Termite Control

Termites occur naturally in woodlands, where Termite Identification

they help break down dead plant material and play
an important role in the nutrient cycle. The prob-
TERMITE WINGED ANT
lem lies in the fact that termites don’t distinguish
Straight antennae
between the wood in dead trees and the dead wood Elbowed antennae
in structures. Subterranean termites, which account
Thick waist
for 95 percent of all termite damage, are found
Pinched waist
throughout the United States wherever the average
Unequal wings
annual air temperature is 50°F or above and the Equal-sized wings
ground is sufficiently moist (see map below).

Termite Hazard Distribution

None to slight

Slight to modrate

Moderate to heavy

Very heavy

Points of Entry Control Measures

Because termites occur naturally in forests and
brush lands, clearing wooded sites robs them of
their food supply. They adapt by feeding on the
wood in structures. Termite control starts with
blocking easy routes of entry from the soil to the
wood in the structure. The most common points
of entry are shown on the facing page.
Termite control is simple in concept, but difficult
in practice, because termites can pass through
cracks as narrow as 1⁄ 32 inch. The major strategies
of termite control include separating wood struc-
tures from the soil, minimizing cracks in slabs and
walls, barriers to force termites into the open, soil
treatment with chemicals, and keeping the soil and
foundation dry.

102 FOUNDATIONS
Points of Termite Entry

Buried site
debris

Construction
debris

Grades takes
left in place

Preventive Steps

Pressure-treated sill
Solid or filled cap

Minimum Wood girder

clearances 8" 6"
4"
18" min
24" desirable
• Treat soil 12" min with no access
18" min with access
• Remove all roots,
trunks, and woody
debris from soil
• Minimize soil Optional access trench
moisture under girders and ducts
with drain at low point

Footing

Termite Control 103

 Radon Control
Radon is a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas. It is
produced by the natural decay of radium and exists
at varying concentrations throughout the United
States (see map below). Radon is emitted from the
ground and diluted to an insignificant level in the
atmosphere. Being a gas, radon can travel through
the soil and into a building through cracks and other
openings in the foundation. Radon from well water
can also contribute to radon levels in indoor air. Suction systems collect radon from under the foun-
Radon is drawn from the soil through the
foundation when indoor pressure is less than that in
the soil. Radon levels are generally higher in winter
due to the buoyancy of warm indoor air, furnace
and fireplace drafts, and power exhaust fans. There
are two effective approaches to radon management.
Neither cost much, so they should be standard prac-
tice in new construction.
The Barrier Approach
Like a boat in water, the barrier approach keeps
radon out by making it difficult for it to get in.
What works to keep a basement dry also works to
Geologic Radon Potential
RADON POTENTIAL
Low, <2 pC/L
Moderate, 2–4 pC/L
High, >4 pC/L
104 FOUNDATIONS
keep radon out. Because radon is a gas, the approach
relies on infiltration-control measures such as mini-
mizing cracks, joints, and other openings through
the foundation. Waterproofing and dampproofing
membranes outside the wall and under the slab are
excellent barriers.
The Suction Approach
dation and vent it to the outdoors. They do this by
creating a stronger suction than that of the build-
ing itself. Suction systems are preferred where high
potential for radon exists.
The systems have two parts: collection and dis-
charge. A collection system adds little to construc-
tion cost, and the discharge system can be deferred
until proven necessary. The collection system may
utilize the existing moisture drainage system, or
individual suction taps may be installed at the rate
of one tap per 500 square feet of floor. A single tap,
however, is adequate for a slab poured over a 4-inch
layer of clean, coarse gravel.
Passive Suction Under Slabs Active Suction Under Slabs

