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Understanding the use of YouTube Using

YouTube as
as a learning resource: a social a learning
resource
cognitive perspective
Quan Zhou, Chei Sian Lee, Sei-Ching Joanna Sin, Sijie Lin, Huijie Hu 339
and Muhammad Fahmi Firdaus Bin Ismail
Received 25 October 2019
Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Revised 20 January 2020
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore Accepted 2 March 2020

Abstract
Purpose – Drawing from social cognitive theory, the purpose of this study is to examine how personal,
environmental and behavioral factors can interplay to influence people’s use of YouTube as a learning
resource.
Design/methodology/approach – This study proposed a conceptual model, which was then tested with
data collected from a survey with 150 participants who had the experience of using YouTube for learning. The
bootstrap method was employed to test the direct and mediation hypotheses in the model.
Findings – The results revealed that personal factors, i.e. learning outcome expectations and attitude, had
direct effects on using YouTube as a learning resource (person → behavior). The environmental factor, i.e. the
sociability of YouTube, influenced the attitude (environment → person), while the behavioral factor, i.e. prior
experience of learning on YouTube, affected learning outcome expectations (behavior → person). Moreover, the
two personal factors fully mediated the influences of sociability and prior experience on YouTube usage for
learning.
Practical implications – The factors and their relationships identified in this study provide important
implications for individual learners, platform designers, educators and other stakeholders who encourage the
use of YouTube as a learning resource.
Originality/value – This study draws on a comprehensive theoretical perspective (i.e. social cognitive theory)
to investigate the interplay of critical components (i.e. individual, environment and behavior) in YouTube’s
learning ecosystem. Personal factors not only directly influenced the extent to which people use YouTube as a
learning resource but also mediated the effects of environmental and behavioral factors on the usage behavior.
Keywords Social media, YouTube, Online learning, Learning resource, Influential factors,
Social cognitive theory
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
The topic of adopting and using YouTube for learning purposes has received considerable
interest in practice and research. With about two billion monthly active users, YouTube gains
over a billion views daily on learning and educational content (Salim, 2019; Susan, 2018).
There is a wide array of educational videos in YouTube providing content in different
domains such as exercise instruction (Basch et al., 2017), computer programming (Lee et al.,
2017), musical instruments (Hong et al., 2016) and foreign languages (Blattner and Fiori,
2009). The recent Pew research studies reported that YouTube was the top online platform
used by most adults in the US, and about 87% of YouTube users found YouTube helpful in
terms of how-to and learning content (Perrin and Anderson, 2019; Smith et al., 2018). A large
amount of learning content makes YouTube a valuable learning resource for individual
learners to engage in on-demand learning in school, work and/or everyday life, with low cost
and high flexibility in time and location. The popular use of YouTube for learning drives
Aslib Journal of Information
YouTube to put more investment in supporting creators who make educational videos Management
(Susan, 2018). Educators in academic and professional education also incorporated YouTube Vol. 72 No. 3, 2020
pp. 339-359
videos as a dynamic element of course teaching to improve knowledge transfer and skill © Emerald Publishing Limited
2050-3806
development (Clifton and Mann, 2011; Copper and Semich, 2019). DOI 10.1108/AJIM-10-2019-0290
AJIM Research suggests that video content can be effective in stimulating greater interactivity
72,3 with content and more engagement in memorizing (Lee and Lehto, 2013; Loke et al., 2019).
Moreover, the social features of YouTube (subscribing, commenting and liking) enable users
to connect and communicate with YouTubers and other learners, leading to a more
interactive and social learning experience (Lee et al., 2017). Given the trend of learning on
YouTube and the educational benefits, there is a need to understand the factors that influence
people’s use of YouTube as a learning resource. This is important for learners, platform
340 designers and instructional video contributors, as the promotion of high-quality educational
content on YouTube and the achievement of educational value from YouTube mainly
depends on how it is adopted and used for learning at the individual level (Chintalapati and
Daruri, 2016). Put differently, this study advocates that understanding online information
behaviors from the perspectives of online learners and the embedded social environment
(YouTube) is an important endeavor. In this study, we refer to learning as an activity that
individuals engage in with the goal of improving their understanding of an issue and/or their
ability to solve problems in life, work and/or study (Wang et al., 2014).
There are multiple components (i.e. learners, content contributors, social environment and
user’s online behavior) within YouTube’s learning ecosystem that have contributed to the
success of YouTube as a learning platform. Prior research has recognized the positive role of
YouTube in facilitating learning, such as increasing learners’ interests in subjects
(Buzzetto-More, 2014), enhancing the understanding of course content (Clifton and Mann,
2011) and meeting learners’ expectations as well as encouraging self-direct learning (Lee et al.,
2017). Thus, personal attributes of the learner contribute to one influential component. With
wide range of free tutorial videos and social networking features, YouTube offers a unique
learning environment by enabling users to create, share and comment on learning-related
videos as well as connect with instructional video contributors, leading to an open, creative
and collaborative online learning community (Jung and Lee, 2015; Lee et al., 2017). An online
learning environment that enables social interactions among learners can influence people’s
involvement in learning with the technology (Kop, 2011; Ma and Lee, 2019a). Indeed, the social
learning environment on YouTube contributes to another influential component. Given the
learning opportunities afforded by YouTube, research has highlighted its promising
potential for changing people’s learning behaviors and supporting formal education and
lifelong learning (Greenhow and Lewin, 2016; Kind and Evans, 2015; Lee et al., 2017). Further,
the behavioral influence of an individual’s prior online learning experience on continuous
learning behaviors has also been documented in research (Ma and Lee, 2017). Taken together,
the influences of the multiple factors (i.e. personal, environmental and behavioral factors)
may shed light on the use of YouTube as a learning resource.
To explore how the personal, environmental and behavioral factors can interplay to
influence people’s use of YouTube as a learning resource, this study draws on the social
cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986). Specifically, the social cognitive perspective explains
human behavior within a framework of reciprocal interactions among personal factors,
environment and behavior (Bandura, 1986, 2001). The social-cognitive perspective can be a
useful and appropriate approach to understand the use of YouTube as a learning resource as
it has been widely applied in prior research to explain technology usage and online learning
behavior with demonstrated validity (Bao and Han, 2019; Khang et al., 2014; LaRose and
Eastin, 2004; Wang and Wu, 2008). Personal factors refer to individuals’ beliefs in their
behavior, such as outcome expectations and attitude toward their behavior (Compeau et al.,
1999; LaRose and Eastin, 2004). Environmental factor reflects the characteristic of a learning
environment that can influence an individual’s engagement in learning activities (Wang and
Wu, 2008). The behavioral factor is people’s direct personal experience of behavior, which is
related to the self-evaluation of the experience, formation of habit and future engagement
(LaRose and Eastin, 2004; Lee and Ma, 2012).
 The objective of this study is to draw from the social cognitive theory to explore how Using
personal, environmental and behavioral factors can work together to influence people’s use of YouTube as
YouTube as a learning resource. In particular, this study examines the effects of two personal
factors (i.e. outcome expectations and attitude), the environmental factor (i.e. the sociability of
a learning
YouTube) and the behavioral factor (i.e. prior experience of using YouTube for learning). resource
Taken together, the present study aims to address the following research question: How do
learning outcome expectations and attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource (person),
the sociability of YouTube (environment) and prior experience (behavior) influence the extent 341
to which people use YouTube as a learning resource (behavior)?

