (the current value of the Hill strain).
True Stress-Based Damage Accumulation

2 - t0 t0 t Characteristic time constant
3 - σref sigRef S Stress factor
4 - m m - Stress exponent
*where: - = dimensionless, t = time, S = stress
m
dD 1 σe
= exp , (18.123)
dt t0 σref
where σe is the Mises stress. At t = 0 there is no damage: D(0) = 0. Element failure is taken to occur once D ≥ 1.
To exemplify the use of this failure model consider the case of monotonic loading with constant stress rate: σ = σ̇t.
If we assume m = 1, then the damage accumulation becomes
σref
D(σ) = [exp(σ̇t/σref ) − 1] . (18.124)
t0 σ̇
If the material fails at σfail then the constant t0 is given by:

σref σfail
t0 = exp −1 , (18.125)
σ̇ σref
and the damage equation becomes
exp(σ/σref ) − 1
D(σ) = . (18.126)
exp(σfail /σref ) − 1
True Strain-Based Damage Accumulation

3 - A1 A1 - Strain pre-factor 1
4 - B1 B1 - Strain exponent 1
dD 1
= exp A1 εB B2

e + A2 ε e , (18.127)
1
dt t0
where εe is the Mises strain. At t = 0 there is no damage: D(0) = 0. Element failure is taken to occur once D ≥ 1.
To exemplify the use of this failure model consider the case of monotonic loading with constant strain rate (ε = ε̇t).
As an example, let B1 = 1, and A2 = 0. In this case the damage as a function of strain is given by:
1
D(ε) = [exp(A1 ε) − 1] . (18.128)
A1 ε̇t0
If the material fails at a strain of εfail under the applied conditions then the constant t0 is given by:
1 A1 εfail
t0 = e −1 (18.129)
A1 ε̇
giving
D(ε) = (exp[A1 ε̇t] − 1)/(exp[A1 εfail ] − 1). (18.130)
By selecting A = 10, εfail = 1 and ε̇0 = 1/s, the constant t becomes 2200.
Anisotropic True Strain-Based Damage Accumulation

dD 1 h i
= exp A1 εB B2
H + A2 ε H ,
1
(18.131)
dt t0
where εH is the Hill strain defined by:

n2 4 2 o1/2
εH = F (ε22 − ε33 )2 + G(ε33 − ε11 )2 + H(ε11 − ε22 )2 + Lε23 + M ε231 + N ε212 (18.132)
9 3
If F = G = H = 1 and L = M = N = 1, then the Hill strain becomes identical to the Mises strain.
At t = 0 there is no damage: D(0) = 0. Element failure is taken to occur once D ≥ 1. This failure model requires
one state variable.
2D Anisotropic True Chain Strain

2 - εmax
chain EChainMax - Max chain strain
3 - f f - Rotation factor of molecular chains
The molecular chains in the material are assummed to be randomly pre-oriented with an initial length that is specified
by an eliptical distribution:
x 2 y 2
+ = 1, (18.133)
a b
where (
1, if f > 1
a= (18.134)
f, if f < 1
(
1/f, if f > 1
b= (18.135)
1, if f < 1
For numerical efficiency, the molecular orientations are discretized into 180 different angles, and the stretch in each
direction ξ 0 = [a, b] is calculated from ξ = Fξ 0
The molecular strain is given by εch = ln |ξ|. Element failure is taken to occur once εch exceeds a critical value.
The factor f determines the anisotropy of the failure condition. This failure model is only applicable for plane
stress elements. This failure model requires one state variable (the current value of the failure model).
Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Failure Model

2 - λmax
F1 lambdaF1Max - Max fiber stretch in the 1-direction
3 - λmax
4 - λmax
Failure of the material is taken to occur if the fiber stretch in any the three directions reached the specified critical
value. The fiber stretch is defined by: λfi = ||ai ||, where ai = Fei . This failure model is consistent with the Bergstrom
Anisotropic Eight-Chain model (EType = 7).
Bischoff Anisotropic Eight-Chain Failure Model

2 - λmax lambdaMax - Max chain stretch
3 - a1 a1 - Initial RVE size in the 1-direction
Failure of the material is taken to occur if the chain stretch reaches the specified critical value. The chain stretch
is defined by: λf = ||Fâf || = [âf · Câf ]1/2 where f = 1, 2, 3, 4; a1 , a2 , a3 are the side lengths of the unit cell in
the undeformed configuration; â1 = [+a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 ]/λL ; â2 = [+a1 e1 + a2 e2 − a3 e3 ]/λL ; â3 = [+a1 e1 −
a2 e2 + a3 e3 ]/λL ; and â4 = [+a1 e1 − a2 e2 − a3 e3 ]/λL . This failure model is consistent with the Bischoff Anisotropic
Eight-Chain model (EType = 9).
This failure model requires one state variables (the current value of the failure model).
Max True Stress Failure Model

2 - X X S Max true stress in 1-direction
3 - Y Y S Max true stress in 2-direction
4 - S S S Max true shear stress in 1-2 plane

nσ
11 σ22 σ12
o
max , , >= 1, (18.136)
X Y S
where σij is the true stress. This failure model is suitable for planar conditions. The failure model requires one state
variable (the current value of the failure model).
Max True Strain Failure Model

2 - X X - Max true strain in 1-direction
3 - Y Y - Max true strain in 2-direction
4 - S S - Max true shear strain in 1-2 plane

nε
11 ε22 ε12
o
max , , >= 1, (18.137)
X Y S
where εij is the true strain. This failure model is suitable for planar conditions. The failure model requires one state
variable (the current value of the failure model).
Tsai-Hill Anisotropic Failure Model (2D)

2 - σTH SigTH S Critical Tsai-Hill Stress
3 - A A - Parameter A
4 - B B - Parameter B
5 - C C - Parameter C
6 - D D - Parameter D
This failure model is a special case of the Tsai-Hill failure model for 2D orthotropic materials loaded in the 1-2 plane.
The material failure is taken to occur when:
1 2 2 2 1/2

Aσ11 + Bσ22 − Cσ11 σ22 + Dσ12 ≥ 1, (18.138)
σTH
where σ is the true stress. The Tsai-Hill coefficients can be obtained from experimental failure stresses in different
directions:
σT2 H σT2 H σT2 H
A= , B= , D= 2 , (18.139)
X12 X22 X12
where X1 is the maximum stress in the 1-direction, X2 is the maximum stress in the 2-direction, and X12 is the
maximum shear stress in the 1-2 plane. For fiber reinforced composite materials where the 1-direction is the stiffer
fiber direction, the failure parameter C can be obtained from C = A.
If A = B = C = 1 and D = 3 this failure criterion becomes identical to the Mises stress in the 2D plane stress.
This failure model requires one state variable (the left-hand-side of Eq. (18.138)).
Tsai-Wu Anisotropic Stress-Based Failure Model (2D)

2 - σT W SigTW S Critical Tsai-Wu stress
This is a special case of the general Tsai-Wu failure model for 2D orthotropic materials loaded in the 1-2 plane (for
the general 3D case, see failure model 918). The failure of the material is taken to occur when:
1 1 2 2 2

(F1 σ11 + F2 σ22 ) + F11 σ11 + F22 σ22 + F66 σ12 + F12 σ11 σ22 ≥ 1, (18.140)
σT W σT2 W
where σ is the true stress. The Tsai-Wu failure coefficients can be obtained from the experimental failure stress in
different loading conditions:

1 1
F1 = σ T W − , (18.141)
X1T X1C

1 1
F2 = σ T W − , (18.142)
X2T X2C
σT2 W
F11 = , (18.143)
X1T X1C
σT2 W
F22 = , (18.144)
X2T X2C
σ2
F66 = T 2W , (18.145)
X12
(18.146)
where X1T , X1C are the maximum tensile and compressive true stress in the 1-direction, X2T , X2C are the maximum
tensile and compressive true stress in the 2-direction, and X12 is the maximum shear stress in the 1-2 plane. If the
maximum stress in equi-biaxial loading XBA is available it can be used to evaluate the remaining F12 parameters
from
σT2 W

1 1 1 1 2 1 1
F12 = 1 − XBA − + − − XBA + . (18.147)
2XBA2 X1T X1C X2T X2C X1T X1C X2T X2C
Otherwise, F12 can be evaluated using the failure stresses in the 1- and 2-directions:
1 σT2 W
F12 = − √ . (18.148)
2 X1T X1C X2T X2C
If this value for F12 is used, the 2D Tsai-Wu failure model reduces to what is frequently called the Hoffman failure
model, and when all failure stresses are equal it reduces to the Mises failure model.
For materials that have the same failure stress in tension and compression the following parameters should be set
to zero: F1 = F2 = 0.
The original 2D Tsai-Wu failure criterion can be obtained by setting σT W = 1, and assigning the Tsai-Wu
parameters units of stress or stress-squared (stress units for single subscript parameters, and stress-squared for
double subscript parameters).
This failure model requires one state variable (the left-hand side of Eq. (18.140)).
Tsai-Wu Anisotropic Stress-Based Failure Model (3D)

2 - σT W SigTW S Critical Tsai-Wu stress
The Tsai-Wu failure model is for 3D orthotropic materials. The failure of the material is taken to occur when:
1 1 2 2 2 2 2
[F1 σ11 + F2 σ22 + F3 σ33 ] + 2 F11 σ11 + F22 σ22 + F33 σ33 + F44 σ23 + F55 σ31 +
σT W σT W
2
F66 σ12 + 2F12 σ11 σ22 + 2F13 σ11 σ33 + 2F23 σ22 σ33 ] ≥ 1, (18.149)
where σ is the true stress. This failure model requires 12 material parameters that can be determined from experi-
mental data in different loading conditions. The number of independent parameters can be reduced if the material
is transversely isotropic or has no tension-compression bias.
The Tsai-Wu parameters can be determined from the following equations:

1 1
F1 = σ T W − , (18.150)
X1T X1C

1 1
F2 = σ T W − , (18.151)
X2T X2C

1 1
F3 = σ T W − , (18.152)
X3T X3C
σT2 W
F11 = , (18.153)
X1T X1C
σT2 W
F22 = , (18.154)
X2T X2C
σT2 W
F33 = , (18.155)
X3T X3C
σ2
F44 = T 2W , (18.156)
X23
σ2
F55 = T 2W , (18.157)
X13
σ2
F66 = T 2W , (18.158)
X12
(18.159)
where X1T , X1C are the maximum tensile and compressive true stress in the 1-direction, X2T , X2C are the tensile
and compressive maximum true stress in the 2-direction, X3T , X3C are the tensile and compressive maximum true
stress in the 3-direction, and X12 , X13 , X23 are the maximum shear stresses in the 1-2, 1-3, and 2-3 planes.
If the maximum stresses in equi-biaxial loading X12B , X13B , X23B are available then they can be used to set the
remaining coefficients F12 , F13 , F23 using:
σ2

1 1 1 1 2 1 1
F12 = T2W 1 − X12B − + − − X12B + , (18.160)
2X12B X1T X1C X2T X2C X1T X1C X2T X2C
σT2 W

1 1 1 1 2 1 1
F13 = 2 1 − X13B − + − − X13B + , (18.161)
σ2

1 1 1 1 2 1 1
F23 = T2W 1 − X23B − + − − X23B + . (18.162)
Otherwise these parameters can be evaulated using the failure stresses along the material directions:
1 σT2 W
F12 = − √ , (18.163)
2 X1T X1C X2T X2C
1 σT2 W
F13 = − √ , (18.164)
2 X1T X1C X3T X3C
1 σT2 W
F23 = − √ . (18.165)
2 X2T X2C X3T X3C
If these values for F12 , F13 , F23 are used, the Tsai-Wu failue model reduces to the Hoffman failure model, and when
all failure stresses are equal it reduces to the Mises failure model.
The original orthogonal 3D Tsai-Wu failure model can be obtained by setting σT W = 1, and assigning the Tsai-
We coefficients units of stress or stress squared (stress units for single subscript parameters and stress squared for
double subscript parameters).
Simplifications to the Tsai-Wu Failure Model

For some materials the failure model canbe simplified. Four common simplifications are for materials: (1) that have
the same failure stress in tension and compression, (2) where failure does not depend on the hydrostatic stress, (3)
that are transversely isotropic.
Same failure stress in tension and compression

For materials that have the same failure stress in tension and compression the following parameter values should be
used: F1 = F2 = F3 = 0.
No hydrostatic stress dependence

The following equations can be used if the failure is independent of the hydrostatic stress:
F11 = −(F12 + F13 ), (18.166)

