Energy State

Course: Chemistry-II (6457)
Semester: Spring, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q. 1 What is Quantum Number? Discuss in detail different Quantum Numbers.
Quantum numbers can be used to describe the trajectory and the movement of an electron in an atom. The
quantum numbers of all the electrons in a given atom, when combined, must comply with the Schrodinger
equation.
The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an atom are called quantum
numbers. There are four quantum numbers, namely, principal, azimuthal, magnetic and spin quantum numbers.
Four quantum numbers can be used to completely describe all the attributes of a given electron belonging to an
atom, these are:
 Principal quantum number, denoted by n.
 Orbital angular momentum quantum number (or azimuthal quantum number), denoted by l.
 Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
 The electron spin quantum number, denoted by ms.
Principal Quantum Number

 Principal quantum numbers are denoted by the symbol ‘n’. They designate the principal electron
shell of the atom. Since the most probable distance between the nucleus and the electrons is described
by it, a larger value of the principal quantum number implies a greater distance between the electron and
the nucleus (which, in turn, implies a greater atomic size).
 The value of the principal quantum number can be any integer with a positive value that is equal to or
greater than one. The value n=1 denotes the innermost electron shell of an atom, which corresponds to
the lowest energy state (or the ground state) of an electron.
 Thus, it can be understood that the principal quantum number, n, cannot have a negative value or be
equal to zero because it is not possible for an atom to have a negative value or no value for a principal
shell.
 When a given electron is infused with energy (excited state), it can be observed that the electron jumps
from one principle shell to a higher shell, causing an increase in the value of n. Similarly, when
electrons lose energy, they jump back into lower shells and the value of n also decreases.
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 The increase in the value of n for an electron is called absorption, emphasizing the photons or energy
being absorbed by the electron. Similarly, the decrease in the value of n for an electron is called
emission, where the electrons emit their energy.
Azimuthal Quantum Number (Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number)
 The azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number describes the shape of a given orbital. It
is denoted by the symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to the total number of angular nodes in the orbital.
 A value of the azimuthal quantum number can indicate either an s, p, d, or f subshell which vary in
shapes. This value depends on (and is capped by) the value of the principal quantum number, i.e. the
value of the azimuthal quantum number ranges between 0 and (n-1).
 For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the following values – 0,1, and 2.
When l=0, the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly, when l=1 and l=2, the resulting subshells
are ‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells (respectively). Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, and
3d.
 In another example where the value of n is 5, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. If l = 3, then
there are a total of three angular nodes in the atom.
The allowed subshells under different combinations of ‘n’ and ‘l’ are listed above. It can be understood that the
‘2d’ orbital cannot exist since the value of ‘l’ is always less than that of ‘n’.
Magnetic Quantum Number
The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of these orbitals are determined by the magnetic
quantum number. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ml’. This number yields the projection of the angular momentum
corresponding to the orbital along a given axis.
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Shapes of Orbitals (as per the corresponding Quantum Numbers)

The value of the magnetic quantum number is dependant on the value of the azimuthal (or orbital angular
momentum) quantum number. For a given value of l, the value of m l ranges between the interval -l to +l.
Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value of n.
For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of the magnetic quantum number are -3, -2, -1, 0,
+1, +2, and +3.
Azimuthal Quantum Number Corresponding Number of Orbitals

Possible Values of ml
Value (2l + 1)
0 (‘s’ subshell) 2*0 + 1 = 1 0
1 (‘p’ subshell) 2*1 + 1 = 3 -1, 0, and 1
2 (‘d’ subshell) 2*2 + 1 = 5 -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2
3 (‘f’ subshell) 2*3 + 1 = 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3

The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is a function of the ‘l’ value of that orbital. It is given by the
formula (2l + 1). For example, the ‘3d’ subshell (n=3, l=2) contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). Each orbital can
accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, the 3d subshell can hold a total of 10 electrons.
Electron Spin Quantum Number
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 The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values of n, l, and m l. The value of this number
gives insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning, and is denoted by the symbol ms.
 The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning. The possible values of
the electron spin quantum number are +½ and -½.
 The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the electron which is also called ‘spin up’ and is
denoted by the symbol ↑. If ms has a negative value, the electron in question is said to have a downward
spin, or a ‘spin down’, which is given by the symbol ↓.
 The value of the electron spin quantum number determines whether the atom in question has the ability
to produce a magnetic field. The value of ms can be generalized to ±½.
Q. 2 Define periodicity of properties and compare its different concepts.
In the context of chemistry and the periodic table, periodicity refers to trends or recurring variations
in element properties with increasing atomic number. Periodicity is caused by regular and predictable variations
in element atomic structure.
Mendeleev organized elements according to recurring properties to make a periodic table of elements. Elements
within a group (column) display similar characteristics. The rows in the periodic table (the periods) reflect the
filling of electrons shells around the nucleus, so when a new row begins, the elements stack on top of each other
with similar properties. For example, helium and neon are both fairly unreactive gases that glow when an
electric current is passed through them. Lithium and sodium both have a +1 oxidation state and are reactive,
shiny metals.
Uses of Periodicity
Periodicity was helpful to Mendeleev because it showed him gaps in his periodic table where elements should
be. This helped scientists find new elements because they could be expected to display certain characteristics
based on the location they would take in the periodic table. Now that the elements have been discovered,
scientists and students used periodicity to make predictions about how elements will behave in chemical
reactions and their physical properties. Periodicity helps chemists predict how the new, superheavy elements
might look and behave.
Properties That Display Periodicity
Periodicity can include many different properties, but the key recurring trends are:
 Ionization Energy - This is the energy needed to completely remove an electron from an atom or ion.
Ionization energy increases moving left to right across the table and decreases moving down a group.
 Electronegativity - A measure of how readily an atom forms a chemical bond. Electronegativity
increases moving left to right across a period and decrease moving down a group.
 Atomic Radius - This is half the distance between the middle of two atoms just touching each other.
Atomic radius decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a group. Ionic
radius is the distance for ions of the atoms and follows the same trend. Although it might seem like
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increasing the number of protons and electrons in an atom would always increase its size, the atom size
doesn't increase until a new electron shell is added. Atom and ion sizes shrink moving across a period
because the increasing positive charge of the nucleus pulls in the electron shell.
 Electron Affinity - This is a measure of readily an atom accepts an electron. Electron affinity increases
moving across a period and decreases moving down a group. Nonmetals usually have higher electron
affinities than metals. The noble gases are an exception to the trend since these elements have filled
electron valence shells and electron affinity values approaching zero. However, the behavior of the
noble gases is periodic. In other words, even though an element group might break a trend, the elements
within the group display periodic properties.
Q. 3 What is the Hydrogen Bonding? Discuss different types of hydrogen bonding.
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force (IMF) that forms a special type of dipole-dipole attraction when a
hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly electronegative atom exists in the vicinity of another electronegative atom
with a lone pair of electrons. Intermolecular forces (IMFs) occur between molecules. Other examples include
ordinary dipole-dipole interactions and dispersion forces. Hydrogen bonds are are generally stronger than
ordinary dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, but weaker than true covalent and ionic bonds.
The evidence for hydrogen bonding
Many elements form compounds with hydrogen. If you plot the boiling points of the compounds of the group
14 elements with hydrogen, you find that the boiling points increase as you go down the group.
Figure 1: Boiling points of group 14 elemental halides.

