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    _ isual sting Method Second Edition ASNT LEVEL || Visual Testing Method Copsritt ©2015 by The Arsxcan Sockty for Nondestructive Testa, “Th dmeican Socely fr Nendestrstive Teng In. (ASNT Isnt esponsbefor he athanety or anctracy of hfomaton har. ‘co rat cary the dorset orrecmmendatin of ASNT. No part tthe publication may be reproduced or tansmittod in any form, by means ees or mechanical icusing sasocopyg, ‘posrang a thera, withet the cxperoe por wtan pemicion a Tha mers Sout fr Nonsosnuive Tasting IRRS?, ADT Handbook, The NDT Tecan and www asnt.org ae Yademats of The Amatican Sosity for Nondestucve Testing nc. [ACR ASNT. Love! Sudy Gute, lari Evaluation Nowdantucive Tsing Handbook, Resoarch lt Nendesvucie Evatt [AND am rgictred raderart of The Amaia Soeaty fer Nendertrctve Testing, ‘he tat eon of hs Sucy Ge Was prepare by Oeuges Kraus ‘Second ection fist pening 1015 ats, if avatale fo this pining, ray te obtsine rom ASNT's web ste, hipsvissntorloras Ise 972--57117-200-7 (pin) ISBN 978-1.57117-961-4 eoone) Pritecinthe Untad States of Amara Poblohed by ‘Tha American Secoly for Nendestrstive Testing, In. {711 Bring Lane Columb, CH 45220. 0818 aero Fstes by: Cyn Leumen, Eucatona Mates Superiser ‘ssid by. Bob Cenk. Easational Mates Ector “in Jones, Serer Manager of Publications ASNT Monon Statement: ‘ASNT exsiso create a safe ward by rometing the profession and ietndogis of nondestructive tating FOREWORD Purpose ‘This Study Guide is intended to ad individuale preparing to take the ASNT NDT Level I examination for vil testing ‘The material inthis Study Guide addresses the body of knowledgein CP-10S ASNT Standard Topical Outlines or Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Periomel 2011 and 2016). I isnot intended to comprehensively cover all possible technic! isues that may appear on the Love Il exam, but rather itis intended to elec the breadth ofthe possible technolo BY topics which comprise potential questions. ‘The ASNT NDI Level li certification program ea service offered by The American Society for Nondestrucive Testing, Inc, that gives NDT personal an qpportunity to have thei familiarity with the principles and practices of NDT assessed by 5 Sadepersiek dy. The prgiem vain ws Seceperdens ley i tevew rodesbale at ans comprckernive Wilts cient ‘alions to identify those wha mest the criteria for becoming an ASNT NDI Level How to Use the Study Guide ‘Read through the text ofthe Study Guide and if the discussion covers unfamiliar materal, the references should also be stud- fed, The reriew questions atthe end ofeach chapter shouldbe answered. Successfuly answering the questions will ep determine if more concentrted study in particule arco i aceded. Those familiar with some ofthe topice may wish tego directly to the review questions. Ifthe quetions can he anewered confidently and carectly,aditonalxiuy maybe optional This Study Guide is designed to asst in the preparation for the ASNT NDT Level Il examination Itis not intended to be the oly source of preparation, The Study Guide provides a general overview of subct matter covered by the examination 0 that students can slertify those areas ofthe body of knowledgein which they need farther study. Additional Information ‘This Stady Guide buds on the ire edition written in 1998 by Douglas Kraut, All chapters inthis books have been updated nd revised. many new chapters were added. and several figures ae also new. “Many new chapter reriew questions have been added, and all questions are now multiple choice with four unique answers to more closely match ASNT exam format Because ASNT isan interatioral Sytem of Units (S) publisher, throughout the text both SI and imperial units are used. or simplicity, many equations in this Bok use 25 mma equals | an, Where SL uns are not used in the onginal text of tae standats and coces, conversions te Stunts were noe made. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS “The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Ine. gratefil forthe volunteer contributions, technical expertise know- ‘sige and dedication of the felling individuals who helped to mac this work poss Ble wv ony ASNT tees menace a Ca e390) YZOTT TERK AEST Sefer Losey, Ce revo ent RECOMMENDED REFERENCES ‘The following publications are training references for further study of visual testing as recommended in CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical Outnes for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personrl. Allgues, MW. and S. Ness tech. eds, P Meintive and 2O. Moore, eds. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Voluate 8, Vinal and Optical Teng, Columbus, OH. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. B93 Allguies. MLW. and R-E. Cameron, tech. eds. PO. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handboo, third edition: Valume9, Visual Tsting. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2010. ASM Handbook: Velume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control. Metals Park, OH: ASM International. 1989. ASNT Level IT Stay Guide: Visual and Optical Testing Method. Column OH: Amesican Secety for Nondestructive “Testing, Inc Latest edition. (Cary. HB. and S. Hetzer. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 2004 ‘The Tools ard Rules of Precision Measuring. Atbol, MA: LS, Staret Co. 1982 Welding Handbook: Volume 1, Welding Science & Technology. Mian, FL: American Welding Society Laestediion. ‘Welding inspection Handbook: Miami, Fl: American Welding Society. Latest edition. Additional References [BS Lighting Harulbook ~ Reference &Applictien, OU edition. New York, NY. The laminating Engineering Society of North America 2010. ASTI E 1316, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section 3. Metals Test Methods and Analsticel Procedures, Volume 03.03, [Nondestructive Testing. West Conshohocken, PA: The American Society for Testing and Materials. tes edition Davis, J ed. ASM Materials Engineering Dictionery. Metals Park, OH: ASM Intemational 192. opm by ASK al ge cane). sancti M Cae Ras Mo, 21603, rece an eonr rine CONTENTS FOREWORD. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. RECOMMENDED REFERENCES. (CHAPTER 1: Overview of Visual Inlroduction| a ‘Applications... si Selection of Visual Testing AGENCE ern Umitetions nn Fundamentals ee Vision Limitations oe Perceptions... Employer Visual Acuity Examination Methods Review Questions. ‘CHAPTER 2: rncples and Applications of Lighting. Fundementals of Ug tn. Measurement of Ugh! nn Recommended Lighting Lavels. Lighting fecsniques. light Sources... 7 Incandescent lighting Fluorescent Lighting... Light Emitting Biogas Discharge lighting enna Roviow Questions. CHAPTER 3: Factors that Affect Visual Testing. Motetial AtfibuteS Surface Conditons Physical Conditions. Environmental Factors... nn Cleontiness Humidity and Temperature. Solely ones Physiological Facion: Physical Comfort... HOO renner Mental Aiivdle novo Felique aes Test item Postion — Review Questions... oe Visual Testing Method | CONTENTS (CHAPTER 4: Principles and Theory. LORS OHS rene Fiber Optics Charae-Coupied Device ~ Review Questions, (CHAPTER 5: Visual Testing Equipment. Direct. 2 Lichtina. ~ Mogrities, 2 Miron z Rues. 5 Calpers - Mechanical Gages - Wald Gager. a Indrect Visual Testing ltumination. - Image Transmission - Remete Video Cameras... Auda Video Equpmen! Principles of Measurement CCamparion Measurement Summary. 7 Review Questions (CHAPTER 4: Visual Testing of Discontinuties. Recommended Ughting Levels ‘Avec lighting Tak Lightine. a E Typical VF Disconiinuilies Metalic Matesals - - Nenmetaite materais Et Compostes. 5 - Sodiored Joints Review Questions (CHAPTER 7: Evaluation and Disposition... WES secre rm Infrasiucure — AWS O11. cera S i San CCamponants, Nuclacy Pewer Plant ASME % 29 Petrochemical — ASME 831.1, 831.3, Secon Il, and API STD 450, 1 104.. a) Manufacturna, ~ fen - - ~ 0 Acrosoace a c E a ss val ‘uttary - reese 7 ” 7“ cal Inspection Requirements 7 4 Direct Viva Se x a at Remete Visual 4 Recording ond Documentation cn nt ‘ASME Boter and Prassure Vessel Code 2 - 2 - oa NAVSEA i ee z s z nas Decumens = sas i acacia Review Questions - cent GLOSSARY. FIGURE SOURCES vil CHAPTER 1 Overview of Visual Testing Introduction ‘Visual testing isthe observation of atest objec, cither drelly with the eyes or indirect using opti- cal instruments to evaluate the presence of surface ‘noralis and/or the objects conformance to spec- fication, Visual testing i usally the fist nonde- structive tea method eppled i an ies. Veual ‘eiking ichnles peers cet, and rote dl testing techniques. The vinsal eemination press isto clear obstructions frem the suriace, provide adequate illumination, and observe. prerequisite {or competent visual testing of an objec is know ‘elgeot the component centigurition and manafac- turing processes by which it was made, of is service bistery and ofits potential failure moder aa well mele tasty epee ‘Applications ‘Visual testing ir widely sed on «variety of objects, to detec surface discontinuities asociated with va- sous structural flare mechanisms. Evea when ther nondestructive ests are performed, visual tests offen provide wef supplement. When the elay current testing of process tubing i performed, for example. visual testing is often performed to verify and more closely examine the surface condi- tion, Discontinue that maybe detected bya i= ple visual test include suriace discontinuities, cracks, mistligament, warping, corrsicn, wea and ‘peal damage oe eel lee oy being pt Selection of Visual Testing ‘Visual testing i vital method inthe broad ld of nondestructive esting, Visual tesingis used to locate surface anomales in most materials end subsuriace dscontnuites in wansucent materials, Visual testing {a petintned cies by» dive! Gzhaiquc or by « ‘evike techelgae, Cenerl inal ening invita testing ever areas of the cemponent(s) to observe coverll condition, integrity. and state of degradation “Typically this includes checking for degradation, itn a ig pal Boe mage ld the identification of lease or missing parts ofthe components). One practice ofthe direc technique is to place the eve within 24 in. (61 cm) and rot less than 30” from the test surface. Mirrors may be used 1 improve theangle of vision, and ads auch as mag nifjinglenses may be usd to asst examinations "Te rant eke hers lee in iter sa optical path fram the cbeervers eye the test sea, Remete visu testing includes the use of mirrors, borescopes, video Borescopes, or video borescepe systems on vehicles, manipulator, or robots With a emote (indirect) techie, resolution shoud be oqutalent fo that ofthe direst technique. Viena tet equipment is designed to detect structural characteicicn ofa part. These charcter- itis range frm simple surface discontinuities on flat suriaces to various fabrication er inservice Aiscontinuties in complex geometries. ‘Ase result, specific applications have been devel- ‘oped using veel testing: detscting discontinuities in ‘Bbrcated structures eh as airframes, piping and prosure yoseln ships bridge moter vehides, and Siehirery Hos final ect napbewscd in predicting impencing falurein highly sresed com- ponents exposed to various modes of fatigue Advantages ‘The visual method isa sensitive means of loceting serice emul in varia meri THere es in itt on he i ge haps oft poet being inspected, Visual testing indications need to be documented and a simple means of doing this inclades photographs and even hand-drawn sketch- ¢s of indications, which then provide a graphic rep- resentation ofthe actal discontinuity. Precesning may benecessiry ifthe cleanliness of te surfice impairs the view ofthe lst surface, The ced for rrlennitg lngely depends pn thesiecuned pe of Aiscontinuities specified by eceptance criters. The primary advaniages typically asocited with visual testing are economy, speed, sensi, versal, Visual Testing Method | CHAPTER 4 -pplicailityt ieroglarshapen fell mabily a ‘ly minimal tining, and equipment requirements Umtations ‘Visual testing requires line of sight tothe tet sur- face anc adequate lighting to detect and interpret anomalis of interest, Direct visual testing may be limited by component geometry: site, contour sr face roughness compleniy or dxcontinsityerien- tation necessitating the use of remete visual equip- rent, Remote visual equipment may beable to provide the required access to interior surfaces and provide adequte viewing angles, sensitivity, resolu ‘Yon, and ilumination. Remote visual testing cq sent may be cally Foe pooper interpetaion of indiations, the inspector nerds ski with the ech- ‘que wied, experience wing the visual equipment, and knowledge ofthe tex object. Fundamentals Vision ‘Whether genera, direct, ar remote, the primary ‘equipment used in VT isthe human eye. Theeyeis complex organ composed of many structures, all ‘of which sevvea specific purpose and mus function ‘properly for reiabe examinations (Figure). Reflected light enters theeye through tear fim said the carmen where the mjeity of afrction ‘curs. This reacted light then pater throngh a ‘thin muscular membrane called theirs that gives \reous hurr comes 4\ ie any muscle Optic nave Figure 1: Cross section of eve (hotlonial rection ofrlaht eve ‘rom above). yes colon Theis contracts and expand sltering {hen af an opeaings called he jopll which con trols the amount of ligt entering they. Pst the iris is the lens, a collection of uniquely aligned transparent cells which changes shape with the su rounding muscles to focus the light on the back of the eyeball. Within the eyeballs «clear gelsike substance, the vizeous humor which meintuin the shape ofthe eyeball "The eeting, an area at the back of the eyeball hes a layer of specialized cells called mds and cones that convert the incoming lightinto nerve impules through a photochemical process Red cells are highly light sensitive, allowing vison in dim or tow ight Ievely but only eopond t alinsited band of vile light wavelength. H has ben shaven that a rod cell will respond toas litle as one photen of light “There are thre types of cone cllethat ae less light senstive bur pavide both good spatal esois- tion and color emsitvt, The dstibution of oc and (ie ello tie Sean wy even TIE Be ‘estan or macula e's inal pled gin oF the retina where visual cu is greatest. isa depres son that conan the highest