F22 = −(F12 + F23 ), (18.167)
F33 = −(F13 + F23 ). (18.168)
If both simplications above are made, the failure criterion becomes identical to the Hill stress failure model.
Transverse isotropy
For materials with transverse isotropic failure, the failure stresses are isotropic in one plane. If the plane of isotropy
is the 2-3 plane, this results in the following simplications:
F2 = F3 , F12 = F13 , F22 = F33 , F55 = F66 , F44 = 2(F22 − F23 ). (18.169)
The reduced failure equation in this case requires 7 parameters:

1 1 2 2 2 2
[F1 σ11 + F2 (σ22 + σ33 )] + F11 σ11 + F22 (σ22 + σ33 ) + 2(F22 − F23 )σ23 +
σT W σT2 W
2 2

F44 (σ12 + σ13 ) + 2F23 σ22 σ33 + 2F12 (σ11 σ22 + σ11 σ33 ) ≥ 1. (18.170)
Polynomial Strain-Based Anisotropic Failure Model (2D)

2 - εP S EpsPS - Critical polynomial strain
This is a special case of the general polynomial strain failure model for 2D orthotropic materials loaded in the 1-2
plane (for the general 3D case see failure model 920). The failure of the material is taken to occur when:
1 1
(F1 ε11 + F2 ε22 ) + 2 (F11 ε211 + F22 ε222 + F66 ε212 + F12 ε11 ε22 ) ≥ 1, (18.171)
εP S εP S
where ε is the true stress.
For materials that have the same failure strain in tension and compression the following parameter values should
be used: F1 = F2 = 0.
Polynomial Strain-Based Anisotropic Failure Model (3D)

2 - εP S EpsPS - Critical polynomial strain
The polynomial strain failure model is for 3D orthotropic materials. It is similar to the 3D Tsai-Wu failure model
but is using strains instead of stresses. The failure of the material is taken to occur when:
1 1
[F1 ε11 + F2 ε22 + F3 ε33 ] + 2 F11 ε211 + F22 ε222 + F33 ε233 + F44 ε223 + F55 ε231 +
εP S εP S
F66 ε212 + 2F12 ε11 ε22 + 2F13 ε11 ε33 + 2F23 ε22 ε33 ≥ 1,

(18.172)
where ε is the true stress. This failure model has 12 failure parameters that can be determined from experimental
failure tests in different loading conditions. The number of independent coefficients can be reduced in certain
conditions, such as transverse isotropy or no tension-compression bias.
Simplifications of the polynomial strain failure model

Depending on the material behavior, some of the failure parameters may be eliminated. Three common simplifica-
tions are for materials: (1) that have the same failure strains in tension and compression, (2) where failure does not
depend on hydrostatic strain, (3) that are transversely isotropic.
Same failure in tension and compression

The following material parameters should be set equal to zero for materials that have the same failure strains in
tension and compression: F1 = F2 = F3 = 0.
No hydrostatic strain-dependence
The following simplifications can be made if the material failure is independent of the hydrostatic strain:
F11 = −(F12 + F13 ), (18.173)
F22 = −(F12 + F23 ), (18.174)
F33 = −(F13 + F23 ). (18.175)
If both simplications above are made then the failure model becomes identical to the Hill failure strain model.
Transverse isotropy
For materials with transverse isotropic failure behavior, the failure strains are isotropic in one plane. If the plane of
isotropy is the 2-3 plane, this results in the following simplications:
F2 = F3 , F12 = F13 , F22 = F33 , F55 = F66 , F44 = 2(F22 − F23 ). (18.176)
The reduced failure equation in this case requires seven parameters:

1 1
[F1 ε11 + F2 (ε22 ) + ε33 )] + 2 F11 ε211 + F22 (ε222 + ε233 ) + 2(F22 − F23 )ε223 +
εP S εP S
F44 (ε212 + ε213 ) + 2F23 ε22 ε33 + 2F12 (ε11 ε22 + ε11 ε33 ) ≥ 1.

(18.177)
Max True Fiber Strain

2 - a0x a0x - X-component of initial fiber direction
3 - a0y a0y - Y-component of initial fiber direction
4 - a0z a0z - Z-component of initial fiber direction
5 - εmax EMax - True fiber failure strain
Rate-Dependent Damage Model 1

2 - Xfail Xfail - Critical failure value
3 - n1 n1 - Critical failure value type
4 - n2 n2 - Quantity driving damage accumulation
5 - A A - Cut-off value for the damage accumulation
6 - B B - Reference value for the damage accumulation
7 - t0 t0 t Characteristic time for damage accumulation
8 - m m - Exponent for damage accumulation
*where: - = dimensionless, and the dimensions of Xfail , A, and B depend on n1 and n2 .
Failure occurs if X(n1 ) > Xf ail F , where X(n1 ) is a stress or strain quantify (determined by n1 ) from the following
table, and F is the current damage state factor. Initially the damage state factor is 1, but as the stress/strain
increases the damage state factor F starts to become smaller.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
X(n) σmises σ1 σ11 σ22 σ33 σ12 σ13 σ23 mises 1 11 22 33 12 13 23
n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
X(n) |σ11 | |σ22 | |σ33 | |σ12 | |σ13 | |σ23 | |11 | |22 | |33 | |12 | |13 | |23 | εtot
M

m
−1 R(X(n2 ) − A)
Ḟ = × ,
t0 B
where R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function.
If n = 29 then the total Mises strain εtot

M will be used:
εtot tot
M (t + dt) = εM (t) + ||εM (t + dt) − εM (t)||.
In this equation εM is the Mises strain defined in (3.4).
The damage factor F is restricted to never be less than 10−9 . This way, if Xf ail 109 then the elements will
not be deleted and the state variables can be used for output purposes. With this model no damage accumulation
will occur if X(n2 ) ≤ A, and the rate of damage accumulation is faster for higher X(n2 ). The variable X(n2 ) is a
stress or strain quantify (determined by n2 ) from the table above.
As an example, if n1 = 1 and n2 = 10, then failure occurs at a critical mises stress and the damage accumulation
is driven by the max principal strain. This failure model requires three state variables (X(n1 )/F , F , and X(n2 )).
Rate-Dependent Damage Model 2

2 - Xfail Xfail - Critical failure value
3 - n1 n1 - Critical failure value type
4 - n2 n2 - Quantity driving damage accumulation
5 - A A - Cut-off value for the damage accumulation
6 - B B - Reference value for the damage accumulation
7 - t0 t0 t Characteristic time for damage accumulation
8 - m m - Exponent for damage accumulation
*where: - = dimensionless, and the dimensions of Xfail , A, and B depend on n1 and n2 .
Failure occurs if X(n1 ) > Xf ail F , where X(n1 ) is a stress or strain quantify (determined by n1 ) from the following
table, and F is the current damage state. Initially the damage state factor is 1, but as the stress/strain increases the
damage state factor F starts to become smaller.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
X(n) σmises σ1 σ11 σ22 σ33 σ12 σ13 σ23 mises 1 11 22 33 12 13 23
n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
X(n) |σ11 | |σ22 | |σ33 | |σ12 | |σ13 | |σ23 | |11 | |22 | |33 | |12 | |13 | |23 | εtot
M

−1
Ḟ = × R(F − Fmax ),
t0
where R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function.
If n = 29 then the total Mises strain εtot

M will be used:
εtot tot
M (t + dt) = εM (t) + ||εM (t + dt) − εM (t)||.
In this equation εM is the Mises strain defined in (3.4). In this case one state variable is needed for the failure model.
The damage factor F is restricted to never be less than 10−9 . This way, if Xf ail 109 then the elements will
not be deleted and the state variables can be used for output purposes.
The max damage depends on the current stress/strain level:
m
R(X(n2 ) − A)
Fmax = 1 −
B
Damage accumulation occurs if the current damage level is less than the max damage level at the current stress/strain
level. The rate of damage accumulation is controlled by the difference between the current damage level and the
current max damage. The variable X(n2 ) is a stress or strain quantify (determined by n2 ) from the table above.
As an example, if n1 = 1 and n2 = 10, then failure occurs at a critical mises stress and the damage accumulation
is driven by the max principal strain. This failure model requires three state variables (X(n1 )/F , F , and X(n2 )).
True Chain Strain (for Tensile Stress)


εchain = ln tr[b]/3 · sign (tr[σ]) . (18.178)
Max Principal True Strain (for Tensile Stress)

2 - εmax
The strain value that is used for the failure evaluation is given by:
ε = ε1 · sign (tr[σ]) . (18.179)
Mises Engineering Stress

max
Anisotropic True Stress-Based Damage Accumulation

3 - A1 A1 - Stress pre-factor 1
4 - B1 B1 - Stress exponent 1
5 - A2 A2 - Stress pre-factor 2
6 - B2 B2 - Stress exponent 2
dD 1 h
B1 B2
i
= exp A1 σH + A2 σ H , (18.180)
dt t0
where σH is the Hill stress defined by:
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

σH = F (σ22 − σ33 ) + G (σ33 − σ11 ) + H (σ11 − σ22 ) + 2Lσ23 + 2M σ31 + 2N σ12 (18.181)
If F = G = H = 1 and L = M = N = 3, then the Hill stress becomes identical to the Mises strain.
At t = 0 there is no damage: D(0) = 0. Element failure is taken to occur once D ≥ 1. This failure model requires
one state variable.
18.5.2 Damage Growth Models

The convergence of finite element simulations that go beyond the initiation of failure can be in some cases be improved
by adding a damage growth model that becomes active after failure initiation. The following damage growth models
are supported.
Exponential Growth

1 1001 - GFD Type - Global failure damage model
2 - D1 D1 - Damage parameter D1
4 - ηmax etaMax - Max allowed damage
This failure model requires one state variables (the max damage η).
In this model the effective stress at an integration point is given by:
σ eff = (1 − ηt )σ raw , (18.182)
where σ raw is the stress calculated by the selected material model, σ eff is the effective stress after compensating for
damage, and ηt is the damage parameter at time t. The damage evolution parameter η evolves with the value of the
failure condition as follows:
(
0, if ξ < ξmax ,
η= (18.183)
D1 e(ξ−ξmax )/D2 − 1 , otherwise,
where ξ is the current value of the global failure model, and ξmax is the critical value of the selected failure model.
For example, if the max principal true stress is selected as the failure model (GFD Type=901) then ξ ≡ σ1 .
The damage evolution parameter ηt is given by ηt = max[η, ηt−1 ]. Note that η is never larger than ηmax , where
ηmax can be used to restrict the maximum amount of damage that is allowed. The element is eliminated once the
damage parameter ηt has been reached a value of 1.0 or larger. The following figures shows two exemplar damage
evolution models:
The damage accumulation can be deactivated if D2 = 0. In this case, element deletion is activated once the current
value of the failure model has reached the specified critical value.
An example of the damage growth model is shown in the following figure. In this example, the Bergstrom-Boyce
model was implemented as a PNM model and deformed in uniaxial tension to a true strain of 1.5. The figure shows
three different cases: (1) no failure condition; (2) failure at a Mises strain of 1.0; (3) failure initiation at a Mises
strain of 1.0 followed by damage growth and final failure.
Powerlaw Growth
1 1002 - GFD Type - Global failure damage model
4 - ηmax etaMax - Max allowed damage
This failure model requires one state variables (the max damage η).
In this model the effective stress at an integration point is given by:
σ eff = (1 − ηt )σ raw , (18.184)
where σ raw is the stress calculated by the selected material model, σ eff is the effective stress after compensating for
damage, and ηt is the damage parameter at time t. The damage evolution parameter η evolves with the value of the
failure condition as follows: (
0, if ξ < ξmax ,
η= D2
(18.185)
D1 (ξ − ξmax ) , otherwise,
where ξ is the current value of the global failure model, and ξmax is the critical value of the selected failure model.
For example, if the max principal true stress is selected as the failure model (GFD Type=901) then ξ ≡ σ1 .
The damage evolution parameter ηt is given by ηt = max[η, ηt−1 ]. Note that η is never larger than ηmax , where
ηmax can be used to restrict the maximum amount of damage that is allowed. The element is eliminated once the
damage parameter ηt has been reached a value of 1.0 or larger.
18.5.3 Temperature Dependence of the Global Failure

The global failure model can be made temperature dependent by specifying the multiplication factor given in this
section. The specification of temperature dependence of the global failure model is optional. Each temperature
model gives a scalar factor that is used to scale the critical failure value that is used in the global failure model. The
temperature dependence global failure models do not require any state variables.
Linear temperature dependence

1 1101 - GFT Type - Elastic temperature type

θ − θ0
fθ = 1 + q · (18.186)
θ0
than the reference temperature (θ0 ).


θ − θ0
fθ = exp q · (18.187)
θ0
than the reference temperature.


fθ = q (θ−θ0 )/θF (18.188)
where θ is the current temperature. As an example, if q = 0.9, then fθ goes down by a factor of 0.9 for each increase
in temperature of θF .

