Malaysian Issues

Course Notes/MPU-3322.
MPU-3342
MPU-3322/ MPU-3342
CONTEMPORARY MALAYSIAN ISSUES
LECTURE NOTES
SOCIAL ISSUES
POLITICAL ISSUES
ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
ECONOMIC ISSUES
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION 4.0
Updated October 2020 1

Course Notes/MPU-3322.MPU-3342
CHAPTER 1: SOCIAL ISSUES -- DRUG TRAFFICKING AND DRUG ADDICTION
1. DRUG TRAFFICKING
What is drug trafficking?

 A global illicit trade.
 Involves the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are
subject to drug prohibition laws.
 The amount of the substance that needs to be involved in order to label it a trafficking
charge depends on the substance.
 Drugs are an easy and lucrative source of income, which becomes a continued attraction
to criminals.
 In 2019, drugs worth RM3.53 billion were seized, compared to RM0.58 billion in 2018.
Based on possibly the most complete death penalty statistics ever released to the public,
a majority of death row inmates in the country are in on drug trafficking convictions with
two-fifths of them being foreign nationals.
 Of the 1,281 people on death row as of Feb 2019, 73 percent (935 people) were convicted
of trafficking illicit substances under Section 39(b) of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1952
(DDA).
 A quarter (320 people) are on death row for murder while the remaining 26 inmates were
convicted for crimes related to firearms, robbery and waging war against the monarch.
International narcotics control strategy report on drug trafficking in Malaysia

 Malaysia is neither a significant source country nor a major transit point for U.S.-bound
illegal drugs. However, drug trafficking through the country to supply domestic and
regional markets remains a challenge, and transnational drug trafficking organizations
have been attempting to expand crystal methamphetamine production in the country.
 Transnational drug trafficking organizations continue to use Kuala Lumpur as a
trafficking hub, and Nigerian trafficking organizations have been known to use
commercial courier services to ship methamphetamine and heroin into and from
Malaysia.
 There is no notable cultivation of illicit drug crops in Malaysia. Demand for and the
consumption of drugs is limited on the local market.
Mandatory death penalty for drug trafficking

 Section 39B of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1952 (Revised 1980) provides mandatory death
sentence for drug trafficking offences.

Reasons to justify the death penalty

a) Remove the offender from the midst of the society to protect public’s interest
 To deter the offender from repeating the offence.
 Without a mandatory death penalty  drug traffickers may still be able to repeat their
offense once they have completed the term of their imprisonment.
b) Serve as a deterrent to potential drug traffickers.
 Death penalty  severe penalty. Therefore, policymakers and legislatures anticipated
that there would be more deterrents of such crimes.
 Serves as an example to prevent others from committing similar offence
 Keeping alive the constant threat of punishment by passing exemplary sentences,
particularly when the offence is deemed to be on the increase.
Reasons to abolish the death penalty

 In October 2009, ENCOD (European Coalition for Just and Effective Drug Policies),
which is a European coalition of NGO’s and individuals concerned with the global drug
issue, wrote a letter of appeal to the Malaysian government, urging the government to
abolish death penalty for drug trafficking.
 The death penalty should be abolished because it:
a) Runs counter to the universal protection of human rights
 At odds with the international trend of doing away the use of this measure.
 According to Amnesty International, 140 countries have abolished the death
penalty.
b) Has not been effective in reducing the number of drug traffickers.
 Between January 2014 and October 2017, police have detained 702,319 people
for drug trafficking and possession.
 Of this, 21,371 cases fell under Section 39B of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1952
that used to carry the mandatory death sentence, and 10,878 people have already
been charged in court under that section.
 Drug addiction amongst youths is still rampant death penalty had not been a very
successful deterrence.
c) Does not deal with the root cause of drug trafficking
 Demand for drugs  still many people in Malaysia who want to take drugs.
 There would always be others who would step into the drug market to sell drugs
when the former traffickers had been executed.
d) The core business of globally organised criminal organisations
 Those arrested for drug trafficking relatively small amounts“low-ranking drug
mules” who did not have major responsibilities in this business.
 Killing them will not scare the drugs gangs away, as the drug gangs will only need
to get replacements for the executed traffickers.

Causes of drug trafficking

a) Financial incentives
 Fuelled by the economic principle of supply and demand in a world  a high demand
for illicit substances that cannot be obtained through any legal means.
 Large amounts of money to be made.
b) The possibility of escaping the gallows
 Enhances their courage to break the law.
 Being charged under section 39B DDA does not guarantee that death penalty would
be imposed on the accused.
c) The practice of corruption
 Creates a breeding ground for drug trafficking as drug traffickers could buy their way
into the demand market.
 Low integrity level among some of the government officials  drug traffickers will
become bolder in their approach.
d) Demand for drugs creates a continuous need for the supply of drugs.
 Night-life entertainments at pubs or discos  creates a demand for party drugs that are
purported to be able help the party-goers to unwind.
 Peer influence and the adventurous nature of the young people  easy target to drug
abuse.
2. DRUG ADDICTION
Statistics: number of drugs addicts from 2014 till February 2018
STATISTICS OF DRUG ADDICTS BY CASE STATUS, 2014 - 2018
PER CASE /
CATEGORY 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
PER HEAD
Per Case 13,605 20,289 22,923 18,440

17,474
New Case
Per Head
11,712 17,947 22,814 18,112 17,315
CASE
STATUS/ Per Case 8,172 6,379 7,921 7,482 7,793
YEAR Relapse Case
Per Head 9,863 7,643 4,648 3,242 2,908
Per Case 21,777 26,668 30,844 25,922 25,267

Total
Per Head 21,575 25,590 27,462 21,354 20,223
Notes:
New Case - Newly detected drug addicts to receive treatment/rehabilitation/ supervision with NADA
Relapse Cases - Drug addicts who formerly detected and received treatment/ rehabilitation program with NADA
’Per Case’ data refers to those who have one or more offences in the current year. Whilst the ‘Per Head’ data refers to only once detected
within five (5) years period.

 In 2018, there were 130,788 drug addicts in Malaysia. Based on an estimated national
population of 32.4 million, that is 404 drug and substance abusers and addicts for every
100,000 people.
 Between January and June 2019, a total of 105,375 drug and substance abusers and
addicts were recorded, an increase of 23.2 per cent compared to the same period in 2018.
 Also worrying, was the increase in demand for synthetic drugs such as methamphetamine
and the emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the Asian market, with many
new psychoactive substances worldwide.
National disaster and main threat to national security

 The close geographical propinquity to Myanmar, Laos and Thailand (Golden Triangle)
and other Southeast Asian countries that produces illicit drugs
 On February 19, 1983, the government declared drug as national disaster and is a main
threat to national security due to the following reasons:
 Drug addiction could reach epidemic proportions.
 65% of the addicts were young men between the ages of 20 to 29 (represented the
backbone and the hope of the nation’s future).
Steps taken to wage a war against drugs abuse

a) Cracking down on illegal immigrants in the country's struggle
 In need of more coordination among the Immigration Department, police, National
Registration Department, People's Volunteer Corps and the Civil Defence
Department.
 The government will continue to launch operations to nab illegal immigrants to weed
out problems such as drug trafficking and other criminal activities.
b) Setting up a special task force focusing on anti-drug trafficking at Malaysia-Thailand
border
 Malaysia’s border with Thailand  opens to two-way smuggling activities.
 Need to tighten up the country’s border security with competent policing and
efficient border patrolling.
c) The federal police launched its Special Tactical Intelligence Narcotics Group (STING) in
2014.
 Through STING, the police have increased enforcement, and their intelligence
network is more efficient and collaboration with their foreign counterparts is better.
 Sting’s primary focus — drug-processing syndicates and drug kingpins.
d) The government and non-governmental organisations have set up prevention and
rehabilitation centres for drug addicts.
 The facilities in Cure and Care Rehabilitation Centre (CCRC) and 1 Malaysian Cure
and Care Clinics (C & C) are more advanced than in some countries.

 Provide educational training to drug addicts  empower them to turn over a new leaf
once they are released from the centres.
e) Still using the punishment as a deterrent for drug trafficking
 Despite calls from human rights activists for Malaysia to abolish the death penalty
for the crime of drug trafficking.
 Sending out the message that drug trafficking is a crime not tolerated in the country.
Should drug use be decriminalized?

The approach taken:
 Using and carrying drugs (up to certain limits) were legal.
 Selling and making drugs remain illegal.
 Providing clean and free/affordable drugs at proper doses.
A case in Portugal
 1980s - One of the highest drug users in the world.
 Tough law enforcement had not been effective.
 Therefore, Portugal chose a radical approach: they decriminalize all drug use, the first
country to do so, in 2001.
 Results in 2011 (10 years later):
 Lower the drug use by youths aged 15-24 years old (this age group is considered most
susceptible to drug use initiation and prolonged drug use).
 Drug-related deaths fell sharply by about 75%
Decriminalization of drug use in other countries and Malaysia

 Increasingly more countries today are changing their approach to handle the drug problem.
 Australia, Denmark, Canada, and Switzerland provide safe havens or drug clinics where
addicts can receive clean drugs for free and be intoxicated under supervised conditions.
 Netherlands has also legalized the sale of cannabis at sanctioned coffee shops. The number
of hard addicts in the Netherlands has stabilized and the average age of addicts has risen to
38 years, an indication that their drug policy is working.
 Uruguay has recently legalized the growing and sale of marijuana. Even the US has
softened their fight against drugs.
 Malaysia too is beginning to treat drug addicts more as medical patients and less as
criminals.
Advantages of decriminalizing drug use

a) Direct focus on the treating drug users, instead of punishing them
 Remove the social stigma of drug users, causing addicts to voluntarily seek treatment.
 Drug users are asked to reflect on why they might want to use drugs and the possible
repercussions from their decision.

b) The drugs provided by these clinics are purer, unadulterated, and clean from contaminants
 Drug clinics cause deaths by drug overdose and HIV infections to cease completely.
 Drugs provided by the drug cartels  without quality control  likely to lead to drug
overdose because the users do not know what they are taking.
c) Reduce drug-related crimes and HIV infection
 Drugs sold at the streets are higher due to interest in profit making  encourages drug
users to commit crimes to help pay for their addiction.
 Clean and free drugs through drugs clinic  lead to fewer drug-related crimes, like
vehicle thefts, muggings and burglaries committed by drug addicts as well as HIV
infection due to drug use
d) Addicts under this drug prescription treatment could function as normal
 Remove the social stigma of drug users  addicts under this drug prescription treatment
can remain lucid.
 Given drug substitution under proper supervision  better control of their lives, most
being able to secure permanent jobs.
 Most of the addicts under this would carry on with their addiction for no more than 3
years, with only 15% of them continuing for longer periods.
The concern of drug relapse

Definition of drug relapse  usage, intake or misuse of psychoactive substances after one had
received drug addiction treatment and rehabilitation, physically and psychologically.
Factors contributing to relapse among drug addicts in Malaysia

a) Encounter additional crisis
 Problems, stress, failed forecast.
 Coupled with pessimistic thinking and anxiety that all issues cannot be resolved  lead
to immature actions.
b) Suffering from low self-efficacy
 Self-efficacy  the degree to which an individual feels confident and capable of
performing a certain behaviour in a specific situational context.
 Low self-efficacy  lack of inner strength  relapsed addiction after their release from
getting treatment and rehabilitation.
c) Less support from family members and the community by large towards former addicts
 Weak communication patterns and less effective interactions amongst former addicts’
family.
 “Don’t care attitude” towards the former addicts  causes the former addicts to relapse.
d) Peer pressure, especially from the former friends who still use drugs
 Influence from 50% of old friends to pick up the habit again.
 Even assisting rehabilitated individuals to get the needed supply of drugs.

e) Unemployment issues among former drug addicts.

 Inability to get jobs amongst former addicts who were discharged from rehabilitation
centres coupled with lack of financial support.
 Being offered low salaries without taking into consideration their qualifications and
experience  causing dissatisfactions amongst the former addicts  quit their jobs.
The ways to prevent drug relapse

a) Training of self-help character for the former drug addicts.
 Trained to have strong determination as well as strong internal resilience to stay away
from drugs  help them to face difficulties and to be independent after they re-enter the
community.
 To build highly defensive spirits  to want improvements in their lives.
b) Integrated effort among family, employers and community.
 To be ready to work hand in hand to take over the role played by drug counsellors after
the addicts are released.
 More sincere help to repentant former addicts  giving them undivided support and
encouragement so that they can be more self-assured to continue with their lives 
healthy and free from drugs.

CHAPTER 2: SOCIAL ISSUES -- RISING CRIME AND CORRUPTION
1. RISING CRIME
Crime statistics
 The national crime index ratio in 2018 saw a drop to 273.8 cases per 100,000 population
compared to 309.7 cases the previous year, says the Statistics Department.
 Despite the overall reduction, seven states registered crime rates above the national
average in 2018, with the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur topping the list.
 The Federal Territories recorded a crime index ratio of 642.6, which was double than that
of the national figure. The other six states which had crime rates above the national
average were Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Kedah, Penang and Johor. However,
despite being above the average, the states’ crime index ratio nevertheless showed a
decrease from the previous year. After Kuala Lumpur, Selangor had the highest crime
index ratio at 330.8, followed by Negeri Sembilan (327.1); Melaka (303.6), Kedah
(287.6), Penang (284.6) and Johor (275.7).
Crime index ratio per 100,000 populations by state, 2016-2018.

 Two ways to measure crime:

a) Official crime statistics (recorded crime) – which are based on the aggregate records
of offenders and offences processed by the police, courts and prison agencies.
b) Unofficial crime statistics (dark figure) – which are produced from surveys outside
the criminal justice system. Not every crime is reported by the public and recorded
by the police. PEMANDU gathered that about 25% of the crimes experienced by the
public were not reported to the police  known as the “dark figure”.
The public’s perception on crimes

 The Crime Index may have gone down but the recent spate of vicious crimes had left
some Malaysians to doubt the report. Malaysians are alarmed with the numerous news
reports on crime daily -- armed robberies, snatch theft, shooting crimes – in the daily
newspapers as well as in Twitter, Facebook and blogs.
 Police are stepping up efforts to tackle street crime to reverse public perception that crime
is still high.
Factors on why the public has increased fear of crimes in recent years
a) Street crime stories can be traumatic.
 The victim talks about the crime  the message spreads and scares people.
 Online sharing of the crime stories  can become viral and create fear in the readers.
 Example: March 2015  the video clip showing an old lady being dragged on the
ground by the snatch thieves riding on a motorcycle after she held on to her handbag
went viral in the social media and created fear among the people.
b) Lack of building trust between the public and the police personnel.
 Cases of corruption and the breach of ethics involving the police personnel
 The public lacks of assurance  doubt that the police will come to their rescue in the
event that something untoward happens to them.
c) Street crimes like snatch thefts and break-ins threaten the daily life of the ordinary people.
 Police said street crime, which includes snatch thefts, smash-and-grab incidents,
bump-and-rob cases involving vehicles and wayside robberies, was more visible to
the public and added to the feeling of insecurity
 Crimes take place on the street or in the residential areas  the people feel the threat
of crime being very close to their daily living.
Effects of this increased fear of crimes among the public

a) People become emotionally uncomfortable.
 Feel vulnerable and isolated even in their own environment.

 Outside of the house  feel anxious and afraid.

b) People begin to invest time and money in defensive measures.
 Some buy extra locks for their house grilles; some, especially ladies, register in self-
defence classes.
 Self-employ a security guard to patrol at their neighbourhood.
c) Lash back at the authorities.
 Their sense of insecurity  under the impression that the police authorities and the
local council have not been doing their part to create a safe living environment for
them.
 Cause them to lose faith in the local council, even the state government.
Gangsterism
 The gangsterism issue in Malaysia is a hot topic as gangsterism has been reported
frequently by the media in Malaysia.
 Although it receives wide coverage in media, scientific studies related to gangsterism in
Malaysia is yet to be explored.
 Based on the view of experts, there are few elements found in the operation style of these
gangster groups. Most of the experts mentioned that the gangster groups in Malaysia have
been operating systematically and involved in many illegal activities.
 They have their own hierarchy and tend to change their modus operandi in order to mislead
the investigations. In addition, these gangster groups always change their modus operandi
to prevent detection by the police force.
 Recruitment into the gang usually starts in the middle school where the age group is
between 10 and 13. Most gangs target youth that are easily talked into doing work for the
gang. Current gang members will often use peer pressure or fear and intimidation tactics to
get others to join their gang. Providing cigarettes, alcohol, and other drugs as a lure is
another method of recruitment. Some gangs are currently targeting girls for recruitment.
 Gangs have evolved to play an organizing role in politics and illegal markets. Once they
are members of a gang, youngsters are taught the gang’s history and rules, are encouraged
to have the gang’s tattoos and adopt clothing styles unique to the gang.
 These gangster groups are operating behind certain registered private companies with their
own jurisdiction to run the illegal activities and operating based on demands. They have
been sustaining their activities through political backup and by regular thefts or by being
‘taxed’ through bogus protection rackets.
 Most secondary school students linked to secret societies have yet to become initiated gang
members, investigations revealed.
 However, not amused by triads’ recruitment of teenagers, the federal police are calling for
all stakeholders to play their role to prevent gangsterism from corrupting Malaysian youths.
 Federal police Criminal Investigation Department director Datuk Seri Mohmad Salleh said
secret societies set their eyes on students to prepare the youngsters as their future cadres:

“What these triad gangs were doing was recruiting new members to fill the low ranks, who
would serve as their runners and who they can order around. They target teenagers as these
youths are vulnerable and can be easily influenced to join their groups.”
Causes of gangsterism among youths

a) Influenced by peer group
 Peer group plays an important role in moulding one’s character, either prompting
them to do good things or to do bad things.
 When a peer group challenges a youth to act in a delinquent manner, ie to commit
acts of gangsterism, the youth may feel challenged to prove his merits before his
peers and loses sight of moral discernment.
 Usually the young people tend to share their problems with their peers rather than
discussing it with their family. For them, only their peers will understand their
feelings better. Therefore, they may just follow the delinquent acts of their peers even
though deep down, they realize it is wrong to do so.
b) Lack of parental love
 Parents may be too busy to earn a living to support the family that they do not realize
that they have neglected their children’s emotional needs for good spiritual and moral
guidance.
 Due to their busyness, such parents also do not spend enough quality time with their
children, causing the children to feel lonely and in greater need of companionship
from their peers.
c) Surrounding environment
 Home environment  lacks of peace and harmony  youths may likely be drawn
to take part in acts of gangsterism to release stress and frustration.
 Neighbourhood  growing up in a neighbourhood marred by criminal activities 
higher tendency to be influenced to take part in gangsterism as a way of self-
protection as well.
d) Amount and immediacy of monetary gain
 Monetary gain from gang-related activities is high and immediate with minimal
effort. Monetary gain appears to be related to financial difficulties, rather than greed.
 Most of get involved in gangs are individuals experiencing financial difficulties due
to circumstances and lack of better opportunities.
e) Benefits derived from illegal monetary gains
 Gangsters persist in their activities to gain illegal profits as they want to continue
their luxurious lifestyles.
 Certain gangs provide good offers to their members. They let their members conduct
businesses under their name, give them shares from extortion money, and give salary,
car, and motorcycle to their members.

 Based on such benefits, people are likely to continue being part of the gang, even
when they knew that being a member of a gang despite non-involvement in illegal
activities, is still considered as an offense in Malaysia. The benefits outweigh the
punishment – which may or may not happen later.
f) Influence from mass media
 Some films or dramas, even cartoons portray elements of gangsterism.
 May influence some young minds to see violence as a way to solve problems.
Snatch thefts
Purse snatching is the most frequently reported crime against expatriates and Malaysian
citizens. The usual modus operandi (MO) is one or two males on a motorbike approaching the
target from the rear and snatching a purse, handbag, or cell phone.
Reasons why snatch theft is the most frequent street crime

a) Easy targets
 The most common targets  women (especially old ladies) walking alone with their
handbags or purses.
 Youngsters with smartphones  youngsters tend to be too engrossed with their
smartphones, checking things out in the smartphones, to be aware of their
surroundings.
b) The convenience of the attack
 These types of robberies occur at all hours, in front of witnesses, and even in upscale
neighbourhoods.
 Snatch thieves normally ride on the motorcycle  can easily speed off after snatching
the desired items from the victims.
c) Lack of CCTV (close circuit television)
 Most streets in Malaysia have not been installed with CCTV  unlike certain
developed countries like South Korea.
 This lack emboldens the snatch thieves to strike on their victims  have the
confidence that they will be able to escape after the crime is committed.
Measures to curb snatch thefts

a) Enforcement of the law:
 The attackers were not only criminals but were most inhuman deserve the full force
of the law to be brought to bear upon them.
 More stringent punishment must be meted out to those convicted of snatch thefts
commensurate with the seriousness of the offence.
b) Street patrols:
 More street patrols by the uniformed and plain clothes personnel are needed for in
hot spots areas  should operate 24 hours a day in crime hotspots.

 More frequent vehicle patrols in small lanes along major city roads which have been
used by snatch thieves as getaway routes.
c) Tackle the problem of drug addicts:
 Most snatch thieves are drug addicts who need to support their habit.
 As long as this problem is not resolved, many drug-related crimes will continue to
occur.
 Drug addicts were the main perpetrators of street crime  at least 40% of the crimes
since 2010.
d) Local authorities:
 Should introduce initiatives and implement the guidelines under the safe city concept
to provide safety features such as constructing barriers to separate pedestrian
walkways and roads.
 The police have been working with KL City Hall on a “safer city” programme.
 Having more lighting in back alleys and secluded areas, as well as making pedestrian
walkways inaccessible to motorcycles.
e) Enhanced vigilance of the pedestrians:
 Pedestrians must put into practice the guidelines provided by the MCPF and the
police.
 To be more watchful of their surroundings when they are walking on the streets or in
the car park; to avoid walking alone in lonely streets etc.
f) Educational workshops:
 Police should conduct more workshops to teach the public how to avoid being victims
of street crimes.
 These programmes are also to get people to be acquainted with their local police
officers.
g) Civic consciousness:
 Malaysians need to practise civic consciousness in rendering help to victims,
especially if the victims have been injured due to the snatch theft.
 Where possible  nab the snatch thieves and hand them over to the authorities.
To sum up, there is an urgent need for all parties -- law enforcement agencies, including local
authorities and NGOs -- to work with one mind and commitment to fight the snatch-thief
scourge which is a bane in our society.
Cybercrime
 Cyber-crime is a major threat to those who are connected over the Internet. It involves
the use of technology to cheat, harass, disseminate false information.
 Malicious entities, often known as “cyber criminals” exploit information through the
Internet for financial gains or to damage targeted assets.
 For the past few decades, millions of user information were lost or stolen.

 Some of the more common types of cyber-crime include but are not limited to: DDOS
Attacks, Botnet, Identity Theft, Cyber stalking, Social Engineering, Potentially Unwanted
Programs, Ransomware, Phishing and Online Scams.
 These cyber-related risks have posed serious challenges to any government and in
particular to the law enforcement agency in keeping law and order.
 Rapid and in some cases, uncontrolled ICT development have created challenges in the
form of loopholes in current laws, economic development, political stability and social/
racial well-being.
 Cybercrime has surpassed drug trafficking as the most lucrative crime.
 Almost anybody who is an active computer/ online user would have been a cybercrime
victim, and in most cases too its perpetrators. The younger generation are the most
vulnerable.
 70 % of commercial crime cases now can be categorised as cybercrime cases.
 Police have recorded 21,862 reports related to commercial crimes nationwide, resulting
in losses of RM5.8 billion from January to October 2019.
 Inspector-General of Police Tan Sri Abdul Hamid Bador said the number of cases
increased by 4.3 per cent compared to 20,913 cases recorded in the same period in 2018.
 He added 47.2 percent of cases in 2019 comprise non-existent loan schemes, e-purchases,
and Macau and African scams with the Internet used as a medium to find victims.
 The current trend of modernisation is contributing to a wide range of current
cybercrime trends, which requires the police force to think out-of-the-box to meet the
challenges ahead.
The effects of cybercrime

 The impacts of a single, successful cyber-attack can have far-reaching implications
including financial losses, theft of intellectual property, and loss of consumer confidence
and trust.
 The overall monetary impact of cybercrime on society and government is estimated to be
billions of dollars a year.
 Criminals take advantage of technology in many different ways. The Internet, in
particular, is a great tool for scammers and other miscreants, since it allows them to ply
their trade while hiding behind a shield of digital anonymity.
 Cybercrime affects society in a number of different ways, both online and offline.
a) Identity theft
 Becoming the victim of cybercrime can have long-lasting effects on life.
 One common technique scammers employ is phishing, sending false emails
purporting to come from a bank or other financial institution requesting personal
information.
 If one hands over this information, it can allow the criminal to access one's bank
and credit accounts, as well as open new accounts and destroy credit rating.

b) Security costs
 Cyber criminals also focus their attacks on businesses, both large and small.
 Hackers may attempt to take over company servers to steal information or use the
machines for their own purposes, requiring companies to hire staff and update
software to keep intruders out.
c) Monetary losses
 The overall monetary losses from cybercrime can be immense.
 According to a report by Symantec, more than 1.5 million people fall victim to some
sort of cybercrime every day, ranging from simple password theft to extensive
monetary swindles.
 With an average loss of $197 per victim, this adds up to more than $110 billion
dollars lost to cybercrime worldwide every year.
 As consumers get wise to traditional avenues of attack, cyber criminals have
developed new techniques involving mobile devices and social networks to keep
their illicit gains flowing.
d) Piracy
 The cybercrime of piracy has had major effects on entertainment, music and
software industries. Claims of damages are hard to estimate and even harder to
verify, with estimates ranging widely from hundreds of millions to hundreds of
billions of dollars per year.
 In response, copyright holders have lobbied for stricter laws against intellectual
property theft, resulting in copyrights law.
 These laws allow copyright holders to target file sharers and sue them for large
sums of money to counteract the financial damage of their activities online.
e) Social impacts
 Cyber criminals take full advantage of anonymity, secrecy, and interconnectedness
provided by the Internet, therefore, attacking the very foundations of our modern
information society.
 Cybercrime can involve botnets, computer viruses, cyber bullying, cyber stalking,
cyber terrorism, cyber pornography, denial of service attacks, hacktivism, identity
theft, malware, and spam.
 Law enforcement officials have struggled to keep pace with cyber criminals, who
cost the global economy billions annually.
f) Emotional impact of cybercrime
 About 65 per cent of Internet users globally, have fallen victim to cybercrimes,
including computer viruses, online credit card fraud and identity theft.
 Study shows that victims' strongest reactions are feeling angry (58 per cent),
annoyed (51 per cent) and cheated (40 per cent), and in many cases, they blame
themselves for being attacked. Only 3 per cent don't think it will happen to them,

and nearly 80 per cent do not expect cyber criminals to be brought to justice
resulting in an ironic reluctance to take action and a sense of helplessness.
 Despite emotional burden, the universal threat and incidents of cybercrime, people
still aren't changing their behaviour - with only half (51 per cent) of adults saying
they would change their behaviour if they became a victim.
Steps to protect us from cyber-crime

 Cybercrime might be a massive problem, but there are ways to protect yourself online.
 Many are simple and immediately effective. New security measures are being developed
all the time to keep pace with criminals, so it’s important to stay aware of current trends.
 An excellent foundation includes the following precautions:
a. Use strong and unique passwords, combining letters, numbers, and special
characters. Don’t use easily-guessed words or numbers, such as a partner’s name or
birthdate.
b. Have an up-to-date Internet security suite for real-time protection against viruses and
malware. Keep your other programs updated, too: both security suites and
commonly-used programs update constantly as they implement safeguards against
new threats.
c. Control your social media by keeping personal information private. Cybercriminals
may only need a few bits of personal information - such as the name of your pet - to
clear security questions. Play it safe and share as little as possible.
d. Maintain a strong home network. A VPN encrypts all information as it leaves your
devices, meaning hackers will only be able to intercept nearly impossible to decipher
traffic.
e. Take note of major breaches in the news. If you’ve done business with an institution
that has suffered a data breach, determine what information may have been stolen,
and immediately change your password.
f. Remember to keep your security as portable as you are. Whether at a local café or
visiting another country, be sure to implement the same safeguards, such as a VPN,
even if it requires extra work.
g. Monitor the particularly vulnerable persons in your life, such as children and the
elderly. Not only are they easier targets, but these groups are not likely to be checking
their credit scores and other metrics that might raise red flags.
2. CORRUPTION
Statistics
Transparency International's (TI) Corruption Perception Index
 Malaysia has moved up to 61st spot among the 180 countries in the latest Corruption
Perceptions Index (CPI) for 2018, one notch higher from the previous year.

 Among ASEAN countries, Malaysia is among the top three after Singapore and Brunei.
 It uses a scale of 0 to 100, where 0 is highly corrupt and 100 is very clean.
National Anti-Corruption Plan (NACP) 2019-2023

 One of the government's initiatives in realizing the government's manifesto towards a
nation with integrity and free from corruption.
 Themed 'Breaking the Corruption Chain', the NACP is a developed plan specifically for
implementation within five years.
 The implementation of this plan was developed by the Governance, Integrity and Anti-
Corruption Centre (GIACC), the Prime Minister's Department in collaboration with other
government agencies.
 This specific plan was developed to set a practical goal based on initiatives to be taken by
every government and private agency to address corruption, integrity and governance
issues for the next five years.
 Contextualising the NACP within the international arena, it speaks volume of Malaysia’s
commitment toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agreed upon
internationally to be undertaken by 2030. One of the goals, Goal 16: Peace, Justice and
Strong Institutions, emphasises the importance of addressing corruption in order to
achieve the SDGs. Goal 16 espouses the commitment to fight against corruption, increase
transparency, tackle illicit financial flows and improve access to information. There exists
a clear consensus among the UN member countries on the fact that should there be no
action to reduce corruption, there will be serious impediment to achieving the other
SDG’s goals.
 Based on the corruption trend in Malaysia over the last five years (2013- 2018), the public
sector has been the most vulnerable to corruption. Compared to the vulnerability rate of
17.06% in the private sector, the public sector showed a more alarming rate of 63.30%. It
was discovered that such a high vulnerability to corruption in the public sector stemmed
from the weak governance in its procurement practices, legal enforcement agencies and
administration.
 MACC found that between 2015 and 2018, a total of 30 top civil servants had been
arrested for corruption charges.
Effects of corruption
a) Losses in the public funds
b) Affects the public sector’s integrity in ensuring the country’s security and prosperity
c) Malaysia has come under the spotlight for being coined a kleptocratic country thanks to
the greed of several individuals involved in mega scandals namely 1MDB, FELDA,
MARA, SRC International, Sabah Water Department and Tabung Haji. These scandals
have seen billions, even trillions, of ringgit being syphoned off from the country.