concentration of cone cele and tlaivel few od ells, The faves isthe por- tion ofthe retina thet is cireted at whatever the viewer is loking at and predices sharp, color-filed images Oulsie af the faves the population of cone tells icv rope othe deny of ee ale increases Visual response from the area eutside of the fora sratively poor with rgareto acuity and color sensitivity, but very sensiiveto motion. ‘Althoagh the enlre proces isnot fully under- stood, the photochemical processof vision is known to begin with aprotinin the retinal ells called shedoprin The shodaprin absorbs light nd is excied to higher electrical state creating a nerve Impulse. These many nerve impulses trevel tothe brain through the optic nerve where they are decoded, giving the perception of sight. The point ofthe retina where the optic nerve exits the eyeball fe the optic dik an ares of no sight wah alo called the blind spat Viston Limitations Perceptions What the Eyes See versus What the Mind Sees Although there ia tremendous amount of Information availabe in any given image falling on the retina. only a percentage of iis used for detail recognition. This is duc to the overall makeup af the human vision eystem, The eye isa receptor that gathers end facuse the incoming information zon ‘wined inthe entering photons, while the brain is the organ tha kes the provided information end (oocenie ints a meatal ings t be leberpeted. Vision isofa slectivenatreand strongly gui= ced by what the abserver wants and expects to se. “The intent of the inspector can afect perception if the inspector is keyed to look ony for certain aspect of a paticular scene, ven though tere ‘maybe lage amount of information availible at the tine of viewing omny neve charectviatce my rot be recognized intl another viewing is per- formed, For example, someone may walk into a rowed roam and immediately cecogne a famil- jar face across the room while completey missing nother familia face that ws not expected to be present. The sameliolds tue for visual inspection. Wan inepector a prepared to Find only poresity on the srface of sweidment fasion problemeat the ‘weld tocs may be inadverenty ignored. ‘All the information anilblein e pasticalar eld of view is uilized even iit ieused sabconscously. ‘he image lid across the retina decreases in resolu tion a the distance across the retina fram the foven essvae dust the feeveaed groping oF hol wb i iecesae in the ber Gf ctl The poco a the image that flleon the fovea the sharpest and isthe information processed by the brain regarding the qualities ofthe object of attention. The perph- ral ison serves lang ea selerence for ericata- tion and metion, bat does noc enhance perception. For tat resis an object being erumined dard be terval with skins of nbereiterttexna where the inspector looks at » small are, scans few sdegrces, and looks again, repeating this sequence ‘over the enire arcs ofintrest. Even though the field of view may encempass the entire object Being ‘xammined, only a small portion (about 15%) of that fields wale for detailed informa Orentaton ‘Variables that may infhence the outcome of an ‘amination ae the comfort and position ef the inspector, aad the postioa, elevation, and cistance ‘ofthe fem io be amined from the inspector Although physical comfort iauljectine and det tnined by the tolerance of the person invahed, comfortible arrangement for the inspecior will result in geste attention to detail and less attention (Overview of Visual Testing to dstractionsand annoyances, An inspection per- formed from an awkward position o fom one position for an extended period of time, may result in mised indications since the inspector will enc to hurry the examination to return to a mere com fertable position, “The arientation of the item and ite from the inspector has an elect. on the inspection sulcome. The recommended viewing dstanceand angle fr direc visual examination = to ave the ‘ye within 24 in. (1 cm) and atan angle not less than 30° to the inspection surface (Figere 2), I the tamination surface is immovable nd situated s0 the eye cannot be placed within this region, suitable visual aids, such as mirrors, must be employee. Bye pars See a \ 7 “ = 5 &. Se eS Rie if j- Test sures | nv 4 X Figure 2: Range of viewing angle. Diserders Eyesight can be adversely afte by a malfunction of any one of the eye’ structures. Glaucoma, an tnerease inthe fluid pressure within the eye, may produce sight aberrations ot complete blindness, Myopia. hyperopie, and antigmatisn occur when light ie focused ona plane other than the retinal plare. Myopia, or nearsightedness, happens when the eyeball is slightly longer than normal in the front-to-back direction, causing the focused image to fallin font ofthe retina, Hyperopia or larsght- edness, happens when the eyeballs