Electric Fields in Matter: PYL100: EM Waves and Quantum Mechanics Semester I 2018-2019

Preliminaries Polarization The Electric Displacement Linear Dielectrics
Electric Fields in Matter

PYL100: EM Waves and Quantum Mechanics
Semester I 2018-2019
Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics
The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
August 20, 2018

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Polarization
3 The Electric Displacement
4 Linear Dielectrics
References
Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

Chapter IV, Electric Fields in Matter
Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges

(±q) separated by a distance d.
Its potential at point r is,

1 q q 1 qd cos θ
Vdip. (r ) = − ≈
4π0 s+ s− 4π0 r 2
when r is relatively large, i.e., r >> d.
The potential of a dipole falls off as r12 , as opposed to an
isolated point charge for which we have 1r .
The Dipole Moment
qd cos θ p · rˆ p cos θ
Vdip. (r ) ≈ = =
4π0 r 2 4π0 r 2 4π0 r 2
where rˆ is directed from the center of the dipole to the
observation point.
The dipole moment is,
p = qd
where d is the displacement vector pointing from the −
charge to the + charge.1
1
Opposite to how the electric field lines point.
E due to p
Given that,
p cos θ
Vdip. (r ) ≈
4π0 r 2
and using E = −∇V expressed in spherical coordinates we
get,
p
Edip. (r ) ≈ (2 cos θrˆ + sin θθ̂)
4π0 r 3
assuming that p is oriented along z.
Notice that Edip. (r )2 falls off as r13 , whereas a single point
charge would have fallen off as r12 .
2
Again, Edip. (r ) is only valid if r >> d.
The Coordinate-Free Far Field Dipole Field
Without stipulating that the dipole must point in ẑ direction,

the dipole field in the far-field (r >> d) is,
1
Edip. (r ) ≈ [3(p · rˆ)ˆ
r − p]
4π0 r 3
Prove it!
Induced Dipoles
Problem: What happens to a neutral atom when it’s placed

in an external electric field Eext. ?
While the atom is electrically neutral as a whole, it consists of
a positively nucleus and a negatively charged electron cloud
surrounding it.
The negatively charged electron cloud is drawn to the Eext.
relative to the positively charged nucleus, and when
equilibrium is reached, the atom is said to be polarized.
Induced Dipoles
Each polarized atom can be seen as a tiny dipole consisting of

charges +q in the nucleus and q at the center of the electron
cloud.
Each such dipole sets up a small induced electric field,
pointing from the positively charged nucleus to the center of
the equally but negatively charged electron cloud.
This induced electric field Eind. , called a polarization field,
generally is weaker than and opposite in direction to Eext. .
Polarizability
Figure: Atomic polarizabilities for different ioslated atoms. [IEDJ]
Phenomenologically, each individual atom now has a dipole

moment p proportional to the externally applied electric field,
Eext. 3 ,
p = qd = αEext.
pointing in the same direction as Eext. .
α is known as the atomic polarizability4 .
3
This is an empirical/phenomenological relation valid for relatively small
electric fields.
4
In general, α is a tensor quantity, and thus p may not point exactly in the
direction of E .
Polar Molecules
Thus far we have discussed molecules that had no built-in

dipole moment. Their dipole moment was induced due to the
external electric field.
However, there exist molecules like H2 O that have a built-in
dipole moment.
Problem: How does a polar molecule respond to an external
field Eext. ?
The Torque on p due to E
If Eext. is uniform, the figure above suggests a torque N,

N = (r+ × F+ ) + (r− × F− ) = qd × Eext. = p × Eext.
Notice that N is in such a direction as to line p up parallel to

E ; a polar molecule that is free to rotate will swing around
until its dipole moment points in the direction of the applied
field.
Can you visualize the preferred direction?
The Force on p due to E
If the field is not uniform, F+ will not exactly balance F− .

