Chapter 3: Carrier Action

This is the band diagram of solar cell

having p-type and n-type material
fused together to make a device. We
will see how charge carriers are
generated and how they are
transported within the semiconductor
in this chapter

Haris Mehmood, Hisham Nasser, Engin Ozkol, et al. “Simulation of an efficient silicon
heterostructure solar cell concept featuring molybdenum oxide carrier‐selective contact” Int J
Energy Res., Volume 42, pp.1563–1579, 2018. (https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3947)
Types of carrier action

Drift
Diffusion
Recombination-generation
3.1.1. Drift
• Movement of charged particle in response to an applied
electric field
• Collision with lattice atoms and interruption in carrier
acceleration give rise to scattering of charge carriers
3.1.2. Drift Current
3.1.2. Drift Current in p-type Semiconductor
3.1.2. Hole Drift (Current) & (Current Density)

hole drift current density

 3.1.2. Drift Velocity in Pure Silicon

As the applied electric field increases, the carrier velocity no longer

increases because the carriers lose energy through increased levels of
interaction with the lattice, by emitting phonons or photons
3.1.2. Drift Current Densities

hole drift current density

electron drift current density

𝝁𝒏 = electron mobility

𝝁𝒑 = hole mobility
3.1.3. Mobility
 Mobility is the measure of ease of carrier movement in crystal
 Scattering of carriers in lattice has inverse relationship with mobility

𝜇 = 𝑞 < 𝜏 >/𝑚∗
where 𝜏 is the mean free time between collisions and m* is the effective
mass

𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝑽𝒔 = standard unit of mobility

 3.1.3. Doping Dependence Si @ T=300 K

𝑵𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝑫 = dopant concentration

Lattice scattering dominant for < 1015 cm-3 (scattering of carriers by interaction with atoms in a lattice)
Impurity scattering dominant for > 1015 cm-3 (scattering of charge carriers by dopant atoms in lattice
 3.1.3. Doping Dependence GaAs@T=300 K

𝑵𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝑫 = dopant concentration

Why mobility µ of GaAs is larger than Si? Because effective mass of carriers in GaAs is lighter
than in Si
 3.1.3. Temperature Dependence ( 𝜇𝑛 𝑣𝑠. 𝑇)

For electrons

 Lattice scattering is a dominant

scattering mechanism in low
doping range

 Decreasing the system

temperature causes an ever-
decreasing thermal agitation
of semiconductor lattice
atoms

 So mobility increases
3.1.3. Temperature Dependence ( 𝜇𝑝 𝑣𝑠. 𝑇)

For holes
 3.1.4. Resistivity (𝜌)
Resistivity (𝜌): material’s inherent property to resist flow of current

Where µn is an electron mobility and ND is donor concentration (or amount of n-type dopant atoms introduced in the material)

Where µp is the hole mobility and NA is an acceptor concentration (or amount of p-type dopant atoms introduced in the material)
 3.1.4. Resistivity vs. 𝑁𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐷
• Considering the mobilities of
electrons and holes for Si at 300 K
temperature (see Slide 10)

• The resistivity decreased with an

increasing dopant concentration
because of the inverse relationship
between resistivity and dopant
concentration as shown in the
expression in the previous slide

• The decrease in resistivity means

increase in conductivity of the
semiconductor
 3.1.4. How to measure resistivity?
Commonly used technique is 4-point probe method

V – voltage
I - current

s is the distance between any two

probes

Γ is the correction factor that depends

on semiconductor thickness and
whether the bottom of semiconductor is
touching metal or an insulator
3.1.4. Four-point probe system
This equipment tells us the resistivity reading

Semiconductor wafer placed on insulating medium

You can see the four probes here with uniform distance s
3.1.5. Band bending
K.E. of electrons = E – EC
K.E. of holes = EV – E
P.E. of electrons = EC – Eref
K.E. = how farther an
electron is away from the
conduction band edge and
vice versa for hole
P.E. = distance between
reference level and
conduction band
Total E = K.E. + P.E.

P.E. of holes = Eref – EV

The potential graph is just
the invert of energy band
1
𝑉 = − (𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) curve
𝑞
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝐸𝑐 1 𝑑𝐸𝑉 1 𝑑𝐸𝑖
𝐸 = − = = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑑𝑥

The electric field is the slope of the energy band curve

Example 3.2
Example 3.2
Solution Example 3.2 (a)
Solution Example 3.2 (b)
Solution Example 3.2 (c)
Solution Example 3.2 (d)
3.2. Diffusion
Spreading of particles due to either
1) Random thermal motion
2) Macroscopic movement from high concentration region to low
concentration region
3.2.1. Diffusion Example

With the passage of time,

number of particles in
different compartments
becomes almost same. An
example of diffusion where
particles try to distribute in
medium uniformly.
 3.2.1. Diffusion in Semiconductor Devices
The hole diffusion current
density is in the same direction
as hole movement

Diffusion of holes and electrons in P-

type and N-type media respectively
from high concentration to low
concentration region
The electron diffusion
current density is in
opposite direction to that
of electron movement
3.2.2. Hot point probe measurement

 A technique to determine type (P or N) of semiconductor material

 It also provides information about diffusion process
3.2.3. Flux (flow) of Particles in Diffusion

ℱ = −𝐷 𝛻𝜼

ℱ = flux of particles (particles per cm2 second)

𝛻𝜼 = concentration gradient of particles
𝑫 = Diffusion coefficient
3.2.3. Flux (flow) of Particles in Diffusion

Fick’s Law describes diffusion as the flux, F, of particles in our case, is

proportional to the gradient in concentration.

ℱ = −𝐷 𝛻𝜼

ℱ = flux of particles (particles per cm2 second)

𝛻𝜼 = concentration gradient of particles
𝑫 = Diffusion coefficient
3.2.3. Diffusion Current Density

Diffusion current density due to holes

Diffusion current density due to electrons

𝛻𝒑 = concentration gradient of holes

𝛻𝒏 = concentration gradient of holes
Dp = Diffusion coefficients of holes
Dn = Diffusion coefficients of electrons
3.2.3. Total Current
3.2.4. Connection between ‘D’ and 𝜇𝑛

𝐷𝑁 = diffusion coefficient of electrons

𝑘 = Boltzman constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J. K −1
𝑇 = temperature K
𝜇𝑛 = electron mobility
𝑞 = charge on electron
3.2.4. Connection between ‘D’ and 𝜇𝑃

𝐷𝑁 = diffusion coefficient of holes

𝑘 = Boltzman constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J. K -1
𝑇 = temperature K
𝜇𝑛 = electron mobility
𝑞 = charge on electron
Exercise 3.4
Solution