The increase in boiling point happens because the molecules are getting larger with more electrons, and so van
der Waals dispersion forces become greater. If you repeat this exercise with the compounds of the elements
in groups 15, 16, and 17 with hydrogen, something odd happens.
Figure 2: Boiling points of group 15-17 elemental halides.
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Although the same reasoning applies for group 4 of the periodic table, the boiling point of the compound of
hydrogen with the first element in each group is abnormally high. In the cases
of NH3NH3, H2OH2O and HFHF there must be some additional intermolecular forces of attraction, requiring
significantly more heat energy to break the IMFs. These relatively powerful intermolecular forces are described
as hydrogen bonds.
Origin of Hydrogen Bonding
The molecules capable of hydrogen bonding include the following:
Figure 3: The lone pairs responsible for hydrogen bonding

in NH3NH3, H2OH2O, and HFHF. The solid line represents a bond in the plane of the screen or paper. Dotted
bonds are going back into the screen or paper away from you, and wedge-shaped ones are coming out towards
you.
Notice that in each of these molecules:
 The hydrogen is attached directly to a highly electronegative atoms, causing the hydrogen to acquire a
highly positive charge.
 Each of the highly electronegative atoms attains a high negative charge and has at least one "active" lone
pair. Lone pairs at the 2-level have electrons contained in a relatively small volume of space, resulting in
a high negative charge density. Lone pairs at higher levels are more diffuse and, resulting in a lower
charge density and lower affinity for positive charge.
If you are not familiar with electronegativity, you should follow this link before you go on.
Consider two water molecules coming close together.
Figure 4: Hydrogen bonding in water

The δ+δ+ hydrogen is so strongly attracted to the lone pair that it is almost as if you were beginning to form
a co-ordinate (dative covalent) bond. It doesn't go that far, but the attraction is significantly stronger than an
ordinary dipole-dipole interaction. Hydrogen bonds have about a tenth of the strength of an average covalent
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bond, and are constantly broken and reformed in liquid water. If you liken the covalent bond between the
oxygen and hydrogen to a stable marriage, the hydrogen bond has "just good friends" status.
Water is an ideal example of hydrogen bonding. Notice that each water molecule can potentially form four
hydrogen bonds with surrounding water molecules: two with the hydrogen atoms and two with the with the
oxygen atoms. There are exactly the right numbers of δ+δ+ hydrogens and lone pairs for every one of them to
be involved in hydrogen bonding.
This is why the boiling point of water is higher than that of ammonia or hydrogen fluoride. In the case of
ammonia, the amount of hydrogen bonding is limited by the fact that each nitrogen only has one lone pair. In a
group of ammonia molecules, there are not enough lone pairs to go around to satisfy all the hydrogens. In
hydrogen fluoride, the problem is a shortage of hydrogens. In water, two hydrogen bonds and two lone pairs
allow formation of hydrogen bond interactions in a lattice of water molecules. Water is thus considered an ideal
hydrogen bonded system.
More complex examples of hydrogen bonding
The hydration of negative ions
When an ionic substance dissolves in water, water molecules cluster around the separated ions. This process is
called hydration. Water frequently attaches to positive ions by co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonds. It bonds to
negative ions using hydrogen bonds.
If you are interested in the bonding in hydrated positive ions, you could follow this link to co-ordinate (dative
covalent) bonding.
The diagram shows the potential hydrogen bonds formed with a chloride ion, Cl-. Although the lone pairs in the
chloride ion are at the 3-level and would not normally be active enough to form hydrogen bonds, they are made
more attractive by the full negative charge on the chlorine in this case.
Figure 5: Hydrogen bonding between chloride ions and water.

However complicated the negative ion, there will always be lone pairs that the hydrogen atoms from the water
molecules can hydrogen bond to.
Hydrogen bonding in alcohols
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An alcohol is an organic molecule containing an -OH group. Any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached
directly to an oxygen or a nitrogen is capable of hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonds also occur when hydrogen
is bonded to fluorine, but the HF group does not appear in other molecules. Molecules with hydrogen bonds will
always have higher boiling points than similarly sized molecules which don't have an an -O-H or an -N-H
group. The hydrogen bonding makes the molecules "stickier," such that more heat (energy) is required to
separate them. This phenomenon can be used to analyze boiling point of different molecules, defined as the
temperate at which a phase change from liquid to gas occurs.
Ethanol, CH3CH2−O−HCH3CH2−O−H, and methoxymethane, CH3−O−CH3CH3−O−CH3, both have the
same molecular formula, C2H6OC2H6O.
They have the same number of electrons, and a similar length. The van der Waals attractions (both dispersion
forces and dipole-dipole attractions) in each will be similar. However, ethanol has a hydrogen atom attached
directly to an oxygen; here the oxygen still has two lone pairs like a water molecule. Hydrogen bonding can
occur between ethanol molecules, although not as effectively as in water. The hydrogen bonding is limited by
the fact that there is only one hydrogen in each ethanol molecule with sufficient + charge.
In methoxymethane, the lone pairs on the oxygen are still there, but the hydrogens are not sufficiently + for
hydrogen bonds to form. Except in some rather unusual cases, the hydrogen atom has to be attached directly to
the very electronegative element for hydrogen bonding to occur. The boiling points of ethanol and
methoxymethane show the dramatic effect that the hydrogen bonding has on the stickiness of the ethanol
molecules:
g)
rogen bonding)
The hydrogen bonding in the ethanol has lifted its boiling point about 100°C. It is important to realize that
hydrogen bonding exists in addition to van der Waals attractions. For example, all the following molecules
contain the same number of electrons, and the first two have similar chain lengths. The higher boiling point of
the butan-1-ol is due to the additional hydrogen bonding.
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Comparing the two alcohols (containing -OH groups), both boiling points are high because of the additional
hydrogen bonding; however, the values are not the same. The boiling point of the 2-methylpropan-1-ol isn't as
high as the butan-1-ol because the branching in the molecule makes the van der Waals attractions less effective
than in the longer butan-1-ol.
Hydrogen bonding in organic molecules containing nitrogen
Hydrogen bonding also occurs in organic molecules containing N-H groups; recall the hydrogen bonds that
occur with ammonia. Examples range from simple molecules like CH 3NH2 (methylamine) to large molecules
like proteins and DNA. The two strands of the famous double helix in DNA are held together by hydrogen
bonds between hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen on one strand, and lone pairs on another nitrogen or an
oxygen on the other one.
Donors and Acceptors
In order for a hydrogen bond to occur there must be both a hydrogen donor and an acceptor present. The donor
in a hydrogen bond is usually a strongly electronegative atom such as N, O, or F that is covalently bonded to a
hydrogen bond.
The hydrogen acceptor is an electronegative atom of a neighboring molecule or ion that contains a lone pair that
participates in the hydrogen bond.
Why does a hydrogen bond occur?