There will be a net force F on the dipole,
F = (F+ + F− ) = q(E+ − E− ) = q(∆Eext. )
Assuming the dipole is very short, we may approximate,

∆E ≈ (d · ∇)E
and thus,
F = (p · ∇)E
The Energy of a Dipole

Problem: What is the energy of a tiny dipole p in an electric
field Eext. ?
For a dipole with +q at r + d , and −q at r its energy in the
external field Eext. is5 ,
" Z #
r +d
U = q(V (r − d )) − q(V (r )) ≈ q − Eext. · dl
r
Given that our dipole is tiny, we may take Eext. there to be

uniform, giving us,
U = −qEext. · d = −p · Eext.
Can you justify the negative sign?

5
How does this expression differ from the work required to assemble a
physical dipole?
Polarization
Problem: What happens to a piece of dielectric material
when it is placed in an electric field?
If the substance consists of nonpolar molecules/atoms, the
field will induce in each of them a tiny dipole moment,
pointing in the same direction as the field.
If the material is made up of polar molecules, each
permanent dipole will experience a torque, tending to line it
up along the field direction.
We define a net measure of polarization for the entire
material,
P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume
called polarization such that,
X Z
ptotal = pind. = P(r 0 )dτ 0
Polarization
Instead of dealing with indvidual dipoles (pind. ), we prefer to

deal with the dipoles collectively,
X
ptotal = pind.
and therefore the polarization density P.
This is because the field distribution of individual dipoles are
quite complex, while taken together, they can usually be
related to the electric field E in a simple way, e.g., linear
dielectrics (P = 0 χe E ).
Also, once P is known, the potential (or, alternatively, the
field) due to it becomes easy to calculate, as we will see next...
Bound Charges
Problem: What’s the potential produced due to a collection

of dipoles that constitute a polarized medium?
Recall that for a single dipole, the far-field field potential is,
p · ŝ
V (r ) ≈
4π0 s 2
Integrating over all the individual dipoles, and using the

polarization P, gives us,
P(r 0 ) · ŝ 0
Z
1
V (r ) ≈ dτ
4π0 V s2
where dτ 0 is the volume element.
Bound Charges
Using the fact,

1 ŝ
∇0 = 2
s s
we get, Z
1 1 0
V (r ) ≈ P ·∇ dτ 0
4π0 V s
and then invoking the divergence theorem, and integration

by parts,
I Z
1 1 0 1 1 0
V (r ) = P · da − (∇ · P)dτ 0
4π0 S s 4π0 V s
Bound Charges
I Z
1 1 1 1 0
V (r ) = P · da 0 − (∇ · P)dτ 0
4π0 S s 4π0 V s
The first term is the potential of a surface charge density
σb ≡ P · n̂
The second term is the potential of a volume charge density
ρb ≡ −∇ · P
Bound Charges
Finally, we may write,

I Z
1 σb 0 1 ρb 0
V (r ) = da + dτ
4π0 S s 4π0 V s
We have concluded that the potential (and, hence also the

associated electric field) of a polarized object is identical to
that produced by,
a surface charge density σb ≡ P · n̂
a volume charge density ρb ≡ −∇ · P
We are saved from doing the work of summing the
contributions of each of the individual dipoles constituting the
material, and instead . . .
Instead we first calculate/find these bound charges (both σb ,
and ρb ), and simply calculate the fields they produce using
the familiar formula.
Physical Interpretation of Bound Surface Charges σb
Suppose we have a long string of dipoles.

Along the line, the head of one effectively cancels the tail of
its neighbor, but at the ends (aka the ’surface’) there are two
charges left over: plus at the right end and minus at the left.
These are essentially the surface bound charges σb .
We call the net charges at the ends bound charges6 to
emphasize that they cannot be removed, as they are always
bound to their respective positively charged ions.
6
Bound charges may be present even in the absence of an external electric
field, e.g., an electret.
Physical Interpretation of Bound Volume Charges
If the polarization is nonuniform, we get accumulations of

bound volume charge ρb within the material, as well as on the
surface.
A diverging P results in a pileup of negative charge (at that
point) since d points from the negative to the positive charge.
Physical Interpretation of Bound Volume Charges
Overall charge neutrality dictates that the net bound charge

qb at a given location is equal, and opposite to the amount
that has been pushed out through the surface enclosing it,
Z I Z
qb = ρb dτ = − P · da = − (∇ · P)dτ
and since this is true for any surface we again obtain,
ρb = −∇ · P
The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

