Simulations of Pollution and their effects on the
Electrical Performance of Glass Suspension Insulators
Suat Ilhan1, Aydogan Ozdemir1, Shesha H. Jayaram2 and Edward A. Cherney2
1
Department of Electrical Engineering
Istanbul Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
2
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Canada
Abstract- This paper presents simulations of pollution and their
effects on the electrical performance of cap-and-pin glass
suspension insulators. The pollution is modeled by using a
partially conductive epoxy resin with graphite powder. The
effects of the pollution levels as well as their locations on the
insulator surfaces are investigated for both simulation and
experimental studies. The studies are conducted both for one
suspension unit and a string of five insulators. The results show
that at power frequency voltage, the reduction in the flashover
voltage is about the same whether the upper surface or the
bottom surface of the insulator is polluted. Moreover, the
percentage reduction of a single unit is about the same as for a
five unit string. At lightning impulse voltage, the insulator
performance depends on the location of the pollution. Positive
polarity impulse voltage is more critical than the negative
polarity for the upper surface polluted case for one and the five
unit string. For the bottom polluted case, negative polarity
impulse voltage is more critical.
Key Words: Electric field, power frequency voltage, pollution,
potential distribution, lightning impulse voltage.
I. INTRODUCTION
The presence of pollution on the high voltage outdoor
insulators is quite common especially in industrial and coastal
regions. It is known that a very small leakage current flows
through the dry insulator surface; however, when the polluted
insulator surface becomes wet due to the rain or dew, the
surface resistivity of the insulators decreases and flashovers
may occur [1] - [4].
Several numerical studies have been conducted to
investigate the electric field distribution on polluted insulators
for ac voltages [3] - [6]. There are also several theoretical
models developed to predict the critical current and flashover
voltage of polluted insulators.
This paper mainly concentrates on the effects of partially
polluted conditions on the power frequency and the impulse
flashover of glass suspension insulators. The studies are
repeated for one single unit and a string of five insulator units.
Uniform surface pollution was modeled by using a mixture of
epoxy resin, curing agent and grafite powder.
The effects of pollution levels as well as their locations on
the insulator surfaces were investigated both for simulation
and experimental-based studies. Lightning impulse (LI) and ac
978-1-4673-1252-3/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE 803
flashover tests were performed on the polluted insulators. 3D
simulation studies were conducted to investigate the field
distributions on the polluted insulators. FEM based
commercial software, Comsol 4.2, was used for the entire
simulation studies. Potential distributions around the clean and
polluted insulators were also measured using a non-contact
type electrostatic voltmeter to verify the simulation studies.
II. INSULATORS, MODELING OF THE POLLUTION
a) Tested Insulators
Cap-and-pin type suspension glass insulators having 280
mm shed diameter, 170 mm height and 380 mm creepage
distance were used in this study. 3D simulations and
experimantal based studies were conducted for one single
insulator unit and a string of five units. The laboratory test
setup for a five unit insulator string is shown in Figure 1. The
insulators were suspended on a grounded tower model (3 m
width, and 3 m height). A smooth aluminum tube, 3 m in
length, and 2 cm in diameter, positioned parallel to the
laboratory floor, was used to simulate the transmission line.
b) Modeling of the Pollution
This study involved the preparation of the partially
conductive epoxy containing various amounts of graphite
powder. The quantity of the graphite powder was 15, 20 and
25 wt % of the total weight. The epoxy composed of a base
material of epoxy resin and a curing agent in a ratio of (1 : 1).
Graphite powder was added as shown in Table 1 to adjust the
volume conductivity of the pollution layer. To measure the
volume resistivity and therefore the corresponding volume
conductivity, the partially conductive paint was applied by
brush to the surface of five plexiglass specimens, having the
dimensions of 20 mm width and 80 mm length. The average
paint thickness was 0.1 mm and with silver paint electrodes
applied, up to 100 V dc was applied and the current measured.
The calculated volume conductivities are given in Table I.
TABLE I
CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS FOR Wt% GRAPHITE
Graphite (%) Notation Average volume conductivity (Ѕ/m)
15 σ15 1.0*10-5
20 σ20 9.0*10-3
25 σ25 5.8*10-1
 The partially conductive solution was mixed with a high-
speed mixer and the hardener and graphite powder was added
during mixing. After mixing, the solution was applied to the
insulators and allowed to cure at room temperature for at least
seven days. The volume conductivity values corresponding to
these filler levels were assigned as σ15, σ20, and σ25 as
shown in Table 1.
Fig. 1. Laboratory test model for the 5-unit suspension string.
III. SIMULATION AND MEASUREMENTS OF THE ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL
Comsol®, a FEM based commercial software, was used to
simulate the field distributions along the insulator units both
for the clean and the polluted conditions. A non - contact type
electrostatic voltmeter [7] was used to measure the potential
distributions along the insulators. Electric potentials only for
the upper surface and metal cap of the insulators were
measured. The electric potential measurements were
conducted for at least three different creepage segments, and
the average values are given in the figures.
Permittivities of the glass shell and the cement grout are
assumed to be 4.2 and 15, respectively. The cement grout is
assumed as a partially conductive material, and its electrical
conductivity is assumed to be 10-4 [S/m]. Figure 2 shows the
model of the clean and the polluted insulators.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2. Modeling of insulator pollution in: (a) clean; (b) fully polluted; (c)
upper surface pollution; and, (d) bottom surface pollution.
Figures 3 and 4 show the simulated and measured electric
potentials along the leakage path of a single glass suspension
insulator for clean and polluted conditions, respectively.
100
Clean case-Simulation
80 Clean case-Measurement
Potential, %
60
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400
Creepage distance from the pin, mm
Fig. 3. Simulation and measurement of electric potentials along one
suspension insulator under clean condition
Figure 4, a and b, respectively, show the simulated and
measured results of the electric potential distributions for
pollution severities σ15 and σ20, and for pollution cases
upper surface, bottom surface, and full surface polluted
conditions.
The simulation results, which are also verified to some
extent by the electrostatic voltmeter measurements, show that
electric potential distribution along the insulator is dependent
on both the conductivity of the pollution and on the location of
the pollution on the insulator surface.
For the full surface polluted condition, increasing the
pollution conductivity level results in more uniform potential
distribution along the insulator. Although σ15 pollution
conductivity yields a capacitive-resistive field distribution
along the insulator, the field distribution is almost resistive for
σ20 pollution conductivity as shown in Figure 4b. Both σ20
and σ25 pollution conductivities generate the same field
distributions around the insulator. For partial pollution
conditions, such as the bottom surface or the top surface
pollution, the potential distributions are highly non-linear. For
the bottom surface pollution case, the bottom surface behaves
like an equipotential surface, and its potential is equal to the
line voltage for σ20 and σ25 pollution conductivities. For the
σ15 pollution conductivity, the field distribution around the
bottom surface is still capacitive-resistive, as shown in Figure
4a. For the upper surface pollution case, the behavior of the
field distribution is the same as the bottom surface pollution
case, but the upper surface potential is equal to the cap voltage
of the insulator.
Similar electric potential investigations as for a single
suspension unit were also conducted for a 5-uint insulator
string, but the results are not reported here. Only the σ20
(d) pollution conductivity level was considered for the 5-unit
string.
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 100
Fully polluted-Simulated
Fully polluted-Measured
80
Bottom polluted-Simulated
Bottom polluted-Measured
Potential, %
The test results were corrected to the standard atmospheric
conditions of 20oC and 760 mmHg.
TABLE II
FLASHOVER VOLTAGES FOR ONE UNIT AND 5 UNITS IN A STRING
1 suspension 5 suspension