Since the hydrogen donor (N, O, or F) is strongly electronegative, it pulls the covalently bonded electron pair
closer to its nucleus, and away from the hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom is then left with a partial positive
charge, creating a dipole-dipole attraction between the hydrogen atom bonded to the donor and the lone electron
pair of the acceptor. This results in a hydrogen bond.(see Interactions Between Molecules With Permanent
Dipoles)
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Types of hydrogen bonds

Although hydrogen bonds are well-known as a type of IMF, these bonds can also occur within a single
molecule, between two identical molecules, or between two dissimilar molecules.
Intramolecular hydrogen bonds
Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are those which occur within one single molecule. This occurs when two
functional groups of a molecule can form hydrogen bonds with each other. In order for this to happen, both a
hydrogen donor a hydrogen acceptor must be present within one molecule, and they must be within close
proximity of each other in the molecule. For example, intramolecular hydrogen bonding occurs in ethylene
glycol (C2H4(OH)2) between its two hydroxyl groups due to the molecular geometry.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds

Intermolecular hydrogen bonds occur between separate molecules in a substance. They can occur between any
number of like or unlike molecules as long as hydrogen donors and acceptors are present in positions where
they can interact with one another. For example, intermolecular hydrogen bonds can occur between
NH3 molecules alone, between H2O molecules alone, or between NH3 and H2O molecules.
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Properties and effects of hydrogen bonds

On Boiling Point
When we consider the boiling points of molecules, we usually expect molecules with larger molar masses to
have higher normal boiling points than molecules with smaller molar masses. This, without taking hydrogen
bonds into account, is due to greater dispersion forces (see Interactions Between Nonpolar Molecules). Larger
molecules have more space for electron distribution and thus more possibilities for an instantaneous dipole
moment. However, when we consider the table below, we see that this is not always the case.
Q. 4 Define Covalent Bond and discuss its different types.
A covalent bond is formed by equal sharing of electrons from both the participating atoms. The pair of electrons
participating in this type of bonding is called shared pair or bonding pair. The covalent bonds are also termed as
molecular bonds. Sharing of bonding pairs will ensure that the atoms achieve stability in their outer shell which
is similar to the atoms of noble gases.
Elements having very high ionisation energies are incapable of transferring electrons and elements having very
low electron affinity cannot take up electrons. The atoms of such elements tend to share their electrons with the
atoms of other elements or with other atoms of the same element in a way that both the atoms obtain octet
configuration in their respective valence shell and thus achieve stability. Such association through sharing of
electron pairs among different or same kinds is known as Covalent Bond.
Covalent Bonding can be Achieved in two Ways:
 Sharing of electrons between atoms of the same kind E.g. Formation of H2, Cl2, O2, etc.
 Sharing of electrons between atoms of different kind E.g. Formation of CH4, H2O, NH3, etc.
Covalent Bonding in Carbon Atom
As per the electronic configuration of Carbon, it needs to gain or lose 4 electrons to become stable, which seems
impossible as:
 Carbon cannot gain 4 electrons to become C4-, because it will be tough for 6 protons to hold 10
electrons and so the atom will become unstable.
 Carbon cannot lose 4 electrons to become C4+ because it would require a large amount of energy to
remove out 4 electrons and also the C4+ would have only 2 electrons held by proton, which will again
become unstable
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Carbon cannot gain or donate electrons, so to complete its nearest noble gas configuration, it shares electron to
form a covalent bond.
Properties of Covalent Bond

If the normal valence of an atom is not satisfied by sharing a single electron pair between atoms, the atoms may
share more than one electron pair between them. Some of the properties of covalent bonds are:
 Covalent bonding does not result in the formation of new electrons. The bond only pairs them.
 They are very powerful chemical bonds that exist between atoms.
 A covalent bond normally contains the energy of about ~80 kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol).
 Covalent bonds rarely break spontaneously after it is formed.
 Covalent bonds are directional where the atoms that are bonded showcase specific orientations relative
to one another.
 Most compounds having covalent bonds exhibit relatively low melting points and boiling points.
 Compounds with covalent bonds usually have lower enthalpies of vaporization and fusion.
 Compounds formed by covalent bonding don’t conduct electricity due to the lack of free electrons.
 Covalent compounds are not soluble in water.
All atoms except noble gases have less than eight electrons in their valence shell. In other words, the valence
shells of these atoms do not have stable configurations. Therefore, they combine with each other or with other
atoms to attain stable electronic configurations.
Therefore,
“The tendency of atoms of various elements to attain stable configuration of eight electrons in their
valence shells is the cause of Chemical combination”
and
“The principle of attaining the maximum of eight electrons in the valence shell of atoms is called octet
rule.”
Lewis introduced simple symbols to denote the electrons present in the outer shell of atom known as the valence
electrons. These symbols are known as Electron Dot Symbols and the structure of the compound is known
as Lewis Dot Structure.
Dot structure of methane
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Conditions for writing the Lewis dot structures
 Sharing of an electron pair between the atoms results in the formation of covalent bonds.
 During bond formation, each bond consists of two electrons which are contributed by each one of the
combining atoms.
 By the mutual sharing of electrons, each atom attains octet configuration in its valence shell.
Electron dot structures of covalent molecules are written with respect to the octet rule. According to this rule, all
the atoms in the molecule will have eight electrons in their valence shell except the Hydrogen atom. Hydrogen
will have only two electrons because only two electrons complete its first shell to attain helium configuration.
Thus the elements of group 17 such as Cl would share one electron to attain stable octet; the elements of group
16 such as O and S would share two electrons; the elements of group 15 would share three electrons and so on.
For Example, the oxygen atom which has six electrons in its valence shell completes its octet by sharing its
two electrons with two hydrogen atoms to form a water molecule.
Lewis Structure of Water Molecule