Literature review
Using YouTube as a learning resource
As a video-sharing social media, YouTube allows users to upload, share, view, rate and
comment on videos (Hong et al., 2016; Lee and Lehto, 2013). Research has suggested that the
multimedia resources provided through YouTube made it a promising platform for learning
(Clifton and Mann, 2011; Lee et al., 2017). In particular, Bonk (2008) argued that visual and
auditory information in YouTube videos could facilitate knowledge retention. In addition,
learners can see their learning pace with YouTube by pausing, fast-forwarding or rewinding
the video (Hong et al., 2016). Moreover, Jaffar (2012) examined the application of YouTube
videos in an anatomy course and found that 98% of the students utilized YouTube as an
online information resource and 92% agreed that the tutorial videos on YouTube were
helpful. Moghavvemi et al. (2018) suggest that YouTube videos can be a complementary
learning resource for educators and that students’ learning experience can be enhanced if
relevant videos are used for teaching a subject at hand.
In addition to the accessibility and availability of educational videos, YouTube also
enables users to connect and communicate with other users. YouTube users can interact with
other users via commenting and rating (Lee, 2012). Social cues that represent aggregated user
behavior, such as the number of connections and aggregated views and ratings, enable users
to evaluate the viewed content (Walther and Jang, 2012). The social interaction afforded by an
online learning platform, such as getting feedback from peers and instructors, were
important predictors of effective learning on that platform (Wang and Wu, 2008). Clifton and
Mann (2011) pointed out that through social interaction, YouTube changed learning from a
passive to an active and interactive learning activity, thus stimulating deeper learning.
Indeed, Lee et al. (2017) analyzed comments on YouTube education videos and found that
YouTube provides an interactive and engaging learning environment that enables
self-directed learning both within and outside classroom learning. Collectively, in addition
to providing a large number of instructional videos, YouTube also serves as a social learning
environment.
Existing research on YouTube use for learning has mainly focused on several aspects.
First, some studies have investigated the characteristics (e.g. quality, quantity, credibility,
etc.) of educational content on YouTube (Derakhshan et al., 2019; Shoufan, 2019; Tackett et al.,
2018). Second, other studies have focused on the pedagogical strategies (e.g. using video clips
for class discussion, vlogging as a learning activity, etc.) when integrating YouTube as part
of academic education and professional training (Chan, 2019; Musgrove et al., 2019; Or
us et al.,
2016). Moreover, a handful of studies have examined the effectiveness of YouTube for
self-directed learning, such as learning computer programming and musical instruments
(Hong et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2017). However, the factors that influence the extent to which
people use YouTube as a learning resource (i.e. online learning behavior) have not been well
examined yet.
AJIM Social cognitive theory
72,3 Social cognitive theory provides a comprehensive theoretical framework to understand
human behavior (Bandura, 1986, 2001). Specifically, it advocates the triadic reciprocity
among the person, environment and behavior, which suggests that the behavioral changes of
humans are embedded in a dynamic interplay of personal, environmental and behavioral
factors (Bandura, 1986). Prior studies have drawn on social cognitive theory to explain
technology usage behavior (LaRose and Eastin, 2004), news sharing in social media (Lee and
342 Ma, 2012) and users’ participation in social Q&A communities (Bao and Han, 2019). In terms