Key issues faced by Malaysia in the battle against corruption as identified in NACP2019-
2023:
a) Interference of politicians in government administration and finance
 Politicians have mostly interfered in administrative (and financial) matters whereby
they see as potentially crucial in serving their own interests at the expense of the rules
and regulations  happen in decision-making processes especially those involving
procurement, job appointment and legal system.
 According to the MACC, from 2012 until 2014, the majority of such recorded cases is
from the construction sector’s procurement e.g., negotiations with the middlemen.
b) Lack of leadership and political will
 This lack in the implementation of anti-corruption controls have affected the
sustainability and the effectiveness of the anti-corruption initiatives undertaken thus
far. Most, if not all, corruption-deterrent initiatives are either late, slow or unpopular
to be implemented.
 Several outstanding initiatives (announced during the last administration) that are still
pending for implementation are as follows: (i) Transparency in asset declarations and
gift management policy by Members of the Administration (including Prime Minister
and Deputy Prime Minister); (ii) The introduction of Misconduct of Public Office
provision; (iii) The setting up of an independent agency in managing seized and
forfeited assets; (iv) The initiation of proper guidelines on lobbyists; and (v)
Demarcation of power between Ministers and Secretary Generals.
c) Independence of legislation and enforcement bodies
 Legislative institution and enforcement agencies need to be strengthened and
eventually transformed into independent entities with full power to execute their
functions. The MACC, for instance, must be allowed to execute its functions
independently and effectively without any political interference.
 Political interference in the 1MDB and FELDA scandals had been among the biggest
obstacle to the MACC’s and AGC’s executing their functions between 2015 and 2016.
It had also created administrative chaos which then led to high-profile reshuffling of
the MACC’s top management. The issue was captured by the Bertelsmenn Foundation
in its Bertelsmenn Stiftung Transformation Index (BTI) for 2018 as well as by the CPI
for 2017.
d) Light punishment to corruption offenders
 The general penalty for any corruption-related offence in the Malaysian Anti-
Corruption Commission Act 2009 (Act 694) is imprisonment for a term not exceeding
20 years whereas the previous Anti-Corruption Act 1997 (Act 575) provides for
imprisonment for a term of not less than 14 days and not more than 20 years.
 As such, of the two, the MACC Act 2009 (Act 694) does not set a minimum number
of days for imprisonment. This can be interpreted as such that offenders do not have

to serve minimum jail time. Consequently, this makes the Act 694 insensible hence is
outdated and needs to be amended.
e) Lack of monitoring and enforcement
 Malaysia has adequate legislation but unfortunately, its enforcement is far below
expectation. The fact is monitoring and enforcement are essential to ensure that all
processes and procedures comply with the existing legal framework.
 Government agencies, in general, often lack the capacity to inspect, audit and review
the implementation of its activities. Among the reasons why monitoring and
enforcement efforts fail can be attributed to the lack of resources namely manpower,
skills, technology, methods and financial resources.
f) Limited adoption of technology in fighting corruption
 In fighting against corruption, technology changes must be taken into consideration by
the Government in order to ensure the role of technology is strategically embedded
within the efforts to increase Government’s integrity, accountability and transparency.
 This is especially true in the areas of enforcement, procurement, licensing and services.
Technology adoption will bring a positive image to the Government agencies in
delivering its services. The digital integration inter- and intra-agencies is currently
limited. Therefore, the application of modern technology to curb corruption.
g) Lack of public support and confidence
 Public trust is heavily dependent upon transparency and accountability in the
Government’s operations. Corruption diminishes public support, hence hamper the
Government’s ability to fulfil its duty in ensuring conducive services and development
for the people.

CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL ISSUES -- RACIAL UNITY AND EDUCATION
1. RACIAL UNITY
Unity amidst diversity

 The Department of National Unity defines national unity as "a situation in which all
citizens from the various ethnic groups, religions, and states live in peace as one united
nationality, giving full commitment to national identity based upon the Federal
Constitution and the Rukunegara"
 Malaysia is one of the most plural and heterogeneous countries in the world, with three
major ethnic groups — Malay, Chinese, and Indian — plus several other indigenous tribes.
This ethnic and cultural diversity is reflected in the wide variety of languages spoken and
religions practiced in Malaysia; even within the same ethnic group, various traditions
prevail.
The importance of promoting unity amidst diversity in Malaysia

a) Promote the development of the country
 Each race, with their sets of dominant cultural beliefs and practices, has their inborn
and nurtured characteristics that can be of contributive value to the growth of the
nation.
 Racial unity  the strength of each race is brought together and produces a huge
positive impact on the development of the country.
b) Attracting foreign tourists and investors
 Diversity among races  a point of attraction to tourists as they can sample the various
cultural heritage of different races – promoting the tourism industry in the country.
 Diversity in the country  provides attractive opportunities for foreign investors to
market their goods and services.
 If we allow our diversity to tear our social fabric apart  economic loss to our country
 no one would be interested to visit or invest in a country that is marred by
instability.
c) Promote the acceptance and appreciation of diversity
 Unity amidst diversity  an indicator that Malaysians adopt the attitude of being
broad in their acceptance of values of others.
 The acceptance of differing views and values  Malaysians are able to appreciate the
contribution of other races in the country.
d) Maintaining national and regional peace and harmony
 Racial tensions and conflicts are common in multiracial countries. When Malaysia
becomes a role model in maintaining unity amidst diversity, it brings forth a positive
influence to the neighbouring countries, especially in countries like Myanmar which
is in still in the midst of religious clashes.

 Therefore, the unity in Malaysia can become a stabilizing factor to the peace and
harmony in the region.
Challenges encountered in attaining racial unity in Malaysia

Modern Malaysia is increasingly forced to confront the tensions arising from this fount of
diversity, and the politics of race and religion. Malaysia has been free of ethnic bloodshed,
but as Malaysians enter into a new era of globalization, there have been some new challenges
that test the unity foundation of the country.
a) The rise of political and religious extremism

 Extremism or radicalism could never bring together the masses of different race,
culture and belief system into one common end.
 Extremism contradicts to a peaceful coexistence among races  an extremist group
will look down upon another group of different believers and perceived as enemies.
b) Irresponsible use of the social media
 Some parties posted inflammatory and derogatory statements about other races
 Such hate messages are could be incited by certain incidences that involve parties of
different ethnicity and religious backgrounds – eg: car accident – or could be fanned
by certain extremist view of certain parties about another ethnic or religion.
c) Repeated debates on the establishment of vernacular schools
 Vernacular schools are already enshrined in the Constitution and the law, even
included in the National (Education) Blueprint  but their establishment has been a
contentious issue among politicians and even academicians.
 New debates  vernacular schools are hotbeds for racism and anti-establishment
sentiments and therefore certain parties proposed that vernacular schools be
abolished. Dissatisfactions among the supporters of vernacular schools  seen as an
infringement of their right to learn their mother tongue.
d) Heavy politicking in recent years
 Since the General Election 2013  many Malaysians are becoming more politically
aware of their civic right to vote for a better government.
 Political parties have been aggressively putting forth their rationales on various
issues to win the heart and mind of the people, particularly the race that they are
representing, in preparation of gaining their vote of confidence for the next election
 no united solution to the issue  further dividing the people.
Several initiatives taken by the government

TN 50 Dialogue  TN50 dialogue was an initiative by Prime Minister Datuk Seri
Najib Tun Razak to gather the aspirations of some 1.5 million
youth in the country for Malaysia’s 2050 National
Transformation roadmap.


During the dialogue which was held at Tunku Abdul Rahman
University College on 17 April 2017, youngsters wanted to be
seen as Malaysians first. Datuk Seri Liow Tiong Lai said that
“We (the Government and the youth) share core values such
as respect, unity and harmony.”
Vision 2020 Targeting developed status for Malaysia by the year 2020
National unity is named as a key component of a developed
country
“Bangsa Malaysia” Emphasises that the people are able to:
(Malaysian Nation) ✔ identify themselves with the country
policy ✔ speak Bahasa Malaysia (the Malay language)
✔ accept the Constitution.
National Service Aims to address racial polarisation and encourage national unity
programme by bringing youths from a variety of backgrounds together in one
setting.
1Malaysia  Emphasises ethnic harmony and national unity
 Values of perseverance, a culture of excellence, acceptance,
loyalty, education, humility, integrity, and meritocracy.
2. EDUCATION
The issue of vernacular schools – to remain or to abolish?

There are about 1,200 Chinese primary schools and about 523 Tamil schools in Malaysia.
Over 650,000 children attend vernacular schools and these constitute about 95% of Chinese
children and about 55% of Indian children.
Reasons why vernacular ought to remain

a) Sustaining minority language to sustain minority culture and identity
 One of the key arguments for the persistence of vernacular schools is in sustaining
minorities’ culture, especially in the Malaysian case, the sustenance of Chinese and
Indian culture.
 The identity of minorities in terms of their mother tongue is very much dependent or
rooted in the medium of instruction of the vernacular school.
 Also certain subjects that create cultural awareness such as literature, history and ethics
are all embedded in this vernacular stream.
 Besides the cultural roots and needs thesis, mother tongue education is also perceived
as both an individual and social rights concerns.
 In short the survival of the minority culture and identity has been squarely placed on
the role of vernacular schools to impart cultural education and identity.

b) Perceived higher quality and market advantage in vernacular school education

 Some argue that the persistence of vernacular schools seen from the increasing demand
for vernacular schools as not for the reason of language alone but quality issue.
 The vernacular school system imparts extra quality issues through discipline, values
and performance which are sought after by parents.
 The demand for these schools is getting higher because it is seen as an alternative to
the national schools.
 Abolishing vernacular schools will not solve the problem as it will only force a higher
demand for alternative private schools. Thus the issue of quality becomes the concern
of parents and stakeholders at large.
c) Lack of accommodation of minorities’ mother tongue education in the national school
 Critics argue that if the national schools have been more forthcoming in
accommodating the main minority languages, it would have been easier to form a more
inclusive education under one roof (i.e. national school) instead of a separate roof (i.e.
vernacular school).
 Suspicion and lack of faith in the State’s effort in incorporating multilingual and
multicultural education in the national school system has been a key factor for the
persistence of vernacular schools.
 This lack of faith was reflected by a headmaster from a primary school in Sarawak
who opined that the “Chinese society is against the idea of integration school like the
sekolah wawasan [vision school]. Why? Because they are scared that they’ll lose the
identity of Chinese schools. When under sekolah wawasan [vision school], the Chinese
school will become merged with other schools.”
d) Counterpoints to the role of vernacular schools in not promoting racial or national
integration
 Beyond school environment or other external factors, responses from the Chinese
school stakeholders argue that ethnic integration issue is externalized and not due to
vernacular schools per se.
 Besides school environment and government policy, some argue that educators,
community and media play a role in inculcating national integration.
 Others point out that segregative school environments exist in other social spaces such
as independent and private schools, religious schools, mono-ethnic residential schools,
mono-ethnic MARA junior colleges and even universities (such as UiTM).
 They question why there were no calls to abolish these institutions. They also question
whether there are more to national integration than social environment alone.

Reasons why vernacular should be abolished

a) National identity through national schools and not vernacular schools
 The cause of national schools for nation building purposes is without doubt an avenue
for the State to shape the society with positive values and perspectives celebrating the
nation’s diverse community make up.
 As such, the national school can be a microcosm reflective of the Malaysian society.
This ideal if properly cultivated will provide a collective view of a sense of belonging,
trust and shared destiny.
 In the Malaysian case, the common and popular ideal is the promotion of the idea of
single language stream (monolingualism) with Bahasa Melayu (Malay language) as
the medium of instruction in the national school but there were also options for
bilingualism as in the case of teaching of Maths and Sciences in English.
b) Cross-cultural experience and communication in national cultural foundations
 The nation’s cultural foundations and values are reinforced in national schools and this
serves as a platform to grapple with the idea of a racially and culturally diverse
Malaysian society.
 Thus by creating a Malaysian fabric in the national school, it will facilitate cross-
cultural experience that will influence beliefs and behaviour of students and eventually
develop skills to engage in communication. Thus, the opportunity to interact with
wider sections of the community with different languages and different ethnic groups
are enlarged through the national school platform.
 Here the vernacular schools are perceived to be limited in view of the lack of a common
national language to play a facilitating role, besides lack of opportunity for cross-
cultural experience with a wider mix of ethnic groups.
 If there are a greater number of vernacular schools present, then there is also less
possibility for a greater mix of ethnic groups in national schools.
c) Vernacular school as segregative and divisive obstacle to unity
 From the idea of schools as a reinforcing agent of values and perspective, vernacular
school with its parochial mother tongue language as medium of instruction and
ethnically preference groups were perceived to be segregative in nature as partial
values of a minority group is projected and not the national aspiration.
 Besides that, the lack of opportunities for students to interact with the wider mix of
people acts as an obstacle to unity.
 This is more so a problem if the students come from a segregated living environment
and end up in a segregated vernacular school which could be counterproductive to the
unity aspiration if these students were to continue until the secondary level.

Recommendations to improve the quality and the function of vernacular schools in the
Malaysian context
a) Enhancing Bahasa Melayu:
 More than 30% of the students from vernacular schools fail to obtain a minimum level
of proficiency in Bahasa Malaysia after six years of primary education.
 A need for comprehensive review of policy and implementation especially the teaching
methods to ensure that students from vernacular schools are provided with the
opportunities to acquire good command of Bahasa Melayu, both in oral and written
forms.
b) More autonomy for vernacular schools in running the schools including in the hiring and
firing of teachers.
 Appointment of school heads  to be professionally done, not politically done.
 A decentralised educational system is recommended by giving more power to school
heads.
Unemployment among fresh graduates

 According to Economic Outlook 2019, many vacancies in the market are in low and semi-
skilled jobs which are less preferred and not suitable for fresh graduates.
 Moreover, job experience is an important indicator of employability. According to the
report, a survey conducted by the World Bank and Talent Corporation in 2014 found that
90% of companies believe that university graduates should have more industrial training
by the time they graduate.
 This study also indicates that “less than 10% of companies had experience in developing
curricula or programmes with universities”.
 The issue seems to stem from both sides, and the government has implemented several
measures to encourage companies to assist graduates. Currently, more than 500 companies
including the Maybank group, CIMB, Axiata, Celcom, Huawei and Intel are working
closely with the Education Ministry to improve graduate employability.
 Suggested measures by the government:
i. identifying skills needed for the industries
ii. main streaming technical and vocational education and training
iii. reducing dependency on foreign workers
iv. cultivating an entrepreneurship culture in Malaysia
Reasons why Malaysian fresh graduates are unemployed

a) Unrealistic salary and remuneration expectation
 According to a survey by Jobstreet, certain fresh graduates are demanding as high
as RM6500 as their starting salary.
 However, in reality, in order to earn more than RM5000 in Malaysia, one need to meet
several job requirements where past working experience is an essential factor.

b) Clueless
 One of the most common interview questions is “Where do you see yourself in 5
years?” The reason why this is often asked is to gauge if the candidate understands the
advertised position and whether s/he has a future plan and knows what career path is
in place for the position.
 Employers enter each recruitment initiative in search of “the right person for the right
job” expectation. They care for your career goals of the job candidates to ensure that
they hire those who are always motivated, empowered and are likely to stay in the
company.
 When candidates are unable to clearly define what their future plan is, the outlook is
that they are not serious with their application and this might translate into an
unsuccessful job application.
c) Lack of critical thinking skills
 Our education system has been built in such way where the importance has been given
to be able to provide exact answers rather than allowing room for critical thinking
skills.
 Being relatively new to the workforce, one glaring short-fall in our workforce is the
ability to think not only analytically, but also critically.
 Candidates who are able to portray these during interviews are more likely to be
successful.
 These are the kind of candidates that would be regarded as “talents” in an organization,
people with high potentials would be an asset to the organization if given the right
guidance and grooming.
d) Communication skills
 One of the most sought after requirement for an employee, especially for a large
organization is communication skills.
 Some high potential candidates with excellent grades flop at interviews due to failure
to display the ability to communicate and articulate ideas clearly.
 Communication skills here is not singularly pointed at the ability to converse fluently
but also includes body language, and the ability to convey information effectively and
efficiently.
e) Poor character and self esteem
 If the job candidate is late for interviews, dressed inappropriately, and poorly groomed,
it not would be sending the best first impressions to the panel of interviewers and
effectively narrowing his / her chances of securing a job placement.
Digital Education
Fourth industrial revolution
 The fourth industrial revolution is upon us. With the rise of the digital economy in
Malaysia and worldwide, robots or intelligent computer systems could displace traditional

jobs and is expected to replace not just unskilled, but also semi-skilled and skilled labour
in the near future. With plans to embrace digital economy, the government has to look at
the cost to employment that may come with digitisation and how it affects the economy
and social economic system. Without concrete initiatives taken, the country will be sitting
on social economic time bomb that can explode when people are out of work.
 Our education system is not fit for purpose of a digital economy. Therefore, the
government needs to take measures to educate the young and adults about the needs of
this economy.
Revamping the education system in Malaysia

 In line with advancing the Internet Economy, MDEC recently launched #mydigitalmaker
movement, an initiative to create a nation of digital makers. This movement in partnership
with the Ministry of Education (MoE) and the support of private sectors and academia,
will expose Malaysian youth to the creative and innovative aspects of digital technology
through the integration of Computational Thinking and Computer Science into formal
school curriculum; as well as getting industry and universities to help nurture and groom
talented young digital makers through extra co-curriculum activities.
 There are great plans to revamp the education system in Malaysia, as seen in the Malaysia
Education Blueprint 2013-2025, prepared by the Ministry of Education Malaysia. The
blueprint aims to equip our students holistically to get them ready for a challenging future
of Industry 4.0 and digitalization, and it serves as a guide to the way:
a. students learn
b. educators are trained
c. the ministry lays out a process for that transformation to happen
 According to The Microsoft Asia Digital Transformation Study, while most education
leaders (87%) are aware of the urgent need to transform digitally, the actual
transformation journey with full digital strategy in place for most educational institutions
in Asia is still at its infancy.
Digital education in schools

The Ministry of Education Malaysia will continue promoting digital education in various
ways:
a) 1BestariNet
 Under 1BestariNet, schools are given access to the cloud-based learning platform – the
Frog Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) –with high-speed 4G Internet connectivity.
b) Digital textbook
 In 2014, The Education Ministry introduced digital textbook, with flippable pages of
text and graphic, that can be accessed online as an alternative to the printed version in a
bid to take the national education system to greater heights. The emphasis is on self-

education where pupils and students can refer to the textbook at any time and place
based on their respective levels.
 The digitalisation of school textbook is being done in three phases as stipulated in the
Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013-2025:
First phase The ministry had uploaded 313 textbooks that could be accessed
(2013-2015) free of charge through the 1BestariNet portal using the ID provided
to all teachers and students.
Second phase The ministry is planning to produce interactive textbook for
(2016-2020) selected subjects, which will contain elements of text, graphic,
audio-visual and animation, to help students understand the subject
better.
Third phase The publication of digital textbook for all subjects, including for
(2021-2025) students with special needs.
 When the time comes, schoolchildren would be allowed to bring their own electronic
devices, such as tablet and iPad, to access the digital textbook at school to replace the
printed version.
 If the system works, it will solve the problem of heavy school bags, which has been
raised repeatedly by parents. It is believed that digital textbooks will help students
become more active in class, as opposed to traditional textbooks.
c) Digital Education Transformation
 Partnering with Telekom Malaysia Bhd ™ to embark on a Digital Education
Transformation initiative to empower the Malaysian education system through
innovation and digitalisation.
 The long-term partnership would enable the ministry to boost and accelerate its digital
transformation journey through high-speed broadband connectivity, interactive
smartboard, smart devices, as well as teaching and learning the 21st century way.
 The transformation will also digitise the students' tracking and attendance system for
their own safety, as parents and teachers will have real-time visibility of the students'
attendance.
Challenges in digital education in schools

a) The extra burden shouldered by the educators under the system.
 The system is said to be frequently jammed. The system needs to be fixed and upgraded
to that the data keyed in the system will not get lost.
b) Incorporating the acquisition of problem-solving abilities in education
 Malaysia should encourage cognitive learning that involves the acquisition of problem-
solving abilities.

c) Equal access for all

 The Parent Action Group for Education (PAGE) has reminded the education ministry to
ensure that all students have equal access if the ministry intends to implement the digital
textbook system. Good internet coverage is needed to access the digital textbooks from
wherever they are. Otherwise, some children will benefit while others will not because
of the logistics and any related internet infrastructure problem in their area.
 There is also the possible shortage of devices made available at every school. While
every student is given one physical textbook that does not mean that each student will
then get one device. Some would probably have to share.
d) Durability of digital textbooks.
 In the past, electronic gadgets, such as netbooks and e-books were distributed before,
but most of these devices broke down after a year. The problem is with the maintenance
of these gadgets. Books can be recycled but gadgets cannot be recycled.
 It is not just about issuing devices but also maintaining them as well. These devices
cannot be replaced every year as then it would become expensive.
Digital education in public universities

 In 2015, the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) today announced the launch of 60
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) offered by 20 public universities in Malaysia. All
the courses are available for free, and are open for enrolment by students at these
universities and members of the public.
 The courses encompass a wide selection of topics ranging from Business, Engineering,
Entrepreneurship, Finance, Healthcare, Languages, Technology and many more. All
courses are available for free on OpenLearning,com, which is the official MOOC platform
for all public institutions of higher education in Malaysia. Courses are delivered primarily
in Bahasa Malaysia, English and Arabic, depending on the topic or subject matter.
 The launch is a major milestone in the Government’s commitment in leveraging
technologies like MOOCs and innovations such as blended learning to ensure that students
have a transformative learning experience.
 A blended learning approach combines online and in-class activities, moving away from
passive lectures to more active learning, which results in better learning outcomes. Shift 9
of the Malaysian Higher Education Blueprint 2015-2025 speaks of ‘Globalised Online
Learning’ as a key focus for the Ministry in building and exporting Malaysia’s global
education brand.
 Malaysia is the first country in the world to implement a nationwide strategy that integrates
MOOCs with on-campus university classes. Public universities will develop MOOCs on
core modules and students from the 20 public universities will participate in those courses
through OpenLearning’s social learning platform. The OpenLearning platform promotes
student autonomy and helps to foster a community of students who engage and motivate
each other throughout the course.

Malaysia Higher Education Forum (MyHEF) 2017 (Nov 23 – 24, 2017)

During the forum, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) was signed between Alibaba
Business School and Universiti Utara Malaysia. The MoU was for the nurturing and training
of IT, e-commerce, and big data, in public universities nationwide. Some of the highlighted
matters are as follows:
a) The need to redesign education for Industry 4.0.

 Higher education cannot be too academic  must look at the kind of experiences
university students need so that they can be trained in multi-disciplinary fields.
 While the difference between us and robots are narrowing, critical thinking and strong
communication skills are our advantage. Although these are skills were in demand 10
years ago, they are still what bosses want today. These skills will still be important
moving forward. Extra-curricular activities should be made an integral part of learning
so that students can become a well-rounded individual with strong skillsets.
 Core skills like being a team player, and being analytical, are important, because the
challenge doesn’t end at Industry 4.0. The future will see many more industrial
revolutions.
 A decade from now, 65% of current jobs will disappear but there will always be a need
for the “human touch”. Unity and patience will ensure that we rise above the challenges
ahead.
 The Internet will create many new opportunities but we must be self-critical, and
embrace life-long experiential learning. Varsities are here to serve the economy,
teaching students the skill to learn, unlearn, and relearn.
 To face global competition, Malaysia must produce holistic, entrepreneurial, innovative
and balanced graduates. The recent Higher Education Forum 2017 looks at how we can
create a sustainable, dynamic, and innovative, higher education ecosystem.
b) Education that focuses on creating jobs
 In the new economy, it’s no longer about finding the right job - it’s about creating it.
For example, in China, 30 million jobs are created through the Alibaba platform, giving
many opportunities for the youth. The Alibaba Business School was launched globally
to share Alibaba’s experiences.
 Industry 4.0 needs individuals who are Internet-savvy and e-commerce enabled, can
write code, and design apps. Education is critical because it’s the graduates who will
push this initiative of digital economy forward.
c) Collaboration of various stakeholders
 The private sector, academic institutions, parents, and policy makers, have crucial roles
to play in the education ecosystem. Policy makers must guard our tech generation by
championing an open system, being bold in making unpopular decisions, and putting
education above politics. Academic institutions must serve as incubators of tomorrow’s

technopreneurs, while the private sector become enablers by investing in research and
development.
 The private sector is encouraged to help finance the universities. Collaboration between
the industry and academia  CEOs can be engaged to help shape the curricular in higher
education so that higher education provides what is needed by the industry.
 When industry works with universities, future talents who are ready for the ‘real world’,
get created. Individuals who are proactive team players, with integrity, curiosity and a
progressive mind set are needed in the future job market. Besides parents too have to
play their part to inspire the tech generation.
d) On-demand learning through MOOCs
 There’s a need to rethink our education model and how to educate for the future.
Lauding the German system, the nation is renowned for its industrial training where
skilled workers are just as respected as professionals. A plumber can sit with a lawyer
or engineer and there’s mutual respect around the table because knowledge is not
synonymous with having a degree.
 Hailing cloud-based learning as an affordable, and content-rich platform with much
potential for learning, the open system allows fast access and adoption of the best
courses from anywhere in the world for anyone with a laptop or smartphone. Learning
becomes easy, with adaptability being the most important skill to have.
Emergence of international schools

Introduction
 An increasing number of multinational companies now based in Malaysia, including
Nestlé, Hewlett Packard and KPMG, bring in a huge number of expatriates to fill senior-
level positions, along with their families. With them come high expectations of schooling,
so demand for the best international schools is intense.
 According to figures from LEK Consulting Global Education Practice, Malaysia’s Klang
Valley, an area that covers Kuala Lumpur and its adjoining cities and towns, accounts for
almost half (45 per cent) of the private K-12 market and is expected to grow marginally
faster than the rest of Malaysia over the next five years. There are more than 50,000
students enrolled in international curriculum schools in the region. The international
curriculum has been fuelling this growth, and has increased by around eight per cent.
 However, the country has experienced some expatriate departures, mainly from within the
oil and gas industry. This has created availability of places at some premium international
schools, which offer excellent education opportunities for international families.
 Increasing numbers of local Malaysian children are now attending the country’s
international schools. In 2012, Malaysia’s government removed a 40 per cent limit that had
restricted many local children. This change in policy, as well as other government
regulations (such as the requirement for Malaysian national schools to deliver Mathematics

and Science in Bahasa Melayu), has paved the way for a substantial increase in demand
from local students enrolling at international schools.
 These factors have resulted in a major change in the size and demographic of Malaysia’s
international-schools market. According to ISC Research's Market Intelligence Report for
Malaysia, the total number of English-medium international schools in the country has
increased by 75 per cent since 2012, and student enrolment has increased by 87 per cent.
A further 12 new international schools opened in the 2018/19 academic year, according to
figures outlined by ISC Research at their 2019 conference.
 The greatest influence on change has been from Malaysian students. Approximately 50 per
cent of all international-school students in Malaysia are now locals. For this reason, several
schools are expanding their campuses to respond to the demand, and more schools are
opening.
 Experts are concerned as Malaysian students in international schools now significantly
outnumber their foreign counterparts:
 This has raised questions of whether international schools have deviated from its
original purpose of catering to children of foreign nationals such as expatriates and
diplomats.
 Local academics and education experts worry this may lead to an “identity crisis” among
local students ― that not being educated in a national school may lead to them feeling
(and being) less Malaysian.
 According to academics and education experts, this is an unhealthy trend as separation
between Malaysian students and the national education system will be vast and could
affect the students’ identity as Malaysians.
 Principal fellow at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’s Institute of Ethnic Studies
Professor Teo Kok Seong agreed that the different curriculum in international schools
will affect national building aspirations.
 A fellow academic Tan Sri Abdul Rahman Arshad said the freedom of enrolment among
local students into international schools will affect nation building efforts. “The
competition between national schools and international schools is not levelled as
international schools have far more financial resources compared to national schools,”
he said.
 A member of the National Education Advisory Council Datin Noor Azimah Abdul Rahim
said there is nothing to worry about as the percentage of Malaysian students in international
schools only make up less than five per cent of the total number of Malaysian students
nationwide.
 While acknowledging that national school standards are trailing behind that at international
schools, Noor Azimah who is also Parents Action Group for Education (Page) chairman,
said all is not lost.
 “I sent my children to national schools. They turned out fine. Some parents are spoilt but
if they have the means, it's up to them,” she said when contacted by Malay Mail.