slighty shorter thas nce fiom Goat to back causing the focuacd image tn fll behind the rtina. Atigmatice occurs ifthe shape ofthe lens isirregula.As an individual ‘ges, the lens becomes more rigid and loses the Visual Testing Method | CHAPTER 4 ability toadapt, causing a condition Imown ss pes Ibyopin The lene alsa tends to yllve slightly wth age, or develops cataracts, which isa clouding ofthe lens ftom a buildup of dead cells. This has the cffet of edacing light transmittance, especially shorter wavelength the lens yellows, Employer Visual Acuity Examination Methods "To ensure the eyesight ofa visual inspector is ade quate forthe tase of identifying potetial discont nuities, periodic vison examinations are performed to venly visual scuby, depth perception, and color sdscrimlaation. Industry policy guides from organ 2ations exch ar ASNT and AWS require near vision cay tobe tested annually. Differences in snellen for jacger acuity charts ane which ines to use on a jean ee eee Heap ensure visual testing persennel are properly tested and certified fo the particular requirements. Color discrimination must also be tested at spe cific intervals, and this is typically dane with ish hhra peeadisochrometic set plates, These plates have paticrnn ef colored dot within «Bld of si Ianly sind bat sightly diferent colored det, ‘These tests help validate whether the three 1ypes of color sensitive cane cel in a person eyes ae func- tioning properly. ‘An individual with an acuity deficiency that can bye remedied by corrective lenses willbe required to ‘ue corrective lenses during any visual examination. 1 Sala Diane MPD, How We Se The Frat pe Review Questions 1. In anormal, healthy eye the incoming light is focused on the setina, optic disk ‘The component ofthe eye that responds ta light intensity and gives the eje its colors the: lens. © retina, ins. 3. Ifthe foal point ofthe light entering the eye fll in {ron ofthe retina. the results 2. hyperopia (farsightedness) 1k. myopia (near sghtednes). astigmatism, & presbyepia Qverview of Visual Testing During direc visual inspection, viewing stance shall not be any move than & 20in. 058 mm, 2m or 610 mm, © 25m. or 635 mm, 30m. or 762 mm, Which of the following ce visual ecansinalion methods? & Shear and longitudinal, Visible and faarescent. © Dirsct end indirect. Manual and atomic, (Connery AST aes saeco oh Cars Ras Ona Mn 31001912017 117628 WEST. Sg Ur Lions ony. Copa esting ore eon prone, CHAPTER 2 Principles and Applications of Lighting ‘To understand the importance of ighting in an inspection atmosphere, its essential to know the fundamentals oflight, how t is measured, and the recommended lighting levels for inspections Fundamentals of Light ‘There are severl theories that describe the pe- ‘nomena of light (radiant energy.) The electromag tic wave theory aad the quantum theory are the toro most widely accepted theories. The dectromsag- netic wae theoty proposes radiation originates, fame ecclceting charied panies (fr eeoples ‘ibraing cletrena) and trmeh through apace ax time in wavelike movements. The quantim theory, developed more recent states encrgy is emittes and absorbed in discrete quanta or peckes of ener- 85 (photons). While both models are based en a ‘massless, chargeles transfer of energy at speed of 186000 mile/s (299 338 km/s), cach proposes a dif {erent explanation of lights interaction wth matter For the visual inspector there is no perceptible dif- ference a visible ight exhibits properties of both the wave model anc the quantum model. ‘sible light, or the radiant energy thst stimu lates receptors ofthe human eye, e generally slefincd o energy inthe wayclengi range of £380 am to 770 nm. To provide some perspective ‘human bai is 50 000 am to L00 000 am thick. “The dectromagretic spectrum based ca the wave theory model is «convenient way to graphically depict electromagnetic radiation, The electromag netic spectrum encompasses the range of energies from extremely short wavelength cosmic rays to long wavelength electrical radio waves ax shown in Figure ‘Visible ight is produced from the electron cloud ‘fam stom when on external force dstnre it elec- trons. Energy from the external force removes an clectron fom its original energy level ang, upom its resurn to that energy level, the excses energy is emitted as light. This light travels in anestly straight line unt it encounersa mediam or force Out reflects cefisets or illest i ‘Viste light now as white light is ately broad spectram of wavelengths. Wher white ight is pssed through « prism, it i separated int the con- Stitueat wavelengths thet produce the vision sensa- tion of coor. ‘An important pointto remember is that all lec tromagnetic radaticn i simian natar andi ie the epecilized propertion ofthe eye that allow