4 - f1 f1 - fθ value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
The total stress is scaled by the factor fθ . The number of terms (N ) has to be less than 100.
18.5.4 Strain-Rate Dependence of the Global Failure

The global failure model can be made strain-rate dependent by specifying the multiplication factor (fr ) given in this
section. The specification of strain-rate dependence of the global failure model is optional. Each strain-rate, defined
by
εmises (t + ∆t) − εmises (t)
ε̇ = , (18.189)
∆t
gives a scalar factor that is used to scale the critical failure value that is used in the global failure model. The
strain-rate dependent global failure models do not require any state variables.
Linear strain-rate dependence

1 1201 - GFR Type - Strain-rate type
2 - A A f Linear term
3 - B B - Constant term
*where: - = dimensionless, f = 1/s
The global failure value is scaled by the factor:

fr = Aε̇ + B. (18.190)
Exponential strain-rate dependence

2 - A A - Term A
3 - B B f Term B
The global failure value is scaled by the factor:

fr = AeB ε̇ . (18.191)
Piecewise linear strain-rate dependence

3 - ε̇1 edot1 f Strain rate #1
4 - f1 f1 - f1 value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- ε̇N edotN f Strain rate #N
- fN fN - fN value #N
The global failure value is scaled by the factor fr . The number of terms (N ) has to be less than 100.
As an example, if ε̇1 = 0.01/s, f1 = 1.0, ε̇2 = 0.10/s, and f2 = 2.0, then fr = 1.5 when ε̇ = 0.055/s.
Piecewise linear strain-rate dependence on logarithmic strain-rate

3 - ε̇1 edot1 f Strain rate #1
4 - f1 f1 - f1 value #1
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
- ε̇N edotN f Strain rate #N
- fN fN - fN value #N
The global failure value is scaled by the factor fr . The number of terms (N ) has to be less than 100. In this model
the logarithm is first taken of the strain rates, and those values are then used for the linear interpolation. For actual
strain rates that are smaller than any of the specified strain-rates the fr factor is taken from the provided fr value
at the smallest strain-rate. Similarly, for actual strain rates that are larger than any of the specified strain-rates the
fr factor is taken from the provided fr value at the largest strain-rate.
As an example, if ε̇1 = 0.01/s, f1 = 1.0, ε̇2 = 0.10/s, and f2 = 2.0, then fr = 1.5 when ε̇ = 0.0316/s.
18.5.5 Output Safety Factor

To evaluate different failure models it can be useful to plot contours of how close the current failure value is to the
critical failure value. The suboptions in this section allow these results to be saved and plotted in the form of a state
variable.
Output Safety Factor

1 1301 - GFS Type - Output type
The safety factor is defined by:

critical failure value
s= (18.192)
current failure value
The failure output model requires one state variable.
Output Risk Factor

1 1302 - GFS Type - Output type
The risk factor is defined by:

current failure value
s= (18.193)
critical failure value
The failure output model requires one state variable.
18.6 Through-Thickness Poisson’s Ratio

This option can be used to specify a strain-dependent through-thickness Poisson’s ratio for plane stress, shell, or
membrane elements. This option is active when using Abaqus/Explicit or MCalibration, it is ignored for any other
element type or FE solver. If one of the through-thickness Poisson’s ratio functions is specified then that overrides
the global variable TWOD S. Note that TWOD S still needs to be a positive value to activate the plane-stress formulation
when using Abaqus/Explicit.
The specification of a through-thickness Poisson’s ratio function is optional, and there can only be one through-
thickness Poisson’s ratio function defined.
Exponential Dependence
1 1401 - PR Type - Poisson’s Ratio Type
2 - A1 A1 - Parameter A1
3 - e1 e1 - Parameter e1
4 - A2 A2 - Parameter A2
18.7. RESIDUAL STRESS 135
The through-thickness Poisson’s (νt ) ratio is given by:
A1 exp −e0 + A2 exp −e0


, if εeff < e0 ,
νt = e1 e2 (18.194)
A1 exp −εeff + A2 exp −εeff

e1 e2 , otherwise.
In this equation εeff is the max principal engineering strain. This model does not use any state variables.
18.7 Residual Stress

This option allows for the specification of a residual stress in the undeformed configuration. The residual stress is
added to the calculated mechanical stress in order to obtain the total stress. The specification of a residual stress is
optional.
Constant Residual Stress

1 1501 - RS Type - Residual Stress Type
2 - σ11 S11 - Residual stress σ11
The residual stress is a true (Cauchy) stress. This model does not use any state variables.
Chapter 19
Three Network Foam Model
19.1 Introduction
The three network foam model (TNFM) is a material model specifically developed for thermoplastic materials
that are available as a foam. It is a combination of the three-network model (TNM) and the microfoam model
(MFM). The TNFM explicitly incorporates the effects of different reduced densities.
The TNFM model requires the material parameters in Table 19.1. The state variables that are used by the
Table 19.1: Material parameters used by the three-network foam model.

Name
2 θ̂ thetaHat T Temperature factor
5 τ̂A tauHatA S Flow resistance of network A
6 α alpha - Pressure dependence of flow
7 mA mA - Stress exponential of network A
9 µBi muBi S Initial shear modulus of network B
10 µBf muBf S Final shear modulus of network B
11 β beta - Evolution rate of µB
12 τ̂B tauHatB S Flow resistance of network B
13 mB mB - Stress exponential of network B
15 ρr rhor - Reduced foam density
16 αE alphaE - Density scaling factor for stiffness
17 hE hE - Density scaling factor for stiffness
18 ν0 nu0 - Poisson’s ratio in the limit of 100% porosity
19 p0 p0 S Initial gas pressure inside the foam voids
TNFM-model are summarized in Table 19.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in Table 19.3.
136
Table 19.2: State variables used by the three-network model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 13 Viscoelastic deformation gradient FvA
14 − 22 Plastic deformation gradient FvB
Table 19.3: Exemplar UMAT parameters for the three-network model.

**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
15, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 15, 35, 100, 2000, 0, 0,
** muA, thetaH, lambdaL, kappa, tauBaseA, alpha, mA, n,
192.15, 999, 3.11, 2000, 7.256, 0.000122, 9.729, 0,
** muBi, muBf, beta, tauBaseB, mB, muC, rhor, alphaE,
131.929, 48.259, 11.122, 25.399, 9.729, 8.3466, 0.9, 0.0056,
** hE, nu0, p0
3.12, 0.25, 0.1
*Depvar
23
*Density
1000.0e-12
138 CHAPTER 19. THREE NETWORK FOAM MODEL

As specified by its name, the structure of the three-network foam model consists of three parts, or molecular networks,
acting in parallel, see the rheological representation in Figure 19.1.
Figure 19.1: Rheological representation of the constitutive model.
The deformation gradient acting on network A is multiplicatively decomposed into viscoplastic and viscoelastic
components:
F = FeA FvA . (19.1)
The Cauchy stress acting on network A is given by the eight-chain representation [4, 8]:

L−1 λe∗A
µ(µA , κ, ρr ) θ − θ0 λL
σA = 1+ dev [be∗ e
A ] + κ(µA , κ, ρr ) · (JA − 1)1, (19.2)
e λe∗
JA A θ̂ L−1 1
λL
e
where JA = det[FeA ], µA is the initial shear modulus, λL is the chain locking stretch, κ is the bulk modulus, θ is the
current temperature, θ0 = 293 K is a fixed reference temperature, θ̂ is a material parameter specifying the temperature
e −2/3 e 1/2
response of the stiffness, be∗
A = (JA ) FA (FeA )> is a Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, λe∗ e∗
A = (tr[bA ]/3) is the
effective chain stretch based on the eight-chain topology assumption [4], and L−1(x) is the inverse Langevin function,
where L(x) = coth(x) − 1/x. The function µ(·, ·, ·) is given by:
hE
9κs µs
· ρ1+α
3κs +µs
r +αE
E
µ(µs , κs , ρr ) = h i, (19.3)
s −2νs
2 1 + ν0 + 3κ
6κs +2νs − ν0 · ρr
and the function κ(·, ·, ·) is given by:

hE
9κs µs
· ρ1+α
3κs +µs
r +αE
E
κ(µs , κs , ρr ) = h i . (19.4)
3κs −2νs
3 1 − 2 ν0 + 6κs +2νs − ν0 · ρr
By explicitly incorporating the temperature dependence of the shear modulus it is possible to capture the stiffness
variation of the material over a wide range of temperatures.
The viscoelastic deformation gradient acting on network B is decomposed into elastic and viscous parts:
F = FeB FvB . (19.5)
The Cauchy stress acting on network B is obtained from the same eight-chain network representation that was used
for network A.
−1 λe∗
θ − θ0 L
B
µ(µB , κ, ρr ) λL
σB = 1 + dev [be∗ e
B ] + κ(µB , κ, ρr )(JB − 1)1, (19.6)
e λe∗
JB B θ̂ L −1 1
λL
e −2/3 e
where JB e
= det[FeB ], µB is the initial shear modulus, be∗ B = (JB ) FB (FeB )> is a Cauchy-Green deformation
e∗ e∗ 1/2
tensor, and λB = (tr[bB ]/3) is the effective chain stretch based on the eight-chain topology assumption [4]. In
Equation (19.6), the effective shear modulus (µB ) is taken to evolve with plastic strain from an initial value of µBi
according to:
µ̇B = −β [µB − µBf ] · γ̇A , (19.7)
where γ̇A is the viscoplastic flow rate defined in Equation (19.10). This equation enables the model to better capture
the distributed yielding that is observed in many thermoplastics.
Similarly the Cauchy stress acting on network C is given by

−1 λ∗
θ − θ0 L

µ(µC , κ, ρr ) λL
σC = 1+ dev [b∗ ] + κ(µC , κ, ρr )(J − 1)1, (19.8)
Jλ ∗
θ̂ L−1 λ1L
where J = det[F], µC is the initial shear modulus, b∗ = J −2/3 F(F)> is a Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, and
1/2
For closed-cell foams the initial gas pressure inside the cells (p0 ) can contribute to the overall response of the
foam. By assuming the gas follows the ideal gas law it can be shows that the stress resulting from a volumetric
deformation is given by
1
σ G = p0 1 − I. (19.9)
J
Using this framework, the total Cauchy stress in the system is given by σ = σ A + σ B + σ C + σ G .
The total velocity gradient of network A, L = ḞF−1 , can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components:
L = LeA + FeA LvA Fe−1
A = LeA + L̃vA , where LvA = ḞvA Fv−1
A = DvA + WA v v
and L̃vA = D̃vA + W̃A . The unloading process
relating the deformed state with the intermediate state is not uniquely defined since an arbitrary rigid body rotation
of the intermediate state still leaves the state stress free. The intermediate state can be made unique in different
v
ways [10], one particularly convenient way that is used here is to prescribe W̃A = 0. This will, in general, result
in elastic and inelastic deformation gradients both containing rotations. The rate of viscoplastic flow of network
A is constitutively prescribed by D̃vA = γ̇A NA . The tensor NA specifies the direction of the driving deviatoric
stress of the relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration, and the term γ̇A specifies the effective
deviatoric flow rate. Noting that σ A is computed in the loaded configuration, the driving deviatoric stress on the
relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration is given by σ 0A = dev[σ A ], and by defining an effective
1/2
stress by the Frobenius norm τA = ||σ 0A ||F ≡ (tr[σ 0A σ 0A ]) , the direction of the driving deviatoric stress becomes
0
NA = σ A /τA . The effective deviatoric flow rate is given by the reptation-inspired equation [8]:
 mA
n
τA θ
γ̇A = γ̇0 ·  · , (19.10)
 