60 Upper polluted-Simulated Flashover Voltage insulator insulators

Upper polluted-Measured Clean Condition Clean Condition
40 AC, kVrms 81.0 355.1
LI (+), kVpeak 136.8 526.1
LI (-), kVpeak 139.1 531.5
20
Tables III and IV give the ac and the impulse flashover
0
voltages for a single suspension unit for the bottom surface
0 100 200 300 400 and the upper surface pollution cases, respectively. For ac
Creepage distance from the pin, mm flashover voltages, bottom surface pollution and upper surface
(a) pollution cases show approximately the same flashover levels.
100 The ac flashover voltage is slightly higher for σ15 pollution
Fully polluted-Simulated conductivity. However, the σ20 and σ25 pollution conductivities
80 Fully polluted-Measured have the greatest effect on the lightning impulse voltage
Bottom polluted-Simulated flashovers. As described in the ac simulation studies, the field
Bottom polluted-Measured distribution is same for σ20 and σ25 pollution conductivities.
Potential, %

60 Upper polluted-Simulated But, the impulse flashover is dependent on the location of the
Upper polluted-Measured partial pollution on the insulator surfaces. The impulse
40 flashover voltages for the polluted bottom surface insulator is
more critical than the for the upper surface polluted insulator.
For the bottom polluted case, the negative polarity impulse
20 flashover for a single insulator is lower than the positive
polarity flashover.
0 TABLE III
FLASHOVER VOLTAGES FOR ONE UNIT FOR BOTTOM SURFACE POLLUTION
0 100 200 300 400
Creepage distance from the pin, mm 1 insulator / Bottom surface pollution
Flashover Voltage
(b) σ15 σ20 σ25
Fig. 4. Simulation and measurements of electric potentials along one AC, kVrms 52.9 44.6 44.5
suspension insulator for different pollution conductivities: (a) Pollution LI (+), kVpeak 107.7 75.9 62.5
conductivity, σ = σ15, and (b) Pollution conductivity, σ = σ20. LI (-), kVpeak 101.9 65.6 53.2