Using Gauss’ law, and the far-field of a dipole
One way to imagine bound charges in the uniformly

polarized case is that we have. . .
two slightly displaced spheres of charge: a positive sphere and
a negative sphere.
Without polarization the two are perfectly superimposed and
cancel out completely.
This leftover charge (at either end) is the bound surface
charge σb .

The field in the region of overlap between two uniformly

charged spheres is uniform, and given by7
1 qd
E =−
4π0 R 3
where q is the total charge of the positive sphere, d is the
vector from the negative center to the positive center, and R
is the radius of the sphere.
7
Work this out by applying Gauss’ law.!

We can express this in terms of the uniform polarization P

of the sphere,
4
p = qd = πR 3 P
3
as
1
E =− P
30

For points outside, it is as though all the charge on each

sphere were concentrated at the respective center. We have,
at the far-field, a dipole, with potential
1 p · rˆ
V =
4π0 r 2

Using the method of bound charges
For convenience, we choose the z axis to coincide with the

direction of polarization.
Since P is given to be uniform, the volume charge density
ρb ≡ −∇ · P = 0
While the surface charge density σb ≡ P · n̂ = P cos θ
We have thus reduced the problem to calculating the field due
to solely a surface charge density, σb = P cos θ!

Alternative Problem: calculate the potential due to the

surface charge density σb = P cos θ
From geometry,
p
s = R 2 + z 2 − 2Rz cos θ

The potential due to a surface charge density σ is,

Z
1 σ 0
V (r ) = da
4π0 s
Z 2π Z π
P (cos θ)R 2 sin θdθdφ
= √
4π0 φ=0 θ=0 R 2 + z 2 − 2Rz cos θ
Z π
πPR 2 sin 2θ
= √ q dθ
4π0 R 2 + z 2 θ=0 1 − 2Rz cos θ
R 2 +z 2

We now make use of the result,

π
√ √ √ √
4 2 1−k − k +1 +k 1−k + k +1
Z
sin 2θ
√ =−
θ=0 1 − k cos θ 3k 2
to finally get,
(
P
V (r , θ, φ) = 30 r cos θ r <R
P R3
30 r 2 cos θ r ≥R

Using bound charges
Since r cos θ = z, the field inside the sphere is uniform8 :

P 1
E = −∇V = − ẑ = − P (r < R)
30 30
8
Alternatively, use the formula for the gradient in spherical coordinates:
∇f = ∂f
∂r
rˆ + 1r ∂θ
∂f 1
θ̂ + r sin ∂f
θ ∂φ
φ̂

Outside the sphere, the potential is identical to the far-field

potential of a dipole at the origin,
1 p · rˆ
V = (r ≥ R)
4π0 r 2
whose dipole moment is, not surprisingly, equal to the total
dipole moment of the sphere
4
p = πR 3 P
3
Gauss Law in the Presence of Dielectrics
Within a dielectric, the total charge density can be written as,
ρ = ρb + ρf
where ρf might consist of electrons on a conductor or ions

embedded in the dielectric material or whatever; any charge,
in other words, not a result of polarization!
Writing Gauss’ Law again,
0 ∇ · E = ρb + ρf = −∇ · P + ρf
If we employ the definition of the electric displacement D as,
D ≡ 0 E + P
and rearranging terms we get,
∇ · (0 E + P) = ∇ · D = ρf
where D is the electric displacement and we now have,

I
∇ · D = ρf or, D · da = qf
Note that even in the electrostatic regime, in general,