hE 
θ0

(τ̂A + αpA ) · ρ1+α
r +αE
E
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant introduced for dimensional consistency, pA = −[(σ A )11 + (σ A )22 + (σ A )33 ]/3 is the
hydrostatic pressure, and τ̂A , β, mA , n, and θ0 are specified material parameters. In this framework, the temperature
flow of network A can be written
e−1 dev[σ A ]
ḞvA = γ̇A FA F. (19.11)
τA
140 CHAPTER 19. THREE NETWORK FOAM MODEL
The total velocity gradient of network B can be obtained very similarly as for network A. Specifically, L = ḞF−1
e−1
can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components: L = LeB + FeB LvB FB = LeB + L̃vB , where LvB = ḞvB Fv−1
B =
v v v v v
DB + WB and L̃B = D̃B + W̃B . The unloading process relating the deformed state with the intermediate state
is not uniquely defined since an arbitrary rigid body rotation of the intermediate state still leaves the state stress
free. The intermediate state can be made unique in different ways [10], one particularly convenient way that is
v
used here is to prescribe W̃B = 0. This will, in general, result in elastic and inelastic deformation gradients both
containing rotations. The rate of viscoplastic flow of network B is constitutively prescribed by D̃vB = γ̇B NB . The
tensor NB specifies the direction of the driving deviatoric stress of the relaxed configuration convected to the current
configuration, and the term γ̇B specifies the effective deviatoric flow rate. Noting that σ B is computed in the loaded
configuration, the driving deviatoric stress on the relaxed configuration convected to the current configuration is
1/2
given by σ 0B = dev[σ B ], and by defining an effective stress by the Frobenius norm τB = ||σ 0B ||F ≡ (tr[σ 0B σ 0B ]) ,
0
the direction of the driving deviatoric stress becomes NB = σ B /τB . The effective deviatoric flow rate is given by
the reptation-inspired equation [8]: mB n
τB θ
γ̇B = γ̇0 · · , (19.12)
τ̂B + αpB θ0
where γ̇0 ≡ 1/s is a constant introduced for dimensional consistency, pB = −[(σ B )11 + (σ B )22 + (σ B )33 ]/3 is the
hydrostatic pressure, and τ̂B , β, mB , n, and θ0 are specified material parameters. In this framework, the temperature
flow of network B can be written
e−1 dev[σ B ]
ḞvB = γ̇B FB F. (19.13)
τB
Chapter 20
Dynamic Bergström-Boyce (DBB) Model
20.1 Introduction
The Dynamic Bergström-Boyce (DBB) model is an advanced constitutive model specifically developed for pre-
dicting the time-dependent, large-strain behavior of elastomer-like materials. The model has been been shown to be
accurate for both traditional engineering rubbers, and soft biomaterials. This model is an extension of the BB-model
[5–9] that has a more general framework for network A, a modified flow equation for network B, and a kinematic
hardening plasticity network C, see Figure 20.1.
The PolyUMod implementation of the DBB model requires the material parameters summarized in Table 20.1.
The state variables that are used by the DBB-model are summarized in Table 20.2, and an exemplar input file is
shown in Table 20.3. The chain-strain state variable is defined by [29]:
p

In the Dynamic Bergström-Boyce (DBB) model the applied deformation gradient is acting on three parallel macro-
molecular networks: F = FA = FB = FC , see the rheological representation in Figure 20.1. The deformation
gradient acting on network B is further decomposed into elastic and viscoelastic components: FB = FeB FvB .
The response of network A is given by the Yeoh hyperelastic model:
2 n eff 2
o
σ= C10 + 2C20 (I1∗ − 3) + 3C30 (I1∗ − 3) dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I, (20.2)
J
eff
where C10 is strain-dependent:
−εeff

eff ε̂
C10 = C10f + (C10i − C10f ) 1 − exp . (20.3)
ε̂ εeff
eff
The stress on network B is also given by the same Yeoh model, but C10 is pre-multiplied by the material constant
sB .
141
142 CHAPTER 20. DYNAMIC BERGSTRÖM-BOYCE (DBB) MODEL
Table 20.1: Material parameters used by the Dynamic Bergstrom-Boyce model.

Name
1 C10f C10f SFinal value of Yeoh parameter C10 for network
A
2 C10i C10i S Initial value of C10 for network A
3 ε̂ epsH - Transition strain for C10
4 C20 C20 S Yeoh parameter C20 for network A
5 C30 C30 S Yeoh parameter C30 for network A
8 αB alphaB - Flow parameter 1
9 γ̇ref gammaRef 1/t Reference strain rate
10 n n - Flow exponential
13 τ̂ tauHat S Flow resistance
15 βB betaB - Network interaction factor
17 σyC sigmaYC S Yield strength of network C
18 αC alphaC - Normalized saturated hardening stress
19 βC betaC - Characteristic transition hardening strain
*where: - = dimensionless, S = stress, t = time
Table 20.2: State variables used by the PolyUMod implementation of the Dynamic Bergstrom-Boyce model.

1 Simulation time
3 Chain strain
4 Failure flag
5 − 13 Deformation gradient FvB
14-19 Back stress in network C
20-25 Stress in network C
Table 20.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the DBB-model.
*Material, name=example_DBB
16, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 35, 25, 10, 500, 0, 0,
** C10f, C10i, epsH, C20, C30, kappa, sB, alphaB,
0.2, 0.6, 0.07, -0.02, 0.002, 500, 10, 1,
** gamRef, n, xi, C, tauHat, m, betaB, muC,
1, 0, 0.05, -0.5, 0.2, 10, 20, 5,
**sigmaYC, alphaC, betaC
0.01, 30, 1.0
*Depvar
25
*Density
1000.0e-12
Figure 20.1: Rheological representation of the DBB model.
The velocity gradient on network B, LB = ḞB F−1

B , can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components:

d −1
LB = (FeB FvB ) (FeB FvB )
dt
h i
−1 −1
−1 −1 −1
= LeB + FeB LvB FeB
= LeB + L̃vB , (20.4)
where
−1
v
, (20.5)
L̃vB = D̃vB + v
W̃B . (20.6)
v
prescribed by:
B ) NB , (20.7)
where
dev[σ B ]
NvB = . (20.8)
τB
p
and τB = || dev[σ B ]||F = tr [σ 0B σ 0B ] is the effective stress driving the viscous flow. The time derivative of FvB can
be derived as follows:
L̃vB = γ̇B
v
NvB , (20.9)
−1 −1
⇒ FeB ḞvB (FvB ) (FeB ) = v
γ̇B NvB ,
−1 dev[σ B ] e v
⇒ ḞvB = γ̇B
v
(FeB ) FB FB . (20.10)
τB
The rate-equation for viscous flow is given:
m
v −1 C τ
γ̇B = [αB + (1 + ε̇vB /γ̇ref )n ] · (εvB + ξ) · (20.11)
(1 + βB ε : εeB )τ̂
144 CHAPTER 20. DYNAMIC BERGSTRÖM-BOYCE (DBB) MODEL
where
r
tr[bvB ]
εvB = − 1. (20.12)
3
is the viscoelastic chain strain.
The stress in network C is given by a linear elastic spring with shear modulus µC and a bulk modulus κ. The
plastic flow of network C is given by the Chaboche non-linear kinematic hardening model:
2αC ||ε̇p || C
σ̇ C
back = σyC ε̇p − σ , (20.13)
3βC βC back
where σ̇ C p
back is the time-derivative of the back stress, and ε̇ the time-derivative of the plastic strain. The parameter
σyC is the initial yield stress, αC σyC is the final yield stress, and βC is transition strain for the yield stress evolution.
Using this representation the total Cauchy stress is given by
σ = σA + σB + σC . (20.14)
Chapter 21
Silberstein-Boyce-1 Model
21.1 Introduction
The Silberstein-Boyce-1 model (SB1) was developed [30, 31] for predicting the large strain, time-, temperature-,
and hydration dependent response of Nafion. This material is often used as a polymer electrolyte membrame (PEM)
in batteries, solar cells and fuel cells. The material response of this type of material is similar to many other ther-
moplastics, except that it has a unusually strong dependence on the moisture level. The model in this chapter is
the first model discussed in the [30] paper. This model can predict the response in monotonic loading, but does not
accurately predict the response when exposed to cyclic loading.
Note 1: The moisture concentration is specified through field variable 1.
The PolyUMod implementation of the SB1 model requires the material parameters in Table 21.1. The state variables
that are used by the SB1-model are summarized in Table 21.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in Table 21.3.
21.2 Model Theory

In the Silberstein-Boyce-1 (SB1) model the applied deformation gradient is acting on two parallel macromolecular
networks: F = FA = FB , see the rheological representation in Figure 21.1.
The total deformation gradient Fappl contains both a hygrothermal expansion part Fth = λs I, where λs =
1 + α(θ − θref ) + β(φ − φref ), and a mechanical deformation part F:
Fappl = F Fth . (21.1)
The deformation gradient acting on Network A is further decomposed into elastic and viscoplastic components:
FA = FeA FvA .
The Cauchy stress in Network A is given by the neo-Hookean model:

µA e∗ e
σ A = fa (θ) · fc (φ) · e dev[bA ] + κ(J A − 1)I , (21.2)
λs JA
The Cauchy stress on network B is also given by the neo-Hookean model:

µB
σ B = fa (θ) · fc (φ) · dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I , (21.3)
λs J
145
146 CHAPTER 21. SILBERSTEIN-BOYCE-1 MODEL
Table 21.1: Material parameters used by the Silberstein-Boyce model 1.

Name
3 θ1 theta1 T Reference temperature 1
7 γ̇0 gammaDot0 f Attempt frequency
8 G/k dGdK T Activation volume
9 τ̂ tauHat S Flow resistance
14 h h - Evolution rate of flow evolution
15 r0 r0 - Initial flow evolution value
16 rmax rmax - Final flow evolution factor
17 g g - Global interaction parameter 1
18 n n - Global interaction parameter 2
19 µB muB S Shear modulus of network B
20 θref thetaRef T Reference temperature for thermal expansion
21 α alpha 1/T Linear thermal expansion coefficient
22 φref phiRef - Reference moisture concentration
23 β beta - Coefficient of hygroexpansion
24 f5 f5 - Water content factor 5 (for moduli)
26 f7 f7 - Water content factor 7 (for yield)
*where: -=dimensionless, S=stress, T=temperature, f=frequency
Table 21.2: State variables used by the PolyUMod implementation of the Silberstein-Boyce model 1.

Strain Stress Name
2 2 2 2 -
5-13 5-9 5-8 5 Deformation gradient FvA
14 14 14 14 Flow evolution value f
21.2. MODEL THEORY 147
Table 21.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the SB1-model.
*Material, name=example_SB1
** Material Model: Silberstein-Boyce-1
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
17, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 35, 14, 1, 500, 0, 0,
** muA, kappa, theta1, f1, theta2, f2,gammaDot0, dGdK,
110, 330, 330, 1, 370, 0.05, 6.72, 6504,
** tauHat, theta3, f3, theta4, f4, h, r0, rmax,
6.5, 330, 1, 370, 0.05, 61.5, 1, 1.48,
** g, n, muB, thetaRef, alpha, phiRef, beta, f5,
5.54, 1, 3.3, 293, 0, 0, 0, 0.42,
** f6, f7, f8
5, 0.42, 5
*Depvar
14
*Density
1e-09
Figure 21.1: Rheological representation of the Silberstein-Boyce-1 model.

where [µA , κ, µB ] are material parameters, and the temperature factor fa (θ) is given by

f1 ,
 if θ < θ1
fa (θ) = f2 , if θ > θ2 (21.4)

f1 + (f2 − f1 ) · (θ − θ1 )/(θ2 − θ1 ), otherwise.

The moister/water correction function fc (φ) is given by:

−(φ − φref )
fc (φ) = (1 − f5 ) exp + f5 (21.5)
f6
The parameter f5 should be between 0 and 1.

σ = σA + σB . (21.6)
The velocity gradient of Network A, LA = ḞA F−1

A , can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components:

d −1
LA = (FeA FvA ) (FeA FvA )
dt
h i
−1 −1
= ḞeA FvA + FeA ḞvA (FvA ) (FeA )
−1 −1 −1
= ḞeA (FeA ) + FeA ḞvA (FvA ) (FeA )
= LeA + FeA LvA FeA
= LeA + L̃vA , (21.7)
where
−1
LvA = ḞvA (FvA ) = DvA + WA
v
, (21.8)
L̃vA = D̃vA + v
W̃A . (21.9)
v
To make the unloading unique, prescribe W̃A ≡ 0 [10]. The rate of viscous deformation of network A is constitutively
prescribed by:
D̃vA = γ̇A (σ A , be∗ v
A ) NA , (21.10)
where
dev[σ A ] dev[σ A ]
NvA = = . (21.11)
τ || dev[σ]A ||F
and τ is the effective stress driving the viscous flow. The time derivative of FvA can be derived as follows:
L̃vA = γ̇A
v
NvA , (21.12)
−1 −1
⇒ FeA ḞvA (FvA ) (FeA ) = v
γ̇A NvA ,
−1 dev[σ A ]
⇒ ḞvA = γ̇A
v
(FeA ) Fe Fv . (21.13)
|| dev[σ]A ||F A A
The rate-equation for viscous flow is given by:

v −∆G ∆G τ
γ̇A = γ̇0 exp sinh · , (21.14)
kb θ kb θ (ry + ri ) fb (θ) fd (φ) τ̂
where the temperature factor fb (θ) is given by


f3 ,
 if θ < θ3
fb (θ) = f4 , if θ > θ4 (21.15)


The moister/water correction function fd (φ) is given by:

−(φ − φref )
fd (φ) = (1 − f7 ) exp + f7 (21.16)
f8
The parameter f7 should be between 0 and 1. The effective stress driving the viscous flow is:
q
τ = || dev[σ A ]||F = tr [σ 0A σ 0A ]. (21.17)
The yield evolution parameter ry is given by:

ry v
ṙy = h · 1 − γ̇A . (21.18)
rmax
At time t = 0 the yield evolution parameter ry = r0 . The intermolecular shear resistance factor is given by:
ri = g · (λnchain − 1), (21.19)
where g and n are material parameters, and r

tr[b]
λchain = . (21.20)
3
Chapter 22
Silberstein-Boyce-2 Model
22.1 Introduction
The Silberstein-Boyce-2 model (SB2) was developed [30, 31] for predicting the large strain, time-, temperature-
, and hydration dependent response of Nafion. This material is often used as a polymer electrolyte membrame
(PEM) in batteries, solar cells and fuel cells. The material response of this type of material is similar to many other
thermoplastics, except that it has a unusually strong dependence on the moisture level. The model in this chapter
is the second model discussed by Silberstein-Boyce [30].
The PolyUMod implementation of the SB2 model requires the material parameters in Table 22.1. The state
variables that are used by the SB2-model are summarized in Table 22.2, and an exemplar input file is shown in
Table 22.3.
22.2 Model Theory

In the Silberstein-Boyce-2 (SB2) model the applied deformation gradient is acting on two parallel macromolecular
networks: F = FA = FB , see the rheological representation in Figure 22.1. The total deformation gradient Fappl
Figure 22.1: Rheological representation of the Silberstein-Boyce-2 model.
150
Table 22.1: Material parameters used by the Silberstein-Boyce model 2.

