Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PCA - Control Air Content of Concrete
PCA - Control Air Content of Concrete
Skokie, Illinois 60077-1083 Air entrainment is a necessary com- conditions, including snowfall, the ap-
ponent of concrete mixtures exposed plication of large quantities of deicing
Phone: (847) 966-6200 to freezing and thawing environ- agents, and many cycles of freezing
ments. Due to changing materials, and thawing.
Fax: (847) 966-8389 conditions of mixing, and methods of Water expands upon freezing, exert-
placing concrete, achieving target air ing forces that exceed the tensile
Web Site: contents requires attention at the de- strength of concrete. Repeated cycles
sign, specification, and construction of freezing and thawing can result in
www.portcement.org stages. A new reference by NRMCA cumulative damage in the form of
and PCA titled Manual on Control of cracking and scaling (Fig. 1).
Contents Air Content in Concrete (PCA EB116)–
excerpted in this article—brings
Role of Air Content
together practical state-of-the-art
Control of Air Content in information to control the air content For over 50 years, entrained air has
Concrete of fresh and hardened concrete in the been deliberately incorporated in con-
field. crete mixtures to reduce damage due
Air-Void Analyzer Concrete pavements and structures to cycles of freezing and thawing. Air-
in many regions of North America entraining admixtures or agents are
are exposed to very severe winter used to produce a stable system of
Prescriptive versus
Performance Specifications
for Cements
New Literature
Figure 1. Freeze-thaw deterioration of non-air-entrained concrete
railing. (S44517)
PL981
R e t u r n To I n d e x
Concrete Technology Today
Air-Void System
Table 1. Recommended Total Target Air Content for Concrete
Once the concrete has set, the casts of
the original air bubbles are left be- Nominal maximum Air content, percent*
hind in the hardened concrete as aggregate Severe exposure** Moderate Mild
voids. This is commonly referred to size, mm (in.) exposure† exposure† †
as the “air-void system” in hardened 9.5 (3/8) 7-1/2 6 4-1/2
concrete. The major parameters of 12.5 (1/2) 7 5-1/2 4
the air-void system are the total air 19.0 (3/4) 6 5 3-1/2
content, average spacing factor be- 25.0 (1) 6 4-1/2 3
tween air voids, and specific surface.
Entrained air consists of microscopi- * Project specifications often allow the air content of the concrete to be within –1 to +2
percentage points of the table target values.
cally small bubbles, almost all of ** Concrete exposed to wet-freeze-thaw conditions, deicers, or other aggressive agents.
which have diameters greater than † Concrete exposed to freezing but not continually moist, and not in contact with deicers or
10 micrometers (0.0004 in.) and less aggressive chemicals.
than 1 mm (0.04 in.). These bubbles ††
Concrete not exposed to freezing conditions, deicers, or aggressive agents.
2
R e t u r n To I n d e x
April 1998
When air content in fresh concrete Table 3. Effects of Production and Construction Variables on Air Content
is compared to air content in hard-
ened concrete, differences can exist. Variable Effects Guidance
Air content in hardened concrete is Mixer capacity Air increases as capacity Run mixer close to full
normally measured microscopically is approached. capacity. Avoid over-
on a polished section of concrete loading.
taken from a laboratory beam, field Temperature Air content decreases with Increase air-entraining
cylinder, or core. Differences be- increase in temperature. agent dosage as
tween fresh and hardened air con- temperature increases.
tent from the same lot of concrete Haul time and Long hauls, even without Optimize delivery
are generally less than plus-or-mi- agitation agitation, reduce air, schedules. Maintain
nus 1 to 2 percentage points. especially in hot weather. concrete temperatures
in recommended ranges.