 That said, Noor Azimah suggested that the government look into how it can improve and
raise the standards of national schools to gain public confidence.
Why are international schools gaining popularity?

a) Well-rounded holistic education
 Malaysian public education has always had a strong academic focus, emphasising on
rote-learning and exam-based assessments. As such, students spend most of their time
listening to the lesson prepared by the teacher that does little to develop their critical
thinking and problem-solving skills.
 International schools take on a more hands-on approach to learning with a focus on
personal development by encouraging students to “think outside the box”.
 These prove to be better tools in helping students develop into well-rounded adults who
can carry themselves well in real life situations.
b) Diverse and internationally recognised curriculum
 Public schools have a standardised curriculum where every student must take the same
core subjects and electives.
 While students can choose to go into arts or science streams in upper secondary school,
a larger emphasis is still placed on science, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) subjects compared to the arts.
 On the other hand, international schools utilise curriculum from other countries, which
is therefore recognised worldwide and conducted fully in English.
 These curricula differ from local systems by offering a wider range of subjects for the
arts and humanities stream which are not available in most public schools. These include
fine arts, music, literature and drama.
c) Low student-to-teacher ratio
 It is always best if a teacher is able to help every single student in their class. However,
sometimes that is impossible, especially in public schools where the average number of
students in a class can go up to 40.
 Public school teachers also have to teach several classes in a day and therefore cannot
cater individually to each student. Hence, students will have to either figure out the
subjects by themselves or through private tuition after school.
 On the other hand, smaller class sizes in international schools allow teachers to spend a
significant amount of time to hone or go over any of their students’ strengths and
weaknesses in any area or subject.
d) Exposure to new cultures
 Malaysia is racially and culturally diverse. However, for students who have grown up
in the country, these cultures have blended over the years and become familiar.
 International schools present the option of expanding one’s interaction beyond just
Malaysians to people from various countries, who may have vastly different cultures
than a purely Asian one.

 This will expose children to different people and situations to cultivate their
understanding and acceptance for people of different backgrounds.
e) Extra opportunities for extracurricular activities
 Both public and international schools include extracurricular activities in their
curriculum. However, the number and variety of these activities are restricted in public
schools due to government standardising and shortage of school funding.
 International school fees include everything they have to offer to the students, including
a wider variety of extracurricular activities and a larger budget for out-of-classroom
opportunities.
 These activities can help children find and develop new skills in the area they are
interested in and gain confidence in their talents.

CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL ISSUES -- ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS AND HUMAN

TRAFFICKING
1. ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS
Definition
 Illegal migration  a regular migration, undocumented migration or clandestine migration.
 Illegal immigrant  a foreigner who either has illegally crossed an international political
border, or a foreigner who has entered a country legally but then overstays his or her visa.
 Illegal immigration  immigration across national borders in a way that violates the
immigration law of the destination country.
 The Immigration Act describes undocumented migrants consist of a person who is
unlawfully enter or remain in Malaysia.
i. Refugees and asylum seekers are equally subject to the Immigration Act as other
undocumented migrants.
ii. However, refugees and asylum seekers who are registered under the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) will permissible to stay in Malaysia.
iii. Malaysian immigration law does not provide special protection or procedures for
asylum seekers refuges or trafficked persons nor does it make special provisions for
children or women, including pregnant women.
iv. He or she is liable to being imprisoned, whipped, detained and removed.
Statistics of illegal immigrants

 Malaysia has experienced a rise in foreign labour inflows in response to steady economic
expansion and demographic changes.
 The foreign workforce has been hovering around 15 percent of the total labour force in
recent years according to Labour Force Surveys by the Department of Statistics Malaysia
(DOSM).
 Foreign labour is concentrated in low-skilled occupations, and in Malaysia the term
“foreign worker” specifically implies a foreigner doing low-skilled work.
 These foreign workers come from neighbouring countries, predominantly Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Nepal and the Philippines.
 Foreign labour makes important contributions to the labour market and economic growth.
Immigrants address labour market imbalances by filling labour shortages in low-skilled,
labour-intensive sectors.
 As a result, low-skilled foreign workers complement the majority of Malaysian workers
and contribute to creating jobs for higher-skilled Malaysian natives, enabling Malaysians
to specialize and increase their wage premiums, as research has shown.

 At the aggregate level, foreign labour supports domestic consumption and fuels economic
growth as demonstrated through a computable general equilibrium model.
 Yet, concerns over illegal immigrants have been growing. Heated discussions have taken
place on the number of irregular foreign workers in Malaysia as there is no definitive
estimate of the number of illegal immigrants.
 To illustrate the magnitude, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA) reported that four out
of ten foreign workers are illegals, based on its enforcement and amnesty program
operations, suggesting the number of illegal immigrants to be about 1.2 million in 2017
and the total foreign worker population of about 3 million. Unofficial data suggests as many
as 4 million illegal immigrants.
Factors of illegal immigration

Push factors
a) Political struggle in the source country
 Authoritarian regimes in the source countries are considered as the primary reason
for illegal immigration.
 Political struggles within ethnic movements, or other violent removals from power--
combined with interstate conflict in many large parts of the world gives a significant
motivation to illegal immigration.
b) The deterioration of stability and security generates a massive displacement of population
 A large proportion try somewhat to get in the neighbouring countries illegally.
 Not deterred by reform and enforcement of the immigration policies in most
destination countries which have developed selective immigration and set new rules
for any kind of stay.
Pull factors
a) Prosperity, stability and population decline in the destination countries
 Before 21st century, Filipino and Indonesian (Kalimantan) had entered Sabah because
the stability in the state
 The number of local people was not high.
b) Demand for low skill workers
 Many occupations (agricultural and construction) do not require high skilled workers.
 Employers in host countries continue to hire them at wages highly superior to wages
in the source countries.
Impact from the illegal immigrants

a) Economy
 Positive impact: illegal immigrants are willing take up the jobs in agriculture and
construction sector that are refused by legal residents  help to develop the country
 Negative impact: caused financial burden to the country  to manage foreign
prisoners in prisons

b) Social destabilization
 Confusion of identity because of the similarity of the faces among the illegal
immigrant and local people – eg General Election 2013, where a few Malaysian
Indians were mistaken to be illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
 The emergence illegal squatter’s settlement  a negative image of Malaysia.
c) National security
 Illegal immigrants have been involved and convicted for crimes ranging from petty
theft to rape and high profile robberies and murders.
 Malaysian security forces have also regularly uncovered supplies of weapons in
illegal immigrant squatters distributed throughout peninsular and East Malaysia.
 Conflicts from the source country may spill over to Malaysia, like in the case of the
clashes of the Myanmar immigrants.
d) Contagious diseases
 Close to half of foreign workers who underwent medical tests in 2014 are infected
with the contagious airborne disease tuberculosis (TB), the Malaysian Medical
Association (MMA) has said.
 Those who know they are ill and cannot come in through the legal channel will
choose to come in illegally.
Refugees in Malaysia
Statistics
 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines refugees as
those who have “fled war, violence, conflict or persecution and have crossed an
international border to find safety in another country”.
 As of end April 2019, there are about 170,460 refugees and asylum-seekers registered
with UNHCR in Malaysia, with the following breakdown:
Myanmar – 147,590
Pakistan – 6150
Yemenis – 3350
Somalis – 3090
Syrians – 3065
Afghans – 1970
Sri Lanka – 1720
Iraqis – 1450
1951 Refugee Convention

 The 1951 Refugee Convention defines a refugee as “someone who is unable or unwilling
to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for
reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political
opinion”.

 Like many countries around the world, Malaysia has been opening its doors to refugees.
Nevertheless, the socio-economic well-being of refugees here has come under spotlight.
 Should a country’s attitude towards refugees be judged by how many of them it welcomes
into their borders, or how much it strives to integrate them into its society? The answer
should be the latter.
 The interesting case of Malaysia is that as much as it opens its doors to refugees, it is
actually not a party to the United Nations 1951 Refugee Convention, nor its 1967
protocol.
✔ This means that Malaysia lacks the legal infrastructure to manage refugees. It is not
obliged to provide for them in areas such as employment and education.
✔ In terms of documentation, refugees are issued a UNHCR card merely to signify that
they are under the protection of that programme  not an official document,
meaning it in no way reduces the risk of deportation. The psychological effects of
such documentation on refugees due to the resultant uncertainty is (and should be)
enough to galvanise support for providing these refugees with basic legal rights.
 In fact, in their manifesto leading to the 2018 general election, the newly-elected Pakatan
Harapan government specifically vowed to “ratify the 1951 International Convention on
Refugees so that refugees who escape from war-torn countries and arrive in Malaysia are
given proper assistance”. However, Malaysia has yet to ratify the convention. Not
ratifying it in effect means that refugees in Malaysia are technically not seen as
“refugees”. With just a UNHCR card, they are stuck in legal purgatory.
 On February 15 2018, Klang MP Charles Santiago gave a reason for why refugees should
have access to basic healthcare, employment and education. If the refugees cannot return
to their home countries in the long term, they become the country’s humanitarian
responsibility. Since refugees have no legal status in Malaysia, not being able to officially
work, they often work in low-paying menial jobs where they are easily exploited.
Measures to prevent and control illegal immigrants

The measures taken by the government
a) Formation of Eastern Sabah Security Command (ESCOM)
 To enhance the security of Eastern part of Sabah such as Lahad Datu, Kunak and
Semporna.
 To prevent foreigners like the Filipinos from entering Sabah easily through the road sea.
b) Implementation of 6P Program, which is referred to as
✔ Pendaftaran (Registration)
✔ Pemutihan (Neutralise)
✔ Pengampunan (Amnesty)
✔ Pemantauan (Monitoring)
✔ Penguatkuasaan (Authorization)
✔ Pengusiran (Expulsion)

 Focuses on the settling the issue of illegal immigrants and foreign workers.
 Aims to help government to identify the number of illegal immigrants in Malaysia for
further action.
c) Launching operation from time to time
 “Ops Tegas” involved officer enforcement such as Immigration Department, police and
RELA (Malaysian People Volunteer Corps) was launched in March 2005 to suppress
illegal immigrants.
 “Ops Nyah” is launched to return the legal immigrants voluntarily back to their own
countries.
d) Arresting the illegal immigrants
 About 30,000 illegals had been arrested from January to October in 2014 year
nationwide.
 In addition, more than 50,000 illegals had voluntarily surrendered under the amnesty
programme from July until October 2014.
e) Heavier penalty
 On 10 November 2014, Home Minister Datuk Seri Ahmad Zahid Hamidi had called for
heavier penalties to be imposed on those who brought in illegal immigrants, including
whipping.
The role of the society

 Common people should help the authorities to solve this issue.
 For example, by making a report to the authorities if they know of any company that hires
illegal migrants as workers.
The effectiveness of the ways to reduce illegal immigrants

It has not been an easy job to solve the issue of the illegal immigrants and the United States
itself is facing similar predicaments.
a) 6P Program
 Effective: the government has managed to call the illegal immigrants to get their permit
in the right manner.
 Ineffective: the dishonesty of the appointed 6P agents  some had cheated dozens of
Bangladeshi workers. This happened due to the lack of monitoring of the agents.
b) Ops Tegas and Ops Nyah
 Effective: many illegal immigrants were arrested and sent back to their country  has
reduced the number of illegal immigrants in some ways.
 Ineffective: some authorities received bribery money from the illegal immigrants who
wanted to avoid being arrested.

c) Liaison with other countries

 Effective: diplomatic relation sometimes could help the government to solve the issue
of illegal immigrant.
 Ineffective: the countries with huge population and high level of poverty  not easy to
control the illegal immigration.
Corruption and illegal immigrants

 The Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC) has revealed that corruption and
other wrongdoings by enforcement officers, including Immigration officers, at the entry
points were among the reasons for foreigners being able to enter this country illegally.
 According to the MACC 2010 Report, there were Immigration officers who lived a
luxurious life on ill-gotten money for facilitating the entry and exit of illegals, as
uncovered at the Pulau Ketam passenger jetty.
 The bribes were for allowing the illegals to enter the country although their passports had
false stamping or they were without any valid travel document.
2. HUMAN TRAFFICKING
Definition of trafficking by the United Nation (UN)

 Trafficking refers to the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of
persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other form of coercion, of abduction, of
fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving
or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having over another
person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation includes prostitution, forced labour,
slavery, or other forms of servitude.
 Malaysian law through the Anti-Trafficking in Persons (Amendment) Act 2010 defines
trafficking in persons as: “all actions involved in acquiring or maintaining the labour or
services of a person through coercion and includes the act of recruiting, conveying,
transferring, harbouring, providing and receiving a person.”
Where does human trafficking take place?

 Human trafficking exists across national borders, involving both developing and developed
countries.
 It has become an organized, trans-national crime and an increasing booming global
business.
 It could take place within the same state or country, taking victims from one part to another
against their will.
Methods of control by traffickers for prostitution

a) Taking away personal documents and travel documents

b) Demanding or taking a disproportionately large part of the proceeds of prostitution

c) Selling-or threatening to do so-the victim to another pimp
d) Withholding food
e) Isolation of the victim from friends, family and colleagues
f) Instilling fear of police and the justice system
g) Blackmail
h) Debt bondage
i) Mistreatment, beating, rape, intimidation, violence
j) Threat of violence against victim’s family
Global report on trafficking in persons

 It was launched in 2013 by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) to
conduct global assessment of the scope of human trafficking and what is being done to
fight it. It includes: an overview of trafficking patterns; legal steps taken in response; and
country-specific information on reported cases of trafficking in persons, victims, and
prosecutions.
 According to the report, human trafficking falls into three main categories:
a) The most common form of human trafficking (79%) is sexual exploitation. Main victims
of sexual exploitation  women and girls.
b) The second most common form of human trafficking is forced labour (18%). Forced
labour is less frequently detected and reported than trafficking for sexual exploitation.
c) Worldwide, almost 20% of all trafficking victims are children. However, in some parts
of Africa and the Mekong region, children are the majority (up to 100% in parts of West
Africa).
The United Nations protocol against trafficking in persons

 The protocol, the foremost international agreement in this trafficking, entered into force in
2003. In the past few years the number of Member States seriously implementing the
Protocol has more than doubled (from 54 to 125 out of the 155 States covered).
 However, there are still many countries that lack the necessary legal instruments or political
will.
Trafficking in Malaysia
 The overwhelming majority of trafficking victims are among the two million documented
and 1.9 million undocumented foreign workers in Malaysia from various countries
including Indonesia, Nepal, India, Thailand, China, the Philippines, Burma, Cambodia,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Vietnam.
 In terms of geographical location, Malaysia has become an ideal transit point for trafficking
activities, especially to Australia, America and Japan.

a) Child trafficking - trafficked from neighbouring countries for sale to childless couples
in Malaysia. Malaysian children formed the majority of victims rescued when police
smashed 37 baby-trafficking syndicates in the country between 2009 and 2012.
b) Woman trafficking - trafficked for the prostitution purpose. A significant number of
young foreign women are recruited for work in Malaysian restaurants and hotels, some
of whom migrate through the use of “Guest Relations Officer” visas, but subsequently
are coerced into Malaysia’s commercial sex trade.
c) Trafficking of domestic workers - local NGOs estimate that for every domestic servant
legally employed in Malaysia there is one working in the country illegally and many
may be trafficked.
Internal trafficking: Statelessness

Factors of statelessness
a) Citizenship is derived from one's parents; however, many children are stateless because
the government refuses to register their birth due to inadequate proof of their parents'
marriage.
b) Interfaith marriages are also not recognized by the government which sometimes results
in undocumented, de facto stateless children.
Effects of being stateless

a) Without birth certificates, government officials deny stateless persons’ access to
education, health care, and the right to own property.
b) At risk of seeking unofficial employment opportunities
c) Further causes them to be at risk of trafficking.
Laws and regulations which protect women and children from being trafficked
a) Article 6 of Federal Constitution
 Stipulates that all forms of forced labour are prohibited.
b) Section 371 of the Panel Code
 Provides much avenue for the prosecution of traffickers as well as perpetrators.
Running of prostitution is punishable.
 The intention to place someone, irrespective of their age in prostitution in another
country should also be stamped as trafficking.
 Repeat offences carry a liability of whipping of not more than 10 strokes and not less
than 6 but not more than 10 strokes.
c) The Child Act 2001 (Act 611)
 Set out harder penalty for gaining a child for purpose of prostitution or the purpose
of sexual intercourse with any other person either within or outside Malaysia.
 The penalty under the Act is RM50, 000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding
15 years or both.

Protection for trafficked victims in Malaysia

Victim protection efforts remain inadequate in Malaysia because of the following reasons:
a) Forcible detention in “shelters
 Victims identified by Malaysian authorities are adjudicated under a “protective order”
that triggers their forcible detention in “shelters”.
 Some are isolated, unable to work or earn income, and have little or no access to legal
or psychological assistance provided by the government or NGOs.
b) Treated as illegal aliens
 Furthermore, the government treats victims of trafficking as illegal aliens and turns
them over to immigration authorities for deportation after they provide evidence to
prosecutors.
 The government does not make available any alternatives to repatriation for victims
who may face harm or retribution upon return to their home country.
c) No incentives for victim cooperation
 In fact, during trial proceedings, authorities often do not make adequate efforts to
separate victims from their traffickers.
 Results in threats to the victims and their families if they cooperate with police and
prosecutors.
Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report for Malaysia and future direction

 Malaysia has slipped to Tier 2-Watch List in the 2018 Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report
by the US State Department, says Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin. The Home Minister said
previously in the 2017 TIP report Malaysia had been upgraded to Tier 2 from Tier 2 Watch
List.
 Between 2006 and 2018, Malaysia was classified as Tier 2 Watch List nine times. The
report stated that Malaysia failed to fully meet minimum standards in curbing human
trafficking.
 Countries in Tier 1: fully meet the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s (TVPA)
minimum standards.
 Countries in Tier 2: do not fully meet the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s
(TVPA) minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to meet them. The Tier
2 Watch List is similar to Tier 2, but includes failure to provide evidence of increasing
efforts or increase in the number of victims.
 Countries in Tier 3: do not fully comply with the minimum standards and are not
making significant efforts to do so.
Future efforts in the planning

a) More preventive efforts, including better cooperation with NGOs and industry players and
increasing enforcement operations.

b) Make labour law improvements, including foreign workers’ levy on employers starting
from January (this year) and to the Private Employment Agency Act, enabling penalty
raises on agencies which fail to adhere to labour laws.
c) Consider amending the Anti-Human Trafficking Act and Anti-Smuggling Act 2007, which
will focus on protecting human trafficking victims by increasing sentences for offenders.
d) Implementation of regulations allowing victims of human trafficking to roam free and
work.
e) Monitoring foreign worker management holistically to ensure the welfare and rights of the
workers.
Factors for human trafficking

Pull factors
a) Globalization
 Free markets, free trade, greater economic competition, and a decline in state
intervention in the economy.
 Trafficking in human beings has become the third important source of revenue for
criminal syndicates after narcotics and arms.
b) Higher wages
 This is one of the factors that attract people to be trafficked. Syndicates usually lure
people by promising jobs with high wages, and instead they end up as victims in an
illegal business in host countries such as in Malaysia or Thailand.
 This is also influenced by the fact that the Malaysian Ringgit or Thai Baht currency
are worth more when converted into Indonesian Rupiah or Myanmar Kyat.
c) Job opportunities
 Lack of job opportunities in the source countries, many trafficking victims look
forward to destination countries such as Singapore, Thailand and Malaysia, where
there are many jobs available.
 Unfortunately, when they arrive they are not allowed to obtain legitimate jobs.
d) Better quality of life
 Destination countries are usually more developed than the source countries.
 Destination countries provide not only job opportunities but also promise other
benefits of higher quality of life.
e) Geography and culture
 Geographical location  the Indonesians preferred Malaysia because it is easy to
access through the sea road and low-cost.
 Similarity of culture  Malaysia has been swamped with Indonesian immigrants due
to the two countries having similar cultures and religions.
Push factors
a) Poverty
 Food insecurity has been defined as the major cause of human trafficking.

 Being poor, with insufficient food, make the victims exposed to the traffickers, and
makes engagement in criminal activities such as trafficking particularly tempting.
b) Lack of education
 Traffickers often recruit hill tribe people, especially from mountainous areas of
Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, China and Vietnam, who have little formal education or
exposure to the modern world, especially on matters about legitimate job
opportunities.
 Without knowledge and qualifications for legitimate jobs, they become easy prey to
traffickers who deceive them with false promises of jobs in other countries.
c) Economic law of supply and demand for trafficking
 In Southeast Asia, transnational organized crime, such as Chinese Triads, has been
identified as being mainly responsible for the trafficking business.
 Nevertheless, there are also other smaller local syndicates involved, and the region’s
overall rapid development has led to increasing demand to supply more labour in the
destination countries.
d) Easy money
 Young girls and women, with no specific training and skills, are easily attracted to this
illegal business because it produces 25 times more money than working in the factory.
 The traffickers in turn can find it easy to lure female trafficking victims.
e) Insecure environment in the source countries
 In some countries, such as Myanmar, oppressive regimes have caused frustration
among the people in the country.
 Being trafficked is seen as the easiest way to get out of their country.
f) High price of a virgin girl
 Some families, especially in Vietnam, willingly allow their young daughters to be
trafficked to become prostitutes.
 This is because the price of a virgin prostitute is high and the money is used to support
the family.
Other than the supply and demand factors, gaps in law and policy as well as weak law
enforcement around human trafficking contribute to its prevalence. For example:
a) Lack of clarity over the definition of human trafficking is common, which leads to law
enforcement focusing on aspects that do not help curb the criminal activities;
b) Lack of training for judges and public prosecutors in understanding the complexity of
human trafficking and the vulnerability of the trafficked victim results in low number of
prosecutions;
c) Corruption amongst law enforcement and border control personnel leads to loopholes in
the system;
d) Lack of international collaboration and coordination to combat trafficking allows
trafficking, which is a transnational crime, to continue to flourish;

e) Absence of or under-resourced special task forces to combat trafficking, weak law

enforcement and prosecution of offenders, and feeble economic penalties for trafficking
offences all enable human traffickers to continue with their activities without real
consequences; and
f) Inadequate support services and protection for trafficking survivors during investigation
and prosecution provides very little incentive to survivors to cooperate in helping to
convict their traffickers.
How to prevent and control human trafficking

a) The role of embassies
 Give advice to their nationals to ensure that their employment agencies are registered
and that they are aware of their rights to engage only in occupation for which they have
mutually agreed to before leaving their home countries.
 Reason: international trafficking frequently masquerades as migrant work.
b) Quicker, proactive and stringent actions by the enforcement authorities
 Plays a key role in shutting down trafficking syndicate.
 Traffickers must be prosecuted, convicted and punished.
c) The decriminalization of victims of trafficking
 Help in creating an environment that is less hostile and more transparent to those
victimized by the people trafficking industries.
 Victims of trafficking need to be identified and encouraged to come forward to report
traffickers and cooperate with enforcement agencies as available witnesses.
d) The role of tourism industry
 To be alert of situations where children and young women are trafficked for sexual
purpose.
 Must respect the rights of women and children, bearing in mind that hospitality does
not call for sexual exploitation of women and children.
e) The role of NGOs and community empowerment
 Coordination between NGOs and support ought to be given to the NGOs that have
developed programs to assist in the repatriation and reintegration of the trafficked
people.
 Local community members should be empowered to recognize their personal
responsibility to other community members and to value action over inaction, when
they witness any suspected trafficking cases in their community.
Recommendations to the public

a) Treat all workers with respect, and provide reasonable wages, benefits, and leave to all
employees, whether formal or informal.
b) Learn your responsibilities as an employer, whether it is of a domestic worker in your
home, or a local or foreign worker in your business.

c) Under no circumstances withhold the passport of an employee or worker against their

will.
d) Never withhold wages from an employee or worker.
e) Always practice fair employment practices, including executing a signed contract and
ensuring that the substance of the contract is translated into the language of understanding
of the employee or worker.
f) Be vigilant in identifying and assisting trafficking survivors—if you suspect someone is
a trafficking survivor or being subjected to forced labour, encourage them to get help
from the police or from an NGO like WAO.

CHAPTER 5: SOCIAL ISSUES -- NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
The differences between communicable and non-communicable diseases
Communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases

Contagious disease Non Contagious disease
Spreads from one person to another Does not spread from one person to the other
Generally involves the lower socio-economic Generally involves affluent class

group
Vehicles of transmission and the vectors play Dietary habits, environment and lifestyle play
a major role in the spread of disease a role in the causation of these diseases
Treatment of the etiological agent is the Changing the dietary habits, lifestyle and the
remedy environment is the permanent remedy
Acute diseases requiring active medical care Chronic diseases need long lasting chronic
treatment
Treated conservatively Treated conservatively and surgically
INCOMMUNICABLE / NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Definition
 Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases which are not transmissible.
 Non-communicable diseases  a clear threat not only to human health, but also to development
and economic growth of the country.
 According to the Social Security Organisation of Malaysia in June 2013, there has been near to
35% increase in NCD diseases from year 2000 till 2012, with diabetes reigning in the rate of
increase.
(a) Cardiovascular diseases (CVD: heart disease and stroke)

 Definition: a group of diseases involving the heart, blood vessels, or the squeal of poor
blood supply due to a diseased vascular supply.
 Over the past decade, CVD has become the single largest cause of death worldwide,
representing nearly 30% of all deaths and about 50% of NCD deaths (WHO 2011a).

 In Malaysia, the number 1 killer in terms of diseases and health-related problems is

coronary heart disease. Heart disease is different from stroke which is the second top killer
in Malaysia. Coronary heart disease is often referred in short as CHD where it happens
when plaque is built up within the coronary arteries. Plaque is a waxy substance which will
then restrict the flow of blood to the heart muscle.
 The arteries that are blocked by the plague are those that are supposed to supply the oxygen-
rich blood to the heart muscle which is the most important substance needed for the heart
to continue beating. Once there is restriction on these arteries, the heart fails to function as
efficiently as it is supposed to in order to keep the person alive.
 In worst case scenarios, the plaque builds up and it becomes atherosclerosis where this
substance grew after many years that will eventually cause damaging effects which will
lead to death. As mentioned, it is the single largest killer among Malaysians where the main
cause is due to the food intake. A lot of Malaysian food is cooked with too much oil and
cholesterol which are directly linked with blood pressure and coronary heart diseases.
 The best way to overcome this problem is to ensure a lot of fibre intake which are richly
found in vegetables and fruits while minimizing food which are high in cholesterol like
meat and manufactured foods like burgers and fried chicken. This needs to be constantly
practiced as plaque is known to accumulate and stays in the body system for years.
 Coronary heart disease can be reduced through a proper diet programme. In worst case
scenarios, it would lead to heart attack that can happen suddenly and silently. In Malaysia,
a lot of people die in their sleep due to heart attacks as they are not aware of the problems
with their heart. In other cases, heart attacks can happen when the person is exercising
which is when the heart needs more blood to be channelled in but is restricted by the
presence of plaque.
Risk factors of CVD

Modifiable risk factors
Physical  The increasing urbanization and mechanization of the world has
inactivity reduced our levels of physical activity. The World Health
Organization believes that more than 60% of the global population is
not sufficiently active.
 Being active is beneficial for your blood pressure, blood lipid levels,
blood glucose levels, blood clotting factors, the health of your blood
vessels and inflammation, which is powerful promoter of
cardiovascular disease.
 Studies show that doing more than 150 minutes (2 hours and 30
minutes) of moderate physical activity every week or an hour of
vigorous physical activity every day will reduce your risk of coronary
heart disease by about 30%.
Smoking  Many people still do not link smoking to heart disease. For example,
only 4% of Chinese know that smoking causes heart disease. In the

USA, the majority of smokers do not believe they have a greater risk
of heart disease than non-smokers.
 Smoking promotes cardiovascular disease through a number of
mechanisms. It damages the endothelium (the lining of the blood
vessels), increases fatty deposits in the arteries, increases clotting,
raises low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, reduces high-density
lipoprotein and promotes coronary artery spasm. Nicotine, the
addictive component of tobacco, accelerates the heart rate and raises
blood pressure.
Diet  The role of diet is crucial in the development and prevention of
cardiovascular disease. Diet is one of the key things you can change
that will impact all other cardiovascular risk factors.
 A diet high in saturated fat increases the risk of heart disease and
stroke. It is estimated to cause about 31% of coronary heart disease
and 11% of stroke worldwide.
 Comparisons between a diet low in saturated fats, with plenty of fresh
fruit and vegetables, and the typical diet of someone living in the high-
income countries show that in the former there is a 73% reduction in
the risk of new major cardiac events.
Hypertension  Hypertension is the level of high or raised blood pressure for which
investigation and treatment has been shown to do more good than
harm. Generally hypertension is defined a systolic blood pressure
level of 140 and above. This is a risk factor for coronary heart disease
and the single most important risk factor for stroke. It causes about
50% of ischaemic strokes and increases the risk of haemorrhagic
stroke.
 Hypertension stresses your body’s blood vessels, causing them to clog
or weaken. Hypertension can lead to atherosclerosis and narrowing of
the blood vessels making them more likely to block from blood clots
or bits of fatty material breaking off from the lining of the blood vessel
wall. Damage to the arteries can also create weak places that rupture
easily or thin spots that balloon out the artery wall resulting in an
aneurism.
 Raised blood pressure in someone less than 50 years old is associated
with an increased cardiovascular risk. As you get older, your systolic
blood pressure becomes a more important predictor of the risk of
cardiovascular disease.
 Dietary salt is a significant factor in raising blood pressure in people
with hypertension and in some people with normal blood pressure. If
you are already overweight then a high intake of salt increases your
risk of cardiovascular disease.
Non Modifiable Risk Factors
Family history  If a first-degree male relative (e.g. father, brother) has suffered a heart
attack before the age of 55, or if a first-degree female relative has
suffered one before the age of 65, you are at greater risk of developing
heart disease.