Name
7 µB0 muB0 S Initial shear modulus of network B
8 µB1 muB1 S Final shear modulus of network B
9 hB hB S Evolution rate of shear modulus B
14 γ̇0 gammaDot0 f Attempt frequency
15 G/k dGdK T Activation volume
16 sB10 sB10 S Initial yield evolution 1 for Network B
17 sB11 sB11 S Final yield evolution 1 for Network B
18 hB1 hB1 S Rate of yield evolution 1 for Network B
19 sB20 sB20 S Initial yield evolution 2 for Network B
20 sB21 sB21 S Final yield evolution 2 for Network B
21 hB2 hB2 S Rate of yield evolution 2 for Network B
22 g g S Global interaction parameter 1
23 n n - Global interaction parameter 2
25 sC0 sC0 S Initial yield evolution for Network C
26 sC1 sC1 S Final yield evolution for Network C
27 hC hC S Rate of yield evolution for Network C
28 θref thetaRef T Reference temperature for thermal expansion
29 α alpha 1/T Linear thermal expansion coefficient
30 φref phiRef - Reference moisture concentration
31 β beta - Coefficient of hygroexpansion
Table 22.2: State variables used by the PolyUMod implementation of the Silberstein-Boyce model 2.

Strain Stress Name
2 2 2 2 -
14-22 14-18 14-17 14 Deformation gradient FvC
23 23 23 23 Shear modulus of network B
24 24 24 24 Flow resistance sB1
25 25 25 25 Flow resistance sB2
26 26 26 26 Flow resistance sC
Table 22.3: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the SB2-model.
*Material, name=example_SB2
** Material Model: Silberstein-Boyce-2
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
18, 0, 3, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 51, 26, 1, 500, 0, 0,
** muA, kappa, theta1, f1, theta2, f2, muB0, muB1,
3.3, 330, 330, 1, 370, 0.05, 110, 70,
** hB, theta3, f3, theta4, f4,gammaDot0, dGdK, sB10,
4700, 330, 1, 370, 0.05, 6.72, 6504, 6.5,
** sB11, hB1, sB20, sB21, hB2, g, n, muC,
9.6, 1200, 0, 6.5, 75, 26, 1, 26.5,
** sC0, sC1, hC, thetaRef, alpha, phiRef, beta, f5,
4.3, 7.7, 230, 293, 0, 0, 0, 0.42,
** f6, f7, f8
5, 0.42, 5
*Depvar
26
*Density
1e-09
contains both a hygrothermal expansion part Fth = λs I, where λs = 1 + α(θ − θref ) + β(φ − φref ), and a mechanical
deformation part F:
Here α is the thermal expansion coefficient, β is the coefficient of hygroexpansion, θ is the temperature, φ is the
water/moisture concentration, θref is the reference temperature for thermal expansion, φref is the reference wa-
ter/moisture concentration. The following are material parameters: [θref , α, φref , β]. The moisture concentration is
specified in field variabled 1.
The deformation gradient acting on Network B is further decomposed into elastic and viscoplastic compo-
nents: F = FA = FB = FeB FvB . The deformation gradient acting on the back-stress network is decomposed
into: FvB = FC = FeC FvC .
The Cauchy stress in Network A is given by the neo-Hookean model:

µA
σ A = fa (θ) · fc (φ) · dev[b∗ ] + κ(J − 1)I , (22.2)
λs J
where
• [µA , κ] are material parameters,
• the temperature correction function fa (θ) is given by:

f1 ,
 if θ < θ1
fa (θ) = f2 , if θ > θ2 (22.3)


where θ is the current temperature, and [f1 , f2 , θ1 , θ2 ] are material parameters

• the moister/water correction function fc (φ) is given by:

−(φ − φref )
fc (φ) = (1 − f5 ) exp + f5 (22.4)
f6

• J = det F
• b∗ = J −2/3 FF>
The Cauchy stress in Network B is given by the neo-Hookean model:

µB e∗ e
σ B = fa (θ) · fc (φ) · e dev[bB ] + κ(J B − 1)I , (22.5)
λs JB
where
• µB is evolving with plastic strain following the evolution equation

µB v
µ̇B = hB · 1 − γ̇B (22.6)
µB1
• µB0 is the intial shear modulus at t = 0

• µB1 is the final shear modulus at large strains

e
• JB = det[FeB ]
e −2/3 e e>
• be∗
B = (JB ) FB FB
• [µB0 , µB1 , hB ] are material parameters.
The Cauchy stress on network C is given by the neo-Hookean model:

µC e∗ e
σ C = fa (θ) · fc (φ) · dev[bC ] + κ(JC − 1)I , (22.7)
λs JCe
where
• JCe = det[FeC ]
e −2/3 e e>
• be∗
C = (JC ) FC FC
• µC is a material parameter
σ = σA + σB . (22.8)
The rate of change of the viscoplastic deformation gradient in Network B is given by:
v e−1 dev [σ̂ B ]

ḞvB = γ̇B FB F, (22.9)
τ̂B
where
• σ̂ B ≡ σ B − FeB σ C Fe> e
B /JB
• τ̂B = || dev [σ̂ B ] ||F

e
• JB = det[FBe ]
• The rate of viscoplastic flow is given by:

v −∆G ∆G τ̂B
γ̇B = γ̇0 exp sinh · , (22.10)
kb θ kb θ (sB1 − sB2 + sB3 ) fb (θ) fd (φ)
where [γ̇0 , ∆G/kb ] are material parameters.
• The temperature factor fb (θ) is given by


f3 ,
 if θ < θ3
fb (θ) = f4 , if θ > θ4 (22.11)


where [θ3 , θ4 , f3 , f4 ] are material parameters

• The moister/water correction function fd (φ) is given by:

−(φ − φref )
fd (φ) = (1 − f7 ) exp + f7 (22.12)
f8
• The flow resistance variable sB1 evolves with plastic strain following

sB1 v
ṡB1 = hB1 · 1 − γ̇B (22.13)
sB11
where sB1 is initially (at t = 0) equal to sB10 , and reaches a final value of sB11 at large flow strain. sB10 and
sB11 are material parameters. The evolution of sB1 creates a gradual yielding of the material.
• The flow resistance variable sB2 evolves with plastic strain following

sB2 v
ṡB2 = hB2 · 1 − γ̇B (22.14)
sB21
where sB2 is initially (at t = 0) equal to sB20 , and reaches a final value of sB21 at large flow strain. sB20 and
sB21 are material parameters. The evolution of sB2 allows for yield softening after the initial yielding.
• The variable sB3 controls the intermolecular shear resistance:
sB3 = g · (λnchain − 1), (22.15)
where g and n are material parameters, and
r
tr[b]
λchain = . (22.16)
3
The rate of change of the viscoplastic deformation gradient in Network C is given by:
v e−1 dev [σ C ] v
ḞvC = γ̇C FC FB , (22.17)
τC
where
• τC is given by τC = || dev [σ C ] ||F .
• The rate of viscoplastic flow is given by:

v −∆G ∆G τC
γ̇C = γ̇0 exp sinh · , (22.18)
kb θ kb θ sC fb (θ) fd (φ)
where sC is a material parameter.
• The flow resistance variable sC evolves with plastic strain following

sC v
ṡC = hC · 1 − γ̇C (22.19)
sC0
where sC is initially (at t = 0) equal to sC0 , and reaches a final value of sC1 at large flow strain. sC0 and sC1
are material parameters. The evolution of sC creates a gradual yielding of the material.
The relationship between the material parameters listed here and the original material parameters [30] are summarized
in Table 22.4.
Table 22.4: Relation between the material parameters in the PolyUMod implementation and the original paramters
in the Silberstein-Boyce model 2.
Silberstein-Boyce PolyUMod
Parameter Parameter
µN µA
κ κ
γ̇0 γ̇0
s̃ sB10
s̃sat sB11
h̃ hB1
sˆ0 sB20
ŝsat sB21
ĥ hB2
h g
n n
µ0 µB0
µsat µB1
h hB
muB µC
sB0 sC0
sBsat sC1
hB hC
Chapter 23
Flow Evolution Networks (FEN) Model
23.1 Introduction
The FEN model was developed to obtain an advanced multi-network model that is similar to the Parallel Network
Model, but more numerically efficient and easier to use. The FEN model is suitable for elastomers, thermoplastics,
and other isotropic thermoplastic materials.
The FEN material model is divided into the following parts:
• Stress parameters (section 23.2.1)
• Flow parameters (section 23.2.2)
• Failure parameters (section 23.2.3)
The structure of the FEN model can be represented as four parallel networks as shown in Figure 23.1.
Figure 23.1: Rheological representation of the FEN model.
157
158 CHAPTER 23. FLOW EVOLUTION NETWORKS (FEN) MODEL
The PolyUMod implementation of the FEN model requires the material parameters in Tables 23.1 to 23.3. Not all
features of the model are needed for all polymers. Features that are not needed can be deactivated by properly
selecting the material parameters as discussed in Section 23.2.
Table 23.1: Material parameters used by the elastic components in the FEN model.

Name
1 C10 C10 S Hyperelastic parameter C10
6 f2µ f2mu - Modulus factor for network 2
9 k1 k1 S Fiber stiffness parameter 1
10 k2 k2 - Fiber stiffness parameter 2
11 d dispersion - Fiber dispersion parameter
12 a1x a1x - X-direction of fiber family 1
13 a1y a1y - Y-direction of fiber family 1
14 a1z a1z - Z-direction of fiber family 1
21 fg fg - Temperature factor 1
22 fr fr - Temperature factor 2
23 ∆θ dtheta T Temperature factor 3
24 θg thetag T Transition temperature
25 Xg Xg - Temperature factor 4
26 Cε ceps - Plastic flow evolution factor 1
27 fss fss - Plastic flow evolution factor 2
28 r r - Magnitude of Mullins effect
29 Û Uhat S Energy reference
30 β beta - Mullins parameter 1
31 α alpha - Mullins parameter 2
The state variables that are used by the FEN-model are summarized in Table 23.4, and an exemplar input file is
shown in Table 23.5.
23.2 Model Theory

In the Flow Evolution Networks (FEN) model the applied deformation gradient is acting on up to 4 parallel macro-
molecular networks. Each network has the same constitutive equations, but different material properties.
The total deformation gradient Fappl contains both a thermal expansion part Fth = [1 + α(θ − θref )]I, and a
mechanical deformation part F:
The deformation gradient acting on each network is further decomposed into elastic and viscoplastic components:
Table 23.2: Material parameters used by the flow components in the FEN model.

Name
32 F F - Hill parameter F
33 G G - Hill parameter G
34 H H - Hill parameter H
35 L L - Hill parameter L
36 M M - Hill parameter M
37 N N - Hill parameter N
38 ξ xi - Strain correction factor
40 τ̂1 tauHat1 S Flow resistance in network 1
44 m1 m1 - Stress exponent in network 1
48 τcut tauCut - Flow resistance limit
49 p0 p0 S Pressure dependency factor
50 gg gg - Flow temperature factor 1
51 gr gr - Flow temperature factor 2
52 Yg Yg - Flow temperature factor 3
53 gss1 gss1 - Steady state flow evolution limit 1
54 gss2 gss2 - Steady state flow evolution limit 2
55 De1 De1 - Flow evolution rate 1
56 De2 De2 - Flow evolution rate 2
Table 23.3: Material parameters used by the failure models in the FEN model.