the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to stimulate sight. ‘Meaturement of Light Photometry the measurement of lights a means ‘x quantiying tbe ria energy of visible Light Mescuremtents ae obtained wih «photometer, which converts the radiant energy of the igh into 8 measurable clectrical signal, Terms used in the ‘measurement oflight include: dation waveleng (om) a Figure 1: Electromagnetic wavelength spectum. Proton ener Misval Testing Method | CHAPTER 2 © & NI {e) & Figure 2 Principles of photemetry: (a) Inverse square law, llgstating how the same quanity of igh Is dstibuted over greater area as distance ffom source fo surlace Is Increased: () cosine taw. showing thet light striking a suriace al angles ‘other than normal is dshibuted over greater area; (c) cosine Cubed law, exolaining transformation of Inverse square teem, (¢ Lemincu: flee er aninon per (Sl units ie the measure ofthe perceived power of ight. It clfers from radiant flux, the measure ofthe total power oflight emitted, in tha hminous fx is Acjusied to reflect the varying sensitintyof the Inuman eye t different wavclengths of ight. © Alen (SI unt) r equal to candela timer steradion (eds (© Afootcandle (non-Sl unit the reading most ‘often required by standards and codes in the United Sites, isa measurement of tbe amount ‘flight that actually fals on a given surface, The ootcandle i ql to Hamen per square fot, bt 10.76 mene per aquare meter ‘Whea measuring visible light the inerse square law and Lambert's cosine hw are used. The inverse square law (Equations 1 and 2. See Figure 2) siates the ilumination ofa surface varies inversly as dis tance betwesn the light source and surface squared. Ga where sminous intensity (candela), lurination (lan), i «d= distance henween the point and source (meter Gad —_ 1 = taminosintesity (candela), «d= distance beeen the point and source (meer), For example igh source wah slusinanee 100 im sarc 0.3m wl be duced to Om aa dctanceof0.6 Lamberts cosine law (Equation 3) sates thatthe Ieminance oa surface ates asthe cosine of the snglof incidence. 9 B=Acao * oe aes E= ure uminance (la), 1 = source laminon intensity (candela) 0 = angle of incidence (degre). Combining the inverse square law with Leet cine lew ows iluinerce ut ahs ther than normal to be ciliated Recommended Lighting Levels Adequate lighting atthe inspection surface is essen tual for the proper identification of indications, (Often, the general lunination of the work arc is afFicien fr visual examination; however without ‘acahaternent cot fale bs ery ute ‘ments of the governing code or specifications for ‘inimum lighting lewls are met In adition, ‘excessive lighting athe inspection surface can ‘use reflections, glas or shadows. distracting the inspector lighting Techniques Why the i et Vve tic eptoeine fice is determined to be inadequate, the techrician should provide the necesiary lighting. Flashlights, portable shop ight, and high-intensity lamps should be cansidered. Another option i to move the test piece to an inspection ara with more light possible Surfaces and the detectability of nications can sary greatly due tothe characteritice ofthe light source. The charactenstice ofthe light source used {uring en inspection should be the same used to ‘examine reference standards. The color ofthe lights alsa important as color plays significant role in increasing contrist in the inepretie Sea. Fe some the pete of ‘Hicenion plating ove eke tay be sihincel Wy ‘sing a bluish light, such as that provided by day- light fluorescent lamps Surfaces and the Getectability of indications cin sary grstly duc tothe characteristics ofthe ight source, The characteristics ofthe ight source dee {Guring en iapection shouldbe the name used ko See aie aed, ‘Whatever lmination source i chosen, consid= ration should be give to light location The dis- tance ofthe light source fom the test piece and its angular position determine the intensity ofthe light ‘rll the amount or absence of glare. with the Tighting chaeciristics, he physical configuration of the equipment should be Grr tn the conditione ‘sed during examination ofthe reference standard Uaght Sources Light scurces used to previde adequate illumination ‘range from pealightfaablights to bilinnt high- ‘ates teen bred wil wider bereocopes There: are several types of afc light, but this chepter will cover incandescent light. fluorescent light, Iightemittng diodes and discharge (are) ight Principles and Appications of Lighting Figure 3:(a) An Incandescent ight bulb, and {b) acompac! fluorescent Ight bulb Incandescent Lighting Tsang i prochce by pag siren through 2 tungsten lamest that's heated to incan- descence, The common tungsten incandescent lamp is basically a thin-coiled tungsten wite surrounded bya vacuum sesled envelope (Figure 3a) Asa