 If both parents have suffered from heart disease before the age of 55,
your risk of developing heart disease can rise to 50% compared to the
general population.
Other risks  Age: Simply getting old is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease; risk
of stroke doubles every decade after age 55.
 Gender: Your gender is significant: as a man you are at greater risk
of heart disease than a pre-menopausal woman. But once past the
menopause, a woman’s risk is similar to a man’s. Risk of stroke is
similar for men and women.
 Ethnicity: Your ethnic origin plays a role. People with African or
Asian ancestry are at higher risks of developing cardiovascular disease
than other racial groups.
 Socioeconomic status: Being poor, no matter where in the globe,
increases your risk of heart disease and stroke. A chronically stressful
life, social isolation, anxiety and depression also increase the risk.
The silent danger of high cholesterol

 While death by heart attack has become something common in Malaysia, many Malaysians
remain ignorant to the threat of high cholesterol in our bodies that could lead to the fatal
disease. Some, even believe that only a certain group of individuals can be affected.
 A survey by the Ministry of Health in 2015 has revealed that one in two Malaysians suffer
from high cholesterol, which contributes to heart disease – making it one of the major
contributors to deaths amongst Malaysians. According to National Heart Institute (IJN),
two out of five Malaysians did not know they had high cholesterol, which makes out 38.6
per cent or an estimated 7.8 million Malaysians. High cholesterol and its associated
coronary disease are a silent killer, which do not have any warning signs or symptoms until
an adverse event happens.
The silent danger of hypertension

 Hypertension remains (high blood pressure) the most important cardiovascular risk factor
and it is the main cause for stroke.
 According to Dr Azani Mohammed Daud, who is the president of the Malaysian Society
of Hypertension, “for every person diagnosed with hypertension, there are six who are not.”
 Most patients with hypertension don’t know that they have it. Most people are unaware
that they have hypertension due to the absence of symptoms. Some people, however, have
persistent headaches and a check with their doctor usually reveals that they have high blood
pressure readings.
(b) Cancer
 Definition: the rapid growth and division of abnormal cells in a part of the body. These
cells outlive normal cells and have the ability to metastasize, or invade parts of the body
and spread to other organs.

 Cancer is the second largest cause of death worldwide. In Malaysia, cancer is the second
killer after heart disease among the Malaysians.
 Risk factors include genetic causes, behavioural causes (such as tobacco or alcohol use,
physical inactivity and dietary factors), infections, environmental and occupational
carcinogens and radiation.
 Different risk factors contribute to the development of cancers in different sites. Smokeless
tobacco is largely responsible for oral cancers, whereas bacteria play a role in the
development of stomach cancer.
 An estimated 60 percent of cancer cases in the country are detected at late stages, either
Stage III or IV, said Health Minister Dr Dzulkefly Ahmad.
 He said among the main factors for the late detection were lack of awareness on the
importance of screening and early detection among Malaysians.
 “We need to dispel myths, false information and misunderstanding among Malaysians who
are reluctant to undergo screening or those who choose to delay early treatment, but believe
in treatment which has yet to be proven effective.”
 According to him, the three most common cancers among men in Malaysia are colorectal
(16.4 percent), lung (15.8 percent), and nasopharynx (8.1 percent), while the most common
cancers among women are breast (32.1 percent), colorectal (10.7 percent) and cervix 7.7
percent).
 The number of cases is expected to increase in the near future, he said, and attributed it to
the high prevalence of non-communicable disease (NCD) risk factors and the ageing
population.
Cancer treatment
i) The prescribed course of treatment by oncologists - chemotherapy, surgery and radiation
therapy.
Some people with cancer will have only one treatment. But most people have a
combination of treatments, such as surgery with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.
Types of Methods Risks and side effects

cancer treatment
Surgery When used to treat cancer, Surgeons are highly trained
surgery is a procedure in and will do everything they
which a surgeon removes can to prevent problems
cancer from your body. during surgery. Even so,
Depending on your type of sometimes problems do
cancer and how advanced it occur. Common problems
is, surgery can be used to: are:
● Remove the entire ● Pain
tumor After surgery, most

Surgery removes cancer people will have pain in

that is contained in one the part of the body that
area. was operated on. How
● Debulk a tumor much pain you feel will
Surgery removes some, depend on the extent of
but not all, of a cancer the surgery, the part of
tumor. Debulking is used your body where you had
when removing an entire surgery, and how you feel
tumor might damage an pain.
organ or the body. ● Infection
Removing part of a tumor Infection is another
can help other treatments problem that can happen
work better. after surgery. To help
● Ease cancer symptoms prevent infection, follow
Surgery is used to remove your nurse’s instructions
tumors that are causing about caring for the area
pain or pressure. where you had surgery. If
you do develop an
infection, your doctor can
prescribe a medicine
(called an antibiotic) to
treat it.
● Other risks of surgery
include bleeding, damage
to nearby tissues, and
reactions to the
anaesthesia.
Radiation therapy Radiation therapy (also called Radiation not only kills or
radiotherapy) is a cancer slows the growth of cancer
treatment that usescells, it can also affect nearby
high doses of radiation to killhealthy cells. Damage to
cancer cells and shrink tumors.healthy cells can cause side
At low doses, radiation is usedeffects.
in x-rays to see inside your
body, as with x-rays of your Many people who get radiation
teeth or broken bones. therapy have fatigue. Fatigue
is feeling exhausted and worn
At high doses, radiation out. It can happen all at once or
therapy kills cancer cells or come on slowly. People feel
slows their growth by fatigue in different ways

damaging their DNA. Cancer and you may feel more or less
cells whose DNA is damaged fatigue than someone else who
beyond repair stop dividing or is getting the same amount of
die. When the damaged cells radiation therapy to the same
die, they are broken down and part of the body.
removed by the body.
Radiation therapy does not kill

cancer cells right away. It takes
days or weeks of treatment
before DNA is damaged
enough for cancer cells to die.
Then, cancer cells keep dying
for weeks or months after
radiation therapy ends.
Chemotherapy Chemotherapy (also called Chemotherapy not only kills
chemo) is a type of cancer fast-growing cancer cells, but
treatment that uses drugs to kill also kills or slows the growth
cancer cells. Chemotherapy of healthy cells that grow and
works by stopping or slowing divide quickly. Examples are
the growth of cancer cells, cells that line your mouth
which grow and divide and intestines and those that
quickly. Chemotherapy is used cause your hair to grow.
to: Damage to healthy cells may
● Treat cancer cause side effects, such as
Chemotherapy can be used mouth sores, nausea, and hair
to cure cancer, lessen the loss. Side effects often get
chance it will return, or better or go away after you
stop or slow its growth. have finished chemotherapy.
● Ease cancer symptoms The most common side effect
Chemotherapy can be used is fatigue, which is feeling
to shrink tumors that are exhausted and worn out.
causing pain and other
problems.
Hormone therapy Hormone therapy usually There is alarming evidence of
involves taking medications side effects of hormone
that prevent cancer cells from therapy in women. Many
getting the hormones they need women find that the side
to grow. effects are often worse at the
start of treatment.

When used with other ● Digestive system

treatments, hormone therapy problems
can: Patients might experience
 Lower the risk that cancer constipation or diarrhoea.
will come back after the This is usually mild and
main treatment. This is can be controlled with diet
called adjuvant therapy. or drugs.
 Destroy cancer cells that ● Mood swings and
have returned or spread to depression
other parts of your body. Some patients suffer from
 Make a tumor smaller mood swings and even
before surgery or radiation depression while having
therapy. This is called neo- treatment such as Zoladex
adjuvant therapy. (goserelin).
● Muscle and bone
changes
Some hormone therapies
can cause thinning of your
bones. Bone thinning can
lead to osteoporosis and
bone fractures if it
continues for a few years.
ii) Complementary and alternative treatment

 Complementary and alternative are terms used to describe many kinds of products,
practices, and systems that are not part of mainstream medicine  refer to methods to
help relieve symptoms and improve quality of life during cancer treatment.
Complementary treatment  used along with your medical treatment.
Alternative treatment  used instead of proven medical treatments.
 These treatments are normally not mentioned by doctors or the cancer team, but others
may talk about things like traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture, hypnosis, or
machines that are supposed to find or cure cancer. Some people may recommend “body
cleansing” with enemas or detoxification diets with special foods and preparation
methods.
 Some of these methods must be done by a person with formal education and training,
such as art or music therapy, and may be offered along with regular cancer treatment.
Others are given by people with informal or traditional training. They can involve
everything from colon therapy to entirely different systems that don’t use any of the
medical treatments your doctor uses. Still other types of treatment may be

recommended by the person who is selling a product in a store or TV infomercial, such

as herbal products or juice from exotic fruits or vegetables.
 People with cancer might think about using alternative or complementary methods for
a number of reasons:
 They’d like to relieve the side effects of mainstream cancer treatment without
having to take more medicine
 They are seeking a less unpleasant treatment approach that might have fewer
side effects
 They want to take an active role in improving their own health and wellness
 They prefer alternative theories of health and disease, as well as alternative
treatments
 Complementary and alternative methods are often appealing because they use your own
body, your own mind, or things found in nature. Some even promise wellness using a
way that sounds simple, wholesome, and without side effects of conventional cancer
treatment in hospitals.
 The decision to use alternative or complementary methods is an important one, and it
is the decision to be made by the cancer patients themselves.
(c) Diabetes
 Definition: a metabolic disorder in which the body is unable to appropriately regulate the
level of sugar, specifically glucose, in the blood, either by poor sensitivity to the protein
insulin, or due to inadequate production of insulin by the pancreas.
 Two types of diabetes could be found in Malaysia:
i. Type 1 diabetes  insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM, for short).
ii. Type 2 diabetes  non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM, for short).
Type 2 diabetes accounts for 90-95% of all diabetes cases.
 Effects of diabetes:
i. A major risk factor for other causes of death, like cardiovascular disease, kidney
disease.
ii. Diabetes has a high attributable burden of disability, ie diabetes can cause blindness.
Diabetes in Malaysia
Problems
 The number of diabetic patients between the age of 18 and 35 has increased by 300% from
15 years ago, said Health Minister Datuk Seri Dr Dzulkefly Ahmad.
 “Cases of children and teenagers with diabetes are increasing at a faster rate and what is
more worrying is that the number of patients between the age of 18 and 35 has increased
by 300% in the last 15 years,” he said.
 The minister also said diabetes has become one of the prevalent diseases in the country,
affecting about 11% of Malaysians.

 “At present, about 3.6 million Malaysians are suffering from the disease, which is the
highest rate of incidence in Asia and one of the highest in the world.
 “Given the seriousness of the situation, the Ministry of Health (MoH) has established the
National Strategic Plan for NCDs (NSP-NCD) 2016-2025 to provide a framework for
strengthening the prevention and control in the country,” he said.
 The government intends to reduce NCDs in the country by reinforcing the NSP-NCD 2016-
2025.
 The strategic plan is a continuation of the previous NSP-NCD 2010-2014, which focused
on cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and cancer, with an aim to reduce the burden of NCD
treatment costs in Malaysia.
 Dr Dzulkefly said the number of diabetic patients is estimated to increase to seven million
or 31.3% of the national population by 2025.
 “It is estimated that by the year 2025, our diabetes prevalence will be about 31.3% for
adults aged 18 and above, or an estimated population of seven million adults with diabetes,
both diagnosed and undiagnosed,” he said.
 Diabetes in Malaysia is expected to continue to climb at an increased rate due to our
unhealthy lifestyle. The unhealthy lifestyle of Malaysians is linked to high diabetes
prevalence in the following way:
High consumption  Our per capita consumption of meat is 48 kilograms compared

of meat to 35 kilograms in Japan and Korea and only 24 kilograms in
Thailand.
 According to researchers from Harvard School of Public
Health (HSPH) a daily serving of red meat no larger than a
deck of cards increased the risk of adult-onset diabetes by 19
per cent. Processed red meat proved much worse: a daily
serving half that size — one hot dog or two slices of bacon, for
example—was associated with a 51 per cent increase in risk.
High consumption  We consume 26 teaspoons of sugar daily, making us the eighth
of sugar highest sugar users in the world. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) in its campaign against obesity had
recommended a sugar consumption limit of 5 teaspoonful
daily.
 Results of a large epidemiological study suggest that sugar may
also have a direct link to diabetes. Researchers examined data
on sugar availability and diabetes rates from 175 countries over
the past decade. They found that increased sugar in a
population’s food supply was linked to higher diabetes rates,
independent of obesity rates.

Insufficient sleep  Malaysians are not getting enough sleep for good health.
According to a regional survey Malaysians get only 6.4 hours
of sleep on average. This leads to a sleep gap of 1.6 hours short
of the recommended 8 hours of sleep. Mobile devices and
spending time online is one of the leading causes of this sleep
deprivation.
 According to Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Centre in
Hennepin County the body’s reaction to sleep loss can
resemble insulin resistance which is a precursor to diabetes.
 We are also addicted to Internet which is a new threat to
healthy living. According to a survey, 81per cent of the
respondents surveyed say that online activities are preventing
them from getting enough sleep and physical activities.
Physical Inactivity  There has been alarming evidence of physical inactivity among
Malaysian adults and it is one of the leading factors of diabetes.
Moreover, it was reported that 54% of Malaysian adults with
diabetes were physically inactive.
 A study published in 2017 showed that the average step counts
of 3,787 Malaysian users was 3,963 steps/day, a PA level that
is quite low compared to the global average. This showed that
a huge percentage of Malaysian did not adopt a physically
active lifestyle
 There is evidence that physical activity is an important part of
the daily maintenance of glucose levels. Even in the short term,
reducing daily activity and ceasing regular exercise causes
acute changes in the body associated with diabetes that can
occur before weight gain and the development of obesity.
Challenges
 Every year on this date the Ministry of Health launches a campaign to create awareness on
the effect of diabetes. In spite of this, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Malaysia,
especially that of Type 2, has increased to epidemic proportions and continue to grow.
 The alarming increase in Malaysia’s prevalence of diabetes needs strong measures by the
Government to stem this epidemic.
Recommendation by the Consumers Association of Penang urges the Ministry of Health

to:
 Educate Malaysians on the dangers of obesity and diabetes
 Unhealthy foods that is high in fats, sugar, salt and additives should be discouraged by
the introduction of taxes on such foods

 Provide adequate recreational amenities in all residential areas.

 Stop issuing 24 hours licences to eating outlets
 Stop night shifts in factories
 Ban vending machines in schools, hospitals and other public places
 Mandate clear labelling like traffic light system on sugar and fat content of all foods,
including fast foods
 Run education campaigns for parents and children on the dangers of obesity and
diabetes
 Stop entertainment outlets from operating after midnight
(d) Mental health disorder

 Definition: a set of medical conditions that affect a person’s thinking, feeling, mood, ability
to relate to others and daily functioning. The patients normally suffer from depression,
Alzheimer, schizophrenia and alcohol or drug abuse disorders. Sometimes, it refers to as
mental disorders, mental health conditions or neuropsychiatric disorders, these conditions
affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide.
 Four out of every 10 Malaysians will fall victim to some form of mental health issue in the
course of their lives and psychologists believe that the numbers will continue to rise.
International Medical University, consultant psychiatrist and addiction medicine specialist,
Dr Philip George said that numbers are often downplayed due to the stigma that surrounds
the condition. He added that the seriousness and the prevalence of issues like depression,
bipolar disorder and other mental health issues should be accepted and acknowledged first
in order to be treated.
 Mental health issue is not something that only attacks the poor, weak and lonely. It happens
to anyone and the World Bank had predicted that 340mil people will suffer from depression
by 2020. It is believed that at least 40% of Malaysians suffer from mental health issues.
 Unlike Caucasians, Asians do not have the words for emotions and that is a huge barrier
and many people who walk among us are at least facing mild depression. They consider
having an emotional problem to be a weakness, so instead they attribute it to a physical
problem and highlight things like their inability to sleep, back pain, headache and constant
fatigue.
 The National Institute of Health had found that depression to be a most disabling disease
as it is not tangible and people find it hard to empathise. It is not something one can snap
out of, just like how people cannot snap out of diabetes or a stroke. However, with enough
help and support, almost 90% of the patients can be restored to normal. Yes, they may have
a relapse as their emotions are more sensitive, but they can be cured with the right help.
 By 2030, depression is expected to be the most disabling disease as it will have the highest
number of days lost due to a disability. A study done in the United States found that 30 to
40% of absenteeism at work is due to unexplained somatic complaints like body ache, lack

of sleep, and lethargy. No studies have been done in Malaysia but a primary care study in
Thailand about five years ago showed up to 30% were psychosomatic complaints.
 While suicide is criminalised in Malaysia, depression is stigmatised, preventing many
sufferers from seeking professional help. Unlike a broken leg or a bleeding wound, it is
difficult to identify depression because people are unable to “see” it and help those
afflicted. For an individual battling chronic depression, simple tasks such as eating, driving
or even dressing up can seem impossible.
Challenges encountered by people with serious mental illness

a) Struggle with the symptoms and disabilities that result from the disease.
b) On the other, they are challenged by the stereotypes and prejudice that result from
misconceptions about mental illness.
c) Robbed of the opportunities that define a quality life: good jobs, safe housing, satisfactory
health care, and affiliation with a diverse group of people.
Public perception on mental illness

a) Fear and exclusion: persons with severe mental illness should be feared and, therefore,
be kept out of most communities;
b) Authoritarianism: persons with severe mental illness are irresponsible, so life decisions
should be made by others;
c) Benevolence: persons with severe mental illness are childlike and need to be cared for.
Factors that contribute to the late treatment of mental health disorder

a) Lack of public awareness
 Records with the National Mental Health Registry (NMHR) have shown that public
awareness about mental health issues is far from satisfactory.
 One average it takes up to 28 months for an individual with mental health problems to
seek treatment  possibly already too late  the individual's thinking or decision
making capacities might have been impaired beyond the scope of treatment.
b) Public prejudice towards mental health disorder
 Forces many persons to shy away from undergoing proper treatment or getting their
illness diagnosed.
 Many people are still unable to understand the difference between an all-encompassing
mental health term and a more specific mental problem term.
c) Fear of being labelled
 Persons with mental health issues also hesitate to seek psychiatric help out of a fear
that they might be labelled as a "mental patient."
 This deep rooted misconception has led to a rise in social prejudice against people
suffering from mental ailments.

 Many who are in fact depressed are unwilling and embarrassed to come forward for
treatment.
d) Misconceptions that stigmatize psychiatric medication
 Persons with mental health issues are unwilling to take psychiatric medication because
they are anxious that the medication might dramatically change their personality and
dull their senses.
 Many who are in fact depressed believe that taking medication means you are lazy and
haven’t tried to help yourself by exercising, eating healthily or trying meditation.
 A common myth is that medication is a 'quick fix' for mental health issues. In reality,
finding the right medication is not always an easy process and it can take time before
the effects are felt. In many cases, your GP may advise talking therapies or counselling
alongside medication too.
The role of the families

Apart from society, a person's immediate family also plays an important role in helping them
maintain good mental health by getting their mental problems treated.
a) Monitor behavioural changes in family members
 The most common sign of a mental health problem  a sudden change in the
behaviour of a person -- a jovial person might turn into an introvert, become short-
tempered, start keeping or speaking to oneself, have a disrupted sleep pattern, lose their
appetite, and is unable to carry out daily activities or starts displaying suicidal
tendencies.
 In need of a proper diagnosis by an expert and the right therapy are a must.
b) Monitoring the treatment process of patient
 Families are the ones who will ensure that the person undergoing treatment completes
their course of the prescribed medication.
 It is also common that halfway through the treatment families start taking for granted
that the patient has recovered without realising that the patient can relapse under
duress.
c) Providing emotional support to family members
 Learn about the illness and its signs and symptoms. Also, learn more about how
treatments work so that you know what side effects and improvements you may see.
 Families play an important role in helping someone who’s not feeling well feel less
alone and ashamed. Remind them that they are not to blame for their illness.
 Don’t assume you know what the person needs. Ask how you can help. Listen carefully
to the response.
d) Supporting a healthy lifestyle of patient
 Encourage them to exercise regularly, even just getting the body moving by taking a
brisk walk or doing active housework is a positive step.

 Accompany them to exercise as even short bouts of activity can provide an immediate
elevation of mood.
 Monitor their diet and help them to get rid of unhealthy lifestyles such as smoking and
alcoholic consumption.
Preventing and Controlling NCDs

 Malaysia established National Strategic Plan for Non-Communicable Diseases (NSP-NCD
2011-2015) in 2010  the framework for strengthening NCDs prevention and control program
in Malaysia.
 Aim  to achieve population-wide NCD risk factor screening to detect risk factors at their
earliest stage, and uses obesity as the main entry point for NCD risk factor intervention.
a) Planning and implementation
 NCDP-1M is a nation-wide programme.
 Each state has to determine the extent of their participation and submit formal
funding applications to support their selected projects.
 To increase accountability, District Officers of Health were made responsible for all
projects within the respective state.
b) Community participation and engagement
 The participation of the community has been crucial to the success of NCDP-1M.
 In need of the support of the community for communicable disease prevention
efforts.
 The willingness of the rural community, in particular, to work with clinic health staff.
c) Monitoring and evaluation of NCDP-1M
 Collecting data from each district through online templates.
 Online process  enables up-to-date monitoring of the various projects.
 Example: community-based weight loss programmes provide data on key
performance indicators like percentage of clients with weight loss after 6-month
follow-up.
d) Action with NGOs, professional bodies & other stakeholders
 Develop and implement an advocacy campaign that is consistent with and supportive
of the national action advocacy campaigns plan for NCD prevention and control
 Intensify physical activity programmes in the community.
 Continue to collaborate with the food industries to increase choice food for the
production and promotion of low fat, low sugar foods.
Impacts of NCDs:
a) Affecting the patient’s quality of life
 Discomfort / pain, like in the case of cancer patients
 Immobility, as in the case of some stroke patients

 Confinement, if the person is bedridden

 Disability, if certain parts of the body is affected by NCDs. For example, a diabetic patient
may have one of his leg amputated or become blind at the advanced stage of the illness
 Abstinence from favourite food, like fried chicken, soda drinks etc
b) Shorter life-span for those inflicted with NCDs
 Suffer from a shorter life-span if they were afflicted at a younger age.
 They do not get to live life to its ripe old age.
c) Socio-development of the country
 When NCDs become more prevalent in a country, the diseases will rob the nation of its
socio-development.
 In the terminal stage of their illness, the NCDs patient will not be able to contribute as
much as desired to the social welfare of the country.
d) Economic impact
 Positive impact
The increase in NCDs among Malaysians has boost up:
1. The health care industry, with the need for more hospitals and the healthcare
practitioners. Alternative health centres – Ayurvedic health centres or Traditional
Chinese Medical Centre – have also experienced an increase in their economic gain.
2. The pharmaceutical industry, with the need for the consumption of medicine and the
creation of new drugs to combat the illness
3. The multi-level marketing industry that focuses on health supplements
4. The organic farming industry – farming and selling organic vegetables / fruits
5. The insurance industry, as more and more people seek to be insured against the
critical illnesses due to high cost of treatment for NCDs.
 Negative impact
The increase in NCDs among Malaysians have affected the economic standing of the
patient and the family. NCDs treatment can be very costly. In Malaysia, it is not rare to
see the patient or the family appealing for donations through the mass media when the
cost of the treatment surpasses their financial ability.
e) Increased awareness of a healthy lifestyle
 Increase in NCDs  more people, especially those living in the urban areas, begin to give
heed to the practice a healthier lifestyle.
 Health-related seminars are often conducted by health practitioners to equip the public
with the necessary knowledge about preventive measures and treatment options for
NCDs.
 Health related information is also disseminated through the mass media.

CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL ISSUES -- INFECTIOUS / COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 Definition: the word pandemic is derived from the Greek word, which is pan (all) and demos
(people). A global pandemic is an epidemic of some infectious disease that can and is spreading
at a rapid rate throughout the world, including Malaysia. Viruses, germs, parasites, and other
virulent disease agents can and do move much more easily than at any time in recorded history.
 In the past 100 years ago, influenza, typhoid, and cholera were major killers. In recent years,
other infectious diseases have made front page news: HIV, Ebola virus, SARS, and most
recently, Covid-19.
 In Malaysia there are six main infectious diseases that refer to dengue fever, tuberculosis, food
poisoning, hand foot and mouth disease (HFMD), HIV/AIDS and Covid-19.
(a) Dengue fever

 Definition: dengue is one of the vector borne diseases and among this kind of diseases;
dengue is the highest percentage for it. Dengue fever is passed by infected female
AedesAegypti mosquitoes. It gets under the skin and into the blood. Dengue is caused by
flavi viruses.
 The cumulative number of reported dengue cases nationwide from 29 December 2019 to
15 May 2020 was 40,397, including 68 deaths. In 2019, 176 people died of dengue in
Malaysia, out of a total of 127,407 cases while in 2018, there were 80,615 and 147 deaths.
Factors on the alarming increase of dengue cases recently

a) The El Nino phenomenon/global warming
 The El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has a history of worsening infectious
diseases including influenza epidemics, plague and Hantavirus, in addition to mosquito
borne infectious diseases.
 According to the Ministry of Health, El Nino is expected to cause dengue cases to
increase by 50 per cent.
b) Dengue virus may have changed in some ways
 In addition to the increased number of cases, doctors are seeing different/types of
symptoms, which raises the alarming possibility that the virus is becoming even more
deadly and difficult to control.
 Dr. Jeyaindran Sinnadurai, the former deputy director general of health at the Ministry
of Health, Malaysia, said that we are seeing people present with liver failure and
meningitis; things that have not been seen before with dengue.
c) There is no treatment for dengue
 Aside from saline drip to boost patients’ platelet count, there is no treatment for
dengue.

 To make things worse, there are four types of dengue virus; meaning, people can get
the disease more than once and this explains why symptoms are becoming more severe
and deaths are rising with repeated infections.
d) Increased air travel
 The ease and increased air travel brings the virus to areas that were previously dengue-
free when a mosquito bites and infected traveller and then spreads it to others.
 Aedesaegypti have the potential to spread dengue in the tropics and subtropics
countries including in the Southern and South-eastern United States.
e) Rapid population growth
 Population growth in developing nations is pushing more people into substandard
housing in mosquito-infested areas.
 Inadequate basic urban infrastructure eg. unreliable water supply leading householders
to store water in containers close to homes and increase in volume of solid waste, such
as discarded plastic containers and other abandoned items provide larval habitats in
urban areas.
Ways to control this disease

a) Penalty
 Heavy penalty imposed for creating breeding grounds for Aedes mosquitoes, RM500
compound fine for the first offence.
 Facing a fine of up to RM10, 000 in court for a repeated offence.
b) Chemical Control of Dengue Mosquitoes
 Chemical control can be effective in controlling mosquito populations.
 For instance, insecticides can be used to kill mosquito larvae or adult mosquitoes.
c) Biological Control of Dengue Mosquitoes
 Biological approaches are also being considered as alternatives to control mosquito
populations.
 For example, predatory crustaceans called copepods and many varieties of fish,
including fish and goldfish, eat mosquito larvae.
d) Personal Actions
 Reduce the risk of mosquitoes entering their homes.
 Using window and door screens.
 Keeping their doors and windows closed and using air conditioning to keep their
homes cool.
 Aedesaegypti typically bite people during the day, so wearing long pants and long-
sleeved shirts can reduce mosquito bites when spending time outdoors.

(b) Tuberculosis (TB)

 The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified Malaysia as an intermediate TB-
burden country.
 It is one of six main infectious diseases in Malaysia.
 Between 20,000 and 25,000 new tuberculosis (TB) cases are recorded in Malaysia each
year.
 Head of TB/Leprosy Sector at the Health Ministry’s Disease Control Division Dr
Mohamed Naim Abdul Kadir stated that TB claims about 1,500 to 2,000 lives annually in
Malaysia, with an average of six deaths occurring every day.
 The death rate due to TB in 2018 is 6.6 per 100,000 people, an increase from 6.5 per
100,000 people in 2017. Sabah recorded the highest number of deaths in 2018 with 376
cases, followed by Selangor (375).
 The symptoms of TB are:
 Prolonged cough (more than two weeks)
 Loss of weight and loss of appetite
 Night sweats
 Coughing out blood (though not a common symptom)
The factors of increasing TB cases

a) The influx of illegal migrant workers.
 The statistics over the past few years show that only about 10 to 15 % of the total TB
infection in Malaysia is due to immigrants.
 Besides, the increase in the number of AIDS patients also contributed to this case. It is
because when the body's immune system is low, TB could creep in easily.
b) Easy spread of disease through air
 TB is an airborne disease and it spreads via the air infected by the bacilli, just like a
common flu virus.
 For this reason, TB has to be diagnosed early and treated effectively.
 If the patient is not treated with TB drugs, the worse the lung damage and the
continuous coughing may spread the germs to others in his or her house or workplace.
c) Poor knowledge among the public regarding this infection.
 Do not take prolonged cough seriously as they do not know that it could be a symptom
of TB.
 Therefore, late treatment. Meanwhile, before getting treated, they have already spread
the illness to others.
d) Increasing environmental risk factors.
 For centuries, TB has been linked with environmental risk factors such as indoor air
pollution, tobacco smoke, malnutrition, overcrowded living conditions, as well as
excessive alcohol use.

 Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, chemical irritants, air pollutants, and cold
weather are also risk factors for the disease.
 Substance abuse like alcohol use disorder may eventually harm your immune system
to the point that symptoms of the infection surface.
Several ways had been taken by Malaysian government in dealing with TB

a) Health screening for migrant labourers before entering Malaysia.
 Making it compulsory for them to declare their status of health before they are allowed
work in Malaysia.
 For the illegal immigrants - the government deport them back to their own countries.
b) Giving beneficial information to the public
 The distribution of pamphlets and posters with health related information about TB--
normally undertaken by the hospital.
 Visitors at the hospital - patients and their family members or friends – become the
recipients of this awareness.
c) The government also encourages NGOs to conduct activities and programs to educate the
public on TB disease.
 Those who employ migrant workers have to be educated regarding the symptom
always on the alert about the health condition of their workers as their workers may
have contact with the illegal ones infected by the disease.
 Periodical health screening is necessary for migrant workers to treat any early onset of
TB infection among them to halt the spread of the disease.
d) Management of outbreaks.
 Adequate surveillance systems should be in place to ensure early identification of
outbreaks.
 Additional interventions such as infection control measures may then be taken to
prevent further transmission.
 Identifying factors that may contribute to transmission from potentially infectious
cases and instituting adequate control measures are of primary importance.
(c) Food Poisoning

What causes foodborne diseases (FBD)?
 The ingestion of contaminated foods and food products include a broad group of illnesses
caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites and chemical agents and toxins, which contaminate
food at different points along the farm to table continuum.
 Foods that are commonly contaminated include poultry, eggs, seafood and dairy products.
Involve many victims at once although this does not mean an individual or two do not get
food poisoning. The food in question is prepared by someone else or somewhere else,
always outside their homes.