Types of Covalent Bonds
Depending upon the number of shared electron pairs, the covalent bond can be classified into:
 Single Covalent Bond
 Double Covalent Bond
 Triple Covalent Bond
Single Bonds
A single bond is formed when only one pair of the electron is shared between the two participating atoms. It is
represented by one dash (-). Although this form of covalent bond has a smaller density and is weaker than a
double and triple bond, it is the most stable.
For Example, HCL molecule has one Hydrogen atom with one valence electron and one Chlorine atom with
seven valence electrons. In this case, a single bond is formed between hydrogen and chlorine by sharing one
electron.
Double Bonds
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A double bond is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between the two participating atoms. It is
represented by two dashes (=). Double covalent bonds are much stronger than a single bond, but they are less
stable.
Example: Carbon dioxide molecule has one carbon atom with six valence electrons and two oxygen atom with
four valence electrons.
To complete its octet, carbon shares two of its valence electrons with one oxygen atom and two with another
oxygen atom. Each oxygen atom shares its two electrons with carbon and therefore there are two double bonds
in CO2.
CO2 Molecule with Double Covalent bond

Oxygen-Molecule: In the formation of the oxygen molecule, each oxygen atom has six electrons in their
valence shell. Each atom requires two more electrons to complete their octet. Therefore the atoms share two
electrons each to form the oxygen molecule. Since two electron pairs are shared there is a double bond between
the two oxygen atoms.
O2 Molecule with Double Covalent bond

Ethylene Molecule: In ethylene, each carbon atom shares two of its valence electron with two hydrogen atoms
and remaining two electrons with the other carbon atom. So there is a double bond between the carbon atoms.
Double Bond in Ethylene Molecule

Triple Bond
A triple bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between the two participating atoms.
Triple covalent bonds are represented by three dashes (≡) and are the least stable types of covalent bonds.
For Example:
In the formation of a nitrogen molecule, each nitrogen atoms having five valence electrons provides three
electrons to form three electron pairs for sharing. Thus, a triple bond is formed between the two nitrogen atoms.
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Nitrogen Molecule with Triple Bond

Polar Covalent Bond
This type of covalent bond exists where the unequal sharing of electrons occurs due to the difference in the
electronegativity of combining atoms. More electronegative atom will have a stronger pull for electrons. The
electronegative difference between the atoms is greater than zero and less than 2.0. As a result, the shared pair
of electrons will be closer to that atom.
Example, molecules forming hydrogen bonding as a result of an unbalanced electrostatic potential. In this case,
the hydrogen atom interacts with electronegative fluorine, hydrogen, or oxygen.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
This type of covalent bond is formed whenever there is an equal share of electrons between atoms. The
electronegativity difference between two atoms is zero. It occurs wherever the combining atoms have
similar electron affinity (diatomic elements).
Example, Nonpolar Covalent Bond is found in gas molecules like Hydrogen gas, Nitrogen gas, etc.
Polarization of Covalent Bonds

It is observed that in the sigma bonds between two different atoms, the electron cloud is always closer to the
more electronegative of the two atoms participating in the sigma bond. Due to this, there is a permanent dipole
that arises in the bond and the covalent bond is said to be polarized.
Polarity of Covalent Bond in Water Molecule

An illustration describing the polarity of the covalent bonds in a water molecule is provided above. The more
electronegative atom is said to have a partial negative charge and the less electronegative atom has a partial
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positive charge in the polar covalent bond.
Difference Between Covalent and Ionic Bonds

Covalent bonds and ionic bonds are types of atomic bonds. These bonds are different in their properties and
structure. The covalent bonds include pairs of electrons by two atoms binding them in a fixed orientation. While
a bond between two ions is called ionic bonds.
Covalent vs Ionic Bonds