TABLE IV
IV. POWER FREQUENCY AND LIGHTNING IMPULSE (LI) FLASHOVER VOLTAGES FOR A SINGLE UNIT FOR UPPER SURFACE POLLUTION
CASES
FLASHOVER TESTS ON CLEAN AND POLLUTED INSULATORS
1 insulator / Upper surface pollution
Ac and impulse flashover tests were conducted on the Flashover Voltage
σ15 σ20 σ25
clean and the polluted insulators. The tests were only AC, kVrms 48.6 46.4 47.3
conducted for the partial polluted insulators. For one LI (+), kVpeak 107.6 89.5 83.6
suspension insulator, the upper and the bottom polluted cases LI (-), kVpeak 131.6 113.7 107.9
were tested under σ15, σ20 and σ25 pollution conductivity
levels. For the five unit string, only the σ20 pollution For all conditions tested, the positive polarity impulse
conductivity was tested. flashover of the upper surface polluted insulators is more
A 400 kV, 200 kVA, 60 Hz, two-stage cascaded test severe than the negative polarity flashover. Increasing the
transformer was used for the ac flashover tests. The voltage pollution conductivity results in a decrease in the lightning
was increased in steps until flashover occurred. This process impulse flashover performance. The σ15 pollution conductivity
was repeated at least 6 times, and the average flashover level is not high enough to affect the impulse field distribution
voltages reported. [9]. However, test results show that the impulse flashover
For the 1.1/50.7 μs impulse flashover tests, an 800 kV, 40 voltage was affected by this pollution conductivity. In this
kJ, 8 stage impulse generator was used to obtain the 50 % case, the permittivity of the pollution layer and/or non-linear
flashover voltage of clean and polluted insulators. The up-and- conductivity behavior of partically conductive pollution at
down method with at least 30 individual impulses at both high fields may affect the impulse field distribution, and
polarities was used to determine 50 % flashover voltage. Ac therefore, the impulse flashover voltage. A polymeric
and lightning impulse flashover voltages for a single unit and dielectric filled with conductive powder below the percolation
the 5-unit string under clean condition are given in Table II. limit can show a non-linear behavior [10]. The electric field

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distributions for σ20 and σ25 pollution conductivities are not the epoxy containing graphite powder. The graphite powder was
same for impulse voltage. This is the reason for the decrease used to adjust the conductivity of the pollution layer. 3D
in the impulse flashover voltage with increasing pollution electric field simulations were conducted to compute the
conductivity. potential distributions on clean and polluted insulators.
The ac and impulse flashover voltages for the 5-unit string Potential distributions were also measured using a non-contact
for the upper and the bottom surface pollution cases, and for type electrostatic voltmeter to verify the simulation results.
σ20 pollution conductivity, are shown in Table V. The ac The potential distribution is nearly linear for insulators that
flashover is about the same for either case of bottom or upper are fully polluted. For partially polluted conditions, the
surface pollution. However, the location of the pollution potential distribution is highly non-linear, and the polluted
affects the impulse flashover of the insulator string, as upper and bottom surfaces act as equipotential surfaces for
observed for the one suspension unit. The impulse flashover high pollution conductivity levels.
voltages for the bottom pollution case are more critical than At power frequency, the reduction in the flashover voltage
those for the upper polluted case. The negative polarity is about the same whether the upper surface or the bottom
impulse flashover for a 5-unit string is lower than the positive surface of the insulator is polluted. In addition to this result,
polarity one for the bottom polluted case. Similar results for the percentage reduction of a single unit is about the same as
suspension insulators with light pollution on the upper part of for a 5-unit string. Ac flashover values corresponding to σ15
the shed and heavy pollution on the lower part of the shed was pollution level are slightly higher than those for σ20 and σ25
observed for negative polarity impulses [8]. The negative cases. For lightning impulse voltage, the impulse flashover
polarity flashover of a non-uniformly polluted insulator was voltage of the insulator is dependent on the location of the
observed to be about 15 % less than the positive polarity [8]. pollution. For all conditions tested, positive polarity impulse
voltage is more severe than for the negative polarity voltage
TABLE V
for the upper surface pollution case. However, for the bottom
FLASHOVER VOLTAGES FOR A 5-UNIT STRING FOR UPPER AND BOTTOM POLLUTED
CASES polluted case, negative polarity impulse voltage is more
5-unit string critical than the positive polarity one.
Flashover Voltage Upper surface pol. Bottom surface pol.
σ20 σ20 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
AC, kVrms 209.7 196.2 This work was supported by the Scientific and
LI (+), kVpeak 390.3 343.8 Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK).
LI (-), kVpeak 450.9 314.0
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