of online learning, Sumak et al. (2011) reported that personal factors (e.g. self-efficacy and
outcome expectations) could predict the acceptance of a learning system. In addition, some
research has also revealed the influence of the online environment, such as support from
peers in a virtual community (Chiu and Tsai, 2014) and social interaction ties in one’s online
social network (Chiu et al., 2006), on people’s online behaviors. Moreover, an individual’s past
experience related to the use of technology was also found as an important predictor of their
intention and actual usage (LaRose and Eastin, 2004; Lee and Ma, 2012). Therefore, in light of
the social cognitive theory and prior studies, this study attempts to explore the interplay
among outcome expectations and attitude (person), prior experience (behavior) and the
sociability of YouTube (environment), as well as their influences on using YouTube as a
learning resource (behavior).

Personal factors
Personal factors are the key components of the social cognitive theory’s definition of human
functioning that affects behavior (Bandura, 1986; Compeau et al., 1999). In this study, we
examine two personal factors that may affect the behavior of using YouTube as a learning
resource: learning outcome expectations for YouTube and attitude towards YouTube as a
learning resource.

Learning outcome expectations

Outcome expectations are the judgments of the possible consequences after enacting a
behavior (Bandura, 2001; Zimmerman, 2001). Expectations of positive outcomes can be
incentives, while expectations of aversive outcomes can be disincentives of a behavior. Social
cognitive theory also suggests that people are more likely to perform actions that may lead to
desired outcomes instead of actions that would lead to negative outcomes (Bandura, 2001). In
line with the notion of outcome expectations, learning outcome expectations are a learner’s
belief of how helpful an online learning system is for their learning purposes (Chen et al.,
2013). Research has revealed that learning outcomes expectations are associated with
learning technology usage behavior. Chen et al. (2013) found that learning outcome
expectations for using a web-based language learning system were positively associated with
a higher level of learning satisfaction of using the system. Zhou et al. (2017) further confirmed
that setting expectations (i.e. goals) when using social media platforms for learning would
enhance the learning process and ultimately positively affect learning satisfaction. Hence, we
argue that individuals will be more likely to use YouTube as a learning resource if they
believe the use of YouTube will meet their expectations and achieve desired learning
outcomes (e.g. access to useful resources, connecting with experts and collaborating with
peers). The expected learning outcomes of using YouTube may, therefore, be an important
factor that can influence their use of YouTube as a learning resource, which gives rise to our
first hypothesis:
H1. Learning outcome expectations for YouTube will be positively associated with using
YouTube as a learning resource.
Attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource Using
Attitude refers to a psychological state reflecting the feeling of favor or disfavor (Barki YouTube as
and Hartwick, 1994). In this study, we investigate people’s attitude toward YouTube as a
learning resource, which can be defined as people’s favorability of using YouTube for
a learning
learning purposes. According to social cognitive theory, if a person believes that a resource
certain behavior is unethical or bad, they will not engage in the behavior so that their
behaviors dovetail with the internal standards (Bandura, 1986, 2001). In terms of online
learning, Ginns and Ellis (2007) suggested that students’ positive attitude toward online 343
learning was strongly related to better online learning outcomes. Research has also
suggested that positive learning experience in an online learning environment could
influence learner’s continuous use of an online learning system (Taylor and Gitsaki,
2004). In organizational learning, Chiu and Tsai (2014) revealed that nurses’ positive
attitude toward using an online learning system predicted their intention to engage in
online learning for continuing education. Therefore, it is possible that people who have a
positive attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource may have a higher extent of
using YouTube as a learning resource. Thus, this study proposes that:
H2. Attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource will be positively associated with
using YouTube as a learning resource.