cur reat ispassed through the wire, itheats apoint where electrons eseape and retus to their toms, relating ueyyin the fer of ight Halogen Lighting ‘The halogen lamp is refinement of the tungsten lamp. "The halogen lamp wsesan inert gis with an sctivehelgen compound within the envelope Seteal fa ecm ‘The halogen lamp design maximizes the service life ofthe filament because the inet gas minimizes the evaperstion of tangsten from the filament end its subsequent deposition on te lamp wall. Any tungsten that does evaporate i combined withthe hhalogen and redepenited on the lament when the letop i de-cncriiend Thinale mihiinees the blackening of the lamp asi commorly observed ‘with incandescent lamps. Fluorescent lighting Fluorescent light is produced by a gas within a hs covelope that Boorcaicewincn iis acted by er cecten dinchanpeecirone or dechanged ly, filaments at one or both ends ofthe tube and their interaction withthe gas atoms causes ges atoms toemt radiation in the infrared, visible, and Visual Testing Method | CHAPTER 2 ultraviolet frequency range. The povider coating on ‘the inside surface ofthe tube is exited by the ultra violet raciation, and in turn, emits visible light (gure ), Light-Emiting Diodes Anew source of light is fram ight-enilting diodes (LED), LED dasalights are cooler, more eneigy eff cient, and tougher than traditional Neshights (gue 4) Two types of semiconductor materials are wed {man LED: one that hasan abundance of fee el tronsand the ather tha! har a deficit. When encugh energy ix supplied inthe form af electricity, Uneshold is reached that pashes some ofthe free clectronsin the abundant material, te jump tothe tracing material, When that cletron takes its pplicein the new meter, a photon or pert of light feleased. Figure 4: An LED fashight. ‘The color ofthe released light is dependent fon the types of matersls used and the amount of nergy required fr the electrons to make the jump. Ifa low amount of energy is required, the light ‘emitted will bein the lnfared or red wavelength fa comparatively high threakold mast he reached, the light emitted willbe in the blue hile wave legis. Discharge Lighting ‘High-intensty discharge (HID) lamps make more ‘sible light per una of electric power consumed than foorestent anil incandescent eps ince 8 greater proportion oftheir radiation i visible light in contrast to heat. Discharge (tc) lamps use an electric arc to pro- dacelight. This amp typeis sed in some video borescope imaging systems asa source of high- Intensity lumination, The electmdes are housed in ‘vee pal Med eenclopes ued pflerior acu the ight on w pecficest pint. Sapphire id quartz are commonly used a! the ext point bbecatse oftheir light transmission and thermal properties. The electrode gap, arc voltage, reflestor Shape, and material used & the light ext pant termine the intensity and efficiency of this type of lamp. When a alficiest voltage i applied rapid tanger of electrons crases the cectrode pip and produces visible light. Most often these lights are ‘sed fr area/reom illumination. Review Questions Visible light is ene of the radiation types graphically represented on the: periodic table. clectromagnetc spectrum TSS lighting tae. vibe spectrum table ‘Te successfilly locate nomalie the inspector mus: assure minimum temperstire tie saficiert lighting "use sppropriate measuring ineruments. tte eaitested measuring instruments ‘Visible light perceived by the eyeis inthe wavelength ringe of [380-770 nanometer 770-840 nanometers 300-770 angstroms. 70-840 angstrom Visible light travelsin straight line unt itis absorbed, refracted or diffracted reflected, reacted or difiracied, ‘reflected, reiracted, oF absorbed, reflected, reacted, or reproduce 2 3a eT Princioles and Applications of Liahting [A photometer used by inspectors: 44 convert mechanical energy of light into = ‘measurable signal. 'b, measures light from incandescent wavelengths ony, & converts ndiant energy of ight ino a measurable clecticlsigral 4d._measres light from ultraviolet ight wavelengths only ‘Alumen is define a equal o 1 fe falling on I cm of are by equal to Le falling on 1 of area. (¢ the atount of ight falling on a photometer fom geen ditence 4 thearount of ambient light in the inspection Ttiaentaney 44 is inversely proportional to the square ofthe dliaance fiom the source 1 pallet the dibante pa Use, (© varies with the distance From the square of the 4. is constant with the distance from the source. ‘Which of thoie led elon provides mare vse light per unit of electric power consumed? ighrintcasity Auoreacent Eg. igh: intenity incandescent lights, High-intesityubravioet ight, High intensity discharge lights aore Copy by AST a esreseved. Leased ob cars Ra Oa Me, 31500 91201 1 eng op eosin pri 24 AM EST. ge User crs ony. Copy. CHAPTER 