Factors of food poisoning

a) Food operators
 The biggest culprits are food operators who pay no heed to the cleanliness of the food
prepared at their premises and whose main focus is to generate higher profits for
themselves. Food handlers and mass caterers who do not follow food hygiene practices
allow food to be contaminated and when consumed by their customers results in food
poisoning.
 Example:
 The food operator uses tap water from a nearby public toilet for making flavoured
drinks which he serves to his customers.
 The foot outlet is located beside a drain and rats are scurrying around the foul-
smelling drain.
 The foods are also prepared commercially and in large quantities, causing
negligence in food handling.
b) Convenience
 The mistake most Malaysians make is their tendency to take the easy way out when it
comes to food matters. Cleanliness is the last thing on their mind when they stop at a
food outlet to satisfy their hunger pangs or when they are given free food to eat.
 The ones who take the “easy way out” are usually working people who are so busy
with their work that they stop to eat at any place deemed convenient to them.
Proactive measures to control food poisoning

a) Customers or the public
 Exercise more care when choosing a food outlet. Observe its level of cleanliness and
check if it has a business license. Observe the handling of the food and drinks by the
operator. Former Health Minister Datuk Seri Dr Dzulkefly Ahmad advised the public
to “practise safety by choosing to buy food from premises that are clean, and practise
the concept of ‘see, smell and taste’ to avoid eating food that has gone bad.”
 Report to the Health Ministry or Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL) if they come across
premises that fail to meet the required specifications or don’t possess a valid business
license - can channel one's complaint to the authorities by visiting their website to post
your complaint there. The Health Ministry’s website is http://moh.spab.gov.my, while
DBKL is http://ispaaadbkl.dbkl.gov.my.
 The best possible way to avoid food poisoning is eating home-cooked food. Prepare
your meals at home and take some packed food with you when you go to the office or
go out somewhere and prepared in a clean environment, always safe to eat.
b) Operators of food premises
 Check with their moral conscience: are they out to serve the needs of their customers
or they merely want to reap quick profits at the expense of their customers’ health?

 If they don’t possess a valid business license, then they should get one as soon as
possible to make themselves more accountable to the public and the authorities.
 Carry out routine checks to ensure that their premises are clean and the food is prepared
and cooked in a hygienic manner. It is also compulsory for both the operator and his
workers to practise a high standard of personal hygiene.
c) Enforcement agencies
 Carry out more frequent and structured checks on food premises, especially those
located at bazaars and marketplaces.
 The authorities could also team up with the Health Ministry and the relevant non-
governmental organisations to conduct courses on hygiene management for food
operators.
 The Health Ministry should strictly enforce the Food Act 1983 and Food Regulations
1985, as well as the Food Safety Regulations 2009.
Milk contamination
Cases that have taken place:
 In 2012, a total of 212 students in Kuching Sarawak suffered from food poisoning after
drinking milk supplied under the free milk scheme in the school.
 Milk has been recalled due to contamination.
Nasi Lemak poisoning

 School pupils suffered food poisoning after having 'nasi lemak' under the Supplementary
Food Programme (SFP) at their school canteen.
 Suffered from bouts of diarrhoea and vomiting.
 Director-General of Health, Datuk Dr Noor Hisham Abdullah said 95.7% of food poisoning
cases were due to food prepared in the school canteen or hostel kitchen. The main causes
are contaminated raw materials, cross contamination while handling food and prepared
food taken after more than four hours.
(d) AIDS / HIV

Statistics
 HIV in Malaysia was first recorded in 1986.
 In 2013, heterosexual HIV transmission accounted for half of the 3,393 new infections in
Malaysia, far ahead of other modes of transmission such as homo/bisexual contacts and
unsafe drug injections, both at 22 per cent respectively.

The public perception towards AIDS/HIV

a) The stigma and discrimination associated with HIV/AIDS
 Some cannot look past what causes HIV/AIDS to be transmitted: unprotected sex and
“dirty needles” - gives rise to the ugly spectre of stigma and discrimination that further
marginalises those in the high-risk groups including drug users and sex workers.
 Shelters/foundations who are currently running programmes for people living with
HIV encounter challenges in raising sufficient funds to keep the programmes - the
public tends to be judgmental, thinking that those infected with HIV/AIDS do not
deserve their help.
b) Better understanding among the younger generation of healthcare professionals
 Nowadays, the younger generation has a better understanding of HIV/AIDS - led to a
crop of healthcare professionals who have no aversion to treating patients.
 There is still the issue of some providers being reluctant to treat people living with
HIV/AIDS, but this number has lessened.
The basic treatment for HIV/AIDS

 Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the use of HIV medicines to treat HIV infection. People
on ART take a combination of HIV medicines (called an HIV regimen) every day.
 ART is recommended for everyone who has HIV. People with HIV should start ART as
soon as possible.
 ART can’t cure HIV, but HIV medicines help people with HIV live longer, healthier lives.
ART also reduces the risk of HIV transmission.
What are the risks of taking HIV medicines?

 According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (2018), potential risks
of ART include side effects from HIV medicines and drug interactions between HIV
medicines or between HIV medicines and other medicines a person is taking.
 Poor adherence - not taking HIV medicines every day and exactly as prescribed will
increase the risk of drug resistance and treatment failure.
Side effects
 Side effects from HIV medicines can vary depending on the medicine and the person
taking the medicine.
 People taking the same HIV medicine can have very different side effects. Some side
effects, like headaches or occasional dizziness, may not be serious.
 Other side effects, such as swelling of the throat and tongue or liver damage, can be life-
threatening.

Drug interactions
 HIV medicines can interact with other HIV medicines in an HIV regimen. They can also
interact with other medicines, vitamins, nutritional supplements, and herbal products.
 A drug interaction can reduce or increase a medicine's effect on the body. Drug
interactions can also cause unwanted side effects.
Drug resistance
 When HIV multiplies in the body, the virus sometimes mutates (changes form) and makes
variations of itself.
 Variations of HIV that develop while a person is taking HIV medicines can lead to drug-
resistant strains of HIV.
 HIV medicines that previously controlled a person’s HIV are not effective against the
new, drug-resistant HIV. In other words, the person’s HIV continues to multiply.
 Poor adherence to an HIV regimen increases the risk of drug resistance and treatment
failure.
Alternative therapies for HIV

 Many people living with HIV choose to explore non-conventional therapies to ease the
symptoms of HIV and side effects of the medications. Some alternative treatments can
complement a person's standard medical care, but others are not safe.
 While alternative treatments do not cure HIV, they may relieve symptoms and can
improve a person's quality of life. However, not all alternative medicines are safe. Some
alternative treatments may have side effects or interact with medications. HIV patients
should always talk to a doctor or healthcare provider before trying alternative medicine.
 Alternative treatments are not disease-specific. This means that an alternative therapy
treats the whole person, not just the illness. For example, meditation may help a person
with HIV relax and reduce stress. This can have a positive impact on the person's overall
health, but it does not specifically target HIV.
 Alternative treatments include:
a) Relaxation techniques
Meditation is a relaxation technique that can help to reduce a person's anxiety. Many
people living with HIV have higher anxiety and stress levels compared with the
general population. Meditation can help alleviate some of the anxiety associated with
HIV.
b) Physical therapies
 Physical therapies can help a person to relax, de-stress, and improve movement.
 According to one source, people living with HIV have higher rates of mental
health issues, such as anxiety and depression, than the general population. This
can significantly affect a person's quality of life. Physical therapies can help boost
people's mental and physical health.
 Physical therapies include:

 Sports or medical massage - may promote relaxation, which can help

alleviate anxiety and stress often associated with HIV
 Yoga - might help to reduce depression and improve CD4 counts in people
with HIV who were also receiving antiretroviral therapy
 Acupuncture - involves inserting very thin needles into specific points on
the body. Practitioners believe that these needles release pressure points,
which may help a person's body produce chemicals to reduce pain.
c) Herbal medication and supplements
 Herbal medications and supplements are available to buy over the counter.
However, people living with HIV should exercise caution before purchasing
herbal supplements and medications as they can be dangerous. This may be
because of a person's pre-existing health complications or because they interact
with HIV medications.
 A study by Muhammad Musharraf Hussain (2018) reveals that the consumption
of honey with black seed oil shows promising health results for HIV patients.
Recent scientific research shows that this combination of honey and black seed oil
can effectively cure AIDS within six months without causing any harmful side
effects.
 Overall, black seed appears to be a very safe herb with no side effects or known
toxicity if taken at the right dosage.
 Since it is an herbal therapy, the effects may not be seen until after one month or
so, but it will have no adverse effects if one continues the therapy.
 It is inexpensive and free from side effects, and there is no harm in using it; and
the patient has nothing to lose.
(e) Covid-19
 Definition: coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease that can cause
respiratory illness (like the flu) with symptoms such as a cough, fever, and in more severe
cases, difficulty breathing and even death.
 It was first identified amid an outbreak of respiratory illness cases in Wuhan City, Hubei
Province, China.
 It was initially reported to the World Health Organisation (WHO) on December 31, 2019.
On January 30, 2020, the WHO declared the COVID-19 outbreak a global health
emergency and on March 11, 2020, the WHO declared COVID-19 a global pandemic.
Statistics
 As of 23 May 2020, more than 5.3 million cases of Covid-19 have been reported in more
than 188 countries and territories, resulting in more than 340,000 deaths. More than 2.1
million people have recovered from the virus.

 The Covid-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached Malaysia in January 2020, when
it was detected on travellers from China arriving via Singapore.
 From 25 January until 23 May 2020, a total of 7,185 cases were reported in Malaysia, with
115 deaths and 5,912 patients recovered.
The symptoms of Covid-19

Mild symptoms Less common symptoms Serious symptoms
 fever  aches and pains  difficulty breathing or

 dry cough  sore throat shortness of breath
 tiredness  diarrhoea  chest pain or pressure
 headache  loss of speech or
 loss of taste or smell movement
 a rash on skin, or
discolouration of
fingers or toes
On average it takes 5–6 days from when someone is infected with the virus for symptoms
to show, however it can take up to 14 days after exposure.
Movement Control Order

 Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin, Prime Minister of Malaysia held a live nationwide telecast on
16 March 2020 to announce the decision of the federal government in implementing the
Movement Control Order (MCO) after Malaysia saw a significant jump in active cases.
 The government imposed six restrictions:
1. The public is prohibited to mass gather or attend massive events including religious,
sports, social and cultural activities.
2. Malaysians returning from abroad are required to undergo a health check and self-
quarantine for 14 days.
3. Tourists and foreign visitors are restricted from entering the country.
4. Closure of all kindergartens, government and private schools, including daily schools,
boarding schools, international schools, tahfiz centres and other primary, secondary
and pre-university institutions.
5. Closure of all public and private higher education institutions (IPTs) and skill training
institutes.
6. Closure of all government and private premises except for essential services (water,
electricity, energy, telecommunications, postal, transportation, irrigation, oil, gas, fuel,
lubricants, broadcasting, finance, banking, health, pharmacy, fire, prison, port, airport,
safety, defence, cleaning, retail and food supply).

Ways prevent the spread of Covid-19

a) Wash your hands frequently and carefully
 Use warm water and soap and rub your hands for at least 20 seconds. Work the lather to
your wrists, between your fingers, and under your fingernails.
 You can also use alcohol-based hand sanitizer (at least 70% alcohol).
 Rewash your hands several times a day, especially after touching anything including
your phone or laptop.
b) Avoid touching your face
 This virus can live on hard surfaces for up to 72 hours.
 Avoid touching any part of your face including your mouth, nose, and eyes. This can
give Covid-19 a chance to go from your hands into your body.
c) Cover your mouth and nose when you cough and sneeze
 Covid-19 is found in high amounts in the nose and mouth. This means it can be carried
by air droplets to other people when you cough or sneeze. It can also land on hard
surfaces and stay there for up to 3 days.
 Use a tissue or sneeze into your elbow to keep your hands as clean as possible. Wash
your hands after you sneeze or cough, regardless.
d) Wear a face mask
 Cover your face with a face mask in public spaces, such as the grocery store, where it's
difficult to avoid close contact with others.
 These masks can help prevent people who are asymptomatic or undiagnosed from
transmitting the virus when they breathe, talk, sneeze, or cough. This, in turn, slows the
spread of the virus.
e) Avoid large events and mass gatherings
 Being in a group or gathering makes it more likely that you will be in close contact with
someone.
 This includes avoiding all religious places of worship, as you may have to sit or stand
too close to another congregant. It also includes congregating at parks or beaches.
f) Avoid close contact with anyone who is sick or has symptoms.
 Stop shaking hands and hugging people. Similarly, avoid touching other people. Skin to
skin contact can pass the virus from one person to another.
 If you must go out for necessities, keep a distance of 6 feet or 2 meters from other people.
g) Take social distancing seriously
 Social distancing means staying home and working remotely when possible.
 Stay home as much as possible and keep distance between yourself and others,
especially if you have a higher risk of serious illness. Some people may have Covid-19
and spread it to others, even if they don't have symptoms or don't know they have Covid-
19.
 Stay home from work, school and public areas if you're sick, unless you're going to get
medical care. Avoid public transportation, taxis and ride-sharing if you're sick.

h) Self-quarantine if sick
 Stay home until you recover. Call the nearest hospital if there’s serious symptoms.
 Avoid sitting, sleeping, or eating with your loved ones even if you live in the same home.
The basic treatment for Covid-19

 To date, there are no specific vaccines or medicines for Covid-19. Treatments are under
investigation, and will be tested through clinical trials.
 Malaysians are advice to practice self-care:
 If you feel sick you should rest, drink plenty of fluid, and eat nutritious food.
 Stay in a separate room from other family members, and use a dedicated bathroom if
possible.
 Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces.
 Everyone should keep a healthy lifestyle at home. Maintain a healthy diet, sleep, stay
active, and make social contact with loved ones through the phone or internet.
 Keep to regular routines and schedules as much as possible.
Mental health during Covid-19

 The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may be stressful for people.
 It is normal to feel sad, stressed, or confused during a crisis.
 Fear and anxiety about a disease can be overwhelming and cause strong emotions in adults
and children.
Stress during an infectious disease outbreak can include

 Fear and worry about your own health and the health of your loved ones.
 Changes in sleep or eating patterns.
 Difficulty sleeping or concentrating.
 Worsening of chronic health problems.
 Worsening of mental health conditions.
 Increased use of alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs.
Ways to cope with stress during lockdown

 Take breaks from watching, reading, or listening to news stories, including social media.
Hearing about the pandemic repeatedly can be upsetting.
 Take care of your body - eat well-balanced meals, exercise regularly and get enough sleep.
 Take deep breaths, stretch, or meditate.
 Make time to unwind. Try to do some other activities you enjoy.
 Connect with others. Talk with people you trust about your concerns and how you are
feeling. If you feel overwhelmed, talk to a health worker or counsellor.

Impact of infectious diseases

a) Impact on employment
 Reduced attendance of workers due to infection, fear of infection, or absenteeism of workers
caring for their families.
 Broader economic problems caused by reduced workforces may then initiate economic
downturn and further unemployment.
b) Impact on economy and global trade
 Disease outbreaks among livestock are a major risk for the farming sector.
 Sudden and drastic cuts in consumption of the affected products and reductions in its price.
 Reduced animal value due to control measures such as compulsory emergency vaccination,
and business interruption costs.
c) Impact on transport, travel, tourism and social gathering.
 Travellers/vacationers may perceive a threat - cancel trips or immediately leave the affected
country.
 Social gatherings such as symposia or conventions may be cancelled for public health
reasons.
d) Impact on delivery health care
 In cases of serious epidemic - health care providers have to deal with unprecedented numbers
of patients in emergency rooms and hospitals, while coping with severe supply constraints.
 The same workers must also bear the mental burden of the risk they may pose in spreading
the disease to their families.

CHAPTER 7: POLITICAL ISSUES
Introduction
Malaya became independent from colonization in 1957. In 1963, Malaysia was formed and Tunku
Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of the country. Before and after independence,
political parties had played a vital role in reclaiming the sovereignty of the country and in
developing Malaysia to its height of success today.
The Political Scenario’s from 1957-2008

a) Formation of Barisan Nasional (BN) in 1973
 The natural evolution from Perikatan, United Malays National Organisation, Malaysia
Chinese Association, and Malaysia Indian Congress (UMNO, MCA and MIC)
 Expanded to include the People's Progressive Party (PPP), Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party
(PAS) and Parti Gerakan Rakyat (Gerakan) which until that point were opposition but
joined the broader Barisan Nasional after the May 13th 1969 events in the name of national
interest.
b) The political response to outbreak of violence in May 13th 1969 was:

i. Broaden governing coalition to form the bigger BN allies.
ii. Adopt a far more assertively pro-Bumiputera economic policy under the banner of the New
Economic Policy (NEP).
● A two-prong objective:
(i) Restructure the Malaysian economy to remove the identification of a race based
on their economic activities
(ii) Increase the Bumiputera share of ownership in the economy to 30 percent.
● The NEP programme has ensured that ethnicity has been the defining principle of
economic policy. As a result, it has also remained the key axis of political identity and
representation in Malaysia.
c) The leadership and governance under Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad

 He was the 4th Prime Minister of Malaysia (May 1981 till October 2003)
 His achievements:
 The principal architect of Malaysia's transformation to become a developed nation.
 Malaysia experienced rapid modernisation and economic growth, and his government
initiated a series of bold infrastructure projects.
 Managed to elevate Malaysia’s position as the 17th biggest trading nation in the world.
 Turn Malaysia into the next Asian tiger as an industrialized economy.
 Transformed Malaysia from an agricultural nation to an industrialised nation.

d) The dismissal of Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim

 In 1998, the former Deputy Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim was sacked by Tun
Dr. Mahathir Mohamad and then arrested on September 20, 1998.
 Six years of imprisonment for sexual misconduct charges.
 Reaction of the public shocked and sympathy
 Many considered that his dismissal had been carried out in an undemocratic manner.
e) The release of Anwar Ibrahim from prison

 The Reformasi movement  seeking to build the political/institutional foundations of an
alternative form of governance based on the principles of good governance and liberal
democratic norms.
 The emergence of a group of younger citizens that was attuned to the concept and birth of
a democratic and open society
f) The formation of Barisan Alternatif in 1998 (BA, Alternative Front in Malay)  a coalition of
Malaysian opposition parties, formed as a counterweight to the ruling BN. BA was formed by
the four largest opposition parties
a. the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS)
b. the Democratic Action Party (DAP)
c. the National Justice Party (Keadilan)
d. the Malaysian People's Party - announced an electoral alliance and issued a joint
manifesto
Disbanded after the 2004 general elections, all 4 former component parties of BA (then 3, after
a merger of 2 of the parties) have since formed a new coalition, Pakatan Rakyat (PR), following
the 2008 general elections.
g) PAS as the former BN coalition and Democratic Action Party (DAP) as the opposition play a
vital role in shaping Malaysian politic and country as a whole.
 PAS is an Islamic political organization registered with the Malaysia’s Organization
Registration Society, established in Butterworth, Penang on 24th November 1951.
 A strong support from northern rural and conservative area such as Kelantan and
Terengganu.
 Kelantan has been ruled by the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS) since 1990, with re-
elections in 1995, 1999 and 2004, 2008 and 2013.
h) The DAP was founded on 18th March 1966 and had contested in 11 general elections from
1969 to 2013.
 DAP is one of the three main opposition parties in Malaysia, along with the PKR and PAS,
that are seen as electable alternatives to the Barisan Nasional coalition of parties.

 DAP secured over 70% of the total number of parliamentary seats it contested in the 13th
general election, winning 38 of the 51 seats.
i) BN coalition from 1957 to 2004:

 1957-2004: the BN coalition has won every election with 2/3 majority in Parliament.
 10th Malaysian General Election in November 1999 �BN gained 56%, but still maintained
its two-third majority in parliament.
 11th Malaysian general election in March 2004�BN under Prime Minister Dato' Seri
Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, bounced back with an increased majority, gaining 63.9% of the
votes. BN won 198 parliamentary seats and this is the largest majority and the best ever
performance that BN had won since the 1978 elections.
General Election 12, 2008

a) The stronger influence of politics
 Since 2008, politics has been creeping into almost every fibre of Malaysian society.
 The politicizing of every single issue  religion, race, economics, advertisement,
transportation, academic, school, mainstream media and etc.
 Purpose: gaining political support
 Effect: possible divisive consequences among ethnic.
b) Political tsunami ~ huge change in political landscape

 The 12th General Election in March 8, 2008 (GE 12, 2008) has been characterised as a
“political tsunami”.
 The ruling Barisan Nasional coalition  unprecedented losses
 The primary peninsular opposition – PKR, DAP and PAS  remarkable gains.
 Four additional state governments also fell to the opposition (Selangor, Penang, Kedah and
Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur)
Factors attributed to the decline in BN dominance

a) The educated middle class
 The rise of the educated middle class plays an essential role in the new political mosaic with
the seeding of young political figures and strong Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO’s)
to balance the democratic government authority.
 The government now has to brace itself against a big challenge coming from the Opposition,
which was called by the academic community as 3 vs. 1 (The Opposition + NGO’s + social
media vs. BN)
b) The non-Malay voters
 Thomas Pepinsky, (2008) identifies one of the main causes of the ruling regime’s poor
showing as “non-Malay voters’ rejecting the incumbent coalition in favour of secular

opposition parties.” There certainly appears to have been a shift in the level of support for
the ruling BN coalition among the Chinese and Indian voters.
 In the 12 GE, the emergence of the opposition alliance (PKR-DAP-PAS) has provided voters
a political alternative at the polls.
c) The new media
 Shaping the emerging democratic space (political uprising) in Malaysia.
 The social media especially the internet is providing Malaysians with avenues for airing their
views on political, economic and social matters.
d) Street protests
 The major events happened in terms of contentious politics at the mass society level were
two major street protests that took place in November 2007, less than five months prior to
the 12 GE.
i. BERSIH rally
✔ On November 10 2007, an estimated 40,000 individuals, consisting of a coalition of
seventy civil society groups, joined by members of opposition political parties and
individuals, took to the streets of the nation’s capital, Kuala Lumpur.
✔ Organized under the Coalition of Clean and Fair Elections (BERSIH, which is the
Malay word for “clean”), this protest was to petition the king for reforms to the
electoral system.
✔ The subsequent rally, BERSIH 2.0 rally (also called The Walk for Democracy) was
a demonstration held on 9 July 2011 in Kuala Lumpur as a follow-up to the 2007
BERSIH rally.
✔ The 2011 rally's immediate demands were:
 Clean the electoral roll
 Reform postal voting
 Use of indelible ink during election
 A minimum campaign period of 21 days
 Free and fair access to mainstream media
 Strengthen public institutions
 Stop corruption
✔ The BERSIH 3.0 rally (also called Sit In rally or DudukBantah in Malay) was a
demonstration in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia held on 28 April 2012. Following the
rally in 2011, the government of Malaysia organised a Public Select Committee
(PSC) to look into electoral reforms in Malaysia, which released their proposals in
April 2012.
✔ In addition to the eight previous demands, it called for:
 The Election Commission must resign, as it has failed in its responsibility and
has lost the confidence of the public.
 The electoral process must be cleaned before the 13th General Elections.
 Invite international observers to observe the 13th General Elections.

ii. Hindraf
✔ An estimated 30,000 ethnic Indians organized as the Hindu Rights Action Force
(HINDRAF), an Indian nongovernmental organization, marched peacefully on the
streets of Kuala Lumpur in November 25th 2007 to protest the ruling BN coalition’s
neglect of the Tamil-speaking Hindu working class.
Measures taken by Barisan Nasional to remain relevant after GE12, 2008

The leadership and governance of Datuk Seri Najib
a) 1 Malaysia, People First, performance Now Aim
 Aim: to take this young nation of 27 million people to a new and greater height of
progress; to forge a new level of nationhood out of the various races in Malaysia.
 Endeavour to provide to the needs among lower and middle class Malaysians through the
following initiatives:
 Health care service such as Klinik 1 Malaysia
 Affordable and quality housing project like Perumahan Rakyat 1Malaysia (PR1MA),
Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) and RumahMesra Rakyat 1Malaysia (RMR1M).
 Ease the impact of inflation – Bantuan Rakyat 1 Malaysia (BRIM), Kedai Rakyat I
Malaysia, Menu Rakyat 1 Malaysia, Baucer Buku 1 Malaysia (BB1M) and etc.
b) Government Transformation Programme (GTP)
 Endeavour to make Malaysian a developed nation, that is a high-income nation, by 2020.
 To fundamentally transform the Government into an efficient and people-centred
institution.
c) The Economic Transformation Programme (ETP)
 Aims to develop Malaysia into a high-income country by 2020 via increased investment.
 To build a resilient, dynamic and innovative economy.
 To bring in investments  further infrastructure development, such as the expansion of
the North-South Expressway and a proposed Pan-Borneo Highway

a) The results of GE13 showed BN winning with a majority seat in the national parliament. With
a record 84.5 per cent voter turnout, the final results gave the BN 133 and the opposition PR
coalition 89 out of 222 parliamentary seats, while at the state level, the BN coalition won 275,
and the opposition garnered 230 out of 505 seats. The BN retained majority in the national
parliament, and retook the state of Kedah from PAS. In the rest of the states, the status quo
was maintained. The ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition under the leadership of the Prime
Minister Najib Razak, formed the government with a majority of seats and 47.38% of the
popular vote while the Pakatan Rakyat (PR) coalition led by Anwar Ibrahim formed the bulk
of the opposition in Parliament after winning 50.87% of the popular vote.

b) The Aftermath of GE 13 - Street Protests:

 Bersih 4.0 took place when a series of rallies in 2013 were carried out, in the aftermath
of the general elections in Malaysia in 2013 to protesting the results of the elections,
whereby the opposition garnered a plurality of the votes but still lost the election due to
the government gaining the most seats in the Westminster system of elections.
 Bersih has set forth the following main objectives for their rallies
 Free and Fair Elections (Pilihan Raya yang Bebas dan Adil)
 A Clean Government (Kerajaan yang Telus)
 The Right to Dissent (Hak untuk Membantah)
 Strengthening the Parliamentary Democracy (Memperkukuhkan Demokrasi
Berparlimen)
 Saving the Economy of Malaysia (Menyelamatkan Ekonomi Malaysia)
 Resignation of the Prime Minister, Najib Razak (Peletakan Jawatan Perdana Menteri,
Najib Razak)
c) BERSIH 5.0
 It took place on 19 November 2016. The rally was held calling for a new and cleaner
electoral system in Malaysia. A Bersih convoy was also launched and targeted all parts
of Malaysia to raise awareness of the current democratic problems nationwide
 The goals of Bersih 5.0:
 For a New Malaysia
 Free and Fair Elections
 A Clean Government
 The Right to Dissent
 Strengthening the Parliamentary Democracy
 Empowering Sabah and Sarawak
 Resignation of Prime Minister Najib Razak
Pakatan Harapan
 The Pakatan Harapan, (PH) is a political coalition bringing together centre-left political
movements, organisations, parties and independent individuals in Malaysia.
 The coalition was formed on 22 September 2015, consisting the Democratic Action
Party, People's Justice Party, National Trust Party and after 14 March, Malaysian United
Indigenous Party.
 The movement has aimed to form a broad alliance of centre-left parties for the general election
due to be held before 24 August 2018.

Malaysia’s politics towards General Election 2018

 Malaysia is expected to be a developed nation in the near future. Malaysia is a very complex
society due to the existence of a diverse population – Malay and other Bumiputera, Chinese and
Indians – making Malaysia a plural society composed of different ethnics, cultures, customs,
and languages.
 Ethnic-politics, religious-politics, Malay and non-Malay politics, racism-politics appear to be
lingering around in arena of Malaysian politics today.
 Since the12th general election, Malaysia's political landscape has been changing. In fact,
political and social changes have already been taking place in the past decades in the age of
social media and amidst the instant-information society.
 Ethnic politics in Malaysia is moving toward a new plateau where cross-ethnic line voting may
be a more common trend. The young generation is expected to play a bigger role in the
Malaysian politics landscape for the coming 14th GE.
 ‘Alternative’ forms of media are also expected take centre-stage in the dissemination of political
information. Blogs, YouTube, Facebook and Twitter as well as a host of other independent
news portals are becoming increasingly popular.