Covalent bonding occurs between two non-metallic atoms characterized by the sharing of electron pairs
between the atoms and other covalent bonds with electronegativity difference is greater than 2.0 (<2.0). In the
case of covalent bond formation, polyatomic ions are formed. Whereas, the ionic bond is formed as a result of
electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
Q. 5 Elaborate on Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VESPR) Theory.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) is a molecular model to predict the geometry of the
atoms making up a molecule where the electrostatic forces between a molecule's valence electrons are
minimized around a central atom.
The theory is also known as Gillespie–Nyholm theory, after the two scientists who developed it). According to
Gillespie, the Pauli Exclusion Principle is more important in determining molecular geometry than the effect of
electrostatic repulsion.
According to VSEPR theory, the methane (CH4) molecule is a tetrahedron because the hydrogen bonds repel
each other and evenly distribute themselves around the central carbon atom.
Using VSEPR To Predict Geometry of Molecules
You can't use a molecular structure to predict the geometry of a molecule, although you can use the Lewis
structure. This is the basis for VSEPR theory. The valence electron pairs naturally arrange so that they will be
as far apart from each other as possible. This minimizes their electrostatic repulsion.
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Take, for example, BeF2. If you view the Lewis structure for this molecule, you see each fluorine atom is
surrounded by valence electron pairs, except for the one electron each fluorine atom has that is bonded to the
central beryllium atom. The fluorine valence electrons pull as far apart as possible or 180°, giving this
compound a linear shape.
If you add another fluorine atom to make BeF3, the furthest the valence electron pairs can get from each other is
120°, which forms a trigonal planar shape.
Double and Triple Bonds in VSEPR Theory
Molecular geometry is determined by possible locations of an electron in a valence shell, not by how many how
many pairs of valence electrons are present. To see how the model works for a molecule with double bonds,
consider carbon dioxide, CO2. While carbon has four pairs of bonding electrons, there are only two places
electrons can be found in this molecule (in each of the double bonds with oxygen). Repulsion between the
electrons is least when the double bonds are on opposite sides of the carbon atom. This forms a linear molecule
that has a 180° bond angle.
For another example, consider the carbonate ion, CO32-. As with carbon dioxide, there are four pairs of valence
electrons around the central carbon atom. Two pairs are in single bonds with oxygen atoms, while two pairs are
part of a double bond with an oxygen atom. This means there are three locations for electrons. Repulsion
between electrons is minimized when the oxygen atoms form an equilateral triangle around the carbon atom.
Therefore, VSEPR theory predicts the carbonate ion will take a trigonal planar shape, with a 120° bond angle.
Exceptions to VSEPR Theory
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory does not always predict the correct geometry of molecules.
Examples of exceptions include:
 transition metal molecules (e.g., CrO3 is trigonal bipyramidal, TiCl4 is tetrahedral)
 odd-electron molecules (CH3 is planar rather than trigonal pyramidal)
 some AX2E0 molecules (e.g., CaF2 has a bond angle of 145°)
 some AX2E2 molecules (e.g., Li2O is linear rather than bent)
 some AX6E1 molecules (e.g., XeF6 is octahedral rather than pentagonal pyramidal)
 some AX8E1 molecules
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ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q. 1 Discuss in detail the Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases.
In 1923 G. N. Lewis suggested another way of looking at the reaction between H + and OH- ions. In the Brnsted
model, the OH- ion is the active species in this reaction it accepts an H+ ion to form a covalent bond. In the
Lewis model, the H+ ion is the active species it accepts a pair of electrons from the OH- ion to form a
covalent bond.
In the Lewis theory of acid-base reactions, bases donate pairs of electrons and acids accept pairs of electrons.
A Lewis acid is therefore any substance, such as the H+ ion, that can accept a pair of nonbonding electrons. In
other words, a Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor. A Lewis base is any substance, such as the OH- ion,
that can donate a pair of nonbonding electrons. A Lewis base is therefore an electron-pair donor.
One advantage of the Lewis theory is the way it complements the model of oxidation-reduction reactions.
Oxidation-reduction reactions involve a transfer of electrons from one atom to another, with a net change in the
oxidation number of one or more atoms.
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The Lewis theory suggests that acids react with bases to share a pair of electrons, with no change in the
oxidation numbers of any atoms. Many chemical reactions can be sorted into one or the other of these classes.
Either electrons are transferred from one atom to another, or the atoms come together to share a pair of
electrons.
The principal advantage of the Lewis theory is the way it expands the number of acids and therefore the number
of acid-base reactions. In the Lewis theory, an acid is any ion or molecule that can accept a pair of nonbonding
valence electrons. In the preceding section, we concluded that Al 3+ ions form bonds to six water molecules to
give a complex ion.
Al3+(aq) + 6 H2O(l) Al(H2O)63+(aq)
This is an example of a Lewis acid-base reaction. The Lewis structure of water suggests that this molecule has
nonbonding pairs of valence electrons and can therefore act as a Lewis base. The electron configuration of the
Al3+ ion suggests that this ion has empty 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals that can be used to hold pairs of nonbonding
electrons donated by neighboring water molecules.
Al3+ = [Ne] 3s0 3p0 3d0
Thus, the Al(H2O)63+ ion is formed when an Al3+ ion acting as a Lewis acid picks up six pairs of electrons from
neighboring water molecules acting as Lewis bases to give an acid-base complex, or complex ion.
The Lewis acid-base theroy explains why BF3 reacts with ammonia. BF3 is a trigonal-planar molecule because
electrons can be found in only three places in the valence shell of the boron atom. As a result, the boron atom
is sp2 hybridized, which leaves an empty 2pz orbital on the boron atom. BF3 can therefore act as an electron-pair
acceptor, or Lewis acid. It can use the empty 2p z orbital to pick up a pair of nonbonding electrons from a Lewis
base to form a covalent bond. BF3 therefore reacts with Lewis bases such as NH 3 to form acid-base complexes
in which all of the atoms have a filled shell of valence electrons.
The Lewis acid-base theory can also be used to explain why nonmetal oxides such as CO 2 dissolve in water to
form acids, such as carbonic acid H2CO3.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
In the course of this reaction, the water molecule acts as an electron-pair donor, or Lewis base. The electron-
pair acceptor is the carbon atom in CO 2. When the carbon atom picks up a pair of electrons from the water
molecule, it no longer needs to form double bonds with both of the other oxygen atoms as shown in the figure
below
19
One of the oxygen atoms in the intermediate formed when water is added to CO 2 carries a positive charge;
another carries a negative charge. After an H+ ion has been transferred from one of these oxygen atoms to the
other, all of the oxygen atoms in the compound are electrically neutral. The net result of the reaction between
CO2 and water is therefore carbonic acid, H2CO3.
Q. 2 Describe Indicators. Explain different types of indicators.
Indicators are clues, signs or markers that measure one aspect of a program and show how close a program is
to its desired path and outcomes. Indicators are realistic and measurable criteria of project progress. They
should be defined before the project starts, and allow us to monitor or evaluate whether a project does what it
said it would do. In project planning; indicators form the link between theory and practice. An indicator is a tool
to help you to know whether your work is making a difference. Indicators usually describe observable changes
or events which relate to the project intervention. They provide the evidence that something has happened –
whether an output delivered, an immediate effect occurred or a long-term change observed.
Types of Indicators
Indicators can be classified as follows:
1. Quantitative Indicators (Output Indicators)
2. Qualitative Indicators (Outcome / Performance Indicators)
1. Quantitative Indicators / Output Indicators:
Indicators that tell us whether the activities and actions we have planned are actually happening as intended are
known as Output Indicators. These types of indicators will help you to monitor whether you are doing what
you planned (outputs) but do not give us an idea of the effect that is brought about by these outputs. That is why
it is important to monitor both the implementation of our actions and the changes that we think are being
produced as a result – positive or negative, intended or unintended.
Quantitative indicators can be expressed in a number of ways, depending on the data involved and its use. These
can include whole numbers, decimals, ratios, fractions, percentages and monetary values — quantitative factors
can always be expressed as a number. Qualitative indicators, on the other hand, are expressed as either
independent statements or as relative terms such as "good," "better," and "best."
Examples of Quantitative Indicators can be:
1. The number of people attending a training
2. The weight of fish caught
3. Unemployment (By age, gender, Occupation)
4. Per Capita Income
5. No. of Community Organizations
6. Rates of HIV Infection
7. The average rice harvest per hectare
8. The cost of transport to market
20
9. Increase in household income
10. Infant Mortality Rate
2. Performance Indicators / Qualitative Indicators:
Qualitative indicators are usually indicators of change (outcomes). Answering these types of questions give us
information that indicates whether our work is leading to the changes in people’s lives, power and rights that we
want to achieve.
Quantitative indicators can be defined as measure of quantity, such as the number of people who own sewing
machines in a village. Qualitative indicators can be defined as people’s judgements and perceptions about a
subject, such as the confidence those people have in sewing machines as instruments of financial independence.
Qualitative indicators are non-numerical factors for determining level of progress towards a specific goal.
Qualitative data is based on opinions, feelings or viewpoints rather than hard facts or numbers. These factors are
used to measure things that have no numerical constant, like a group’s sense of hope for the future. An indicator
is a segment of information that gives a sense of the direction to the information — such as whether the feeling
of hope is greater or less than in the same time in the previous year. Indicators are used to determine how
quickly a process is happening or how close a process is to completion.
The term ‘qualitative indicators’ is made up of two very important research concepts. Qualitative and
quantitative information make up the two types of discoverable information. Quantitative is generally the
easiest to understand and manipulate since it is based on numbers and hard facts. When information can’t be
measured or reproduced, then it is typically qualitative. Examples of Qualitiative or Perfomance Indicators are
as follows:
1. Greater freedom of expression