Environmental factor
Social cognitive theory suggests that the environment is one of the key factors that can
influence human behavior (Bandura, 2001). In particular, one fundamental tenet of the social
cognitive perspective is that people develop and adjust judgments and opinions through
observing and learning from others’ experiences and consequences in their environment, in
addition to direct experience (Bandura, 1986, 2001; Stegmann et al., 2012). In an online
environment, social interaction among users is supported by the social features in the online
system (Goh et al., 2019). The social features designed on YouTube, such as commenting,
subscribing and liking, can encourage and stimulate the exchange of ideas, opinions,
information and knowledge among users (Chelaru et al., 2014). Regarding this, Kreijns et al.
(2007, 2011) suggest that the concept of sociability can express the extent to which an online
learning environment is perceived to be able to allow social interaction among learners. The
sociability of YouTube can then be defined as the extent to which people perceive that
YouTube can facilitate interaction and communication with other users. Hence, we propose
that the sociability of YouTube is an important environmental factor from the social cognitive
perspective.
Unsurprisingly, the sociability of an online environment has been reported to be
influential in affecting technology-mediated learning (Ma and Lee, 2019b). Specifically,
research studies had suggested that when an online learning environment enabled its users to
communicate and interact, users would be more engaged in their online learning and
achieved better learning outcomes (Yang and Chang, 2012). Liao et al. (2015) also found that
the feature of commenting on a social networking platform, which supports collaborative
learning among students, could lead to higher learning motivation and positive attitude
toward using the platform for learning. In this vein, it is possible that when people perceive a
higher degree of sociability in an online learning environment like YouTube, they will
develop a more favorable attitude toward learning in such an environment. Hence, the
following hypothesis is proposed:
H3. The sociability of YouTube will be positively associated with people’s attitude
toward YouTube as a learning resource.
AJIM Behavioral factor
72,3 The social-cognitive perspective highlights that the development of human behavior can be
influenced not only by the environment but also by their personal experience of actual doing
(Bandura, 2001). Social cognitive theory contends that the outcome expectations of a given
action can be derived from personal experience (Bandura, 2001). That is, the consequences of
people’s actions can influence their judgment of whether they may experience similar
outcomes in a future endeavor (LaRose and Eastin, 2004).
344 Studies have suggested that prior experience could be an important predictor of related
online behavior. For example, in the context of online learning, Wang et al. (2013) revealed
that students with online course learning experiences had higher learning expectations for an
online system and were more effective with online learning. Some studies also suggested that
prior experience of using a technology was a significant predictor of the intention of
continuing usage (LaRose and Eastin, 2004; McKerlich et al., 2013). Thus, it is possible that
people form their expectations on the consequences of their prior actions, which affect their
actual usage. Therefore, we posit that people who have prior experience of learning on
YouTube may be more likely to expect YouTube to be a helpful learning resource. The
following hypothesis is proposed:
H4. Prior experience of learning on YouTube will be positively associated with learning
outcome expectations on YouTube.

Mediation hypotheses
As discussed above, this study has hypothesized the direct influences of personal factors on
the behavior of using YouTube as a learning resource. We have also hypothesized that the
sociability of YouTube would influence the attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource,
while the prior experience of learning on YouTube would affect the learning outcome
expectations on YouTube. Thus, it may logically be possible that the personal factors mediate
both the relationship between the sociability of YouTube and using YouTube as a learning
resource and the relationship between prior experience and the usage behavior. Indeed, social
cognitive theory also lends theoretical support to examining such mediation relationships. In
the reciprocal interactions, environmental influences and prior behavioral experience can be
transformed into symbolic representations that serve as guides for action, and the actual
behavior is motivated and regulated by people’s internal beliefs such as outcome
expectations and attitude (Bandura, 2001). In line with this theoretical proposition, we
recognize the mediating roles of personal factors and expect two mediating relationships. In
the case of the relationship between the sociability of YouTube and YouTube usage for
learning, this relationship will be mediated by people’s attitude toward YouTube as a
learning resource (Figure 1, paths H3 and H2). In the case of the influence of prior experience
on the usage of YouTube for learning, the outcome expectations will act as a mediator
(Figure 1, paths H4 and H1).

Method
Sample
A mixed-mode survey was conducted, using both online and paper-based questionnaires to
increase the response rate. A total of 150 complete and valid questionnaires were collected.
Participants were recruited based on purposive snowball sampling (Creswell, 2007). This
sampling method facilitated the identification of our target respondents, who should be
YouTube users with experience of learning on YouTube. While a nonprobability sampling
may limit the generalizability of the findings, hypothesis testing with the sample of this study
could be a starting point for future studies to test the social cognitive model of using YouTube
as a learning resource with larger sample size. The sample demographics are summarized in Using
Table 1. YouTube as
a learning
Measures resource
Participants were asked to answer questions in a survey, including six sections of questions:
the demographic information, questions about the learning outcome expectations on
YouTube, questions about the attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource, questions 345
about the perceptions of the sociability of YouTube, questions about the prior experience of
learning on YouTube and questions about the behavior of using YouTube as a learning
resource (see Appendix).
In the survey, all variables were measured using multiple items adapted from related
prior research. Three items were used to measure learning outcome expectations on
YouTube, which were adapted from previous studies on technology usage (LaRose and