The 14th Malaysian general election will elect members of the 14th Parliament of Malaysia on 9
May 2018. The 13th Parliament of Malaysia was dissolved on 7 April 2018.
Issues arising towards GE 14

a) Redelineation exercise
 The Dewan Rakyat passed the redelineation motion, the first such exercise by the Election
Commission (EC) in the last 15 years, which showed electoral changes in 98 out of 165
parliamentary seats in Peninsular Malaysia. The new electoral boundaries were used for the
coming 14th General Election (GE14).
b) #UndiRosak Campaign
 There is a campaign calling for voters to boycott elections or deliberately spoil their votes
during the 14th General Election (GE14) called #UndiRosak. The hashtag #UndiRosak
emerged on social media and even trended on Twitter in January 2018, as supporters of the
campaign are voicing out their opinion on how boycotting or deliberately making their votes
spoilt is a sign of protest and discontent.
 For many, this sentiment seems to stem from the notion that that both ruling coalition Barisan
Nasional (BN) and opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan (PH) deserve their votes as they do
not believe that any of these coalitions could bring systemic changes. These people are
mostly saying that they refuse to choose either one of the parties and would rather turn up
and spoil their votes on polling day

General Election 14 Results

 General Election 14 was held on 9 May 2018 to elect members of the 14th Parliament
of Malaysia. Pakatan Harapan the main opposition coalition in the Malaysian Parliament, won
113 seats in the Dewan Rakyat, Malaysia's lower house of parliament–just enough for a
majority. The Sabah Heritage Party, which won another 8 seats, informally aligned itself with
Pakatan Harapan, giving the opposition alliance a total of 121 seats in the new Parliament,
enough to form a government.
 This marked a historic defeat for the ruling Barisan Nasional, which had been the governing
party of Malaysia and its predecessor state Malaya, since the country’s independence in 1957.
Mahathir Mohamad then becomes the 7th Prime Minister of the country. At 92 years old, he
became the oldest head of government in the world, although he has indicated he would give
way within a few years to Anwar Ibrahim.
Issues after General Election 14

a) “Political manifesto is not a Bible”
 According to Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad in July 2018, the pre-election
manifesto is not a Bible that has to be followed and abided by religiously. He said, "Please
remember manifesto is not a Bible. It's a guide. Sometimes we can do things, sometimes we
find that we cannot. So we need to be practical-minded. “
 In February 2019, a Johor DAP committee member has openly called for Prime Minister
Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad to resign for belittling Pakatan Harapan's manifesto and
promises.
b) PH lost in by-elections
January 2019: in Cameron Highlands
March 2019: in Semenyih
Some of the factors for their loss could be:
 PH being defensive when confronted with issues pertaining to unfulfilled manifesto, such as
the increase in prices of goods, as well as the collection of toll. BN's victory was a clear sign
that the public has gotten tired of PH’s difficulty in delivering their GE14 election manifesto.
They (voters) do not want the blame game on Datuk Seri Najib Razak and BN to continue,
but rather concrete plans and action on how to address these issues such as cost of living
 The combination of UMNO and PAS in pushing for Malay-Muslim interests, which gained
traction in the previous Cameron Highlands by-election, has been subsequently affirmed in
the Malay-majority Semenyih state constituency that comprises 68 per cent Malay voters.

c) Issues pertaining to race and religion

i. The ratification of ICERD, November 2018
 Malaysia reversed a pledge to ratify a UN convention against racial discrimination,
following backlash from groups who fear it could dilute privileges for majority ethnic
Malays.
 According to the office of Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, the government will not
ratify the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (ICERD). "The government will continue to uphold the federal
constitution, which enshrines the social contract agreed by representatives of all races,"
it said in the statement.
ii. Ratification of Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC), April 2019
 Malaysia withdrew from ratifying an international treaty that covers serious crimes and
crimes against humanity. Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad said the Cabinet
has decided not to ratify the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC),
which would prosecute perpetrators of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity
and crimes of aggression.
 “There seems to be a lot of confusion about the Rome Statute, so we will not accede,”
Dr Mahathir told a press conference. “This is not because we are against it, but because
of the political confusion about what it entails.
 The earlier decision to ratify the Rome Statute received mixed reactions from the
ground, with many expressing concerns on ICC’s impact on rulers’ power and Malay
privileges.
iii. Matriculation intake quota, May 2019
 The cabinet has agreed to increase student intake into the pre-university matriculation
programme to 40,000 from the present 25,000. However, the quota system which
allocates 90 per cent of seats to Bumiputeras and the remainder to non-Bumiputeras will
stay.
 Education Minister Maszlee Malik said this was in line with the original vision of the
matriculation programme, which was to encourage more Bumiputera involvement in the
sciences.
 “This effort is being done to ensure that students who excelled in their studies were
given the best possible chance to further their studies,” he said in a statement. Maszlee
said the Pakatan Harapan government saw that there was a need to add the number of
students in the field of science and decide to maximise the capacity of the matriculation
programme.
 The decision to retain the matriculation intake quota while increasing the number of
intake has stirred up debates among members of the public:
 STPM at a disadvantage? An average of 45,000 places in public universities were
offered for undergraduate study in the past two years, even as the matriculation
programme’s intake has just been raised to 40,000 students. This raises questions

as to whether the expansion of the matriculation programme by 60 per cent from an

earlier 25,000 student intake will inadvertently disadvantage STPM graduates if
public universities did not significantly raise total admission rates in their
undergraduate programmes.
 The reason to defend the quota has come under criticism. According to Education
Minister Maszlee Malik, the quota system will still be maintained until Bumiputeras
is given a fair chance in the job market, saying that there is discrimination against
non-Mandarin speakers and those who don the hijab. According to Centre for a
Better Tomorrow (Cenbet), the Education Minister should not link issues
surrounding the matriculation intake quota with language requirements for jobs as
these two are distinct. The first issue was if the 9:1 quota system was merited, and
the second was about an individual's skill set. Language is a job skill. It is market
forces that determine if a person is employable.
The collapse of Pakatan Harapan

 In early March 2020, less than two years later, the Pakatan Harapan was out, and the old ruling
party came back in power. Malaysia has a new prime minister, Muhyiddin Yassin, after a
week of unprecedented political turmoil and uncertainty.
 The crisis started when several political parties joined forces and tried to form a new
government by claiming majority seats in the Dewan Rakyat, without going through an
election. It was accomplished through the withdrawal of Bersatu from the Pakatan Harapan
coalition and through the support of several MPs from the Pakatan Keadilan Rakyat (PKR)
who left the party. The Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohamad, resigned as a result.
 The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri’ayatuddin Al-Mustafa Billah Shah then
met with all MPs and political party leaders to gauge their support for a new prime minister.
He ultimately appointed the president of Bersatu, Muhyiddin Yassin, as the prime minister.
Muhyiddin announced that his coalition government will be called Perikatan Nasional.
 The events in which Pakatan Harapan collapsed due to the defecting of more than 30 MPs to
form an alliance with UMNO and PAS have been a shattering blow to the voters who saw the
2018 election as a watershed, a new beginning for the country.
 The former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad then launched a no-confidence vote against
his replacement, Muhyiddin Yassin.
 During the Parliament’s one-day sitting on May 18, the first sitting since Muhyiddin and his
Perikatan Nasional alliance took power from the Pakatan Harapan coalition, Sultan Abdullah
delivered his royal address, saying:
“What is for sure is that every competition will have its ending. The country’s political
crisis cannot be left to continue for a prolonged period without an ending in sight.
Because of that, after going through all the mentioned processes, and in line with the
Federal Constitution, I found that the honourable Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin

commanded the majority support from the members of the Dewan Rakyat and so
qualified to be appointed as the eighth prime minister”
 Sultan Abdullah added he remained confident that the administration, led by Muhyiddin,
would steer the country to greater heights. “My advice is to exercise this trust with honesty
and responsibility and never ignore the wellbeing of the rakyat,” he said.

CHAPTER 8: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES -- CLIMATE CHANGE, DEFORESTATION

AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
Environmental problems
 Our environment is constantly changing. There is no denying that. However, as our
environment changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems that
surround it. With a massive influx of natural disasters, warming and cooling periods, different
types of weather patterns and much more, people need to be aware of what types of
environmental problems our planet is facing.
 Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods; our planet is
warming up and we are definitely part of the problem. However, this isn’t the only
environmental problem that we should be concerned about. All across the world, people are
facing a wealth of new and challenging environmental problems every day. Some of them are
small and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are drastically changing the landscape of
what we already know.
 Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current environmental
problems make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and in the future. We are in a state
of planetary emergency, with environmental problems piling up high around us. Unless we
address the various issues prudently and seriously we are surely doomed for disaster. Current
environmental problems require urgent attention.
Major current environmental problems

a) Pollution
 Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry and motor vehicle
exhaust are the number one pollutants.
 Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution
is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and
toxins released by industries and factories and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is
majorly caused by industrial waste that deprives soil from essential nutrients.
b) Global Warming
 Climate changes like global warming is the result of human practices like emission of
Greenhouse gases.
 Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing
melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such
as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification.
c) Overpopulation
 The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of resources
like water, fuel and food.

 Population explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining the already
scarce resources.
 Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through use of
chemical fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current
environmental problem.
d) Natural Resource Depletion
 Natural resource depletion is another crucial current environmental problem. Fossil fuel
consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global
warming and climate change.
 Globally, people are taking efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind,
biogas and geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these
sources has plummeted in the recent years.
e) Waste Disposal
 The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a global crisis of
waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive amount of
waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed countries.
 Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast food,
packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well beings of humans. Waste disposal
is one of urgent current environmental problem.
f) Climate Change
 Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has surfaced in last couple of
decades. It occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in temperature
of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries.
 Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice, change in
seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of floods and change in overall
weather scenario.
g) Loss of Biodiversity
 Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and loss of bio-diversity.
Eco systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when any species
population is decimating.
 Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the eco-system and
human activity threatens the same. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs in the
various oceans, which support the rich marine life.
h) Deforestation
 Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in
regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land but every year
tree cover is lost amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population demand for
more food, shelter and cloth.
 Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover and make that land available for
residential, industrial or commercial purpose.

i) Ocean Acidification
 It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2. 25% of CO2 produced by humans.
 The ocean acidity has increased by the last 250 years but by 2100, it may shoot up by 150%.
The main impact is on shellfish and plankton in the same way as human osteoporosis.
j) Ozone Layer Depletion
 The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from the
sun’s harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the atmosphere is attributed to
pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro carbons (CFC’s).
 Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer, the
biggest of which is above the Antarctic.
 The CFC’s are banned in many industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable
because it prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the most
important current environmental problem.
k) Acid Rain
 Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the atmosphere. Acid rain can
be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting volcanoes or rotting vegetation which
release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
 Acid rain is a known environmental problem that can have serious effect on human health,
wildlife and aquatic species.
l) Water Pollution
 Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity. Water is becoming an economic and
political issue as the human population fights for this resource.
 One of the options suggested is using the process of desalinization. Industrial development
is filling our rivers seas and oceans with toxic pollutants which are a major threat to human
health.
m) Urban Sprawl
 Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density urban areas to low density
rural areas which results in spreading of city over more and more rural land.
 Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues and health
issues. The ever growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of flora
and fauna instead of being replaced.
n) Public Health Issues
 The current environmental problems pose a lot of risk to health of humans, and animals.
Dirty water is the biggest health risk of the world and poses threat to the quality of life and
public health.
 Run-off to rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease carrying organisms. Pollutants
cause respiratory diseases like asthma and cardiac-vascular problems. High temperatures
encourage the spread of infectious diseases like dengue.

o) Genetic Engineering
 Genetic modification of food using biotechnology is called genetic engineering. Genetic
modification of food results in increased toxins and diseases as genes from an allergic plant
can transfer to target plant.
 Genetically modified crops can cause serious environmental problems as an engineered gene
may prove toxic to wildlife. Another drawback is that increased use of toxins to make insect
resistant plant can cause resultant organisms to become resistant to antibiotics.
The need for change in our daily lives and the movements of our government is growing. Because
so many different factors come into play - voting, governmental issues, the desire to stick to
routine - many people don’t consider that what they do will affect future generations. If humans
continue moving forward in such a harmful way towards the future, then there will be no future to
consider. Although it’s true that we cannot physically stop our ozone layer from thinning (and
scientists are still having trouble figuring out what is causing it exactly,) there are still so many
things we can do to try and put a dent in what we already know. By raising awareness in our local
community and within our families about these issues, we can help contribute to a more
environmentally conscious and friendly place for all to live.
1. CLIMATE CHANGE
Factors of climate change

a) Natural Causes
 Due to changes in volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation.
 Volcanic eruptions  episodic and have relatively short-term effects on climate.
 Changes in solar irradiance  have contributed to climate trends over the past century
b) Human Causes
Climate change can also be caused by human activities spurred by the Industrial
Revolution, such as:
 The burning of fossil fuels
✔ Human’s endless hunger for energy  ongoing burning of unlimited quantities of
fossil fuels.
✔ When fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - are burnt they release CO2 (carbon
dioxide) into the atmosphere.
✔ Results in the layer of greenhouse gas gets thicker, which is in turn making the
Earth warmer.
 The conversion of land for forestry and agriculture
✔ These activities change the land surface
✔ Results in: a) influence both the amount of incoming energy and the amount of
outgoing energy; and b) causing both warming and cooling effects on the climate.

 The increased consumption of meat

✔ A worldwide trend for American-style diets � leading to a large increase in meat
and dairy consumption
✔ More meat consumption � more arable cultivation is turned over to producing
feedstock for animals that provide meat for humans.
✔ The losses at each stage are large, and as humans globally eat more and more meat,
conversion from plants to food becomes less and less efficient, driving agricultural
expansion and releasing more greenhouse gases.
 Energy wastage
✔ Cheap and abundant fossil fuels have cemented bad energy habits, especially in rich
countries.
✔ Example: electrical appliances are left on a standby mode.
✔ The energy waste could easily be reduced if we use our energy more efficiently.
Effects of climate change in Malaysia

a) Agriculture production
 Changes in climate factors could decrease yields of rice, the main staple food in
Malaysia, from 13% to 80% and decrease the production of industrial crops, particularly
oil palm, rubber and cocoa from 10-30%
 On the contrary, population of the country is expected to increase in the next few
decades  increased domestic demand of food.
 As a result  food crises and consequently threaten food security in the country
b) Water supply
 According to National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (Nahrim)  there would be
water supply issues in the future, especially in areas with higher risk or vulnerability, such
as in the Muda watershed in Kedah and small basins like Linggi.
 The unusually long spell of dry weather in February-March 2014 :-
 Water shortage in Negeri Sembilan was declared to be in a state of crisis.
 Water rationing measures in Selangor.
c) Flood
 Part of Malaysia, especially the east coast states, are hit annually by heavy monsoon rain
causing floods that have severely affected the environment and people. Thousands
evacuated to flood relief centres and others lost their daily income.
 Recent cases: severe flood in Malaysia, especially in Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and
Terengganu from 15 December 2014–3 January 2015, affecting more than 200,000
people. This flood has been described as the worst flood in decades.
d) Heat wave
 In 2016, the Malaysian Meteorological Department declared a heatwave in the northern
part of the peninsula after five straight days of above normal temperatures. It also
announced that the recent hot spell is caused by the Equinox phenomenon.

 States that were hit the worst were Kedah, Perlis and Penang, with Chuping, Perlis,
recording 38 degrees Celsius yesterday, and the highest in Malaysia.
 Temperatures in Malaysia soared above 37 celcius, prompting more than 250 schools to
close in order to protect the health of around 100,000 pupils.
 Recent cases: heatwave conditions can result in physiological strain, which could even
result in death. A male trainee policeman at the Segamat Police Training Centre
(Pulapol) became the first victim to die of heatstroke in 2016.
e) Socio-political stability
 Long dry spell  water rationing exercise  causing many to be dissatisfied with the
local authorities due to the inconvenience and the stress.
 Severe flood  many towns and villages in Kelantan, Pahang, Terengganu and Perak
to be submerged in flood water  high tensions due to loss of lives, the damage of
properties and goods and the temporary loss of the source of their livelihood
 The extreme climate change  led to political debates  affected the socio-political
fabric of the Malaysian society.
What we can do to counter climate change?

Some of the measures include:
a) Reduce energy use
 Adopt energy-saving habits. Make it a habit to turn off the lights as you leave a room.
 Replace standard light bulbs with energy-efficient compact fluorescent bulbs.
 Turn off your computer and unplug electronics when they are not in use.
b) High efficiency appliances
 When replacing appliances, look for high efficiency units.
 Appliances with ENERGY STAR ratings, an international standard for energy-efficient
consumer products, typically utilize a minimum of 20 % less energy.
c) Recycle and repurpose
 Recycling: make recycling part of your daily routine  recycle all packaging and
consumer goods that you can.
 Repurpose: give used items, eg clothing and household goods, a chance at a second life
by donating them to charity or selling them at a garage sale.
d) Limiting the consumption of meat
 In the industrialized world, consumers eat as much as 90 kilograms of meat per year
 According to the study, however, reducing global meat consumption to just 90 grams a
day could help cut the methane and nitrous oxide emissions released from cows  will
slow the rate of climate change.
2. DEFORESTATION
 Clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees
 The land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use.

 Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use.
Effects of deforestation
a) Affects land sustainability
 Trees provide habitats for many species in this world.
 When the habitat for plants and animals is cut down or burned � species that may not
be present anywhere else on Earth disappear.
 Without them, much of our lands would be barren or lack diversity, which is not good
for the land sustainability.
b) Release of carbon dioxide
 Every tree that is cut down releases its stored carbon dioxide that it accumulates over its
years of growth.
 Older trees  the more carbon dioxide released  damaging to the atmosphere.
 Deforestation is responsible for approximately 20 percent of all greenhouse gas
emissions.
c) Global warming
 Trees also provide an escape from the urban heat island effect
 Urban heat island effect: the temperature of cities and buildings are hotter than the
surrounding forestry and natural splendour.
Rampant deforestation in Malaysia

a) Report by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) researchers
 The first three months of 2013: a 115% increase in deforestation in Malaysia
 Malaysia's figure was the highest among five countries where deforestation was
detected.
b) Study by the Netherlands-based Wetlands International
 Malaysia is uprooting an average 2 percent of the rain forest a year on Sarawak, or nearly
10 percent over the last five years.
 Most of it is being converted to palm oil plantations.
c) Expansion of palm oil plantations
 Malaysia and Indonesia produce about 85 percent of the world's palm oil
 Uses of palm oil  cooking oil, cosmetics, soaps, bread, chocolate, industrial lubricant,
even was once considered an ideal biofuel alternative to fossil fuel
 Under heavy criticism  due to widespread rainforest destruction for the expansion of
the plantations.
The importance of forests

a) Preserve biological diversity
 Forests cover 30% of the Earth's surface

 Contain much of the biological diversity found on land

 Harbour over two-thirds of known terrestrial species, many of which are threatened.
b) Ensuring our continued existence.
 Forests provide critical environmental services
 Regulating water flow into our streams/ rivers and moderating climatic change.
c) Supply us with many essential items
 Timber for all kinds of uses
 Non-timber forest products such as rattan and bamboo, wild fruits such as the petai
(Parkia spp.), durian (Durio spp.) and medicinal plants.
d) Many of the animals found in forests are of great importance to us.
 Example: bats help to pollinate fruit plants and keep the number of insect pests down
 Without bats  have to depend on insecticides, most of which are harmful to the
environment.
e) The importance of tropical rainforests
 Tropical rainforests  as one of the most productive type of forests in the world.
 There are only three areas in the world where tropical rainforests are found – tropical
South America, Central Africa and Southeast Asia.
 The rainforests of Southeast Asia are believed to be the oldest and among the most
biologically diverse in the world.
3. ENDANGERED SPECIES
 In Malaysia, just like elsewhere the modern world, many species of wildlife are
disappearing fast, and conservation measures are needed to prevent animals and plants from
vanishing for good.
 The World Conservation Union has stated that 14% of mammals in Malaysia are facing
extinction unless something is done fast to halt their decline in numbers.
 Three large mammal species that fall within this category are the Sumatran Rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), the Malayan Tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) and the Malayan
Tapir (Tapirus indicus).
Why do animals become endangered?

Humans are largely responsible when animals become extinct, endangered or threatened. Here
are some reasons why animals become endangered:
a) Destruction of habitat due to man’s self interest
 Humans destroy precious habitat--the natural environment of a living thing--when they
fill swamps, marshes, dam and rivers and cut down trees to build homes, roads and other
developments.
 For many people  conservation takes second place to the welfare of human beings 
do not realise that all animal and plants species have vital roles to play in the ecosystem.

b) Pollution
 Oil spills, acid rain and water pollution have been devastating for many species of fish
and birds.
 Chemical pollutants may interfere with metabolic functions, causing functional
impairment or death of organisms.
 Reduction in the number of any species within a given food chain  affects other
members of the ecosystem.
c) Illegal and over-hunting
 Many animals are over-hunted because their meat, fur and other parts are very valuable.
 One of the saddest and sickest reasons that animals are hunted is because of the crazy
supernatural belief that parts of their bodies, such as rhino horn, have magic properties.
 Some have resorted to online illegal wildlife trade  the entire trade is mostly carried
out via their mobile phone.
d) Exotic or alien species
 When animals or plants arrive into a new habitat from a foreign place they sometimes
introduce diseases that the native species can't fight.
 These "exotic" species can also prey on the native species.
 The introduction of these alien species to a new environment can have major
dissociative effects to an entire ecosystem and be a key driver in species extinctions.
Measures that have been taken in wildlife conservation

a) Operasi Taring
 Recently this operation was carried out by the Department of Wildlife and National
Parks (Perhilitan) to combat online illegal wildlife trade.
 As of March 2015  managed to arrest several “important players” in the illegal
wildlife trade syndicate and to seize several protected wildlife species.
b) Educational awareness on the practice of responsible environmental stewardship
 The public have to be taught that all living things have important roles to play in the
natural world.
 Education on environmental conservation has been included in the syllabus taught in
schools and higher institutions of learning.
 NGOs like the Malaysian Nature Society  pioneer conservation through habitat
conservation and environmental education.
c) Wildlife conservation projects
 Many individuals and organisations have been stepping forward with ideas and projects
to help conserve the environment and the flora and fauna that depend on it.
 Example  awareness on the conservation of Malayan Tigers  the World Wildlife
Fund (WWF) staged a public event in Kuala Lumpur in which protesters pretended to
drop dead, and in so doing, called attention to the threat to the tigers.

d) Collaborative efforts
 The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) has collaborated with the Johor State
government on a project which aims to increase the population of Malaysian Tigers by
as much as 50% over the course of the next decade.
 March 2015: in the ASEAN Regional Forum’s workshop, Malaysia began to set the
groundwork for an Asean push against wildlife trafficking.
e) Promoting eco-tourism
 The mountains, jungles and beaches of Malaysia have made this area of the world the
most popular destination for tourists in Southern Asia.
 On a financial level  important for Malaysia to look after its natural habitats or the
eco-tourists will have no reason to want to go there.

CHAPTER 9: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES -- POLLUTION, NATURAL DISASTERS

AND SUSTAINABILITY
1. POLLUTION
 Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause
adverse change.
 Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light.
Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or
naturally occurring contaminants.
 Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.
Factors of air pollution

a) Industrial Activities
Many industrial zones have been set up in mostly forestland and uninhabited areas.
Effects:
i. Trees have been cut down to accommodate towards the building of large industrial
factories.
ii. Oxygen supply is decreased
iii. The factories are spewing out poisonous gases in the course of its production.
b) Increasing vehicles on the road
 Personal ownership of cars  due to the competitive prices of locally made cars and
their affordable financing scheme.
 Effect: an increasing amount of cars on the road, especially in the city areas congested
with human population  excess poisonous gases and heat are emitted daily.
c) Indiscriminate open air burning to get rid of excess rubbish
 Although open air burning is banned by law, the ban has not been heeded by the people
of Malaysia.
 Smoke and heat is released.
 Example: open air burning in plantations in Indonesia has caused haze in its
neighbouring countries, including Malaysia since 2005 till now and it became an annual
disaster to the nation.
Factors of water pollution

a) Industrial activities
 Malaysia is fast becoming an industrial country  many of her rivers have become
polluted due to the many wastes that have been poured out into her rivers.
 Example: the paper making industry  requires chemicals, often poisonous in its
production.

 The rivers are used as an outlet for the chemicals to drain away, in turn harming the
waters and the lives that revolve around them.
 The Kim-Kim River in Pasir Gudang, Johore was severely polluted with toxic waste
from nearby industrial areas affecting nearly 6000 residents in March 2019.
b) Tourism near the river sites
 Has prompted the construction of hotels and resorts around the area  the forests
surrounding the river areas have been chopped down
 The surrounding soil has no roots to hold on to and soon erode when the rains come.
 The soil runs into the rivers and soon the rivers become murky and shut out all the
sunlight from reaching the aquatic life in the rivers and streams.
Factors of land pollution

a) Large scale farming
 Has caused thousands of acres of forest land to be ploughed up and the habitat of
thousands, maybe even millions of wildlife has been destroyed.
 Many wildlife flees or migrate to escape the dangers and activities of man.
 Cause an imbalance in their ecosystem, making some areas too densely populated with
predators and not enough food to go around.
b) Pesticides used in agriculture
 Many of these pesticides contain non biological ingredients and can cause abnormal
changes / mutation in any wildlife that comes across it.
 Affecting insects to which the pesticides are aimed as well as the animals or human who
feed on the plants.
 Pesticides pollute the earth, making it useless as well as poisonous after all the nutrients
have been sapped out from it.
c) Dumping site
 Malaysia  a dumping site to the millions of tons of rubbish thrown every week due to
the sharp increase in the population.
 Rapid development, population increase and changes in consumption pattern directly
(and indirectly) resulted in the generation of enormous amount of waste, ranging from
biodegradable to synthetic waste.
 This situation has been and will be reducing our environmental capacity to sustain life.
Bauxite mining issue

The case:
 Malaysia has imposed a three-month ban on bauxite mining beginning 15 January 2016
due to worries over its environmental impact.
 Flimsy regulation and a lack of environmental safeguards on bauxite mining 
environmentalists and residents blamed waste from the extraction process of bauxite for
polluting the waters off eastern Malaysia, in the state of Pahang.

The side effects of bauxite mining

a) Air pollution and acid rain
 Dust is a primarily environmental problem caused by Bauxite mining.
 The “red” dust covers very large surrounding areas that affect the habitats, including
residential and agricultural neighbourhoods of the Bauxite exploitation site  very
harmful to the growth of the agricultural products and reduces the productivity of these
trees.
b) Water pollution
 It requires an estimated area equivalent to the bauxite site to dump the red sludge.
 When the toxic red sludge is dumped on the ground:
i. The toxic chemicals will be percolated to the underground water table along with
rainwater
ii. Contaminate the main water source of the area.
c) Fishery pollution
 The fishing industry will also be damaged due to the poisonous chemicals from the red
sludge
 The red sludge can cause the genetic distortion of fish in the ocean  affecting the
health and lives of the people consuming the fish.
d) Toxicity affecting human lives
 The red sludge puts health and human lives at risk of being lost or harmed due to air,
water and fish pollution.
 The medical statistics prove that prolonged toxicity may cause encephalopathy,
osteoporosis, anaemia, and possibly Parkinson diseases.
2. NATURAL DISASTER
 A major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth
 Examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic
processes.
Effects of natural disasters

 Loss of life
 Property damage  economic damage
Examples of natural disasters in Malaysia

a) Landslides in Malaysia are regular natural disasters in Malaysia which happen at the
hillsides.

b) Flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas. It may be caused by heavy
rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane or tropical storm followed by poor
drainage systems.
c) Earthquake in Sabah (2015)
 Struck Ranau, Sabah, Malaysia with a moment magnitude of 6.0 on 5 June 2015, which
lasted for 30 seconds. The earthquake was the strongest to affect Malaysia since 1976.
 18 people died on Mount Kinabalu
The effects of severe floods

a) Financial loss incurred to individuals and businesses
 Household items, furniture, vehicles and other properties are damaged by the flood
water.
 Businesses are affected, therefore bringing in financial loss to businesses.
b) Lessons in classes are disrupted in some badly affected flood areas
 Educational materials, tables and chairs are damaged after being soaked in flood water
 Students would not be able to catch up on their studies according to schedule if schools
have to be closed for a certain period.
c) Victims are easily exposed to various diseases
 Floods has the potential to increase the transmission of diseases, particularly water-
borne illnesses like typhoid fever, cholera, and hepatitis A and the increase of mosquito-
borne diseases like malaria.
 The most common reason humans and animals get sick during floods is because if they
are stranded, they can quickly lose access to clean drinking water.
d) Vicious cycle of poverty
 Depending on the severity of the flood, some victims suffer heavy damage and loss of
property and items and would need to loan money from friends, relatives or even the
bank to recover from their loss.
 The debts will bring them in the vicious cycle of poverty as on top of financial loss
suffered, flood victims have to be burdened with the payment of debts.
3. SUSTAINABILITY
 Malaysia’s position is unique in the global map of sustainable development. We always
find ourselves at the centre of attention on sustainability because of the country’s rich
natural endowments which is located in the tropical belt.
 Malaysia hosts a portion of the important tropical rainforest belt. It has a uniquely rich
diversity of flora and fauna with more than 25,000 plant species. Malaysia’s rainforests are
a source of timber and other products — such as rattan and medicinal plants — that support
the livelihoods of numerous communities. They are a reservoir of biodiversity and they
increasingly attract tourists.

 Exceptional species diversity and richness  Malaysia is recognised as one of the world’s
12 mega-diverse countries where special attention is needed to arrest habitat loss.
Challenges encountered in the Malaysia in the implementation of sustainable

development
a) Malaysia continues to be bedevilled by the problem of federalism.
 Environmental policy is mainly a federal jurisdiction, but land encompassing
agriculture, forestry, mining and water is a state jurisdiction.
 The power of the states over land has constrained national policy-making.
b) The general apathy among our public about the environment and sustainability. Malaysians
generally lack understanding of the underlying causes of environmental problems.
 In a survey of 6,090 Malaysians, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Malaysia (2009: 83–4)
found that only 43 per cent of respondents were aware of the causes of annual events
such as flash flooding and haze.
 The survey also found that awareness of environmental problems did not necessarily
translate directly into positive environmental behaviour.
 Continuous environmental education is necessary and should be targeting the schools in
more concrete ways.
c) The fragmentation in the delivery system of the public service.
 Example: the power over planning permission lies with the local authority as provided
by the Town and Country Planning Act 1976.
 There have been instances where some of the decisions made by local authorities were
not in sync with federal policies.
Measures taken to achieve sustainability by the government

a) Formulation of a national policy statement on green technology.
 The central role of green technology was emphasised by the release of a National Green
Technology Policy
 Overseeing greening in four sectors — energy, buildings, water and waste management
and transportation.
b) Registration of a green building association.
 Malaysia Green Building Confederation (MGBC) was established in 2009 to support
the government’s objective of promoting sustainably built environments.
 The Green Building Index (GBI) had also been launched to enable green grading and
certification of Malaysian buildings.
c) Initiation of a green financing scheme.
 In 2010, a soft loan incentive, the Green Technology Financing Scheme (GTFS), was
launched to create a policy environment that will attract innovators and users of green
technology.