Name
57 σ1f ail sigma1Fail S Max principal stress at failure
f ail
58 σmises sigmaMFail S Mises stress at failure
59 εf1 ail eps1Fail - Max principal strain at failure
60 εfmises
ail
epsMFail - Mises strain at failure
f ail
61 εchain epsChainFail - Chain strain at failure
f ail
62 σhill sigmaHillFail - Hill stress at failure
63 γ̇ f ail gamDotFail - Flow rate at failure
64 F1 F1 T Failure temperature factor 1
65 F2 F2 - Failure temperature factor 2
66 F3 F3 f Failure rate factor 1
67 F4 F4 - Failure rate factor 2
68 α alpha 1/T Thermal expansion coefficient
69 θref theteRef T Thermal expansion reference temperature
Table 23.4: State variables used by the PolyUMod implementation of the FEN model.

Strain Stress Name
2 2 2 2 -
3 3 3 3 -
5- 8 5- 8 5- 8 5- 8 Elastic Flow damage in networks 1-4 (fiεp )
9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 Mullins damage in networks 1-4 (fiM )
13-16 13-16 13-16 13-16 Previous Mullins energy in network 1-4 (Ui.dev )
max
17-20 17-20 17-20 17-20 Max Mullins energy in networks 1-4 (Ui.dev )
min
21-24 12-24 21-24 21-24 Min Mullins energy in networks 1-4 (Ui.dev )
25-33 25-29 25-28 25 Deformation gradient F1v
61-64 61-64 61-64 61-64 Flow evolution gei1 in networks 1-4
65-68 65-68 65-68 65-68 Flow evolution gei2 in networks 1-4
Table 23.5: Exemplar Abaqus user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the FEN-model.
*Material, name=example_FEN
** Calibrated with MCalibration
** Material Model: Flow-Evolution-Networks
** Calibration file name: Untitled
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
19, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 85, 68, 1, 500, 0, 0,
** C10, C20, C30, C01, kappa, f2mu, f3mu, f4mu,
1, -0.01, 0.005, 0, 500, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4,
** k1, k2,dispersion, a1x, a1y, a1z, a2x, a2y,
0, 0.4, 0.1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1,
** a2z, a3x, a3y, a3z, fg, fr, dtheta, thetag,
0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 10, 373,
** Xg, ceps, fss, r, Uhat, beta, alpha, F,
0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0.01, 0.1, 1,
** G, H, L, M, N, xi, C, tauHat1,
1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 0.05, 0, 10,
**tauHat2, tauHat3, tauHat4, m1, m2, m3, m4, tauCut,
12, 14, 16, 8, 8, 8, 8, 0.001,
** p0, gg, gr, Yg, gss1, gss2, De1, De2,
0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0,
**sig1Fai, sigMFail, eps1Fail, epsMFail,epsChFail, sigHillF, gamDotF, F1,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1e+09,
** F2, F3, F4, alpha, thetaRef
1, 1e+09, 1, 0, 293
*Depvar
68
*Density
1e-09
F = Fei Fvi .
23.2.1 Network Stress

The Cauchy stress in Network i is given by a modified version of the Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden Model [26, 27]. The
strain energy density function for the model is given by the following function:
   
3 h
 k1 X 2
i κ 2
Ψi = fiµ fθ · fiεp · fiM Ψyi + ek2 R(Eji ) − 1 + (J e − 1)  , i ∈ [1, 4], (23.2)
 2k2 j=1  2 i
where
• Jie = det[Fei ]
e −2/3 e
• be∗
i = (Ji ) bi = (Jie )−2/3 Fei Fe>
i
e∗
• I1i = tr[be∗
i ]
1
e∗

• I2i = 2 tr[be∗ 2 e∗ 2
i ] − tr[(bi ) ]
∗e
• The strain energy Ψyi is given by the Yeoh model with one Mooney-Rivlin I2i term:
e∗ e∗
Ψyi = C10 (I1i − 3) + C20 (I1i − 3)2 + C30 (I1i
e∗
− 3)3 + C01 (I2i
e∗
− 3). (23.3)
e∗ e∗
• Eji = d(I1i − 3) + (1 − 3d) · [I4ji − 1]
e∗
• I4ji = (Fe∗ e∗
i aj ) · (Fi aj )
• R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function
• The initial fiber directions are given by the three vectors [a1x , a1y , a1z ], [a2x , a2y , a2z ], and [a3x , a3y , a3z ]. The
three fiber directions do not have to be orthogonal. If a fiber direction is specified as a zero vector then that
fiber family will not be used in the analysis.
• d is the dispersion. If d = 0 then the fibers are perfectly aligned, and if d = 1/3 the fibers are randomly oriented
giving an isotropic response. If k1 = 0 then there will be no contribution from the fibers.
• The shear modulus factor fiµ is specified individually for each network. If fiµ = 0 then that network does not
contribute to the deviatoric stress. Note that f1µ ≡ 1.
• The temperature dependency factor is given by [28]:

1 1 5
fθ = (fg + fr ) − (fg − fr ) · tanh (θ − θg ) + Xg · (θ − θg ), (23.4)
2 2 ∆θ
where [fg , fr , ∆θ, θg , Xg ] are material parameters. With this definition fg is a normalized temperature factor
at the glass transition, fr is a normalized temperature factor at the rubber region, ∆θ specifies the width of the
transition region, θg specifies the glass transition temperature, Xg is the normalized modulus reduction with
temperature. All of these material parameters can be determine using a standard DMA temperature sweep
experiment. The temperature dependence can be removed by setting fg = fr = 1, and Xg = 0.
• The plastic flow evolution factor for each network is given by the differential equation:
dfiεp 1
= (fss − fiεp ) γ̇iv . (23.5)
dt cε
Here fss and cε are material parameters, and fiεp = 1 at t = 0. The plastic flow evolution factor is useful
for some polymers where the effective stiffness gets slightly reduced due to plastic strain accumulation. The
current value of fiεp is stored as a state variable. If fss = 1 then there will be no flow evolution.
• The Mullins damage factor is given by:

" #
max
1 Ui.dev − Udev
fiM = 1 − erf (23.6)
r max
Û + βUi.dev
max max max
where Ui.dev = max [Ui.dev , Ui.dev ] if loading (∆Ui.dev ≥ 0), and dUi.dev /dUi.dev = −α if unloading (∆Ui.dev < 0
min
and Ui.dev ≤ Ui.dev ). (
max max
min Ui.dev , if Ui.dev ≥ Ui.dev
Ui.dev = min
(23.7)
min Ui.dev , Ui.dev , otherwise
The Mullins effect model uses the following material parameters [r, Û , β, α] and requires four state variables:
max min
(1) fiM , (2) Ui.dev |t , (3) Ui.dev , (4) Ui.dev . Note that if α = 0 then this model becomes equal to the standard
Ogden-Roxburgh Mullins effect model. If r ≤ 1 then the Mullins effect is deactivated.
The total stress is given by:

σ = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 + σ4 . (23.8)
23.2.2 Network Flow

The rate of viscoplastic flow for network i is given by:
dev[σ i ]
Ḟvi = γ̇iv (Fei )−1 F, (23.9)
τi
where
• The effective stress is given by the Hill stress:
h
2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2

τi = F (σ22 − σ33 ) + G (σ33 − σ11 ) + H (σ11 − σ22 ) + 2Lσ23 + 2M σ31 + 2N σ12 (23.10)
The effective Hill stress becomes equal to the Mises stress if: F = G = H = 1, and L = M = N = 3.
• The rate of flow equation for Network i is given by
mi
C τi
γ̇iv = γ̇0 λvi − 1 + ξ ·R − τcut , (23.11)
gp · gθ · ge1 · ge2 · τ̂i
where
– γ̇0 ≡ 1/s
– bvi = Fvi Fv>
i
– λvi = (tr[bvi ]/3)1/2 is the viscoplastic chain stretch
– R(x) = (x + |x|)/2 is the ramp function
– The flow resistance τ̂i is individually specified for each network. If τ̂i ≡ 0 then there is no flow in that
network.
– The pressure factor gp is given by:
p
gp = R 1 + , (23.12)
p0
where p0 is a material parameter, and p = −(σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )/3 is the pressure. If p0 = 0 then the pressure
dependence is deactivated.
– The temperature dependency factor is given by [28]:

1 1 5
gθ = (gg + gr ) − (gg − gr ) · tanh (θ − θg ) + Yg · (θ − θg ). (23.13)
2 2 ∆θ
With this definition gg is a normalized temperature factor at the glass transition, gr is a normalized
temperature factor at the rubber region, ∆θ specifies the width of the transition region, θg specifies the
glass transition temperature, Yg is the normalized modulus reduction with temperature. The temperature
dependence can be removed by setting gg = gr = 1, and Yg = 0.
– The flow resistance can also evolve with plastic strain based on two evolution equations:
dgei1 1
= (gss1 − gei1 ) · γ̇iv , (23.14)
dt De1
dgei2 1
= (gss2 − gei2 ) · γ̇iv , (23.15)
dt De2
where gei1 = gei2 = 1 at t = 0, and [gss1 , gss2 , De1 , De2 ] are material parameters. If gss1 = 1 or gss2 = 1
then the corresponding flow resistance does not evolve with plastic strain. The purpose of having two flow
evolution terms is to be able to capture both an initial increase in the flow resistance, and the softening
after yielding that occurs in some polymers.
– Typically ξ ≈ 0.01, C = 0 for thermoplastics and C ≈ −1 for elastomers, τcut ≈ 0.01.

The following failure models are supported
• Max principal stress: σ1max > σ1f ail · hθ · hr
max f ail
• Max Mises stress: σmises > σmises · hθ · hr
• Max principal strain: εmax

1 > εf1 ail · hθ · hr
f ail
• Max Mises strain: εmax
mises > εmises · hθ · hr
f ail
• Max chain strain: εmax
chain > εchain · hθ · hr
max f ail
• Max Hill stress: σhill > σhill · hθ · hr . The Hill stress is calculated using the parameters in Equation (23.10).
• Max viscoplastic flow rate: ||Fvi ||F > γ̇ f ail
The temperature dependency factor hθ is given by:
hθ = θ/F1 + F2 . (23.16)
Note that the temperature dependency factor can be deactivated by setting F1 = 0.

The strain-rate dependency factor hr is given by:
hr = ε̇/F3 + F4 , (23.17)
where ε̇ is calculated from the max principal true strain rate. Note that the strain-rate dependency factor can be
deactivated by setting F3 = 0.
Note that multiple failure models can be active at once.

Chapter 24
Responsive Elastomer Foam (REF)

Model
24.1 Introduction
Solver: Abaqus with LS-DYNA with

PolyUMod PolyUMod
Supported: Yes Yes
The Responsive Elastomer Foam (REF) model is a phenomenological model for soft elastomer-like foam materials.
The model is based on look-up tables for how the stress depends on the strain and strain-rate. The following tables
are supported:
• Uniaxial tension
• Uniaxial compression
• Simple shear
• Biaxial tension
• Biaxial compression
• Poisson’s ratio in uniaxial tension
• Poisson’s ratio in uniaxial compression
At each integration point during a finite element simulation this material model will first evaluate the current defor-
mation state. If the deformation is purely uniaxial tension then the uniaxial tension table will be used to determine
the effective elastic material properties at the current strain and strain-rate. Similarly, if the deformation mode is
purely biaxial tension then the table with biaxial tension data will be used, etc. In most cases the current deforma-
tion state will be a combination of multiple loading modes. In this case the REF model will determine the elastic
properties of the two loading modes that are closest to the actual deformation state, and then assign an effective
elastic response that is proportional to the two loading modes. As an example, if the applied deformation state is
mainly uniaxial compression with a small amount of simple shear, then the effective elastic properties will be taken
mainly from the uniaxial compression table but a small weight factor will also be taken from the simple shear table.
The required material parameters for the REF model are summarized in Tables 24.1 to 24.5. An exemplar set of
material parameter in Abaqus inp-file format is provided in Table 24.7, and the state variables that are used by the
material model are summarized in Table 24.6.
164
24.2. MATERIAL MODEL NOTES 165
24.2 Material Model Notes