Figure 1.
Hypothesized model
relating learning
outcome expectations,
attitude, sociability of
YouTube, prior
experience, and using
YouTube as a learning
resource

Number Percentage (%)

Gender
Male 100 67
Female 50 33
Education
High school 3 2
Polytechnic 11 7
Bachelor’s degree 104 69
Master’s degree and above 32 21
Education background
Computer science/IT 87 58
Engineering 50 33
Business 9 6
Others 4 3
Occupation
Student 25 17 Table 1.
Professional 125 83 Sample
Age Min 5 22; Max 5 48; Median 5 28; Mean 5 28; demographics
SD 5 4 (N 5 150)
AJIM Eastin, 2004; Lin and Huang, 2008). Participants were asked to indicate their expectations
72,3 on using YouTube for learning purposes, using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The scores of the three items were averaged to
represent the value of learning outcome expectations (Mean 5 3.33, SD 5 0.87, α 5 0.75).
Four items measuring attitude toward learning on YouTube were adapted from online
learning studies (Chintalapati and Daruri, 2016). Participants were asked to evaluate their
evaluation of YouTube as a useful learning tool by rating four items from 1 (strongly
346 disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The index of attitude toward learning on YouTube was the
mean of the four items (M 5 3.63, SD 5 0.66, α 5 0.83).
The sociability of YouTube was measured by six items, which was adapted from research
on the sociability of an online learning system (Kreijns et al., 2007). The items were measured
by a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The mean of the six
items represented the value of the perceived sociability of YouTube, which was 3.02
(SD 5 0.70, α 5 0.78).
Prior experience of learning on YouTube was assessed with two items. Participants were
asked whether participants were performing any learning behaviors on YouTube, with a
dichotomous scale of 0 (no) and 1 (yes). Considering that it is more reasonable to measure the
degree of prior experience as the sum of the listed prior behavior, we computed the value of
prior experience by summing the two items, which was 1.65 (SD 5 0.66, α 5 0.65).
Finally, using YouTube as a learning resource was measured by items adapted from past
research on the Internet usage (LaRose and Eastin, 2004). Respondents were asked about how
often they visit YouTube to learn something on a 5-point scale (1 5 Never, 2 5 Once a month,
3 5 Few times a month, 4 5 Few times a week, 5 5 Everyday) and about their usage of
YouTube for learning and continuous usage intention, using a 5-point Likert scale from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The index of using YouTube as a learning resource
was created by the mean of the four items (Mean 5 3.15, SD 5 0.72, α 5 0.77).

Data analysis
To test the direct hypothesis and the validity of the two mediation hypotheses in Figure 1, we
employed the bootstrap method by using Preacher and Hayes’ (2004) macro INDIRECT in
SPSS. To test the significance of the indirect effects, INDIRECT uses a product-of-coefficients
strategy. Past research (Oh and Sundar, 2015) has suggested that the bootstrap method could
be a more powerful approach than other mediation tests, such as the Sobel test (Sobel, 1982)
and the three-step multiple regression approach (Baron and Kenny, 1986). For this study,
95% confidence intervals (CIs) and 5000 bootstrapping resamples were applied.

Results
Correlations among all variables in the model
The Pearson correlations of all variables and the demographic variables are presented in
Table 2. The environmental (sociability of YouTube), personal (learning outcome
expectations and attitude) and behavioral variables (prior experience) were related to each
other. The maximum Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.69 (p < 0.01), which is less than 0.85
and suggests acceptable divergent validity of these variables in our model (Voorhees et al.,
2016). All demographic variables were not significantly related to the dependent variable (i.e.
using YouTube as a learning resource).