Attic Attic Fan

Living area Living area

Basement Basement

Polyethylene Polyethylene

Passive Suction in Crawlspace Crawlspace Groundcover Details

Living area

Attic Crawl space

Poly

Living area

Crawl space
Sheet-metal
screw Neoprene roof
flashing
Poly Poly

Radon Control 105

 Meet the Code
The following is a partial list of requirements from
the 2006 International Residential Code (IRC) for
One- and Two-Family Dwellings. Consult the publi-
cation for the full text and additional provisions.
General (R401)
Drainage:
• diverted to a storm sewer or other collection point
• graded ≥6"/10' away from foundation
• swales sloped ≥2 percent within 10' of foundation
• impervious surfaces within 10' of foundation
slope ≥2 percent away from building
Materials (R402)
Concrete:
• minimum compressive strength in Table R402.2
• subject to moderate or severe weathering to be air
entrained
Table R402.2
Minimum Strength of Concrete, psi
Weathering Potential
Type or Location Negligible Moderate Severe
Foundations & slabs (exc. garage) 2,500 2,500 2,500
Vertical walls exposed to weather 2,500 3,000 3,000
Porches, steps, garage, & carport 2,500 3,000 3,500
slabs exposed to weather
Fasteners:
• for below-grade plywood or in knee walls, 304 or
316 stainless steel
• for above-grade plywood and lumber, 304 or 316
stainless steel, silicon bronze, copper, hot-dipped
galvanized steel or hot-tumbled galvanized steel
• electrogalvanized steel, nails and galvanized steel
staples not permitted
Wood:
• lumber and plywood treated to AWPA Std. U1
• lumber or plywood cut after treatment, to be field
treated with copper naphthenate until rejection
106 FOUNDATIONS
Footings R403
General:
• exterior walls supported on continuous concrete
footings, or approved systems to accommodate
loads
• supported on undisturbed soil or engineered fill
• exterior footings ≥12" below undisturbed ground
Minimum size:
• minimum sizes per Table R403.1
• spread footings ≥6"thick
• footing projections ≥2" and less than thickness of
footing
• pier and column footings based on tributary load
and allowable soil pressure
Table R403.1
Minimum Width of Footings, inches
Load Bearing Value of Soil, psf
1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000
Conventional light-frame construction
1-story 12 12 12 12
2-story 15 12 12 12
4" brick veneer over light frame or 8“ hollow masonry
1-story 12 12 12 12
2-story 21 16 12 12
8" solid or fully grouted masonry
1-story 16 12 12 12
2-story 29 21 14 12
Reinforcement:
• foundations with stem walls, one No. 4 bar
within 12" of top of wall and one No. 4 bar
3"–4" from bottom of footing
• slabs on ground with turned-down footings, one
No. 4 bar at top and bottom of footing, except
if monolithic, 1 No. 5 bar or 2 No. 4 bars in
middle third of footing depth
Frost protection:
• foundation walls, piers, and other supports to be
protected by one or more of following methods:
 1. extended below frost line
2. frost-protected shallow foundation (R403.3)
3. erected on solid rock
Exceptions:
1. freestanding light-framed structures of ≤600
sq. ft., with eave height ≤10'
2. other freestanding structures of ≤400 sq ft,
with eave height ≤10'
3. decks not supported by dwelling
Foundation Walls (R404)
Lateral support:
• foundation walls that meet all of the following
shall be considered laterally supported:
1. full basement floor ≥3.5" concrete slab poured
tight against bottom of foundation wall
2. floor joists and blocking connected to sill plate
3. sill plate bolt spacing per Table R404.1(2)
4. floor full-blocked perpendicular to joists within
two joist spaces of foundation wall
• no backfill until wall cured and anchored to floor
above or braced to prevent damage, except brac-
ing not required for <4' of unbalanced backfill
Table R404.1(2)
Maximum Anchor Bolt Spacing, inches
USC Soil Classes Exception: parging not required for material
Wall Height Backfill GW, GP GM, GC SC, MH, ML-CL
ft ft SW, SP SM-SC, ML Inorganic CL
7 4 12 12 12
5 12 12 12
6 17 12 12
8 4 12 12 12
5 16 12 12
6 16 12 12
7 16 12 12
Anchorage:
• ≥1⁄2" bolts @ ≤6' o.c. and embedded ≥7"
• two bolts per plate section min.
• one bolt ≤12" from each end of plate section
Foundation Drainage (R405)
Concrete or masonry foundations:
• drains around foundations enclosing usable
space below grade
• drain tiles, gravel or crushed stone, or perforated
pipe at or below area to be protected and dis-
charged into approved drainage system
• gravel or crushed stone drains ≥1' outside and 6"
above footing and covered with filter membrane
• drain tiles or perforated pipe on ≥2" and covered
with ≥6" of washed gravel or crushed stone
Exception: drainage not required when foundation
on well-drained ground (USC, Group I soils)
Wood foundations:
• ≥4" gravel, stone, or sand under basement floor
• automatic draining of subslab and wall footings
• 6-mil poly under basement floor
• unless USC Group I soil, a sump ≥24" in
diameter or 20” square, extending ≥24" below
bottom of basement floor, and discharging into
approved sewer system or to daylight
Dampproofing (R406)
• basement walls dampproofed footing to grade
• masonry walls ≥3⁄8" parging plus dampproofing
approved for direct application to masonry
• waterproofing required in areas of high water
table or other severe soil-water conditions
• membrane joints to be sealed with compatible
adhesive
Crawlspace Ventilation (R408)
• net vent area ≥1 sq ft per 150 sq ft of floor
• 1 vent within 3' of each building corner
• ventilation not required where earth covered
with continuous vapor retarder having lapped
and sealed joints and edges, and there is continu-
ous mechanical ventilation of ≥1 cfm/50 sq ft
• access to under-floor areas: ≥18"×24" through
floor, or ≥16"×24" through perimeter wall
Meet the Code 107
108
0 1 2 3 4 5