∇ × D 6= 0, since ∇ × P 6= 0 in general!
Given that we don’t know ∇ × D (Helmholtz’s theorem), in
general, we can’t profitably apply Gauss’ law to evaluate D!
Also, in general, there is no Coulomb’s law for D, and nor do
we have a scalar potential associated with it.
∇ × P = ∇ × D = 0 is guaranteed only when symmetry
such as spherical, cylindrical, or plane is present, and, in such
cases we may profitably use Gauss’ law to evaluate D.
Example: D
Problem: A long straight wire, carrying uniform line charge

λ, is surrounded by rubber insulation out to a radius a. Find
the electric displacement D.
Since we have cylindrical symmetry, we may apply Gauss’ Law
for D,
D(2πsL) = λL
and thus,
λ
D= ŝ
2πs
Notice that this formula holds both within the insulation and
outside it.
Can we determine E inside the rubber?
Boundary Conditions for D
Using the same procedure of constructing a Gaussian pillbox

as for the normal component E⊥ we get9 ,
above below
D⊥ − D⊥ = σf
while the continuity of the tangential component Ek implies,
Dkabove − Dkbelow = Pkabove − Pkbelow
9
In both these BC we neglect the contribution of σb , or, alternatively,
consider an empirical relationship D = E instead.
A Dielectric Sphere Inside a Parallel Plate Capacitor
Let us place a dielectric sphere in a region lying between two

oppositely charged parallel plates, each having a surface
charge density ±σ, with their surface normals in the z
direction.
Problem: What is the field outside the sphere?
Since there are no free charges anywhere inside the
capacitor, i.e., the dielectric contains no free charges. . .
The electric displacement D everywhere between the parallel
plates is uniform:
D = σf ẑ = σ ẑ
Just outside the sphere, we may näively use,
E = (D − P)/0 = D/0 = σ/0
since P = 0 everywhere outside the dielectric sphere.

We are left with old result that, despite the presence of the
spherical dielectric, anywhere outside it we simply have the
usual electric field σ/0 .
However, we had seen that a uniformly polarized dielectric

sphere, not only has an induced electric field inside it, but also
outside it.
Our assessment for the electric field E = σ/0 outside the
sphere is therefore clearly incorrect.

revisited
Within a dielectric, the total charge density can be written10 :
ρ = ρb + ρbs + ρf
= ρb + σb δ(η − η0 ) − σb δ(η − η1 ) + ρf
where ρf might consist of electrons on a conductor or ions

embedded in the dielectric material or whatever; any charge,
in other words, not a result of polarization!
Writing Gauss’ Law again,
0 ∇ · E = ρb + ρbs + ρf = −∇ · P + ρbs + ρf
10
Here we have explicitly included (the oft neglected) contributions of the
surface bound charge ρbs in addition to the usual volume bound charge
ρb = −∇ · P?

revisited
Retaining the definition of the electric displacement D,
D ≡ 0 E + P
and rearranging terms we get,
∇ · (0 E + P) = ∇ · D = ρf + ρbs
where D is the electric displacement, and we now have,

I
∇ · D = ρf + ρbs or, D · da = qf + qbs
ρ0bs dτ 0 .
R
where qbs =

revisited
Thus, D depends not only on the free charge density ρf , but

also on the surface bound charge density ρbs .
∇ · D blows up at the surface bound charges due to δ(η)
present in the ρbs term, and thus we cannot apply Gauss’ law
for D precisely at the surface of a conductor.
Because of the δ(η) term, ∇ · D has a non-local
contribution due to the surface bound charge, i.e., the
divergence at a point is affected by bound surface charges σb
lying distant to that point!
As a consequence, in the previous example, D 6= σ outside the
sphere. Indeed, it is affected by the polarization of the sphere
as well.
Susceptibility
For many substances, in fact, the polarization is proportional
to the field, provided E is not too strong:
P = 0 χe E
χe is called the electric susceptibility of the medium (0 has

been extracted to make χe dimensionless).
The susceptibility is a material property, and substances
that obey this constitutive relation are linear dielectrics.
In such materials,
D = 0 E + P = 0 (1 + χe ) = E
where is called the permittivity of the material, while
r ≡ 1 + χe
is known as the relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
Common Dielectric Constants
11
11
What explains the wide variation in dielectric constant between materials?
Example: metal sphere surrounded by a linear dielectric
Problem: A metal sphere of radius a carries a charge Q. It’s

surrounded, to radius b, by linear dielectric of permittivity .
Find the potential at the center (relative to ∞).
Using Gauss’ law for D 12 we can directly get,
Q
D= rˆ r > a
4πr 2
and thus using D = E ,