2. Ease of access to a facility
3. Participation in Youth Groups
4. Participation Levels in Sports
5. Increased Hopes of the people towards betterment of the democratic systems
6. Women’s participation in decision making
7. Improved working relations among staff
8. Level of Satisfaction with the services
The results of the qualitative indicators are usually expressed as percentage change e.g.% increase in proper
hand-washing practices.
The bottom line is that quantitative indicators are numerical while qualitative indicators convey information in
textual or descriptive form, which can include both statements of fact as well as statements of opinion.
Q. 3 Discuss the general chemistry of First Transition series.
21
Transition elements (also known as transition metals) are elements that have partially filled d orbitals. IUPAC
defines transition elements as an element having a d subshell that is partially filled with electrons, or an
element that has the ability to form stable cations with an incompletely filled d orbital.
In general, any element which corresponds to the d-block of the modern periodic table (which consists of
groups 3-12) is considered to be a transition element. Even the f-block elements comprising the lanthanides and
the actinides can be considered as transition metals.
However, since the f-block elements have incompletely filled f-orbitals, they are often referred to as inner
transition elements or inner transition metals. An illustration detailing the position of transition metals on the
periodic table along with their general electronic configurations is provided below.
It is important to note that the elements mercury, cadmium, and zinc are not considered transition elements
because of their electronic configurations, which corresponds to (n-1)d10 ns2.
These elements have completely filled d orbitals in their ground states and even in some of their oxidation
states. One such example is the +2 oxidation state of mercury, which corresponds to an electronic configuration
of (n-1)d10.
Electronic Configuration of Transition Elements
The list of the first two rows of transition elements with their corresponding electronic configurations is
tabulated below. It can be noted that in some of these elements, the configuration of electrons corresponds to (n-
1)d5 ns1 or (n-1)d10 ns1. This is because of the stability provided by the half-filled or completely filled electron
orbitals.
Transition Elements Atomic Number Electronic Configuration
Sc 21 [Ar] 3d1 4s2
22
Ti 22 [Ar] 3d2 4s2
V 23 [Ar] 3d3 4s2
Cr 24 [Ar] 3d5 4s1
Mn 25 [Ar] 3d5 4s2
Fe 26 [Ar] 3d6 4s2
Co 27 [Ar] 3d7 4s2
Ni 28 [Ar] 3d8 4s2
Cu 29 [Ar] 3d10 4s1
Zn 30 [Ar] 3d10 4s2
Y 39 [Kr] 4d1 5s2
Zr 40 [Kr] 4d2 5s2
Nb 41 [Kr] 4d4 5s1
Mo 42 [Kr] 4d5 5s1
Tc 43 [Kr] 4d5 5s2
Ru 44 [Kr] 4d7 5s1
Rh 45 [Kr] 4d8 5s1
Pd 46 [Kr] 4d10
Ag 47 [Kr] 4d10 5s1
Cd 48 [Kr] 4d10 5s2
It can be observed that the Aufbau principle is not followed by many transition elements like chromium. The
reason for this is believed to be the relatively low energy gap between the 3d and 4s orbitals, and the 4d and 5s
orbitals.
General Properties of Transition Elements
As discussed earlier, the elements zinc, cadmium, and mercury are not considered transition elements since their
electronic configurations are different from other transition metals. However, the rest of the d-block elements
are somewhat similar in properties and this similarity can be observed along each specific row of the periodic
table. These properties of the transition elements are listed below.
 These elements form coloured compounds and ions. This colour is explained by the d-d transition of
electrons.
23
 There is a relatively low gap in energy between the possible oxidation states of these elements. The
transition elements, therefore, exhibit many oxidation states.
 Many paramagnetic compounds are formed by these elements, because of the unpaired electrons in the d
orbital.
 A large variety of ligands can bind themselves to these elements. Due to this, a wide variety of stable
complexes are formed by transition elements.
 These elements have a large ratio of charge to the radius.
 Transition metals tend to be hard and they have relatively high densities when compared to other
elements.
 The boiling points and the melting points of these elements are high, due to the participation of the
delocalized d electrons in metallic bonding.
 This metallic bonding of the delocalized d electrons also causes the transition elements to be good
conductors of electricity.
Several transition metals have catalytic properties that are very useful in the industrial production of some
chemicals. For example, iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber process of preparing ammonia. Similarly,
vanadium pentoxide is used as a catalyst in the industrial production of sulfuric acid.
Atomic Ionic Radii
The atomic and ionic radii of the transition elements decrease from group 3 to group 6 due to the poor shielding
offered by the small number of d-electrons. Those placed between groups 7 and 10 have somewhat similar
atomic radii and those placed in groups 11 and 12 have larger radii. This is because the nuclear charge is
balanced out by the electron-electron repulsions.
24
While traversing down the group, an increase in the atomic and ionic radii of the elements can be observed.
This increase in the radius can be explained by the presence of a greater number of subshells.
Ionization Enthalpy
Ionization enthalpy refers to the amount of energy that must be supplied to an element for the removal of a
valence electron. The greater the effective nuclear charge acting on the electrons, the greater the ionization
potential of the element. This is why the ionization enthalpies of transition elements are generally greater than
those of the s-block elements.
In a way, the ionization energy of an element is closely related to its atomic radius. Atoms with smaller radii
tend to have greater ionization enthalpies than those with relatively larger radii. The ionization energies of the
transition metals increase while moving along the row (due to the increase in atomic number).
The Elements Of The First Transition Series
Although the transition metals have many general chemical similarities, each one has a detailed chemistry of its
own. The closest relationships are usually to be found among the three elements in each vertical group in
the periodic table, although within each group the element of the first series usually differs more from the other
two than they differ from each other. Most of the first series elements are more familiar and technically
important than the heavier members of their vertical group.
A few of the chemical trends to be found in the first transition series may be capsulized.
1. From titanium to manganese the highest oxidation state exhibited, which usually is found only in
oxo compounds, fluorides, or chlorides, corresponds to the total number of 3d and 4s electrons in the atom. The
stability of this highest oxidation state decreases from titanium in the +4 state to manganese in the +7 state.
Following manganese—that is, for iron, cobalt, and nickel—oxidation states corresponding to the loss of all
3d and 4s electrons do not occur; higher oxidation states in general become progressively more difficult to
attain because the increasing nuclear charge causes the 3d electrons to be more tightly bound. Very high
oxidation states occur only for chromium (+5, +6 states), manganese (+5, +6, +7 states), and iron (+5, +6 states)
and apart from the fluorides, such as chromium pentafluoride, CrF 5 (with chromium in the +5 state), and
25
chromium hexafluoride, CrF6 (with chromium in the +6 state), and oxofluorides such as manganese trioxide
fluoride, MnO3F (with manganese in the +7 state), the main chemistry in these oxidation states is that of oxo
anions such as permanganate, MnO4− (+7 state); chromate, CrO42− (+6 state); and ferrate, FeO42− (+6 state). All
of these compounds are powerful oxidizing agents.
2. The oxides of each element become more acidic with increasing oxidation number, and the halides become
more covalent and susceptible to hydrolysis.
3. In the oxo anions characteristic of the higher oxidation states the metal atom is tetrahedrally surrounded
by oxygen atoms, whereas in the oxides formed in the lower oxidation states the atoms are usually octahedrally
coordinated.
4. In the oxidation states +2 and +3, complexes in aqueous solution or in crystals are usually four-, five- or six-
coordinated.
5. Oxidation states lower than +2 are not found in the ordinary chemistries of the transition metals, except
for copper. The lower oxidation states are, however, attainable for all the elements using ligands of the carbon
monoxide type.
Q. 4 What are Halogens? Discuss in detail the behavior of Fluorine and its reactions with different
elements or compounds.
 Halogens are nonmetals in group 17 (or VII) of the periodic table. Down the group, atom size increases.
As a diatomic molecule, fluorine has the weakest bond due to repulsion between electrons of the small
atoms.
 Due to increased strength of Van der Waals forces down the group, the boiling points of halogens
increase. Therefore, the physical state of the elements down the group changes from gaseous fluorine to
solid iodine.
 Due to their high effective nuclear charge, halogens are highly electronegative. Therefore, they are
highly reactive and can gain an electron through reaction with other elements. Halogens can be harmful
or lethal to biological organisms in sufficient quantities.
Fluorine (F) is the first element in the Halogen group (group 17) in the periodic table. Its atomic number is 9
and its atomic weight is 19, and it's a gas at room temperature. It is the most electronegative element, given that
it is the top element in the Halogen Group, and therefore is very reactive. It is a nonmetal, and is one of the few
elements that can form diatomic molecules (F2). It has 5 valence electrons in the 2p level. Its electron
configuration is 1s22s22p5. It will usually form the anion F- since it is extremely electronegative and a
strong oxidizing agent. Fluorine is a Lewis acid in weak acid, which means that it accepts electrons when
reacting. Fluorine has many isotopes, but the only stable one found in nature is F-19.
Symbol F
Atomic Number 9
26
Group 17 (Halogens)
Electron Configuration 1s22s22p5
Atomic Weight 18.998 g
Density 1.7 g/L
Melting Point -219.62oC
Boiling Point -188.12oC
Critical Point 144.13K, 5.172 MPa
Oxidation States -1
Electronegativity 3.98
Stable Isotopes F-19
In the late 1600's minerals which we now know contain fluorine were used in etching glass. The discovery of
the element was prompted by the search for the chemical substance which was able to attack glass (it is HF, a
weak acid). The early history of the isolation and work with fluorine and hydrogen fluoride is filled with
accidents since both are extremely dangerous. Eventually, electrolysis of a mixture of KF and HF (carefully
ensuring that the resulting hydrogen and fluorine would not come in contact) in a platinum apparatus yielded
the element.
Fluorine was discovered in 1530 by Georgius Agricola. He originally found it in the compound Fluorspar,
which was used to promote the fusion of metals. It was under this application until 1670, when Schwanhard
discovered its usefulness in etching glass. Pure fluorine (from the Latin fluere, for "flow") was was not isolated
until 1886 by Henri Moissan, burning and even killing many scientists along the way. It has many uses today, a
particular one being used in the Manhattan project to help create the first nuclear bomb.
Electronegativity of Fluorine
Fluorine is the most electronegative element on the periodic table, which means that it is a very strong oxidizing
agent and accepts other elements' electrons. Fluorine's atomic electron configuration is 1s22s22p5. (see Figure 2)
Figure 2: Electronic configuration of Fluorine