 Granting soft loan to companies (both technology developers and technology users) in
which the government would subsidise 2 per cent of the interest rate.
d) Launching of the Green Townships Framework.
 Outline comprehensive guidelines for new and existing townships in the country to ‘go
green’ by incorporating environmentally friendly technologies.
 Putrajaya and Cyberjaya have been chosen to spearhead the project and to become
models of green townships in the country.
The National Policy on Biological Diversity 2015-2025

The National Policy on Biological Diversity seeks to conserve Malaysia's biological diversity and
to ensure that its components are utilised in a sustainable manner for the continued progress and
socio-economic development of the nation.
Goal 1  The Federal and State governments will play the leading
To empower and harness the role, at the same time engaging all other agencies,
commitment of all stakeholders to join including the academia, will also be engaged in this
hands to conserve our biodiversity mission.
 Civil society is expected to play an even greater role in
biodiversity conservation in the future.
Goal 2  Future national and state development policies and
To significantly reduce pressure on programmes to have biodiversity conservation embedded
biodiversity in them.
 The need to embrace sustainable consumption and
production.
Goal 3  Threatened plant and animal species, especially those
To safeguard our key ecosystems, that are in immediate danger of extinction, require
species and genetic diversity species management plans as the basis for their
conservation.
 To conserve viable, representative examples of all of its
natural habitats.
Goal 4  The goal is to work towards institutionalising a national
To ensure that benefits arising from the regulatory framework.
utilisation of biological diversity are  To work with relevant stakeholders to protect the
shared in a fair and equitable manner knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous
peoples and local communities.
Goal 5  Biodiversity is our shared heritage - it is also our shared
To improve the capacity, knowledge responsibility.
and skills of all stakeholders to  All stakeholders should have the appropriate level of
conserve biodiversity knowledge about biodiversity so that everyone can better
understand the threats, as well as being able to better plan
and design environmental interventions.

CHAPTER 10: ECONOMIC ISSUES -- INCOME INEQUALITY
Introduction
 Income inequality metrics or income distribution metrics are used by social scientists to
measure the distribution of income, and economic inequality among the participants in a
particular economy, such as that of a specific country or of the world in general.
 Income distribution has always been a central concern of economic theory and economic policy.
Modern economists have also addressed this issue, but have been more concerned with the
distribution of income across individuals and households.
 The Gini coefficient (also known as the Gini index or Gini ratio) is a measure of statistical
dispersion intended to represent the income distribution of a nation's residents. Gini coefficient
is commonly used as a measure of inequality of income or wealth. The range of the Gini index
is between 0 and 1 (0% and 100%), where 0 indicates perfect equality and 1 (100%) indicates
maximum inequality.

The positive effects of income inequality

a) Growing opportunity
 The lower income earner group would be more driven to advance themselves, to improve
their standard of living, through education or other types of skills learning.
 Income inequality provides growing opportunities to entrepreneurs as it encourages them to
take risks and set up new business.
 Without the prospect of substantial rewards  little incentive to take risks and invest in new
business opportunities
b) Improved standard of living in less developed areas
 When the productivity level of businesses or any other industries is higher due to positively
driven workers, businesses or any other industries will grow.
 To accommodate the growth of the business, some companies may set up new branches in
less developed areas and thereby provide job opportunities to the people there.
 When there is increased economic activities in the less developed areas, this in turn will
encourage the growth of other small-medium enterprises (SME), eg grocery shops, book
stores etc.
c) Rewarding the deserving ones
 Someone works harder or has better skills or talents  receives a higher wage.
 The promise of a higher wage is essential to encourage extra effort or exemplary
performance at work so that the rewarded ones are continually motivated to pursue
excellence in service and productivity.
 Rewarding hard work and excellent performance  a driving factor to other workers to
avoid passivity or poor work ethics at work.
d) Trickle Down Effect to Others
 If an entrepreneur successfully sets up a business  create jobs and provide incomes for
other workers.
 Income inequality promotes professionalism, innovation and creativity at work.
 There will then be a boost to productivity leading to a higher national output – so in the end,
everyone can benefit.
The negative effects of income inequality

a) Economic growth
 There is evidence from a broad panel of recent academic studies shows that there is a
nonlinear relation between income inequality and the rate of growth and investment.
 Very high inequality slows growth
 Moderate inequality encourages growth.
b) Education
 Greater income inequality and greater poverty inhibit access to schooling and investment in
human capital.

 High income inequality  the poor would live in a vicious cycle of poverty as the poverty
stricken parents would be too hard pressed financially to invest in the education of their
children.
 Moreover, some parents may have to use up the time meant for study revision, by asking
their children to help out in adult job tasks (eg helping to man the stall, plantation work etc).
Therefore, the children may end up neglecting their studies.
c) Health and life-span
 Richer, better-educated people live longer than poorer, less-educated people  more able to
understand and use health information and have better access to healthier food and better
healthcare system.
 The poorer, less-educated people suffer from malnutrition, poorer living conditions that
expose them to more diseases.
d) Political instability
 High inequality threatens a country’s political stability because more people are dissatisfied
with their economic status
 Harder to reach political consensus among population groups with higher and lower
incomes. Effects of political instability:
i. increases the risks of investing in a country and so significantly undermines its
development potential
ii. failure to build national consensus
iii. may result in violent conflicts
e) Social ills
 Example: mental illness, violence, imprisonment, lack of trust, teenage births, obesity, drug
abuse, and poor educational performance of schoolchildren
 High inequality reverberates through societies on multiple levels, correlating with, if not
causing, more crime, less happiness, poorer mental and physical health, less racial harmony,
and less civic and political participation.
f) Sustainable development
 High inequality limits the use of important market instruments such as changes in prices and
fines.
 Example: higher rates for electricity and hot water might promote energy efficiency, but in
the face of serious inequality, governments introducing even slightly higher rates risk
causing extreme deprivation among the poorest citizens
g) Ethnic relations
 High income inequality can lead to ethnic tensions that may lead to larger issues of racial
conflicts and eruption of riots between/among ethnics in the country.
 Strained ethnic relations that eventually led to a national crisis have taken place in Germany,
Indonesia and Malaysia.

Income inequality in Malaysia

1957-1970
a) After independence in 1957, the ruling Alliance government continued the laissez-faire
economy policy of the colonial government. The laissez-faire approach resulted in rapid
economic growth.
b) From 1957 to 1970, income inequality became worse among the people. The rich appeared to
benefit the most from the rapid economic growth at the expense of the poor (middle and lower-
income groups):
 About half the population was living under poverty; The poor amongst the Indian population
fared the worst
 Active government intervention in the economy to help the Malay was not implemented 
the majority of Malay still in poverty.
 Significant imbalance in terms of wealth (equity) ownership between the Malays and the
Chinese. By 1970 the Malays owned only about 2.4% of the ownership of share capital,
while the Chinese owned 27.2%.
 Inter-ethnic inequality in terms of employment and occupation, which reflected the
differences in skills, education and experiences of each ethnic group.
i. By 1970, about 2/3 of those employed in primary sector were Malays. Three-quarter of
the Malays were agricultural workers mostly involved in small, subsistence farming and
fishing activities.
ii. The non-Malays on the other hand, were largely employed in the secondary and tertiary
sectors. On the other hand, the non-Malays were associated with mining, manufacturing
and construction, a high productivity sector. The professional, technical, sales and
managerial jobs were predominantly held by Chinese.
In the 1970 till 1990’s

a) The overall inequality rose between 1970 and 1976 and then fell at the end of the NEP period.
b) Before the 1990s, the inequality improved tremendously due to commendable government
policies that include the promotion of export-oriented industrialisation, education, and training,
and the restructuring of equity ownership and assistance in asset accumulation.
c) However, post-1990s, there is little change in inequality due to the difference in the growth
rates of incomes of the rural and urban areas, inflows of migrant workers, and impediments to
the process of internal migration.
Entering the new millennium

Median Monthly Household
 The median monthly household income for Malaysians in 2016 increased by 6.6 per cent
annually to RM5, 228 from RM4, 585 in 2014. For the mean monthly household income for
Malaysians, it increased 6.2 per cent per annum to RM6, 958 in 2016 from RM6, 141 in 2014,
it said. (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2019)

 Median monthly household income in the urban area increased 6.4 per cent per annum from
RM5, 156 in 2014 to RM5, 860 in 2016. Simultaneously, the median monthly household
income in rural area also increased at 5.3 per cent per annum from RM3, 123 (2014) to RM3,
471 (2016).
 Furthermore, the report from Department of Statistics Malaysia: Report of Household Income
and Basic Amenities Survey 2016 also stated that Malaysia’s Gini Coefficient (an index that
measures the degree of inequality in income distribution) decreased from 0.401 in 2014 to 0.399
in 2016. Despite the improvement, Malaysia's Gini index has remained stagnant since the late
1980s.
Mid-Term Review (MTR) of the 11th Malaysia Plan (11MP) under Pakatan Harapan:
Priority areas and Strategies to reduce income inequality
 The purpose: to raise the income and purchasing power of B40 households as well as reduce
overall income inequalities.
 Income generating programmes as well as the provision of basic needs will continue to be given
to the poor and low-income households.
 Efforts also will be intensified to enhance the capacity and capability of B40 households for
better employability and productivity as well as to promote entrepreneurship.
 The key initiatives include:
✔ enhancing access to quality education and skills training at all levels,
✔ providing comprehensive and integrated entrepreneurial development programmes, and
✔ promoting the adoption of modern technology and best practices
 Key measures include:
✔ enhancing the employability of the bumiputra in high-paying jobs,
✔ raising bumiputra effective control and sustainable corporate ownership, and
✔ developing resilient SMEs (small and medium enterprises) that are capable of penetrating
the global market
 Meanwhile, special programmes will be implemented for the Orang Asli, Anak Negeri Sabah
and Bumiputra Sarawak in the rural and remote areas as well as selected groups of the Indian
and Chinese communities to develop their economic potential and eradicate poverty.
 The wellbeing of the community will be improved by addressing the needs of specific target
groups, namely children, youth, women, elderly, persons with disabilities (PWDs) and family.
Greater focus will be given to uphold the needs and interest as well as nurture the potential of
children.
 Accessibility to leadership and skills training, as well as employment and entrepreneurship
opportunities for the youth will also be enhanced.
 The provision of integrated support systems and development of a conducive environment will
be improved in increasing participation of women, elderly and PWDs (People with disabilities
in economic and community activities as well as ensuring the wellbeing and resilience of the
family.

 Efforts will be focused to increase purchasing power, provide quality and affordable housing,
enhance the healthcare delivery system, make the nation safer and secure as well as promote
noble values and an active lifestyle.
 Enforcement to curb supply and price manipulations will be intensified, while more avenues
offering goods and services at affordable prices will be provided.

CHAPTER 11: ECONOMIC ISSUES -- POVERTY ERADICATION
Introduction
 The Poverty Line Income (PLI) measures the capacity of households to meet the minimum
requirement for food and non-food consumption.
 Poverty alleviation has always been a concern in Malaysia's development strategies. Malaysia
has been applauded by international organizations for its success stories in poverty eradication.
The incident of poverty had decreased from 1950 till 2012:
1970 = 49.3 percent
2012 = 1.7 percent
 The unique socio cultural of Malaysia has led to the dimensions of poverty being investigated
based on ethnic groups and strata.
 Bumiputeras, were the group with the highest poverty incidence, with 64.8 percent in 1970 but
down to 2.2 percent in 2012 (EPU, 2013). The other two major ethnic groups, the Chinese and
Indians had a low and moderate poverty incidence with 26 and 39.2 percent in 1970 to 0.3 and
1.8 percent in 2012 (EPU, 2013).
 Poverty incidence was also higher in the rural area as compared to the urban area with 58.7 and
21.3 percent in 1970 to 3.4 and 1.0 percent in 2012. Despite the remarkable dropped in poverty
incidence there were still some pockets of poverty and many of them were elderly.
Challenges for poverty reduction in Malaysia

The following are important issues which need attention as the country faces a new category of
new poor:
a) Migrants Workers’ Issues
 Contraction in employment opportunities drastically affects the urban poor, the near poor,
migrant workers.
 A high prevalence of unemployment and retrenchment are also acknowledged by relevant
authorities.
 Huge demand for knowledgeable and skilled human resources in capital intensive and high
value added activities.
b) Ethnic Issues
 The educational achievements of Bumiputera and rural students in disciplines which are very
much fundamental to the economy was considerably lower than the urban and non
Bumiputera students.
 If the policy makers do not create promising arrangements  lead to fragmentations, factions
 worsen the turmoil between ethnic groups.
 Therefore, the National Economic Plan 2010 (NEP) poverty eradication mainly focussed on
Malay rural population, and the policies and initiatives turned ethnically motivated.

c) Rural and Urban Poor

 Poverty has constantly been identified as a problem confined to rural.
 Rural and urban migration  leads to a vast proportion of new poor family units settling in
urban settings
 Innovative policies and strategies should be implemented with strong commitment in
programs planning and inner city development
d) Poverty Line Income Issues
 Poverty Line Income Issues are constantly discussed by absolute and relative terms
 Views on relative poverty have been changing over time.
 An ambiguity in the redefinition of relative poverty  makes comparisons difficult between
different periods of time.
Urban poverty
Although urban poverty in Malaysia is not a serious phenomenon, it is far harsher and extreme
than rural poverty. What could be the factors causing urban poverty?
a) Low levels of education or skills
 The migration of low-income groups who are less educated and lacking in skills from rural
into urban areas to seek for greener pasture.
 Higher wages  but higher cost of living in urban areas  causing their purchasing power
to decrease.
 A monthly salary of RM1,200 to RM1,500, which is about average for this category of
workers, is not sufficient, given that house rentals alone cost about half of these amounts in
the cities
b) Lack of employment opportunities
 For jobs that require low skills such as in the service, manufacturing or construction
industries, employers prefer to hire foreign workers due to lower wages.
 Therefore, some migrated rural people may end up with without any fixed job or fixed
income if they struggle to make ends meet by doing odd jobs.
c) Low wages but large family size
 Those that migrated from rural areas may not have been educated about proper family
planning  the family to have quite a number of children.
 Most of the time, the father is the sole breadwinner as the mother needs to be at home to take
care of the children, especially when the children are still young.
 Therefore, the family become more hard-pressed financially due to the increased needs in
the family, yet there is only one source of income.
d) The neglected elderly
 Without labour income after retirement, the elderly ones are more susceptible to living in
poverty compared to the non-elderly.
 Some of the elderly ones do not have any family support during their golden years.

 Elderly ones with children  some are neglected because their children may be too
preoccupied with their own materialistic needs.
Children living in poverty

 A new study released on 26 February 2018 by UNICEF reveals higher levels of poverty and
malnutrition among children living in low-cost housing in Kuala Lumpur, compared to the
national average.
 The reports, Children Without: A study of urban child poverty and deprivation in low-cost flats
in Kuala Lumpur highlights how poverty impairs the opportunities of children living in low-
cost flats in Kuala Lumpur to early education and makes them more vulnerable to
malnourishment, with potentially damaging impact on their cognitive development.
 While the national poverty rate is less than 1 per cent, and almost eradicated in Kuala Lumpur,
the report indicates a 100 per cent rate of relative poverty amongst children living in low-cost
flats in the nation’s capital.
 Some of the main findings of this study include:
 Almost all children (99.7 per cent) in low-cost flats live in relative poverty and 7 per
cent in absolute poverty.
 About 15 per cent of children below the age of five are underweight, almost two times
higher compared to the KL average (8 per cent).
 About 22 per cent of the children are stunted, two times higher than the KL average.
 About 23 per cent of the children are either overweight or obese, six times higher
compared to the KL average (4%).
 While almost all of the children aged 7 to 17 are in school, only 50% of 5 to 6 year olds
attend pre-school compared to 92% of national enrolment in 2015.
 About 1 in 3 households surveyed has no reading materials, for children aged below 18.
 About 4 in 10 households have no toys for the children aged below 5.
 “Children in low-cost flats live in Kuala Lumpur, within easy proximity to amenities; yet, have
less access to nutritious food, don’t go to pre-school, live in perceived unsafe areas and have
less opportunity to learn and play than most other children in Malaysia. The reality is: poor
children are among us but they often remain unseen. It’s clearly a data blind spot,” added
Marianne Clark-Hattingh, UNICEF representative in Malaysia.
 The study is the result of a survey of almost 1,000 households who have children below 18
years of age in their care and are residing in Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) low-cost
housing.
 The study sheds light on the living conditions of over 2,000 children residing in low-cost
housing in the capital and the impact on their well-being.
 To accelerate efforts to address child poverty in urban areas, the report recommends:
i. Revisiting poverty indicators, namely the Poverty Line Income (PLI) and using
multidimensional indicators that include the nutritional status of children and relative
income poverty

ii. Providing universal child care grants

iii. Promoting exclusive breastfeeding for at least six months
iv. Implementing policies that facilitate access to nutritious food, such as taxes on sugar-
sweetened beverages (SSB), regulation of food sold in and around schools
 These recommendations support and contributed to Malaysia’s aspiration to become a top 20
nation as expressed under the 2050 National Transformation (TN50) and Agenda 2030, which
is the roadmap for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in
Malaysia.
 In line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) that Malaysia ratified in 1995,
the implementation of these measures will also help Malaysia uphold its commitment to the
protection and welfare of all children.
 The purpose: to ensure that every child in Malaysia has an equal start in life is by providing a
comprehensive social protection floor, so that no child will be left behind.
Measures taken by the government to eradicate poverty

 Since 1971 the government has implemented various policies to eradicate poverty and
restructure society.
 Focus 
✔ Affirmative actions based on ethnicity
✔ Assessment of the efficiency of government on rural development
✔ Education and employment.
 For rural development, the government's measures encompass two components:
✔ Integrated agricultural development programmes (IADPs)
✔ Regional development encompassing new land development and land consolidation and
rehabilitation
Economic policies
Two main economic policies initiated by the government are:
a) New Economic Policy (NEP)

 It is the government initiated project to alleviate poverty among the various ethnic groups
through numerous strategies and programmes.
 The period of British rule left behind some remnant effects on our society and economy. The
economic system and the geographical location of where we lived and worked were divided
along racial lines.
Malays  In the traditional agricultural sector where per capita income was the lowest and
poverty was the highest.
Chinese  In mining, manufacturing and construction where per capita income was recorded
as much higher.
Indians  Labourers in estates and mining.

 The rationale of introducing NEP in June 1970

✔ Racial riots in 1969  due to socio economic imbalance.
✔ Problem of poverty and the economic differences along racial lines were detrimental
to social stability and national unity and had to be addressed immediately.
✔ The NEP was formulated as a concerted effort to reduce poverty and restructure the
economy.
 The NEP was introduced to attain national unity via the dual aims of:
✔ Eradicating poverty among all Malaysians.
✔ Restructuring Malaysian society so that the identification of race with economic
functions and geographical location is reduced and eventually eliminated.
b) (LIH) NKRA (2010-2015)

The Raising Living Standards of Low-Income Households National Key Results Area (LIH
NKRA) has been a core part of the Government Transformation Programme (GTP) since 2010.
The LIH NKRA initiatives in GTP 1.0 (2010-2012)

 Focus: implementing initiatives that drove straight into the heart of poverty. One of the key
programmes that led to this achievement was the 1Azam.
 The implementation of 1 Azam
 Objective: Strike a balance between providing direct aid and economic opportunities
to its participants to ensure that they become financially self-sustaining
 Strategies: Provide economic activity programmes to guide the poor and extreme poor
on ways to increase their income and break away from the vicious cycle of poverty.
 Four areas of assistance:
✔ Job placements (Azam Kerja)
✔ Creating small business enterprises (Azam Niaga)
✔ Creating small service providers (Azam Khidmat)
✔ Creating opportunities in agriculture (Azam Tani)
 Achievement: Extreme poverty has reduced to 1.7 per cent in 2012. Pockets of extreme
poor that continue to exist are made up of indigenous communities and specific target
groups.
The LIH NKRA initiatives in GTP 2.0 (2013-2015)

 Target group: The LIH NKRA initiatives in GTP 2.0 (2013-2015) are designed to reach out
to these groups (indigenous communities and specific target groups), in particular those who
have yet to receive assistance from the government.
 Objective: economic empowerment of individuals and communities through basic facilities
and the right environment.

 Strategies: greater cooperation from NGOs and corporations to leverage on the expertise of
these groups in delivering services and aid. Corporations who intend to give back to society
can do so through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programmes.
The rural development strategies

Among some of the strategies are as follow:
a) Agriculture development
 Implemented as IADP's (Integrated Agricultural Development Programmes) to improve
productivity and incomes of farmers.
 Involves a package of physical and economic infrastructures, social amenities, technology,
inputs and agricultural support services.
b) Regional and land development
 Land scale regional and land development projects involving resettlement of landless or
marginal farmers into land schemes.
 Involves a package of physical, economic and social infrastructures and amenities.
c) Land consolidation and rehabilitation
 Involves consolidation and rehabilitation of uneconomic holdings in existing agricultural
and rural areas.
 Aim: to improve the productivity and income of farmers.
d) Agricultural support services and subsidies
 The provision of institutional and agricultural support services such as extension, training,
input and price subsidies, research, marketing, etc.
 Aim: to reduce real costs of production and increase efficiency in production.
e) Rural industrialisation
 Involves the expansion of agricultural resources-based industries as well as rural handicrafts.
 Aim: to create employment and supplement rural incomes.
Establishment of government agencies to assist rural farmers and planters

a) RISDA (Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority)
 To overcome problems and to eradicate poverty among rubber smallholders
 Aids rubber replanting, provides seedlings and fertilizer to the smallholders.
 A programme under RISDA is called as SEPENTAS (Skim Penggalak Tanam Semula) 
provided interest free loans to households with less than two hectares of rubber.
b) FELDA
 To overcome the problem of landlessness and to reduce chronic rural poverty.
 FELDA also provides technical, processing, marketing and other forms of support.
 FELDA schemes were equipped with roads, water supply, irrigation and drainage works,
transportation, clinics, schools and other basic amenities.
c) Padi and Rice Marketing Board (PRMB), National Rice Board (LPN), Federal Agriculture
Marketing Authority (FAMA) and Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA)

 To serve and assist rice farmers in the country.

 Among the assistance are to provide irrigation scheme, training, introduce new technologies
 Also provides guaranteed minimum price for the purchase price of the paddy, subsidy
scheme like fertilizer, seeds, credits, and pesticides.
Education and employment

The objective of educational programmes are:
a) Develop appropriate education and training programmes to raise the supply of trained
manpower and direct incentives as well as administrative measures to boost their participation
in the modern sector.
b) Create more Bumiputera professionals.
c) Increase educated rural labour into higher income occupations in the urban industrial and
service sectors  by implementing university enrolment quotas, scholarships and other
educational subsidies.
Impact of Covid-19 on Malaysia’s economy and the impact on poverty eradication efforts
 COVID-19 has shocked the world economic structure which is now in a state of uncertainty.
Recently, the International Monetary Fund announced that the pandemic will cause a global
recession this year which could be worse than the one triggered by the subprime mortgage crisis
of 2008. The latter was caused by the contraction of liquidity in the banking system in the
United States after its real estate bubble burst
 The economic crisis ensuing from COVID-19 involves practically all the countries of the world
and recovery is expected to take a long time. As long as new positive cases of infection are
reported, the economic ecosystem will continue to be disrupted.
 Studies by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development and World Bank have
projected a 2.4 percent contraction in GDP (Gross Domestic Product) growth for the world.
Bloomberg reported zero percent or negative GDP growth in the worst-case scenario.
 COVID-19 will also have a negative impact on the labour market. The International Labour
Organisation has predicted that 25 million workers throughout the world may lose their jobs.
 The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and numerous ratings houses such as Fitch
Ratings have warned of challenging times ahead. The impact of the pandemic on the global
economy could last for the next two years.
 Malaysia, which is a small country dependent on other nations such as the USA and China, is
also expected to feel the pinch. According to a report by the Malaysian Institute of Economic
Research, Malaysia’s GDP growth will contract by 2.61 percent in 2020.
 Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) said in a recent statement that Malaysia’s economic growth will
be in the -2.0 percent to +0.5 percent range. It also estimated that 951,000 people will lose their
jobs.
 The Malaysian Global Innovation and Creativity Centre predicted that about 40 percent of
small- and medium-sized enterprises will have to wind up their operations if the COVID-19

chain of infection persists for three to six months. This will give negative impact on the
government's efforts to reduce poverty.
 In the face of COVID-19, the government must focus on two objectives:
i. Focus on the necessary protective and safety precautions to break the chain of infection
ii. Reduce the negative economic effects by implementing recovery policies involving active
fiscal and monetary policy targets.
 Fiscal policy targets are related to government spending and taxation while the
monetary policies are related to interest rates, liquidity and control of money supply.
 In terms of fiscal policy, the government has announced a series of economic stimulus
packages to help individuals and companies affected by the COVID-19 crisis.
 On March 19, the RM20 billion economic stimulus package (PRE 2020) was launched
to help industries that were directly hit by the first wave of the COVID-19 outbreak,
such as hotels and transport companies.
 After the outbreak entered the second wave and the MCO was imposed, more
individuals and businesses were impacted. The supply chain is disrupted because
almost the entire sector has stopped working. Some production firms have also stopped
operations and worse still, laid-off workers as they are unable to bear the costs.
 On March 27, the government announced the second RM250 billion economic
stimulus package PRIHATIN, which includes the RM20 billion from PRE 2020. Out
of RM230 billion, RM22 billion would come from a direct fiscal injection; RM100
billion (moratorium in loan repayments); RM55 billion (guarantees); RM40 billion
(withdrawal from Employees Provident Fund); and RM13 billion (various sources).
 PRIHATIN’s main objective is to protect the welfare of the people, support businesses
and strengthen the economy.
 However, the stimulus packages will cause the nation’s fiscal position to worsen. To
add to that, the global economic crisis has caused oil prices to tumble down to US$25-
US$30 a barrel. In comparison, oil prices were around US$60 a barrel when Budget
2019 was tabled. When government revenue from oil drops, it will cause an increase
in deficits.
 In terms of monetary policy, Bank Negara Malaysia has cut the Overnight Policy Rate
or OPR by 25 basis points to 2.5 percent and reduced the statutory reserve requirement
ratio or SRR by 100 basis points to two percent. These cuts will reduce loan costs,
improve liquidity and stimulate economic activities.
 Apart from that, the restructuring and rescheduling of the six-month moratorium will
ensure that the capital and financial market returns to stability. It will also help
individuals and businesses facing financial problems and liquidity constraints.
 It is difficult to predict when the economy will fully recover as long as COVID-19 positive
cases continue to rise and no vaccines are discovered to treat the disease.
 Nevertheless, the government’s fiscal and monetary policies complement one another and will
help to revive the economy by increasing aggregate demand such as public and private

consumption and investment. This will help to stimulate economic growth through the
multiplier effect and reduce the hike in the unemployment rate.
 According to Prof Richard Vietor from the Harvard Business School said Malaysia has been
managing its economy quite well compared with its neighbours despite the slowdown in global
economy.
 However, Vietor pointed out that although Malaysia is a trading powerhouse, trade is likely to
be a little slow until the United States, Europe and China economies recovers post-Covid-19.

CHAPTER 12: ECONOMIC ISSUES -- RISING COST OF LIVING AND RAISING THE
LIVING STANDARD
1. RISING COST OF LIVING

 1980s and 1990s -- a steady growth rate of more than 7% on average in Malaysia, with a
relatively low inflation rate. Since 2011 -- inflation has been steadily rising year on year.
 Malaysian households’ earning:
60% of Malaysian households earn less than RM6000 monthly.
80% of households earning an average income of RM2500.
 Economists are predicting that 2015 will be a difficult year for Malaysians.
 Payment of GST (Goods & Service Tax) on goods and services purchased. GST is proposed
to replace the current consumption tax i.e. the sales tax and service tax (SST). The
introduction of GST is part of the Government's tax reform programmed to enhance the
efficiency and effectiveness of the existing taxation system.
 However, due to the rising cost of living, the former government – Pakatan Harapan had
scrapped GST and re-introduced the Sales and Services Tax (SST) that came into effect
since 1 September 2018.
 Governed by the Sales Tax Act 2018 and the Service Tax Act 2018, the Sales Tax was a
federal consumption tax imposed on a wide variety of goods while the Service Tax was
levied on customers who consumed certain taxable services. Special designated areas that
include Langkawi Island, Tioman Island and Labuan Island are exempted from the Service
Tax.
Factors that have contributed to the rising cost of living

a) Climate change, unpredictable weather conditions
 Droughts and floods: bad crops and shortage of essential produce such as wheat and
sugar. Example: countries like Russia, Canada, and Australia, major exporters of wheat,
had less to export, which drives up the global price of the commodity.
 Effect: When these exporting countries announce their lower production levels, and
consequently lower exports, it also causes panic buying in the market, forcing the prices
up further.
b) The volatility of fuel prices
 Since the last quarter of 2014, petrol price had been plunging down  causing the
Malaysian ringgit weakened in comparison to US Dollar.
 The Malaysian ringgit fell by the most among emerging Asian peers on fears that sliding
oil prices may hurt the country's current account surplus and widen the fiscal deficit as
it is a net oil exporter.

c) Subsidy rationalisation measures

 In its bid to reduce its debts, the previous Barisan Nasional government has taken
aggressive subsidy rationalisation measures, including the slashing of fuel and sugar
subsidies.
 Effect: price hike across many household items as fuel and sugar are essential
commodities used in most household items.
 Due to huge debt left by previous BN government, Pakatan Harapan has scaled down
subsidies for petrol and electricity and made more targeted.
 In fact, it is planning to spend a total of RM22.27 billion on subsidies and social
assistance in 2019, down 20.6% from RM28.13 billion this year. Standard Chartered
Global Research pointed out that this had been the lowest absolute amount of subsidies
in almost a decade (see chart).
d) Saddled by loans
 In recent years, the prices of houses have increased.
 With no public transport in many towns, 93% of households own cars mostly purchased
through easy credit schemes.
 Also saddled with loans for purchasing durable consumer goods, and paying utility bills
and internet bills.
e) GST and concerns of further price hike
 A major concern about the implementation of the GST is the resulting price effects on
consumers.
 The prices of other categories of goods and services in the CPI basket such as education,
health, recreation and culture, food and non-alcoholic beverages and food away from
home are expected to increase slightly between 0.67% to 2.21%.