Effects of Concrete Ingredients Pumping Reduction in air content Use loop in descending
ranges from 2 to 3%. pump line. Keep the
The materials used to produce con-
pumping pressure as
crete–portland cement, supplemen-
low as possible.
tary cementitious materials, chemi-
cal admixtures, aggregates, and mix- Internal vibration Air content decreases Do not overvibrate.
ing water–can have a significant ef- under prolonged vibration Avoid high-frequency
or at high frequencies. vibrators (>10,000 vpm).
fect on air content. A discussion of
the qualitative effects of these mate-
rials on the trends in air content is
covered in the manual along with effect on its air content and entrained Excerpt
guidance to correct unintended air-void system. Variables associated
changes in air content resulting from The information presented in this article
with concrete production include the
changes in materials. Table 2 sum- is a brief excerpt taken from the Manual
methods of batching, mixing proce-
marizes just some of the effects con- dures, and time and speed of mixing. on Control of Air Content in Concrete
crete ingredients have on air. (EB116), published in 1998 by NRMCA
Construction-related variables and
and PCA. The document presents practi-
field conditions such as transport and
delivery, retempering, placement, cal information on achieving and con-
Production Procedures, trolling target air contents. It is available
Construction Practices, and consolidation, finishing, and tem-
through NRMCA and PCA (see New
Field Conditions perature also can affect the air con-
tent of concrete. Table 3 summarizes Literature).
The way concrete is produced and the effect of some of these variables PCA R&D Serial No. 2093a
handled can also have a significant on air content.
3
R e t u r n To I n d e x
Concrete Technology Today
4
R e t u r n To I n d e x
April 1998
5
R e t u r n To I n d e x
Concrete Technology Today
quirements of ensuring
adequate and uniform
cover over the steel re-
inforcement without
leaving an unsightly
concrete surface with
exposed non-concrete
materials that might be
potential weak spots in
the protective cover.
The combination of
European technology
and high performance
concrete present an Figure 2. Side-wall spacers in the web of Figure 3. Reinforcing support in the
innovative solution to a precast bridge girder ensure correct bottom flange of a precast girder will,
a common durability cover over reinforcement when the steel because of its shape, be completely
issue. form is closed. Norwood Bridge, embedded and barely visible on the
Winnipeg, Manitoba. (67926) girder’s surface when the form is
removed. Norwood Bridge,
Winnipeg, Manitoba. (67927)
References
1. Montani, R., and Sohanghpurwala, A.A., Corrosion
in Reinforced Concrete, Seminar, World of Concrete
’98, Orlando, Florida, January 18, 1998.
2. Nye regler for sikring av overdekning, Spesifikasjoner
for sikring av armeringens overdekning (New Code for
Ensuring Concrete Cover, Specifications for Ensur-
ing Cover over Reinforcement) Publication No. 78,
Norwegian Road Research Laboratory, Oslo, Nor-
way, May 1995.
Editor’s Note
Additional information can be obtained from Con
Sys Inc., Box 341, Pinawa, MB, Canada R0E 1L0, Tele-
phone 204-753-2404, Fax 204-753-8329/800-442-8850,
Figure 4. Precast sections made with concrete bar or e-mail vik@granite.mb.ca.
supports being placed at Norwood Bridge. Photo
courtesy of Lafarge Canada Inc.-Winnipeg Precast and
Thomas Young Productions (photographer).
6
R e t u r n To I n d e x
April 1998
Specifications, or standards, are the rials but is more sensitive to the test vative and potentially efficient com-
basis to verify quality and maintain methods used to predict performance. bination of materials. That is where
product uniformity. Conformance to Blended cements offer attractive C 1157 can fill in the current gaps.
standards can be determined using methods of manufacturing a material Users potentially can choose these
either prescriptive or performance to minimize environmental impact cements to address particular dura-
specifications. A prescriptive specifi- and result in very efficient use of raw, bility or construction needs. A com-
cation gives chemical or physical re- recycled, and by-product materials. parison of some features of the three
quirements that are indirectly re- Currently, the ASTM C 595 specifica- cement specifications is given below.
lated to performance. A performance tion would not allow the most inno-
specification sets limits for physical
test results only.