Fluorine is the most electronegative element because it has 5 electrons in it's 2P shell. The optimal electron
configuration of the 2P orbital contains 6 electrons, so since Fluorine is so close to ideal electron configuration,
the electrons are held very tightly to the nucleus. The high electronegativity of fluorine explains its small radius
because the positive protons have a very strong attraction to the negative electrons, holding them closer to the
nucleus than the bigger and less electronegative elements.
Reactions of Fluorine
Because of its reactivity, elemental fluorine is never found in nature and no other chemical element can displace
fluorine from its compounds. Fluorine bonds with almost any element, both metals and nonmetals, because it is
27
a very strong oxidizing agent. It is very unstable and reactive since it is so close to its ideal electron
configuration. It forms covalent bonds with nonmetals, and since it is the most electronegative element, is
always going to be the element that is reduced. It can also form a diatomic element with itself (F2F2),
or covalent bonds where it oxidizes other halogens (ClFClF, ClF3ClF3, ClF5ClF5). It will react explosively
with many elements and compounds such as Hydrogen and water. Elemental Fluorine is slightly basic, which
means that when it reacts with water it forms OH−OH−.
3F2+2H2O→O2+4HF(1)(1)3F2+2H2O→O2+4HF
When combined with Hydrogen, Fluorine forms Hydrofluoric acid (HFHF), which is a weak acid. This acid is
very dangerous and when dissociated can cause severe damage to the body because while it may not be painful
initially, it passes through tissues quickly and can cause deep burns that interfere with nerve function.
HF+H2O→H3O++F−(2)(2)HF+H2O→H3O++F−
There are also some organic compounds made of Fluorine, ranging from nontoxic to highly toxic. Fluorine
forms covalent bonds with Carbon, which sometimes form into stable aromatic rings. When Carbon reacts with
Fluorine the reaction is complex and forms a mixture of CF4CF4, C2F6C2F6, an C5F12C5F12.
C(s)+F2(g)→CF4(g)+C2F6+C5F12(3)(3)C(s)+F2(g)→CF4(g)+C2F6+C5F12
Fluorine reacts with Oxygen to form OF2OF2 because Fluorine is more electronegative than Oxygen. The
reaction goes:
2F2+O2→2OF2(4)(4)2F2+O2→2OF2
Fluorine is so electronegative that sometimes it will even form molecules with noble gases like Xenon, such as
the the molecule Xenon Difluoride, XeF2XeF2.
Xe+F2→XeF2(5)(5)Xe+F2→XeF2
Fluorine also forms strong ionic compounds with metals. Some common ionic reactions of Fluorine are:
F2+2NaOH→O2+2NaF+H2(6)(6)F2+2NaOH→O2+2NaF+H2
4F2+HCl+H2O→3HF+OF2+ClF3(7)(7)4F2+HCl+H2O→3HF+OF2+ClF3
F2+2HNO3→2NO3F+H2(8)(8)F2+2HNO3→2NO3F+H2
Applications of Fluorine
Compounds of fluorine are present in fluoridated toothpaste and in many municipal water systems where they
help to prevent tooth decay. And, of course, fluorocarbons such as Teflon have made a major impact on life in
the 20th century. There are many applications of fluorine:
 Rocket fuels
 Polymer and plastics production
 teflon and tefzel production
 When combined with Oxygen, used as a refrigerator cooler
 Hydrofluoric acid used for glass etching
 Purify public water supplies
28
 Uranium production
 Air conditioning
Q. 5 What is Soda Ash? How it is manufactured through Solvay Process.
Sodium carbonate, Na₂CO₃, is the inorganic compound with the formula Na₂CO₃ and its various hydrates. All
forms are white, water-soluble salts. All forms have a strongly alkaline taste and give moderately alkaline
solutions in water. Historically it was extracted from the ashes of plants growing in sodium-rich soils.
Sarah's barbecue party is over and it's time to clean up! Sarah uses a product containing washing soda that
effectively removes all the grease and oil that was on the barbecue grill and other utensils.
Washing soda (or soda ash or sodium carbonate), Na 2 CO 3 , is a key component to laundry soaps and many
other household products. Sodium carbonate is also used in the paper and wool industries, but the major
demand comes from the glass industry.
In fact, the world demand for sodium carbonate stands at over 50 million tons per year. How do we keep up
with this huge demand? Well, it can be made in a variety of ways, but for economic reasons, most of it is now
manufactured by an industrial process known as the Solvay process.
The Solvay Process
The Solvay process, also known as the ammonia-soda process, was developed in 1861 by the Belgian industrial
chemist, Ernest Solvay.
The materials used in the Solvay process are easily available and inexpensive. They include:
1. Brine, or sodium chloride solution. It provides sodium ions in the making of the sodium carbonate.
Brine can be easily sourced from both inland and the ocean.
2. Limestone, or calcium carbonate. It provides carbonate ions in the production of the sodium carbonate.
Limestone is readily available from mining.
3. Ammonia is made industrially by the Haber's process. Ammonia is expensive, but as you will see, it's
recycled in the process.
Making sodium carbonate by the Solvay process involve many reactions, but the main parts of the process
include purification of the brine, formation of the sodium hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate, followed
by ammonia recovery.
Let's go into the details of these main steps.
Stage 1: Brine Purification
First the brine is subjected to evaporation to increase the salt concentration and eventually form a saturated
solution. Precipitation, for example using sodium hydroxide, is also carried out in order to remove any
impurities like magnesium, iron, and calcium salts that may be present.
The saturated brine solution is then filtered and passed through an ammonia tower. The ammonia gas is
absorbed in the concentrated brine to produce aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous ammonia. This
29
ammoniation process is exothermic, so energy is released as heat. The ammonia tower eventually needs to be
cooled.
Stage 2: Formation of Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Carbon dioxide is then bubbled through the ammoniated brine solution in a tower known as the carbonating or
Solvay tower.
The carbon dioxide is produced in a lime kiln where limestone, CaCO 3 is calcinated or thermally decomposed at 900°C according to the
equation:
CaCO3 ---> CO2 (g) + CaO(s)