Wood 5
Wood is nature’s must wonderful building material. Its combination of The Nature of Wood   110
strength and beauty has never been surpassed in the laboratory. The first Defects and Grading   112
section of this chapter explores the nature of wood. Properties of North American
The beauty of wood, however, is partly due to its imperfections. So Species   114
next the chapter looks at how lumber defects affect its grading and how Moisture and Shrinkage   116
lumber grade stamps are interpreted.
Standard Lumber Sizes   118
Wood is categorized as being either softwood (from evergreens) or
hardwood (from deciduous trees). The properties of North American species Pressure-Treated Wood   120
table lists the qualities of 56 species. A second table compares moisture
and shrinkage of 34 of the wood species.
And when is a 2×4 really a 2×4? Building projects often require that
we know the exact dimensions of the lumber. The table of standard
lumber sizes lists both nominal and actual dimensions of all standard
categories and sizes of lumber.
Wood will last a long time if kept dry. The building codes recognize
that many outdoor and underground applications lead to decay, however.
This chapter lists and illustrates the applications for which the codes call
for pressure-treated wood.

109
 The Nature of Wood
The fibrous nature of wood largely determines how
it is used. Wood is primarily composed of hollow,
elongate, spindle-shaped cells arranged parallel to
each other along the trunk of a tree. When lumber
and other products are cut from the tree, the charac-
teristics of these fibrous cells and their arrangement
affect such properties as strength and shrinkage as
well as the grain pattern of the wood.
Reading a Tree Trunk
Bark is a thick layer of dead cells, similar in function
to the outer layers of human skin, that protects the
living parts of the tree from insects and fire. A tree
is very resistant to insects as long as its bark forms a
complete barrier.
Phloem is the inner bark, consisting of live cells that
transmit nutrients, as do the cells of the sapwood.
The cambium is a single layer of cells where,
remarkably, all tree growth occurs. The cells of the
cambium continually divide, first adding a cell to
the phloem outside and then a cell to the sapwood
inside. As a result, a tree limb that first appears at
a height of 5 feet above ground will remain 5 feet
high, even though the tree grows taller.
Sapwood consists of the most recently formed
layers of wood and, as its name implies, it carries
sap up and down the tree. When the rate of growth
varies throughout the year, or even ceases during
cold winters, the sapwood shows annual growth
rings. Wide rings are due to rapid growth in wet
summers; narrow rings indicate dry summers.
Heartwood is formed of dead sapwood cells.
Chemicals and minerals are deposited in and
between the heartwood cells, making the wood
more dense, strong, dark, and resistant to decay
than the sapwood.
The pith, at the very center of the tree, is the
overgrown remnant of the original shoot.
Rays are at right angles to the circular rings.
Not defects or cracks, as they appear, rays are
bundles of cells that transport and store food
across the annual rings.