0
 r ≤a
Q
E = 4πr 2 rˆ a < r < b
 Q

4π0 r 2
rˆ r > b
12
We can only do this because we have spherical symmetry in this problem!
Calculating the potential,

Z 0 Z b Z a Z 0
Q Q
V =− E · dl = − dr − dr − (0)dr
∞ ∞ 4π0 r 2 4πr 2
b a
Q 1 1 1
= + +
4π 0 b a b
As for P, since,
0 χe Q
P = 0 χe E = rˆ
4πr 2
in the dielectric, and hence

ρb = −∇ · P = 0
and, (
0 χe Q
4πb 2
outer surface
σb = P · n̂ =
− 4πa
0 χe Q
2 inner surface
Note that σb at a is negative (n̂ points outward with respect

to the dielectric, which is +ˆr at b but, −ˆ
r at a). This is
natural, since the charge on the metal sphere attracts its
opposite in all the dielectric molecules.
The empirical relationship, D = E
If one insists13 on using Gauss’ law for D, or if one doesn’t

want to explicitly deal with the contribution of the surface
bound charges σb , inside the bulk of the dielectric...
One can stipulate D = E , with the proviso that now the
permittivity is the empirical response of the material.
i.e, the ignorance about the surface charge is built into .
e.g., In the absence of any free charge at an interface
between two dielectrics labelled 1 and 2, we can use the
continuity of the normal component of the displacement field
D⊥ to write,
E⊥1 /1 = E⊥2 /2
13
Such as in cases where symmetry is absent.
The bar electret
Problem: [Griffiths P.11] A short cylinder, of radius a and

length L, carries a frozen-in uniform polarization P, parallel to
its axis14 . Find the bound charge, and sketch the electric
field, and the displacement field
L >> a
L << a
L≈a
14
An electret is the electrostatic analog of a permanent magnet.
The bar electret
The electric field is like that of a capacitor because the bound

surface charge is on the ends.
There is incomplete cylindrical symmetry in this case. It is
broken by the uniform polarization P which deposits opposite
bound charges at each end.
The bar electret
The lines for D ”curl around”, and thus ∇ × D 6= 0 since

∇ · D = 0 (there are no free source charges for them to end
on).
The field lines for D are thus similar to the magnetic field lines
B of a permament magnet of the same shape as the electret!
∇ × P 6= 0 for the electret
Question15 : Show that P, or alternatively D have a non-zero

curl for the electret.
Ans: The exact calculation seems mathematically quite
challenging, but demonstrating that ∇ × P 6= 0 is doable.
We first construct a rectangular loop in an anticlockwise sense
running through the cylinder but having a boundary just
outside it, as shown above.
15
Thanks to Suyash Singh 2018ME, for posing this question.
∇ × P 6= 0 for the electret

We now apply Stoke’s law as,
Z I
∇ × P · da = P · dl
Evaluating the RHS we get,

Z
−PL + (O)L = −PL = ∇ × P · da
where P is the strength of the polarization in the medium,

and the contribution of zero is because there is no polarization
just outside the cylinder.
The above equation demonstrates that ∇ × P must be
non-zero somewhere in our loop!
And therefore we can conclude that ∇ × P 6= 0 for the
electret.
Energy in Dielectric Systems

Suppose the dielectric material is fixed in position, and we
bring in free charge, one bit at a time.
As ρf is increased by an amount ∆ρf , the polarization will
change, and therefore the bound charge distribution
We need the work done on the incremental ∆qf 16 :
Z
∆W = (∆ρf )Vdτ
From Gauss’ Law, and for a small change ∆,