The carbon dioxide dissolves in water to produce a carbonic acid, H 2 CO3, which is a weak acid that dissociates
to produce H+ ions.
CO2 (g) + H2 O(l) ---> H2 CO3 <------> HCO3 - (aq) + H+ (aq)
While the ammonia in the brine reacts with H + to form ammonium ions (equation 1), the Na + in the brine reacts
with the HCO3 - to form sodium hydrogen carbonate (equation 2), which precipitates out.
 Equation 1 : NH3 (aq) + H+ (aq) ----> NH4 + (aq)
 Equation 2: HCO3 - (aq) + Na+ (aq) ---> NaHCO 3 (s)
The overall reaction in the carbonating tower that leads to the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate is given
by:
NH3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + NaCl(aq) + H2 O (l) ---> NaHCO3 (s) + NH4 Cl (aq)
Stage 3: Formation of Sodium Carbonate
Suspended sodium hydrogen carbonate is then removed from the carbonating tower and heated at 300o C to
produce sodium carbonate.
2NaHCO3 (s) ---> Na2 CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H 2 O (g)
30

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Course: Chemistry-II (6457)

Semester: Spring, 2020

Principal Quantum Number

Shapes of Orbitals (as per the corresponding Quantum Numbers)

Azimuthal Quantum Number Corresponding Number of Orbitals

0 (‘s’ subshell) 2*0 + 1 = 1 0

1 (‘p’ subshell) 2*1 + 1 = 3 -1, 0, and 1

2 (‘d’ subshell) 2*2 + 1 = 5 -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2

3 (‘f’ subshell) 2*3 + 1 = 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3

Figure 1: Boiling points of group 14 elemental halides.

Figure 2: Boiling points of group 15-17 elemental halides.

Figure 3: The lone pairs responsible for hydrogen bonding

Figure 4: Hydrogen bonding in water

Figure 5: Hydrogen bonding between chloride ions and water.

Why does a hydrogen bond occur?

Types of hydrogen bonds

Intermolecular hydrogen bonds

Properties and effects of hydrogen bonds

Properties of Covalent Bond

Dot structure of methane

Lewis Structure of Water Molecule

CO2 Molecule with Double Covalent bond

O2 Molecule with Double Covalent bond

Double Bond in Ethylene Molecule

Nitrogen Molecule with Triple Bond

Polarization of Covalent Bonds

Polarity of Covalent Bond in Water Molecule

Difference Between Covalent and Ionic Bonds

Covalent vs Ionic Bonds

Transition Elements Atomic Number Electronic Configuration

Figure 2: Electronic configuration of Fluorine

CaCO3 ---> CO2 (g) + CaO(s)

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