Hypothesis test
There are two mediation hypotheses in our model presented in Figure 1. That is, first, attitude
toward YouTube as a learning resource would mediate the relationships between the
sociability of YouTube and YouTube usage for learning. Second, learning outcome Using
expectations would mediate the relationship between the prior experience of learning on YouTube as
YouTube and using YouTube as a learning resource. Each of the mediated effects was tested
using the bootstrap method. In each mediation analysis, the remaining two variables were
a learning
controlled in the model. The path from the learning outcome expectations for YouTube was resource
positively significant (B 5 0.23, SE 5 0.07, p < 0.01), indicating support for Hypothesis H1. In
addition, the path from attitude to using YouTube as a learning resource was also positively
significant (B 5 0.45, SE 5 0.10, p < 0.001), which means H2 was supported. Furthermore, the 347
path from the sociability of YouTube to attitude was significant (B 5 0.17, SE 5 0.07,
p < 0.01), which means H3 was also supported. Lastly, the path from the prior experience to
learning outcome expectations was positively significant (B 5 0.21, SE 5 0.09, p < 0.05),
which confirmed H4.
In terms of mediation effects, the bootstrapping procedure revealed that the indirect effect
of the sociability of YouTube on using YouTube as a learning resource through attitude was
statistically significant, with the 95% bias-corrected and accelerated CI estimated to lie
between 0.02 and 0.15. There was no significant direct effect of sociability of YouTube on
using YouTube as a learning resource, suggesting full mediation (B 5 0.07, SE 5 0.07,
p 5 0.32). For the mediated path from prior experience to using YouTube as a learning
resource, the indirect effects through learning outcome expectations were also significant,
with the 95% bias-corrected and accelerated CI estimated to lie between 0.01 and 0.11. There
was also no significant direct effect of prior experience on using YouTube as a learning
resource, suggesting full mediation (B 5 0.05, SE 5 0.08, p 5 0.51). Hence, the results
indicated that attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource fully mediated the association
between the sociability of YouTube and YouTube usage for learning, while learning outcome
expectations also fully mediated the association between prior experience and YouTube
usage for learning. Thus, the two mediation hypotheses were supported. Taken together, all
our hypotheses were supported the coefficients for all paths in the model are presented in
Figure 2.

Discussion
Although YouTube has not been designed specifically for learning, and it has been used for
various purposes, such as entertainment (Boyd and Ellison, 2007), news seeking and sharing
(Djerf-Pierre et al., 2019) and political deliberation (Halpern and Gibbs, 2012), this study
showed that it can be promising to investigate people’s information behavior on YouTube to
meet their learning needs. More importantly, this study highlighted that the use of YouTube
as a learning resource was directly influenced by personal factors (i.e. learning outcome
expectations and attitude). These personal factors also mediated the influence of the

1 2 3 4 5

1. Learning outcome expectations

2. Attitude toward YouTube as a learning tool 0.69**
3. Sociability of YouTube 0.46** 0.45**
4. Prior experience 0.45** 0.49** 0.16*
5. Using YouTube as a learning resource 0.61** 0.66** 0.39** 0.38** Table 2.
Gender 0.04 0.01 0.08 0.07 0.00 Pearson correlations
Age 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.07 among all variables in
Education 0.05 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.03 the
Note(s): *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01 hypothesized model
AJIM environmental factor (i.e. the sociability of YouTube) and the behavioral factor (i.e. prior
72,3 experience) on the use of YouTube as a learning resource.
With regard to personal factors, attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource (H2) was
found to be relatively more associated with the extent to which people use YouTube as a
learning resource. This is in line with prior research on the use of social media for learning
(Liao et al., 2015), which suggests that a user’s favorable attitude toward using social media
for learning can have positive effects on their learning satisfaction, self-perceived learning
348 outcomes and continuous intention. Our finding shows that people who are more likely to use
YouTube as a learning resource are those who have a favorable attitude toward YouTube. As
such, they are likely to view that the platform is helpful for learning, and the quality and
quantity of educational content on YouTube meet their learning needs. In light of this, to
cultivate a positive attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource among users, platform
designers can develop recommendation algorithms that expose users to learning videos with
high relevance, thus raising the user’s learning interest. Educators and librarians may also
seek to curate YouTube learning videos and channels that suit individuals’ learning needs in
different contexts, such as academic education, professional training and/or lifelong learning.
In addition, this investigation also revealed that people’s attitude toward YouTube as a
learning resource could be influenced by the sociability of YouTube, which is an
environmental factor (H3, environment → person). Different from the traditional
video-based learning environment, which focuses on providing the learning content, the
social features of YouTube, such as commenting and subscribing, can help learners connect
with others and seek support to solve problems (Hamid et al., 2015). Other social cues (e.g.
number of views and votes) provided by YouTube can also be used by people to evaluate the
usefulness, credibility and quality of the videos (Walther and Jang, 2012). Higher sociability
of an online learning platform can lead to the formation of a social learning community, in
which learners connect and communicate with others (Kreijns et al., 2007). This interactive
and social learning environment motivates learners to seek and offer help, thus creating a
positive learning experience for everyone (Lee et al., 2017). Research on online learning found
that peer collaboration and feedback within a learning platform could strongly influence
people’s perception of the effectiveness of online learning (Wang and Wu, 2008). Our finding
further suggests that a learning environment with high sociability, in addition to the quality
and quantity of the learning content, can positively influence people’s attitude and the use of
YouTube as a learning resource. A practical implication is that platform designers who seek
to promote the use of a platform as a learning resource for users can incorporate social