Reading a Tree Trunk

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Ba

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Ph
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110 WOOD
Growth Rings
In most species the difference between wood formed
early in the growing season and that formed later
produces well-marked annual growth rings. The
age of a tree can be determined by counting these
annual rings. However, if the growth is interrupted,
by drought or defoliation by insects for example,
more than one ring may be formed in the same sea-
son. In this case the inner rings do not have sharply
defined boundaries and are called false rings.
The inner part of the growth ring formed early
in the growing season is called earlywood, and
the outer part formed later in the growing season,
latewood. Earlywood is characterized by cells with
relatively large cavities and thin walls. Latewood cells
have smaller cavities and thicker walls.
Growth rings are most readily seen in species with
sharp contrast between latewood formed in one year
and earlywood formed in the following year, such as
in the hardwoods ash and oak, and in softwoods like
southern pine. In some species, such as water tupelo,
aspen, and sweetgum, differentiation of earlywood
and latewood is slight and the annual growth rings
are difficult to recognize. In many tropical regions,
growth is continuous throughout the year, and no
well-defined growth rings are formed.
When growth rings are prominent, as in most
softwoods and ring-porous hardwoods, earlywood
differs markedly from latewood in physical prop-
erties. Earlywood is lighter in weight, softer, and
weaker than latewood. Because of the greater density
of latewood, the proportion of latewood is some-
times used to judge the strength of the wood. This
method is useful with such species as the southern
pines, Douglas fir, ash, hickory, and oak.
Wood Cells
Wood cells—the structural elements of wood tis-
sue—are of various sizes and shapes and are firmly
cemented together. Dry wood cells may be empty
or partly filled with deposits, such as gums and
resins. The majority of wood cells are considerably
elongated and pointed at the ends; these cells are
customarily called fibers. The length of wood fibers
is highly variable within a tree and among species.
Hardwood fibers average about 1⁄ 25 inch in length;
softwood fibers range from 1⁄ 8 to 1⁄ 3 inch in length.
In addition to fibers, hardwoods have cells of
relatively large diameter known as vessels or pores.
These cells form the main conduits in the movement
of sap.
Both hardwoods and softwoods also have cells
that are oriented radially from pith toward bark.
These groups of cells conduct sap across the grain
and are called rays. The rays are most easily seen on
edge-grained or quartersawn surfaces, and they vary
greatly in size in different species. In oaks the rays are
very conspicuous and add to the decorative features
of the wood. Rays also represent planes of weakness
along which seasoning (drying) checks develop.
Chemical Composition
Dry wood is primarily composed of cellulose, lignin,
hemicelluloses, and minor amounts (5 percent to
10 percent) of extraneous materials. Cellulose, the
major component, constitutes approximately 50 per-
cent of wood by weight. It is a high-molecular-weight
linear polymer. During growth the cellulose molecules
are arranged into ordered strands called fibrils,
which in turn are organized into the larger struc-
tural elements that make up the cell walls of wood
fibers. Most of the cell wall cellulose is crystalline.
Delignified wood fibers, which consist mostly of cel-
lulose, are used in making paper. Delignified fibers
may also be chemically altered to form textiles, films,
lacquers, and explosives.
Lignin constitutes 23 percent to 33 percent of
the wood substance in softwoods and 16 percent to
25 percent in hardwoods. Although lignin occurs
in wood throughout the cell wall, it is concentrated
toward the outside of the cells and between cells.
Lignin is the cementing agent that binds the cells
together. It is necessary to remove lignin from wood
to make high-grade paper.
The Nature of Wood 111