 Most Malaysians believe that the goods and services tax (GST) correlates with the rise
in the cost of living, according to surveys conducted by think tank Institut Darul Ehsan
(IDE).
 In a series of surveys called “Survey Malaysia 2017: Mood of the Nation,” a total of
4,468 respondents were asked if they agreed with this statement: “GST is the reason for
the rise in the cost of living.” Of the total, 82 percent of the respondents agreed while
eight percent disagreed.
f) The Price of Real Estate
 A rapid increase in property prices over the past four to five years with the excessive
speculation in the property market driving property prices to an artificially high level.
 Preponderance towards luxury properties like terrace houses, semi-detached homes and
bungalows. Housing developers from the private sector focus more on bigger and
comfortable homes, using better quality construction materials.
 Information from the Real Estate and Housing Developers’ Association Malaysia
showed that the price of construction materials had increased with the implementation
of the Goods and Services Tax (GST). Also, the steel price increased by 60 per cent
from RM1, 700 per tonne to RM2, 800 per tonne after the introduction of a new levy.
g) Excessive Profiteering of Some Merchants
 Some merchants have chosen to put personal gains above the suffering of their own
kinsmen by committing the sin of opportunistic profiteering.
 Although there has an increase in the price of petrol and sugar due to the removal of
subsidies and although GST has been implemented since April 2015, the price hike has
been above the estimated percentage of increase due to some merchants resorting to
excessive profiteering (increasing prices of goods and services to gain extra profit).
h) Low wage
 According to Bank Negara Malaysia Annual Report 2017, Malaysia risks being trapped
in a low-wage, low-skill conundrum.
 Current wages in Malaysia may be too low to attract local workers especially in the 3D
jobs.
2. WEAKENING OF RINGGIT
 Malaysia’s ringgit has slid past 4.0 against US dollar in the worst currency crash seen for
the first time in 17 years.
 Heightened by worsening global outlook, devaluation of China’s yuan, political scandals
linked to the Prime Minister, plus the falling crude oil prices, the four horsemen of the
apocalypse have assembled for the ringgit’s troubled days ahead.
 The main culprit however, is the decreasing oil prices which destabilises the oil-exporting
economy. The continuous ringgit slide is alarmingly disquieting.

 How would the decrease of ringgit’s value affect you as a consumer? Are we the generation
bound to experience the comeback of ringgit meltdown during 1997-1998 Asian financial
crisis?
Negative effects of weakening Ringgit

a) Increased price of goods and services
 If you have mixed feelings about Goods and Service Tax (GST) imposed on the things
you love, a weak ringgit will worsen your buying mood.
 Prepare to tighten your belt as the increased cost of imported goods will be reflected on
the price tags.
 The cost of imported components utilised by domestic producers will also contribute to
the impact. This results in us expressing great disdain over the price hike of imported
fresh goods (vegetables, fruits, etc.)
b) Inflation
 When the ringgit experiences depreciation, the cost of imported goods will increase as
mentioned earlier.
 The use of raw materials from foreign markets will also contribute to inflation caused
by imported goods.
 As a result, domestic producers are forced to sell their goods on a higher price to sustain
the increased cost of operation.
 For instance, automobile companies which utilise imported components in their vehicles
would feel the impact of weak ringgit and market the finished vehicles on a higher price
to the end consumers.
c) Costly oversea travel
 The poor exchange rate for ringgit equates to a lesser value it carries when you convert
it to foreign currencies.
 You should revise your plans to study or travel abroad as the expenses in your budget is
expected to increase on a consequential proportion. Until the Malaysia’s ringgit has fully
recovered, join the Cuti-cuti Malaysia bandwagon for cheaper travel.
d) Reduced purchasing power
 When the price of goods and services increase, but your income is not, what do you have
left? Answer: A diminished purchasing power.
 You have likely felt the pinch after the implementation of GST. With the weakening of
the ringgit, the prices of goods and services are expected to increase further.
 The increased cost of goods does not permit you to spend freely like you used to. As a
result, there are lesser things you can buy with your money as your purchasing power is
reduced.

e) Prolonged difficult times ahead

 The ringgit’s depreciation is mostly caused by external factors. Followed by the
strengthening of US dollar, ringgit is unlikely to fare well against greenback in the
present.
 The falling crude oil prices are beyond the control of the Malaysian government as well.
If the plummeting value of ringgit persists and threaten the economy, we may expect
the government to impose capital controls to protect the economy.
 The 1997-1998 Asian financial crisis forced the former Prime Minister Mahathir
Mohamad to fix the ringgit at 3.80 to the dollar as a form of capital control to prevent
the country’s economy from going downhill.
Positive effects of weakening Ringgit

a) Exports growth
 A weak ringgit can act as a stimulus to the Malaysian businesses as it has now become
more affordable for foreign markets to purchase Malaysian-made goods.
 The increment of demand for the domestic products will likely generate more profits for
the certain businesses such as the manufacturing sector.
 Export-oriented businesses which market its goods to international markets will find the
weak ringgit beneficial as they enjoy higher sales volume.
 As a whole, the increment in exports for some economic sectors will be observed.
b) Tourism boost
 Foreign tourists will benefit from a weaker ringgit as it grants them a higher purchasing
power to splurge like a shopaholic.
 Singaporeans who enjoy a quick getaway to Malaysia would likely be the prime
benefiters as ringgit falls to an all-time new low trading around 2.90 to the Sing dollar.
If you are a foreigner reading this, there is no better time to visit Malaysia as the weak
ringgit gives you more value for your money.
c) Increased foreign investment
 The falling ringgit makes investment in Malaysia more welcoming. As such, investors
will take advantage of this and strike while the iron is hot.
 A weak ringgit will encourage foreigners to invest through foreign direct investment
(FDI) and foreign investment portfolio as it is cheaper to operate and buy stocks and
bonds in Malaysia respectively.
 While the effects of capital flow generated by foreign investment portfolio is not
immediately felt by the citizens, FDI can generate employment opportunities in the
market as multinational companies build new facilities to conduct businesses in the
country.
The depreciation of ringgit is boon and bane for the country. Currency fluctuation is a naturally
occurring process of the economy. In a state of perpetual flux, the economy is not immune to

global trends triggered by a chain of events elsewhere in the world. Our country is not immune
to this phenomenon; however, this is a challenge we can overcome. While surely things will
get better in time, it may be wise to assess your current financial security
3. RAISING THE LIVING STANDARD
1 Malaysia People’s Aid (BRIM)

 The government has allocated RM6.8 billion for 2018 BRIM which will benefit 7.2 million
recipients.
 Single individuals with an income of less than RM 2000 are entitled to RM450 as welfare
support money. Households with an income of RM 3001 to RM 4000 are entitled to RM
900 in financial aid.RM 1200 aid will be given to families with a household income of less
than RM 3000.
 The 1Malaysia People's Aid (BR1M) programme, which was introduced during the Barisan
Nasional administration, is replaced by the Bantuan Sara Hidup (BSH) in January 2019,
aimed at easing the burden of the Bottom 40 (B40) household income group.
 It is estimated that 4.1 million households will continue to receive financial assistance from
the government with an allocation of RM5 billion.
 Based on the BSH tabled by Finance Minister, Mr Lim Guan Eng in Budget 2019,
households with monthly income of RM2,000 and below will receive a grant of RM1,000,
households with monthly income from RM2,001 to RM3,000 and below will receive a total
of RM750 while households with monthly income from RM3,001 to RM4,000 will receive
a total of RM500.
 The government also introduces an additional BSH of RM120 for each child aged 18 years
and below to be limited to four people, except those with disabilities or handicapped, are
not limited to their age.
 According to Mr Lim Guan Eng, the government can provide better assistance to the B40
group under BSH as opposed to the BR1M programme.
 For example, households with monthly income of RM2,000 and below and having four
kids aged 18 years and below could receive a total of RM1,480. This represents 23.33%
more than the latest BR1M programme, which paying RM1,200 for the same targeted
group.
 The Finance Ministry has also reinstated the cash aid for single, low-income individuals in
Malaysia and therefore, they can now be eligible for RM100 under the Cost of Living Aid
(BSH) scheme, as announced by Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng on 19 February.
 This cash aid will be distributed to more than three million singles by the end of March
2019, provided they are registered in the BSH Database. In total, this aid will sum up to
RM300 million in public funds.

Government aid for eligible school students and students at institutions of higher
learning
 Beginning January 2019, the government will provide preliminary school aid of RM100
each to Year One to Form Five students from households with income of RM3,000 and
below.
 Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng said the financial aid was intended to help parents and
guardians with their new year expenses.
 This special allocation of RM328 million would be channelled to the Education Ministry
to be distributed to schools from January 2019,
 Meanwhile, the Ministry of Finance (MOF) also announced aid of RM100 each for
Malaysian students at institutions of higher learning (IPT).
 The aid, to be disbursed end of next month using existing mechanism, namely the Bank
Rakyat debit card, is expected to benefit 1.2 million students and involve an allocation of
RM120 million.
 The details on the implementation of Higher Education Student Aid (BPPT) 2019 and the
criteria on the eligibility of students to receive the aid would be announced by MOE soon.
1Malaysia Clinics (K1M)

 Since 2010, Malaysians are able to enjoy medical treatments at just RM1 per visit. The
clinics, with over 50 outlets nationwide, are strategically located in various housing areas.
 This initiative provides immediate healthcare to all Malaysians who are in need of basic
medical services.
 With qualified nurses and medical assistants with at least five years of experience, the
clinics are able to carry out minor surgeries, stitching, wound cleaning and dressing as well
as treating illnesses like cough, flu, fever, diabetes and hypertension.
 Senior citizens are exempted from any payment.
 K1M, which operates from 10am to 10pm daily, including on public holidays and
weekends, with citizens charged RM1 for each visit and free for senior citizens, provides
convenience to the people, especially the less fortunate and those staying far from the city.
 However, the Health Ministry has decided to close 34 out of 347 1Malaysia Clinics (K1M)
after taking into account that it will have a minimal impact on the local communities
concerned
 On 15 December 2018, Minister of Health, Datuk Seri Dr Dzulkefly Ahmad said that the
government was very concerned about the welfare of the lower income group (B40), and
therefore, K1Ms established at public housing projects (PPR) were not closed despite
having fewer than 40 patients a day.
 Datuk Seri Dr Dzulkefly Ahmad said that the average number of patients was among the
criteria used to decide on the closure of a K1M, as well as taking into account the presence
of other government health facilities within 5km of the said clinic.

 He added that although the ministry had set the criteria, each K1M selected for closure will
also be exclusively evaluated to ensure it is the right decision.
1 Malaysia People’s Shop 2.0 (Kedai Rakyat 1 Malaysia 2.0)

 Malaysians can purchase their daily necessities at cheaper prices compared to market
prices.
 Four essential household items – flour, rice, cooking oil and sugar that is also being offer
on store and it will be sold at a more competitive price at the KR1M 2.0
 In August 2018, according to Minister of Domestic Trade and Consumer Affairs, Datuk
Seri Saifuddin Nasution bin Ismail, 51 KR1M 2.0 are still operating nationwide.
Government implemented the Raising Living Standards of Low Income Households

NKRA (LIH NKRA), which aims to help the needy segment of Malaysian society.
 The goals of the LIH NKRA are twofold: first, to provide immediate help for those most
in need, and second, to ensure that the poor and extreme poor develop are given the right
support to become financially self-sufficient.
 The NKRA also looks to address specific ethnic groups, which are caught in the cycle of
poverty, thereby suffering from consequences such as malnutrition and inadequate
education.
 The flagship initiative of the GTP 1.0, the 1AZAM (Akhiri Zaman Miskin) programme,
has seen significant results, but also yielded important lessons on the delivery of aid that
will be incorporated in the GTP 2.0.
Minimum wage of RM1100 per month

 Though it may appear to be insignificant for now, the gradual hike will and benefit some
700,000 employees and translate into greater consumer spending
 Those who do not pay the basic salary amount to their employees as stipulated in the
Minimum Wages Order (Amendment) 2018 would be committing an offence and if found
guilty, could be fined not more than RM10,000 for each employee

CHAPTER 13: ECONOMIC ISSUES -- BRAIN DRAIN
Definition
 It is also called as human capital flight.
 Brain drain denotes the departure of educated or professional people from one country,
economic sector, or field for another, usually for better pay or living conditions.
 More practically, brain drain simply refers to the migration of highly-skilled workers as
measured by their level of educational attainment, typically at the level of Bachelor’s degree or
higher.
Brain drain in Malaysia

a) Being one of the countries most affected by brain drain.
 Not only being incapable of delivering the required talent, but also in being unable to retain
the current local talent or attract foreign ones.
 Malaysia aims to escape the second-world chasm and join the league of high-income nations
by 2020, but the biggest deterrent is the lack of skilled human capital.
b) Estimated statistics
 Since it is extremely difficult to keep track of the current Malaysian diaspora which is so
widely spread out, the World Bank used previous data and took into account the most recent
trends, and from it estimated that at least 800,000 and up to 1.4 million Malaysians were
currently living overseas.
 Among the diaspora, more than a third of them are over 25 years of age.
c) Gloomy picture of the Malaysian brain drain situation
 Brain drain has grown rapidly but is likely to intensify  further eroding the country’s
already narrow skills base.
 The number of skilled Malaysians living abroad has tripled in the last two decades with 2
out of every 10 Malaysians with tertiary education opting to leave for either OECD
(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries or Singapore.
d) Breakdown of the brain drain to destination countries are as follows:
 54% to Singapore, resulting in Malaysian-born employees contributing to a quarter of
the island nation's population and 47% of its skilled foreign labour in 2010
 15% to Australia
 10% to the United States
 5% to the United Kingdom.
 Simply put, one in every ten skilled Malaysians born in Malaysia choose to leave the country,
which is twice the world average. While the numbers are similar to Singapore and Hong
Kong, they are actually incomparable to Malaysia because that is a typical situation for small
and open economies. Malaysia is suffering the loss of skilled brain drain, especially for
technology-based jobs.

The main factors of the Malaysian brain drain

The World Bank identified in their Monitor Report the factors of the Malaysian brain drain.
a) The main cause is attributed to the less attractive salary and benefits offered in the country.
 This difference is especially noticeable in the high-skill technology sector.
 In a survey conducted by JobStreet’s survey, among the top reasons for the brain drain was
the large gap between expected and offered salaries.
b) A sensitive, yet substantial cause of the Malaysian Brain Drain is the perceived social injustice
in the country.
 Some Malaysian emigrants in the brain-drain issue were dissatisfied with the extra assistance
determined by Article 153 of the Constitution.
 Foreign observers recognize this as a major cause of brain drain.
c) The limited access to high-quality education also remains to be a significant cause of brain
drain.
 Enrolment into affordable public tertiary education institutions is very limited and based on
racial quotas while private universities are costly and is not anywhere near the standards of
universities in developed countries.
 Primary and secondary education, although free, is of substandard quality  uncommonly
supported by long hours of outside tutoring for those who can afford it.
d) The close proximity of Singapore and its substantially more developed environment also
encourages the Malaysian diaspora to migrate there.
 The proximity allows them to keep in touch with family left behind in Malaysia
 The extensive network of Malaysians already living there make it easier for them to make
the move.
Effects of brain drain in Malaysia

a) May trap a country into an undesirable equilibrium
 The World Bank states that brain drain could cause a vicious circle that may trap a country
into an undesirable equilibrium with low levels of human capital and large technology gap
 Could contribute to rich countries becoming richer and poor countries becoming poorer.
(World Bank, April 2011).
b) A large diaspora of skilled workers who have graduated from institutions of higher education
 The economy has witnessed a large diaspora of skilled workers in comparison to the overall
population, and receives a sizeable number of immigrants from neighbouring countries,
 Causes the erosion of an economy’s skill base and dampens innovation
c) Affecting firm productivity due to the tight labour-market for skills
 Could potentially affect economic growth in the long-run.
 According to the World Bank Report in 2011, Malaysia's growth fell to an average 4.6% in
the past decade (2000-2010), from 7.2% the previous period.

d) Touches the core of Malaysia's aspiration to become a high-income nation.

 With human capital the bedrock of any high-income economy, Malaysia will need to
develop, attract and retain talent.
 Malaysia needs talent, but talent seems to be leaving.
e) Affecting SMEs (Small-Medium Enterprises) in attracting local talents to work in the country
 Due to the budget constraints faced by SMEs.
 Some SMEs do not have the financial capabilities to host talent fairs themselves, without
any financial aid from the government.
Measures to solve brain drain

a) Government Transformation Programme (GTP) and Economic Transformation Programme
(ETP)
 The Malaysian government has identified productivity and inclusiveness as the key factors
to solve emigration and have established the Government Transformation Programme (GTP)
and Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) to tackle the issue from these perspectives.
 Under the GTP, the government is hoping to address the issue of non-inclusiveness for non-
Bumiputeras.
 Through it, the Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Razak has launched the 1Malaysia
campaign, which encourages Malaysians to no longer identify their culture by race but by
nationality.
b) Talent Corporation
 The government is also currently working with Talent Corporation to attract, nurture and
retain talent required for a high-income economy.
 Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad (TalentCorp) was set up to strengthen public - private
sector collaboration in widening and deepening the talent pool in Malaysia
 It has introduced the Returning Expert Program (REP) to encourage Malaysians currently
working abroad to return home by providing incentives like a flat tax rate of 15%, tax
exemption for all personal effects brought home and permanent resident status for spouse
and children.
c) The Otak-Otak Program
 The Otak-Otak Program (Otak-Otak) was established by four young professionals who
returned from abroad to pursue a career in Malaysia
 Otak-Otak is an internship programme that focuses on bridging the gap between industry
professionals and students.
 Otak-Otak builds a community of students and established professionals working together
to give back to each other and to the nation, much like an alumni network.
d) Feedback from the current diaspora
 Essential in determining policies to reduce brain drain.

 Some of the most popular responses from the respondents were their wish that there would
be a paradigm shift away from raced-based towards need-based affirmative action and
evidence of fundamental and positive change in the government.

CHAPTER 14: THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Adapted from World Economic Forum
https://www.weforum.org/about/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-by-klaus-schwab
Introduction
Professor Klaus Schwab, founder and executive chairman of the World Economic Forum, defines
the Fourth Industrial Revolution as a digital revolution. This Fourth Industrial Revolution is
characterized by a range of new technologies that are fusing the physical, digital and biological
worlds, impacting all disciplines, economies and industries, and even challenging ideas about what
it means to be human. Professor Klaus Schwab is convinced that humans are at the beginning of a
revolution that is fundamentally changing the way we live, work and relate to one another.
Opportunities and challenges

a) Fusing technologies
 The Fourth Industrial Revolution builds from a fusion of technologies. Nearly every new
development in any field now leverages digital capability. For example, advanced robots
would not exist without new approaches made to artificial intelligence dependent on digital
systems and processing power.
 The digital and physical worlds also collide in fields such as autonomous vehicles and 3D
printing. Advances in sensors are enabling robots and autonomous systems to understand
and respond better to their environments, and to engage in a broader variety of tasks beyond
the factory floors where they have been most prevalent historically. These systems can now
access information remotely and connect with one another to exchange information and
learn collectively. As the next generation of robots emerges as an element of the Internet
of Things, there will be an increasing emphasis on human-machine collaboration.
 The physical and biological worlds are merging partly thanks to the creation of new
materials that are designed to emulate the biological world. The discovery of new classes
of recyclable, thermosetting polymers called polyhexahydrotriazines is a major step
towards a more sustainable economy, for example.
 New materials are now routinely being used in medical implants, for tissue engineering,
and for the creation of artificial organs, and 3D printing is increasingly being used to create
customized structures. The biological and digital worlds overlap most controversially in
the world of genetic engineering. Widely-accessible and affordable gene sequencing and
editing systems, such as CRISPR/Cas9, make it possible to reliably and precisely remove
or replace sequences in the genome of plants and animals. The biological and digital worlds
are also overlapping in the form of sensors used to monitor personal health and behaviour,
and to understand and influence brain activity.

 Advances that might have once been confined to digital systems, like the application of
cryptography to blockchain technology to create programmable, secure, and distributed
records, are now having widespread impact in the real world.
b) Innovation and productivity

 The impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution on productivity has not yet become fully
apparent because it is increasing efficiency in ways that cannot be accurately measured by
traditional means.
 Many new goods and services are non-rival, meaning that they can be repeated again and
again without generating more costs; they may also have zero marginal cost to begin with,
or they may use digital platforms to lower prices in highly competitive markets. Under
these conditions, traditional productivity statistics may fail to capture real increases in
value, given that any related price benefit for consumers is not well reflected in corporate
sales and profit figures.
 The world has yet to fully experience the productivity explosion being created by the new
technologies at the heart of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This revolution has not yet
reached many of the two billion people still disconnected from the global economy, who
may ultimately benefit the most from it.
 Many of the technologies and processes being created to help better manage negative forces
like the environmental impact of climate change have not yet been widely implemented.
After all, we are still at the beginning of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, and few
organizations have so far reorganized themselves to take full advantage of it.
c) Agile technology governance

 Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies can be harnessed by governments to govern
better, become more accessible, and increase transparency and trust. Examples include the
use of technologies like the Internet of Things in Barcelona to better monitor waste
collection and conserve the electricity used for lamp posts, and the Estonian government’s
use of blockchain to secure national data and online services.
 However, technology can also create governance challenges, as advances in some cases
threaten the social contract between government and the citizenry. The increased use of
online social media, for example, has created situations where electorates are being
manipulated and misinformed (new industries have been spawned specifically to deploy
this sort of persuasion, exemplified by Cambridge Analytica).
 Governments will be forced to change their approach when it comes to the creation and
enforcement of regulation, and to create new instruments to cope with the spread of new
technologies.
 Becoming agile enables regulatory and legislative environments to face the uncertainty of
social, economic, and technological shifts. The key will be to make deliberation more

productive than it is now, and to create the maximum amount of space possible for future
innovation.
 Putting agile governance into practice will involve understanding existing models and how
they operate in specific social and political contexts, and looking for opportunities to
harness new technologies and processes that can remove the bottlenecks in those models.
Increased efficiency and effectiveness of consultation, improved transparency, and more
flexibility on the part of regulators will be required.
d) Disruption
 As business models are disrupted, employment is being profoundly impacted. The result
will be significant job creation and job displacement, in addition to both heightened labour
productivity and widening gaps between the skills that employers need, and those that
potential employees have.
 The World Economic Forum’s 2016 Future of Jobs report suggests that mismatches may
emerge not just between the current supplies of, and demand for, contemporary skills but
also between those contemporary skills and those that will be required in the future. Closing
these gaps will require a solid understanding of the existing skills bases in particular
countries and industries, and of how disruptive change will dictate new skills requirements
in every case.
 Mismatches and gaps in education systems are hindering the effective redeployment of
underutilized, latent talent. Workers need to be repurposed, across industries and with an
eye to the skills required for the fastest-growing fields.
 According to the Forum’s Human Capital Report 2017, the number of people in the world
with skills developed at a university or school is rising, but our understanding of how
formal qualifications are distributed across industries and locations remains limited.
 Detailed skills information is critical for employers and employees, to better grasp what
may be most transferable across industries. For example, an employer in the financial
services industry facing a shortage of data analysts could reasonably expect to be able to
consider applicants from a different industry - if there are identifiable, overlapping skills.
Employers will need to increasingly think about how to tap this skills “adjacency,” in order
to uncover hidden talent pools.
e) Business disruption
 In some ways, COVID-19 may have accelerated changes as part of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution. During the early part of the global outbreak, for example, the share price of
video conferencing service Zoom more than doubled, as its number of users increased from
10 million to more than 200 million.
 Places where connectivity has lagged are catching up; an estimated 4.1 billion people
around the world were using the internet as of the end of 2019, or more than double the

number reported just a decade earlier, according to the International Telecommunication

Union.
 Businesses must also develop new ways to serve customers digitally that go beyond
communication; Tesla, for example, has deployed over-the-air software updates that help
maintain the value of its electric cars long after they have been purchased. Meanwhile
physical assets like an elevator can be priced solely based on their digitally-recorded
performance over a given period, excluding the downtime required for maintenance.
 COVID-19 will likely force businesses to reorganize in ways that go well beyond having
their employees work from home. While job losses and revenue declines have been severe,
some companies are likely to be able to respond in innovative ways. Apple and Google, for
example, announced an effort to enable the use of Bluetooth technology to help
governments and health agencies curb the spread by alerting people about their possible
exposure to someone who has subsequently been diagnosed as having the virus.
 Businesses considering new partnerships will continue to pivot to open operating models
that can capitalize on network effects. This “platform” strategy, designed to broaden
influence by encouraging peers to build on top of a company’s established tools and
infrastructure, is a proven model. According to a report published by Accenture in 2016,
the top 15 public platform companies at that time already represented $2.6 trillion in market
capitalization worldwide.
f) Inequality
 Worsening inequality and negative impacts on social stability are the greatest potential
risks of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. While new technologies improve employment
and entrepreneurial opportunities, the new global technology platforms could cause
inequality and social fragmentation.
 According to the 2017 edition of the Global Wealth Report published by Credit Suisse,
total global wealth increased 27% over the course of the prior decade, and slightly more
than half of all of the household wealth in the world was owned by just 1% of the global
population (when the current millennium had begun, 45.5% of total global wealth was
owned by the top 1%, according to the report). Inequality within most countries is getting
worse, even in places that have enjoyed rapid economic growth across income groups and
corresponding declines in poverty.
 Rising inequality is an economic and a social concern. The World Economic Forum’s
Global Risks Report 2018 showed strong interconnections between rising income disparity,
unemployment or underemployment, and profound social instability. A more digitally-
connected world has created higher expectations, which can generate significant social risk
if people feel they have no chance to attain the prosperity they see others enjoying. This
could further motivate extremist movements, and augment their recruitment efforts.

g) Ethics and identity

 COVID 19 has magnified existing challenges related to inequality, dysfunctional
leadership and healthcare systems, and the dangers of spreading disinformation online. In
addition, some efforts to curb the spread of the coronavirus have involved digital tracking
tools, like contact-tracing apps meant to alert users when they have been in contact with
people who are infected.
 As knowledge progresses and new discoveries are made, related moral and ethical
considerations are critical if people are to be able to adequately respond to phenomena like
life extension, so-called designer babies, and memory extraction.
 As the Fourth Industrial Revolution deepens our individual and collective relationships
with technology, it may negatively affect social skills - like the ability to empathize. While
a 2010 study by the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research identified a nearly
40% decline in empathy among college students compared with counterparts 20 or 30 years
earlier, a study published by Nielsen in 2017 showed that millennials were already
spending about six hours per week on social media, while members of Generation X (age
35 to 49) were spending nearly seven hours. As face-to-face conversation is now replaced
by online interaction, people might struggle to listen, make eye contact, or accurately read
body language.
h) Security and conflict

 New technologies are making the battlefield both local and global. Groups such as the
Islamic State may physically operate in defined areas, but can recruit fighters from
hundreds of different countries, largely through social media. Modern conflict is
increasingly hybrid in nature, combining traditional battlefield techniques with elements
previously associated with armed, non-state actors; the internet is becoming as much a
theatre of engagement as land, sea, and air.
 Future conflict might include an online dimension, as combatants disrupt, confuse, and
destroy communications and decision-making capabilities. Autonomous warfare involving
the deployment of military robots and artificial intelligence-powered weaponry will play a
transformative role.
 Criminal gangs are already using off-the-shelf drones to spy on and attack rivals.
Autonomous weapons that are capable of identifying targets and deciding to open fire
without human intervention will become increasingly feasible; while neurotechnologies
that can interact with a human brain are currently being employed to solve medical
problems, in the future they could have military uses.
 A computer system attached to brain tissue could enable a paralysed patient to control a
robotic limb, and it could also be used to direct a bionic soldier. Another possible scenario:
brain devices for treating Alzheimer’s could be strategically implanted in soldiers in order
to erase memories, or create new ones.

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Course Notes/MPU-3322.

Updated October 2020 1

CHAPTER 1: SOCIAL ISSUES -- DRUG TRAFFICKING AND DRUG ADDICTION

What is drug trafficking?

International narcotics control strategy report on drug trafficking in Malaysia

Mandatory death penalty for drug trafficking

Updated October 2020 2

Reasons to justify the death penalty

Reasons to abolish the death penalty

Updated October 2020 3

Causes of drug trafficking

Statistics: number of drugs addicts from 2014 till February 2018

STATISTICS OF DRUG ADDICTS BY CASE STATUS, 2014 - 2018

Per Case 13,605 20,289 22,923 18,440

Per Case 21,777 26,668 30,844 25,922 25,267

Updated October 2020 4

National disaster and main threat to national security

Steps taken to wage a war against drugs abuse

Updated October 2020 5

Should drug use be decriminalized?

Decriminalization of drug use in other countries and Malaysia

Advantages of decriminalizing drug use

Updated October 2020 6

The concern of drug relapse

Factors contributing to relapse among drug addicts in Malaysia

Updated October 2020 7

e) Unemployment issues among former drug addicts.

The ways to prevent drug relapse

Updated October 2020 8

CHAPTER 2: SOCIAL ISSUES -- RISING CRIME AND CORRUPTION

Crime index ratio per 100,000 populations by state, 2016-2018.

Updated October 2020 9

 Two ways to measure crime:

The public’s perception on crimes

Effects of this increased fear of crimes among the public

Updated October 2020 10

 Outside of the house  feel anxious and afraid.

Updated October 2020 11

Causes of gangsterism among youths

Updated October 2020 12

Reasons why snatch theft is the most frequent street crime

Measures to curb snatch thefts

Updated October 2020 13

Updated October 2020 14

The effects of cybercrime

Updated October 2020 15

Updated October 2020 16

Steps to protect us from cyber-crime

Updated October 2020 17

National Anti-Corruption Plan (NACP) 2019-2023

Updated October 2020 18

Updated October 2020 19

Updated October 2020 20

CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL ISSUES -- RACIAL UNITY AND EDUCATION

Unity amidst diversity

The importance of promoting unity amidst diversity in Malaysia

Updated October 2020 21

Challenges encountered in attaining racial unity in Malaysia

a) The rise of political and religious extremism

Several initiatives taken by the government

Updated October 2020 22

The issue of vernacular schools – to remain or to abolish?

Reasons why vernacular ought to remain

Updated October 2020 23