Figure 2.
Observed model
relating learning
outcome expectations,
attitude, sociability of
YouTube, prior
experience and using
YouTube as a learning
resource
Note(s): *p > 0.05. **p < 0.01. ***p <0.001
features that facilitate the interactions and connections among the platform users. Online Using
instructors can actively engage in interacting with learners through comments and likes. YouTube as
This promotes collaborative learning by connecting learners and instructors to form a
learning community around a topic. Educators, information professionals, and individual
a learning
learners should also focus more attention on the social learning opportunities afforded by resource
YouTube since the social exchanges on YouTube can lead to a more positive learning
experience on YouTube.
Learning outcome expectations were the other personal factor that could influence the 349
extent to which people use YouTube as a learning resource. Our findings suggest that when
people expect that YouTube can help them gain positive outcomes related to their learning
needs in school, work and/or everyday life, they are more likely to use it as a learning
resource. Prior research found that the expectation of gaining knowledge was a significant
predictor of users’ participation in social Q&A communities (Bao and Han, 2019). Our
research further indicates that, even when a social media platform is not specifically designed
for knowledge exchange and discussion, the expectation of learning outcomes is an important
determinant in people’s usage of a social media platform as a learning resource. In light of
this, platform designers can promote the use of YouTube by showcasing the learning
outcomes that users can gain after learning with YouTube. For example, comments about
learning achievements or reflections posted by other learners under a video can be
highlighted. Instructional video contributors on YouTube may seek to inform viewers what
they can learn by mentioning the learning outcomes in the title or the description of an
instructional video.
Regarding the behavioral influence, this study identified that prior experience of learning
on YouTube had an impact on learning outcome expectations of using YouTube (H4,
behavior → person). This finding coincides with social cognitive theory, which suggests
humans learn from personal experience (LaRose et al., 2001). For people who have prior
learning experience on YouTube, they may perceive themselves to be sufficiently skilled to
use YouTube and have gained positive learning outcomes from it, thus leading to the
expectations for further usage. Indeed, past research has found that prior experiences of
online learning can contribute to positive perceptions of self-regulated learning, collaboration
and information seeking in an online learning environment (Lee and Tsai, 2011). Recent
research indicates that individual learners who lack instructions at the beginning of using a
self-service learning technology can feel uncomfortable and frustrated (Ma and Lee, 2019a). In
light of this, platform designers can focus more attention on users with less learning
experience on YouTube and recommend more learning content to cultivate their learning
outcome expectation, thus encouraging further usage of YouTube as a learning resource.
Finally, while prior research only examined the direct influences of behavior and
environment on technology usage (McKerlich et al., 2013; LaRose and Eastin, 2004), this study
extends empirical studies of social cognitive theory by identifying the mediation roles of
personal factors and shows the complex interplay among the personal, environmental and
behavioral factors. This mediation model illustrates the mechanism underlying the usage of
YouTube as a learning resource. The findings support the social cognitive theory’s
proposition that information about personal experience and environmental events can be
transformed into the human mind and serve as guides for action (Bandura, 2001). That is, the
social cognitive perspective emphasizes the roles of personal factors as mediators for enactive
and vicarious influences on behavior. Through personal learning experience on YouTube
and perceiving the sociability of YouTube, individuals can form an understanding of
YouTube as a useful learning resource. Expectations and attitude can be derived from this
self-assessment process, thus influencing actual behavior. Further research can verify this
mediation model in the use of other social technologies for learning. If this model is valid,
system designers and online instructors who seek to promote the use of social technologies
AJIM for learning can focus more attention on improving the sociability of an online learning
72,3 environment and provide tutorials and guidance for users with less prior experience.