Additional important notes about the REF material model:
• The material model was developed for non-linear rate-dependent elastomeric foams that do not exhibit perma-
nent set. The REF model does not predict any permanent set. The material model is particularly useful for
explicit FE simulations.
• The model theory and its implementation was selected in order to achieve fast FE run times.
• The material model switches to the slowest available strain rate during unloading. The unloading behavior is
controlled by the regularization parameters A1, A2, and modRegTime.
• All tables use true strain and true stress. All stress and strain values should be positive (absolute values).
• All strain rates are true strain rates. In the tables the strain rates should be positive and monotonically
increasing.
• The initial strain value in each table has to be zero. The different tables do not have to have the same final
strain value. The stress values do not have to monotonically increase with strain or strain-rate.
• If no Poisson’s ratio tables are provided then the Poisson’s ratio is taken from the nu0 and nu1 values.
• The strain values are linearly interpolated, and the strain-rate values are logarithmically interpolated.
• Since the instantaneous strain rate in an explicit simulation can change very rapidly it is necessary to regularize
(smooth) the strain rate before looking up the corresponding stress response in a table. The REF model uses
the following equation to regularize the strain rate:

reg −∆t
ε̇ = ε̇1 + (ε̇0 − ε̇1 ) exp . (24.1)
A1
If the provided A1 parameter is 0, then the parameter A1 is internally set to the value A2 ∆t.
• The stress values that are obtained from the look up tables are used to construct an equivalent hyperelastic
material model. This equivalent hyperelastic model has two elastic properties: µ and κ. These values can
also be regularized (smoothed) using the modulusRegTime parameter. If the provided modulusRegTime value
is positive then the modulus is regularized using the following equation:

reg −∆t
µ = µ1 + (µ0 − µ1 ) exp . (24.2)
modRegT
• The lookFreq variable specifies how often the stress response should be looked up in the tables. If lookFreq=1
then the stress response will be looked up in the tables at each increment. As an example, if lookFreq=5,
then the elastic stiffness values will only be updated every 5th increment. In any other increment the elastic
stiffness properties from the last lookup will be used. The only purpose of the lookFreq parameter is to speed
up FE simulations.
• If extrE is 1, then the look up tables will be used to linearly extrapolated to larger strains. If extrE is 0, then
the final stress values in the tables will be used if the current strain is larger than the final table strain.
• If extrEdot is 1, then the table data will be logarithmically extrapolated to larger strain rates if necessary. If
extrEdot is 0, then the highest table strain rate will be used for all strain rates above the max provided value.
• If the current reduced density (rhoC) is equal to reference reduced density (rhoR) then the values in the tables
will be used for all calculations. Note that the reference reduced density is the density for which the tables
should be provided. If rhoC is not the same as rhoR then the stress values in the tables will be scaled using
the following equation:
h
ρC + αE E
σ(ρR ) = σ(ρC ) (24.3)
ρR + αE
166 CHAPTER 24. RESPONSIVE ELASTOMER FOAM (REF) MODEL
• If tables of Poisson’s ratio in uniaxial tension or compression are given then those values will be used to
determine the current Poisson’s ratio (as a function of strain and strain-rate). If no Poisson’s ratio tables are
provided then the Poisson’s ratio will be given by the following equation:
ν = ν0 + ρC (ν1 − ν0 ). (24.4)
• The easiest way to create a suitable FE input file for the REF model is to use the MCalibration software. The
MCalibration software can automatically take experimental test data and formatting the data properly for the
REF model.
• Each table has three scale parameters (f0, f1, epsTr) that are used to scale the stress (or Poisson’s ratio)
values with the applied strain magnitude. The following equation is used to scale the values:

−ε
σused = (f0 − f1 ) exp + f1 σtable . (24.5)
εtr
The purpose of this scaling is help calibrate the REF model to experimental data with varying strain-rate
history. This type of calibration is easy to perform using MCalibration. If f0 = f1 = 1 then the table values
will be used without scaling.
• At least one uniaxial tension or compression table needs to be provided. All other tables are optional.
• The REF model does not internally check that the provided tables give a stable material model.
Table 24.1: Material parameters used by the REF model (Part 1).
Index Umat Unit* Description

Name
1 A1 t Strain rate regularization parameter 1
2 A2 - Strain rate regularization parameter 2
3 lookFreq - Look-up frequency
4 modRegTime t Modulus regularization time
5 extrE - If 1 then extrapolate strains
6 extrEdot - If 1 then extrapolate strain rates
7 rhoC - Current reduced density
8 rhoR - Reference reduced density
9 nu0 - True Poisson’s ratio at a reduced density of 0
10 nu1 - True Poisson’s ratio at a reduced density of 1
11 alphaE - Modulus scaling factor with reduced density
12 hE - Modulus scaling factor with reduced density
13 UT - Number of uniaxial tension tables
14 UC - Number of uniaxial compression tables
15 SS - Number of simple shear tables
16 BT - Number of biaxial tension tables
17 BC - Number of biaxial compression tables
18 PT - Number of Poisson’s ratio in uniaxial tension
tables
19 PC - Number of Poisson’s ratio in uniaxial compres-
sion tables
20 N - Number of strain points in each table

Name
x x 1/t Uniaxial tensile strain rate 1
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Uniaxial tensile strain rate UT
x x 1/t Uniaxial compressive strain rate 1
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Uniaxial compressive strain rate UC
x x 1/t Simple shear strain rate 1
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Simple shear strain rate SS
x x 1/t Biaxial tension strain rate 1
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Biaxial tension strain rate BT
x x 1/t Biaxial compression strain rate 1
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Biaxial compression strain rate BC
x x 1/t Poisson’s ratio in tension strain rate 1
x x 1/t Poisson’s ratio in tension strain rate 2
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Poisson’s ratio in tension strain rate PT
x x 1/t Poisson’s ratio in compression strain rate 1
x x 1/t Poisson’s ratio in compression strain rate 2
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Poisson’s ratio in compression strain rate PC

Name
x f0 - Uniaxial tension stress scale factor 1
x epsTr - Uniaxial tension transition strain for scale fac-
tor
x strain1 - Uniaxial tension strain value 1
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Uniaxial tension last strain value
x stress1 S Uniaxial tension stress value 1
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Uniaxial tension last stress value
x f0 - Uniaxial compression stress scale factor 1
x epsTr - Uniaxial compression transition strain for scale
factor
x strain1 - Uniaxial compression strain value 1
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Uniaxial compression last strain value
x stress1 S Uniaxial compression stress value 1
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Uniaxial compression last stress value
x f0 - Simple shear stress scale factor 1
x epsTr - Simple shear transition strain for scale factor
x strain1 - Simple shear strain value 1
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Simple shear last strain value
x stress1 S Simple shear stress value 1
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Simple shear last stress value

Name
x f0 - Biaxial tension stress scale factor 1
x epsTr - Biaxial tension transition strain for scale factor
x strain1 - Biaxial tension strain value 1
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Biaxial tension last strain value
x stress1 S Biaxial tension stress value 1
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Biaxial tension last stress value
x f0 - Biaxial compression stress scale factor 1
x epsTr - Biaxial compression transition strain for scale
factor
x strain1 - Biaxial compression strain value 1
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Biaxial compression last strain value
x stress1 S Biaxial compression stress value 1
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Biaxial compression last stress value

Name
x f0 - Poisson’s ratio tension stress scale factor 1
x f1 - Poisson’s ratio tension stress scale factor 2
x epsTr - Poisson’s ratio tension transition strain for
scale factor
x strain1 - Poisson’s ratio tension strain value 1
x strain2 - Poisson’s ratio tension strain value 2
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Poisson’s ratio tension last strain value
x nu1 - Poisson’s ratio tension value 1
x nu2 - Poisson’s ratio tension value 2
.. ... ... ...
x nuN - Poisson’s ratio tension last value
x f0 - Poisson’s ratio compression stress scale factor
1
x f1 - Poisson’s ratio compression stress scale factor
2
x epsTr - Poisson’s ratio compression transition strain
for scale factor
x strain1 - Poisson’s ratio compression strain value 1
x strain2 - Poisson’s ratio compression strain value 2
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Poisson’s ratio compression last strain value
x nu1 - Poisson’s ratio compression value 1
x nu2 - Poisson’s ratio compression value 2
.. ... ... ...
x nuN - Poisson’s ratio compression last value
Table 24.6: State variables used by the REF model.

1 -
2 -
3 -
4 -
5 Strain rate magnitude
6 Max strain (positive in tension, negative in compression)
7 Shear modulus
8 Bulk modulus
9 Strain component 11
11 strain component 33
15 Look-up index
Table 24.7: Exemplar user material parameters for the REF model with two uniaxial compression tables.
*Material, name=mat
*Density
0.5e-9
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
23, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
** VINT, ORIENT, nprops, nstatev, MU, KAPPA, FAILT, FAILV,
0, 0, 76, 15, 1, 500, 0, 0,
** A1, A2, lookFreq, modRegT, extrE, extrEdot, rhoC, rhoR,
0.0010, 0, 1, 0.0010, 1, 0, 0.3, 0.3,
** nu0, nu1, alphaE, hE, UT, UC, SS, BT,
0.10, 0.10, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0,
** BC, PT, PC, N, edot1, edot2, f0, f1,
0, 0, 0, 8, 0.01, 100, 1.0, 1.0,
** epsTr, e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6, e7,
0.10, 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.7, 0.80,
** e8, s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6, s7,
0.90, 0, 0.1, 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.70, 0.80,
** s8, f0, f1, epsTr, e1, e2, e3, e4,
0.90, 1.0, 1.0, 0.10, 0.00, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30,
** e5, e6, e7, e8, s1, s2, s3, s4,
0.40, 0.7, 0.8, 0.90, 0, 0.1, 0.20, 0.30,
** s5, s6, s7, s8,
0.40, 0.70, 0.80, 0.90
*Depvar
15
Chapter 25
Elastic-Plastic Table (EPT) Model
25.1 Introduction
The Elastic-Plastic Table (EPT) model is a lookup table model that is based on linear elasticity with isotropic
hardening J2 -plasticity. The model is currently only available for Abaqus/Explicit and works with 3D, axisymmetric,
and plane strain elements. The implementation that is introduced in PolyUMod version 4.5.0 is a preliminary Beta
version that is likely to change in a future release.
The model is based on look-up tables for how the stress depends on the strain and strain-rate. The following
tables are supported:
• Uniaxial tension
• Uniaxial compression
• Simple shear
• Biaxial tension
• Biaxial compression
At each integration point during a finite element simulation this material model will first evaluate the current defor-
mation state. If the deformation is purely uniaxial tension then the uniaxial tension table will be used to determine
the effective elastic material properties at the current strain and strain-rate. Similarly, if the deformation mode is
purely biaxial tension then the table with biaxial tension data will be used, etc. In most cases the current deforma-
tion state will be a combination of multiple loading modes. In this case the EPT model will determine the elastic
properties of the two loading modes that are closest to the actual deformation state, and then assign an effective
elastic response that is proportional to the two loading modes. As an example, if the applied deformation state is
mainly uniaxial compression with a small amount of simple shear, then the effective elastic properties will be taken
mainly from the uniaxial compression table but a small weight factor will also be taken from the simple shear table.
25.2 Material Model Notes

Additional important notes about EPT model:
• The model ID number is 24.
• The model uses true stres - true strain tables in uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, simple shear, biaxial
tension, and biaxial compression.
• The material model switches to the slowest available strain rate during unloading. The unloading behavior is
controlled by the regularization parameters A1, A2, and modRegTime.
• All tables use true strain and true stress.
172
• All tables use true strain rate.

• All strain rates should be positive and monotonically increasing.
• The initial strain value in each table has to be zero. The different tables do not have to have the same final
strain value. The stress values do not have to monotonically increase with strain or strain-rate.
• No table value should be negative.
• Since the instantaneous strain rate in an explicit simulation can change very rapidly it is necessary to regularize
(smooth) the strain rate before looking up the corresponding stress response in a table. The REF model uses
the following equation to regularize the strain rate:

−∆t
ε̇reg = ε̇1 + (ε̇0 − ε̇1 ) exp . (25.1)
A1
If the provided A1 parameter is 0, then the parameter A1 is internally set to the value A2 ∆t.
• If modulusRegTime is 0, then set to A2 dt.

• The lookFreq variable specifies how often the stress response should be looked up in the tables. If lookFreq=1
then the stress response will be looked up in the tables at each increment. As an example, if lookFreq=5,
then the elastic stiffness values will only be updated every 5th increment. In any other increment the elastic
stiffness properties from the last lookup will be used. The only purpose of the lookFreq parameter is to speed
up FE simulations.
• The tables give total stress as a function of strain and strain rate. There is one table for each strain rate.
• If extrE is 1, then the look up tables will be used to linearly extrapolated to larger strains. If extrE is 0, then
the final stress values in the tables will be used if the current strain is larger than the final table strain.
• If extrEdot is 1, then the table data will be logarithmically extrapolated to larger strain rates if necessary. If
extrEdot is 0, then the highest table strain rate will be used for all strain rates above the max provided value.
• Each table has three scale parameters (f0, f1, epsTr) that are used to scale the stress (or Poisson’s ratio)
values with the applied strain magnitude. The following equation is used to scale the values:

−ε
σused = (f0 − f1 ) exp + f1 σtable . (25.2)
εtr
The purpose of this scaling is help calibrate the EPT model to experimental data with varying strain-rate
history. This type of calibration is easy to perform using MCalibration. If f0 = f1 = 1 then the table values
will be used without scaling.
• At least one uniaxial tension or compression table needs to be provided. All other tables are optional.
• The REF model does not internally check that the provided tables give a stable material model.
Table 25.1 contains a list of required material parameters.