∆(∇ · D) = (∇ · ∆D) = ∆ρf
and thus, Z
∆W = (∇ · ∆D)Vdτ
16
Why is the factor of 12 missing from above? Ans: We bring in a
tiny, incremental charge ∆qf , and the potential V due to the existing charge
Using the identity,
∇ · [(∆D)V ] = [∇ · (∆D)]V + ∆D · (∇V )
and then using integration by parts,

Z Z
∆W = ∇ · [(∆D)V ]dτ + (∆D) · E dτ
The divergence theorem turns the first term into a surface

integral, which vanishes if we integrate over all space.17
Therefore, the work done is equal to
Z
∆W = (∆D) · E dτ
17 1
The term V ∆D goes to zero faster than r2
, and hence the surface integral
over all space goes to zero.

Now, if the medium is a linear dielectric (D = E ),
1 1
∆(D · E ) = ∆(E 2 ) = (∆E ) · E = (∆D) · E
2 2
Thus finally,
Z
1
W = D · E dτ
2
This corresponds to keeping the unpolarized dielectric in

place, and bringing the free charges, and allowing the
system to equilibriate.
While, W = 20 E 2 dτ means that we bring in both the
R
bound and free charges, and afix them to their final positions.
However, it misses the change in the internal energy of the
atoms (dipoles) that can be seen as stretching, or twisting of
the springs holding the ionic cores and electrons together.

Electric Fields in Matter: PYL100: EM Waves and Quantum Mechanics Semester I 2018-2019

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electric Fields in Matter: PYL100: EM Waves and Quantum Mechanics Semester I 2018-2019

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Preliminaries Polarization The Electric Displacement Linear Dielectrics

Electric Fields in Matter

Prof. Rohit Narula1

The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

August 20, 2018

3 The Electric Displacement

Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges

The Dipole Moment

The Coordinate-Free Far Field Dipole Field

Without stipulating that the dipole must point in ẑ direction,

Problem: What happens to a neutral atom when it’s placed

Each polarized atom can be seen as a tiny dipole consisting of

Figure: Atomic polarizabilities for different ioslated atoms. [IEDJ]

Phenomenologically, each individual atom now has a dipole

Thus far we have discussed molecules that had no built-in

The Torque on p due to E

If Eext. is uniform, the figure above suggests a torque N,

Notice that N is in such a direction as to line p up parallel to

The Force on p due to E

If the field is not uniform, F+ will not exactly balance F− .

Assuming the dipole is very short, we may approximate,

The Energy of a Dipole

Given that our dipole is tiny, we may take Eext. there to be

Can you justify the negative sign?

Instead of dealing with indvidual dipoles (pind. ), we prefer to

Problem: What’s the potential produced due to a collection

Integrating over all the individual dipoles, and using the

Using the fact,  

and then invoking the divergence theorem, and integration

The second term is the potential of a volume charge density

Finally, we may write,

We have concluded that the potential (and, hence also the

Physical Interpretation of Bound Surface Charges σb

Suppose we have a long string of dipoles.

Physical Interpretation of Bound Volume Charges

If the polarization is nonuniform, we get accumulations of

Physical Interpretation of Bound Volume Charges

Overall charge neutrality dictates that the net bound charge

and since this is true for any surface we again obtain,

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

One way to imagine bound charges in the uniformly

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

The field in the region of overlap between two uniformly

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

We can express this in terms of the uniform polarization P

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

For points outside, it is as though all the charge on each

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

For convenience, we choose the z axis to coincide with the

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

Alternative Problem: calculate the potential due to the

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

The potential due to a surface charge density σ is,

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

We now make use of the result,

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

Since r cos θ = z, the field inside the sphere is uniform8 :

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere

Outside the sphere, the potential is identical to the far-field

Gauss Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

Within a dielectric, the total charge density can be written as,

where ρf might consist of electrons on a conductor or ions

Using the fact,

E = (D − P)/0 = D/0 = σ/0

χe is called the electric susceptibility of the medium (0 has

The empirical relationship, D = E