In the U.S., specifications for ce-
ment have had both prescriptive and
performance features. Performance Comparison of ASTM Cement Specifications
features have included requirements
Feature ASTM ASTM ASTM
for setting time, strength, and dura- C 150 C 595 C 1157
bility. Prescriptive features have in-
cluded limits on chemical composi- Specification limits on:
Minimum compressive strength? Yes Yes Yes
tion, some physical properties, and
Autoclave expansion? Yes Yes Yes
restrictions on ingredients. Both Time of setting? Yes Yes Yes
ASTM C 150 (for portland cement) Alkalies? Optional No No
and ASTM C 595 (for blended hy- Chemical composition? Yes Yes No
draulic cement) have prescriptive Fineness? Yes No No
and performance elements. In 1992, Mortar air content? Yes Yes No
the first performance-only specifica-
tion for cements, ASTM C 1157, was Number of basic types 5 6 6
issued. Total number of types 8 16 6
As an example of the difference Type designation for:
between prescriptive and perfor- General concrete construction I IS, IP, I(PM), I(SM), P GU
mance requirements, ASTM C 150 High early strength III — HE
limits the tricalcium aluminate (C3A) Moderate sulfate resistance II IP(MS), IS(MS) MS
level in portland cement to provide High sulfate resistance V — HS
sulfate resistance for concrete (or Low heat of hydration IV P(LH) LH
mortar). The C3A level is obtained Moderate heat of hydration II IS(MH), IP(MH), MH
I (PM)(MH),I(SM)(MH)
from results of chemical analyses of
the cement. In ASTM C 1157, sulfate Accepted by:
resistance of concrete (or mortar) is ASTM C 55 (Concrete brick)? Yes Yes Yes
controlled by evaluating laboratory ASTM C 90 (Concrete block)? Yes Yes Yes
ASTM C 94 (Ready mix specification)? Yes Yes No
tests of mortar prisms made with the
ACI 301 (Structural concrete Yes Yes No
cement. The laboratory test is in- specification)?
tended as a predictor of field perfor- ACI 318 (Building Code)? Yes Yes No
mance of concrete. Uniform Building Code? Yes Yes Yes
Prescriptive specifications provide
a well-defined means for the manu- ASTM C 150: Standard Specification for Portland Cement
facturer to demonstrate compliance ASTM C 595: Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
with chemical composition, but may ASTM C 1157: Standard Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement
limit the options of cement manufac-
turers (by restricting the use of con-
stituent materials) and thus pose
somewhat of a barrier to innovation.
Compliance with performance speci-
fications, on the other hand, allows
the use of different constituent mate-
7
R e t u r n To I n d e x
Concrete Technology Today
Sent to you compliments of:
that can affect the air content of con- rated into ettringite. Ettringite for-
NEW LITERATURE crete, the manual gives the reader suf- mation has significant potential for
The following publications are now ficient knowledge to obtain the de- stabilizing wastes containing heavy
available. To purchase any of these, in sired air content in concrete as well as metals by using portland cement.
the United States, contact Portland troubleshoot any difficulties arising This is a valuable reference for any-
Cement Association, Order Process- from mixing or placing. A compact one interested in the chemistry of
ing, P. O. Box 726, Skokie, IL 60076- disk version of the document is in- ettringite as found in concrete as
0726; telephone 800/868-6733, or fax cluded. See an excerpt in this issue of well as anyone involved with stabi-
847/966-9666. They can also be or- Concrete Technology Today. lizing waste with cement.
dered via PCA's web site
www.portcement.org. In Canada, Ettringite and Oxyanion- Rectangular Concrete Tanks,
please direct requests to the nearest Substituted Ettringites—Their IS003
regional office of the Canadian Port- Characterization and
land Cement Association (Halifax, Applications in the Fixation of This newly revised publication pre-
Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver). Heavy Metals: A Synthesis of sents the latest technical guidelines
Manual on Control of Air and procedures for structural design
the Literature, RD116 of rectangular above- or below-
Content in Concrete, EB116
The term ettringite, a mineral pro- ground concrete tanks. The text con-
While use of air-entrained concrete is a duced when tricalcium aluminate siders various combinations of end
well-established practice, quality con- combines with sulfate during normal conditions and aspect ratios, adapts
trol issues may arise during produc- hydration of portland cement, de- design coefficients for multicell
tion and placement of air-entrained scribes a number of chemically simi- tanks, and presents design coeffi-
concrete. The way concrete is pro- lar substances. This report discusses cients for twisting moments to cover
duced can have a significant effect on the sulfate form, and also focuses on most design situations in practice.
its air content and entrained air-void the forms of ettringite produced Numerous examples are provided.
system. By focusing on the variables when other substances are incorpo-
This publication is intended SOLELY for use by PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL who are competent to evaluate the sig-
nificance and limitations of the information provided herein, and who will accept total responsibility for the application
of this information. The Portland Cement Association DISCLAIMS any and all RESPONSIBILITY and LIABILITY for the
accuracy of and the application of the information contained in this publication to the full extent permitted by law.