174 CHAPTER 25. ELASTIC-PLASTIC TABLE (EPT) MODEL
Table 25.1: Material parameters used by the EPT model (Part 1).

Name
1 A1 A1 t Strain rate reguliarization parameter
2 A2 A2 - Strain rate regularization parameter
3 - lookFreq - Frequency for lookup table calls
4 - modulusRegTime Modulus regularization time
5 - extrE - Extrapolated strains
6 - extrEdot - Extrapolate strain rates
7 - ePR - Elastic Poisson’s ratio
8 - UT - Number of uniaxial tension tables
9 - UC - Number of uniaxial compression tables
10 - SS - Number of simple shear tables
11 - BT - Number of biaxial tension tables
12 - BC - Number of biaxial compression tables
13 - N - Number of strain points in each table
*where: S = stress

Name
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Uniaxial tensile strain rate UT
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Uniaxial compressive strain rate UC
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Simple shear strain rate SS
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Biaxial tension strain rate BT
... ... ... ...
x x 1/t Biaxial compression strain rate BC

Name
x epsTr - Uniaxial tension transition strain for scale fac-
tor
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Uniaxial tension last strain value
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Uniaxial tension last stress value
x epsTr - Uniaxial compression transition strain for scale
factor
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Uniaxial compression last strain value
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Uniaxial compression last stress value
x epsTr - Simple shear transition strain for scale factor
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Simple shear last strain value
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Simple shear last stress value

Name
x epsTr - Biaxial tension transition strain for scale factor
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Biaxial tension last strain value
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Biaxial tension last stress value
x epsTr - Biaxial compression transition strain for scale
factor
.. ... ... ...
x strainN - Biaxial compression last strain value
.. ... ... ...
x stressN S Biaxial compression last stress value
Table 25.5: State variables used by the EPT model.

1 Total time
2 -
3 Value of failure model
4 Failure flag (1 if failed)
5 Strain rate magnitude
6 Max strain (positive in tension, negative in compression)
7 Young’s modulus
8 Yield stress
9 Hardening modulus
10 Lookup index
11 Total strain component 11
17 Elastic strain component 11
23 Plastic strain component 11
29 Equivalent plastic strain
30 Stress component 11
Table 25.6: Exemplar user material parameters for the EPT model with two uniaxial tension tables.
*Material, name=MAT
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
24, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1,
** VINT, ORIENT, -, -, MU, KAPPA, FAILT, FAILV,
1, 0, 0, 0, 1.0, 100, 0, 0,
** A1, A2, lookFreq, modRegT, extrE, extrEdot, nu, UT,
1.0e-5, 10.0, 1, 1.0e-5, 1, 1, 0.40, 2,
** UC, SS, BT, BC, N, edotUT1, edotUT2, f0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0.001, 0.100, 1.00,
** f1, epsTr, strain1, strain2, strain3, strain4, strain5, strain6,
1.00, 0.1, 0.00, 0.01, 0.03, 0.06, 0.10, 0.20,
** strain7, strain8, stress1, stress2, stress3, stress4, stress5, stress6,
0.40, 0.60, 0.00, 6.10, 12.30, 14.80, 16.20, 18.20,
** stress7, stress8, f0, f1, epsTr, strain1, strain2, strain3,
22.70, 27.50, 1.00, 1.00, 0.1, 0.00, 0.01, 0.03,
** strain4, strain5, strain6, strain7, strain8, stress1, stress2, stress3,
0.062, 0.105, 0.205, 0.405, 0.605, 0.00, 6.71, 13.53,
** stress4, stress5, stress6, stress7, stress8
16.42, 17.82, 20.02, 24.97, 30.25
*Depvar
35
*Density
1.0e-9
Chapter 26
Multi-Temperature Model
26.1 Introduction
Supported: Yes Yes - Yes Yes Yes
The Multi-Temperature model framework is not a single material model but a framework for making any other
PolyUMod material model temperature dependent. The approach is to provide the material parameters (both global
and local) for a finite number of discrete temperatures. This model will then find the two sets of material parameters
that are closest in temperature to the current temperature, and then linearly interpolate each parameter between
these two sets based on the temperature values.
The Multi-Temperature model framework requires the material parameters in Table 26.1.
Note 1: The model does not use the standard global material parameters. Set of global material parameters are
specified for each temperature.
Note 2: The temperatures have to be listed in order of increasing values.
Note 3: If the simulated temperature is lower than the lowest temperature that is provided then the parameters for
the lowest provided temperature will be used. The parameters will not be extrapolated based on the available
data.
Note 4: If the simulated temperature is higher than the highest temperature that is provided then the parameters
for the highest provided temperature will be used. The parameters will not be extrapolated based on the
available data.
179
180 CHAPTER 26. MULTI-TEMPERATURE MODEL
Table 26.1: Material parameters used by the Multi-Temperature model framework.

Name
1 id id - Model id. Always 99.
2 p p - Number of material parameters for each tem-
perature.
3 N N - Number of temperatures.
4 T1 T1 T Temperature value 1.
5 T2 T2 T Temperature value 2.
··· ··· ··· ···
TN TN T Last temperature value.
M1 M1 - Global and local parameters at temperature
T1.
M2 M2 - Global and local parameters at temperature
T2.
··· ··· ··· ···
MN MN - Global and local parameters at temperature
TN.
Table 26.2: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the Multi-Temperature model.
*Material, name=mat
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
** ID, p, NT, T1, T2, MM, ODE, JAC,
99, 25, 2, 300, 400, 4, 0, 0,
** ERRM, TWOD_S, VERB, VTIME, VELEM, VINT, ORIENT, NPROP,
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 25,
** NHIST, GMU, GKAPPA, FAILT, FAILV, mu, lambdaL, kappa,
13, 1, 500, 0, 0, 1, 3.5, 450,
** s, xi, C, tauBase, m, tauCut, MM, ODE,
2, 0.05, -0.5, 0.3, 8, 0.01, 4, 0,
** JAC, ERRM, TWOD_S, VERB, VTIME, VELEM, VINT, ORIENT,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
** NPROP, NHIST, GMU, GKAPPA, FAILT, FAILV, mu, lambdaL,
25, 13, 1, 500, 0, 0, 2, 3.5,
** kappa, s, xi, C, tauBase, m, tauCut
500, 3, 0.05, -0.5, 0.5, 8, 0.01
*Depvar
13
Chapter 27
Multi-Strain Rate Model
27.1 Introduction
The Multi-Strain Rate model framework is not a single material model but a framework for making any other
PolyUMod material models accurate over a wider range of strain-rates. The approach is to provide the material
parameters (both global and local) for a finite number of discrete strain rates. This model will then find the two sets
of material parameters that are closest in strain rate to the current strain rate, and then interpolate each parameter
between these two sets based on the logarithmic strain rate values.
The Multi-Strain Rate model framework requires the material parameters in Table 27.1.
Note 1: The model does not use the standard global material parameters. Set of global material parameters are
specified for each strain rate.
Note 2: The strain rates have to be listed in order of increasing values.
Note 3: Two different types of strain rates can be used:

1. Volumetric strain (suitable for foams)
2. Max principal strain
Note 4: The current strain rate is calculated from:
Z t
1
ε̇curr (t) = ε̇(τ )e−(t−τ )/A(ε) dτ. (27.1)
A(ε) 0
The parameter A is given by: A(ε) = A1 + A2 εA3 , where ε is the strain magnitude. The influence of A1 , A2 ,
and A3 are shown in Figures 27.1 to 27.3.
Note 5: State variable 1 contains the current strain rate.
181
182 CHAPTER 27. MULTI-STRAIN RATE MODEL
Figure 27.1: Influence of number of data points on the time evolution of the averate strain rate.
Figure 27.2: Influence of parameter A1 on the time evolution of the average strain rate.
Figure 27.3: Influence of parameter A2 on the time evolution of the average strain rate.
Table 27.1: Material parameters used by the Multi-Strain Rate model framework.

Name
1 id id - Model id. Always 98.
2 edotType edotType - Strain rate type.
3 A1 A1 f Strain rate parameter 1.
4 A2 A2 f Strain rate parameter 2.
5 A3 A3 - Strain rate parameter 3.
6 p p - Number of material parameters for each strain
rate.
7 N N - Number of strain rates.
8 r1 r1 f Strain rate value 1.
9 r2 r2 f Strain rate value 2.
··· ··· ··· ···
rN TN f Last strain rate value.
M1 M1 - Global and local parameters at strain rate T1.
M2 M2 - Global and local parameters at strain rate T2.
··· ··· ··· ···
MN MN - Global and local parameters at strain rate TN.
*where: - = dimensionless, f = 1/time
184 CHAPTER 27. MULTI-STRAIN RATE MODEL
Table 27.2: Exemplar user material parameters for the PolyUMod implementation of the Multi-Strain Rate model.
*Material, name=Mat
** Multi-Rate Material Model
**..:....1....:....2....:....3....:....4....:....5....:....6....:....7....:....8
** id, strainTy, A1, A2, A3, npar, nrERates, r1,
98, 2, 0.010, 1.0, 1.0, 18, 2, 0.01,
** r2, MM, ODE, JAC, ERRM, TWOD_S, VERB, VTIME,
10.0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
** VELEM, VINT, ORIENT, NPROP, NHIST, MU, KAPPA, FAILT,
0, 0, 0, 18, 4, 1.0, 100, 0,
** FAILV, mu, kappa, MM, ODE, JAC, ERRM, TWOD_S,
0, 1.0, 100.0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0,
** VERB, VTIME, VELEM, VINT, ORIENT, NPROP, NHIST, MU,
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 18, 4, 1.0,
** KAPPA, FAILT, FAILV, mu, kappa
100, 0, 0, 10.0, 100.0
*Depvar
4
*Density
1000.0e-12
Bibliography
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Version: 4.5.

4 Common Material Model Theory 22

5 Linear Elastic Model 24

8 Bergström-Boyce (BB) Model 34

9 BB-Model with Mullins Effect 39

10 Anisotropic BB Model with Mullins Effect 41

13 Arruda-Boyce Plasticity Model 57

14 Dual Network Fluoropolymer Model 60

15 Three Network Model 65

16 Bergstrom Anisotropic Eight-Chain Model 70

17 Micromechanical Foam Model 74

18 Parallel Network Model 79

Chain Strain from Viscous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Anisotropic True Strain-Based Damage Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

19 Three Network Foam Model 136

20 Dynamic Bergström-Boyce (DBB) Model 141

21 Silberstein-Boyce-1 Model 145

22 Silberstein-Boyce-2 Model 150

23 Flow Evolution Networks (FEN) Model 157

24 Responsive Elastomer Foam (REF) Model 164

25 Elastic-Plastic Table (EPT) Model 172

26 Multi-Temperature Model 179

27 Multi-Strain Rate Model 181

To use the PolyUMod library it is sufficient to:

2.1 Windows Installation

2.2 Linux Installation

2.3 Validation of the Installation

3.1 Material Parameters

*User Material, constants=18

The user material parameters can be divided into two categories:

2. Material parameters specifying the mechanical response of the material model.

3.1.1 Global User Material Parameters

The variables are specified as follows:

2. ODE solver id (ODE)

No *ORIENTATION Set ORIENT=0 Set ORIENT=3

With *ORIENTATION Set ORIENT=1 Set ORIENT=4

5: Bflag, also consider brittle failure if set to 1

where θ is the current temperature.

16. Failure Criterion Value (FAILV)

3.1.2 Material Parameters in the Base State

3.2 State Variables

The structure of the state variables is as follows:

3.3 Environmental Variables

3.4 Material Parameters in an External File

Table 3.2: Environmental variables used by the PolyUMod library.

Environmental Variable Description

The corresponding example for Abaqus is as follows:

3.5 Time Incrementation for Implicit Simulations

*Controls, parameters=time incrementation

3.6 Non-Linear Geometry

Common Material Model Theory

4.2 Three-Dimensional Theory

4.3 Plane-Strain Theory

which can be written in vector form as  

4.4 Plane-Stress Theory

Alternatively, these quantities be written in vector form as follows:

4.5 Uniaxial Theory

Linear Elastic Model

Table 5.1: Material parameters used by the linear elastic model.

Index Symbol Umat Unit* Description

Table 5.2: State variables used by the linear elastic model.

Index State Variable Name

5.2 Three-Dimensional Theory