Conclusion
This research demonstrates that the social cognitive perspective is theoretically valid in
understanding the use of YouTube as a learning resource. As this is one of the earliest studies
350 to apply a social-cognitive perspective to investigate factors influencing the use of YouTube
as a learning resource, there are several limitations that warrant future research. First, most
of the respondents were young, had a relatively high education level, and they had more
experience with new technologies, which may reduce the generalizability of the findings.
Nevertheless, the study extended prior research that mainly investigated tertiary students
(Chintalapati and Daruri, 2016) by including young professionals in the sample. This allowed
the current study to go beyond student participants to include a more comprehensive
coverage of user groups who primarily turn to YouTube to meet their learning demands
(Kind and Evans, 2015). Based on the significant relationships identified in this study, future
research could verify the conceptual model with larger and representative samples in specific
demographic groups (e.g. students, working professionals, the older generation, etc.). As
different groups of users may have different learning needs, measurement of certain
constructs, such as learning outcome expectations and YouTube usage, can also be different.
Hence, qualitative research (e.g. interview, focus group discussion) can be conducted to
understand people’s perceptions and behaviors in different learning contexts (e.g. academic
education, professional development and everyday life). In addition, as a first step toward
applying the social-cognitive perspective in the context of learning on YouTube, we only
focused on one environmental factor, the sociability of YouTube. This is because the social
aspect of technologies like YouTube is deemed as a main difference from traditional media
(Lee, 2012). However, it is also possible that other environmental factors (e.g. sizes and types
of the learning community, quality and quantity of the instructional videos) may influence the
use of YouTube as a learning resource. Further research studies on different environmental
factors are encouraged (Lee et al., 2009).
In spite of these limitations, the findings have important implications for research. First,
the research advances scholarship examining the use of social media and other online
technologies in general – and YouTube in particular – as learning resources. By applying a
comprehensive theoretical perspective (i.e. social cognitive theory), this study highlights the
complex interplay among the personal, environmental and behavioral factors in YouTube’s
learning ecosystem. The research model identified in this study can be a theoretical
foundation for future research to understand the use of other social technologies as learning
resources or the use of video-based online learning platforms such as Massive Open Online
Courses. In addition, we established that personal factors, in terms of outcome expectations
and attitude, played vital roles in people’s use of YouTube for learning purposes by fully
mediating the effects of environmental and behavioral factors on the usage behavior. Many
studies drawing on social cognitive theory have examined the direct influence of personal
and/or environmental factors on user behavior (Bao and Han, 2019; Wang and Wu, 2008).
However, this study is one of the few studies that provide empirical evidence in support of the
mediating relationships. Building upon these findings, future studies can conduct a more
nuanced analysis of the reciprocal interactions among the three elements of social cognitive
theory.
This study also has implications for practice. For individual learners, it is suggested that
peer learning through active interaction with other online users and the habitual use of
social technologies like YouTube for learning can help them gain more educational value
from these online platforms. For platform designers and instructional video contributors,
this study provides insights into how to encourage people’s adoption and usage of Using
YouTube and other social media as learning resources. Platform designers can develop YouTube as
features that facilitate social learning on the platform and recommend relevant high-quality
learning content to users who have no or limited experience using the platform for learning.
a learning
It is also recommended that instructional video contributors can highlight the learning resource
outcomes of their instruction and encourage interactive and collaborative learning among
their learners. For educators, librarians and policymakers who seek to incorporate
YouTube and other social media into academic education, professional training and/or 351
lifelong learning programs, more personalized social media literacy training and
instruction will be more effective, as individuals may vary in their learning expectations
and feelings about using social media as learning resources. Taken together,
understanding the mechanisms behind the use of YouTube as a learning resource will
contribute toward improving the design and use of existing and emerging social
technologies to better feed human’s learning curiosity.

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(The Appendix follows overleaf)

AJIM Appendix
The survey items for the measured scales
72,3
Demographic Questions

Gender: □Male □Female

Education:
356 □ High school
□ Polytechnic
□ Bachelor Degree
□ Master Degree
□ Doctoral Degree

Educational backgroundʁ
□ Computer science/IT
□ Engineering
□ Medicine
□ Life/Health sciences/Sciences
□ Arts, humanities, social sciences
□ Education
□ Business
□ Sports and leisure
□ Architecture, environment
□ Hospitality/Tourism
□ Advertising, design and media
□ Other (Please specify_____________)

Occupation: _________________________________

Age: ________________

Learning outcome expectations

I use YouTube . . .
to learn new skills for self-improvement or take up a new hobby.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
to help me with my studies by helping me to understand difficult theories.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
to help me fix a problem at home/work. (e.g. repairing a spoiled mobile phone).
 (1) Strongly disagree Using
(2) Disagree YouTube as
(3) Neutral
a learning
resource
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly Agree
357
Attitude toward YouTube as a learning resource
YouTube is useful when I need information to address problems.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
YouTube is useful when I need information to facilitate learning.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I feel that the learning content provided by most instructors in the video is quite reliable.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I find that YouTube is a good place to learn new skills (e.g. music, make up tips, cooking).
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree

Sociability of YouTube
I love to read comments posted by other users at the bottom of the video.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
AJIM (4) Agree
72,3 (5) Strongly agree
After watching the video, I will read the comments posted by other users located underneath each video.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
358 (3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I find that most of the comments posted are useful and related to the video.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I often would add my own comment/post a reply to another comment about the video.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I enjoy viewing video responses posted by other users.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I often choose to watch the video with the most view counts.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree

Prior experience
Have you watched any tutorial videos/guides to facilitate your learning in YouTube?
(1) No
(2) Yes
Have you watched any learning (informal/user contributed) videos to gain new knowledge in YouTube Using
before?
YouTube as
(1) No a learning
(2) Yes resource

Using YouTube as a learning resource

359
How often do you visit YouTube to learn something?
(1) Never
(2) Once a month
(3) Few times a month
(4) Few times a week
(5) Everyday
I use YouTube as my main source to find related information to facilitate learning.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
I use the YouTube as my main source to gain new knowledge.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
After learning something from YouTube, I decided that I will continue to use YouTube as my online
learning tool.
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Neutral
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree

Corresponding author
Quan Zhou can be contacted at: zhou0245@e.ntu.edu.sg

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