3 Factors that Affect Visual Testing Factors thal aflzt visual testing inclade material sttributes, the inspection environment, and physio- logical factors that affect the inspector ‘Material Attributes “The surface and physical conditioncaf he abject) to be examined ple a significant rol inthe out- come of an examination. Knowledge of how each tarsbleinfuences the examination wil aid the inspector. Surface Conditions Same surface conuitions that affect VT inchade cleanliness, color and texture. Cleanitness Oncbasic requirement for an effective visual exami sation isa clean tet item, Unwanted foreign mate- ‘Seth ee a aad gen a uk tau face, hiding actual discontimatis or presenting false indications. A clean inspection surface he'ps to prevent the possibilty of missed indications Color "The color ofthe incident ight réative tothe color ofthe object being examined can play sigaificant tlein the detection of discontinuities The olor of the light can be used to increase contrast by intensi- {ing or subduing certain colors. To intensify a colo the ight source sheuld be strong in that color. Conrerielyto subdue colog, the light source should have a relatively lw cutput ofthe color For cnuaphes when emiting ceesioo pleitg over tick plating. «blue ight exch ae that provided by daylight uorescent lamps, can enhance any imper- {ectionsin the chomiam, LED flashlights are widely used end are repac: ing traditional incandescent models. Hewerer, LED rodels may net be uriversly substituted for incandescent lights for nue inmpoction. White LED lighting is ueallya misture of monochromatic LEDs ota coated buch chip. A coated chip produce light output with ablue hue, which may be detrimental. In some cases, yellow-tnted glasses, nay heb by sifing the frequency ofthe viewed light, Individual LEDS are subject to variancesin ‘wavelength, and wavelength can shit from power sures Gannges (belies Chin). Thi an cane frequency of the emitted igh ta vary fiom device to device and during batery drain. The inspector should he aware ofthese issues during inspections LED flahlights leo ten tobe brighter than tra ditional lahlights, This may produce excessive inten- sity om the inspection surice, ffstively masking sul Sscootimaicn copecially on polished minors. Texture ‘The surface ofa materials important in relation to the amount and quality of light reflected from it to the examiner seye A surlace that irefiective can produce unacesptable glare, which may interfere ith the cxitiation Cli canbe redced by ‘eens the ge bebeceh the ple inure id line of sight orby dimming the ight source. Gare may aio be reduced by using a translucent filter over the light source or the general inspection ae. ‘An extremely rough surface may also require special ighing to suticienty illuminate the aca without making. Desreaing the angle between the Tight source and the line of eight i helpful when examining rough surfaces because it may decrease the shadow effect of surface sreguaritcs. Physical Conditions Physical conditions, suchas specimen coneition, shape, type size, and temperstre can act a lint fag factors ding VE. Specimen Condtion ‘The stages ofthe manufacturing process, service vironment, and applied surface coatings all infle- {nce the condition ofthe item bring examined. Mill senlc ail eld sag someting tier mamafictre tan mad discontinuities, and painted ce plated sar- faces can mask other surlace discontinuities, Misual Testing Method | CHAPTER 3 Shape ‘The shape ofan abject aso affects the outcome of anexamination. Complex-shaped objects such os -kerways and splines, may hinéer en examination nd care shouldbe taken in these sree. Type Material ype such ax metallic; non-metallic, ‘wrought, cast, or forged, as wel a finishing and intended ase will determine the extent of visaal inspection. Products in raw or intermediate formas ‘may roquite less inspection then those in the fia ‘prods form. The visual inspection performed can tage fic ample rect cision fv aot iitis that are inherent to the procer to detailed inspection using aids such ss magnifier or other toals to detect small discontinuities. The visual inspection may be performed in conjunction with ‘other inspection methods. ste ‘When examining objects of rubitantial ste certain precautions Should be takea to ensure that a.com plete examination has been performed. Marking frcas on drawings, sketches, and noting inspected larcason checklists or on the put after examination are examples of ensuring large areas or parts are oupkidy caaeel. Temperature Elevate temperatures limit the service lie of many metal components, Using metal components in high temperatures can rest in creep thermal fatigue, and overload fare, Creep i the deforma- tion ofa metal under stress generally at higher cupesiarce thes morte, Thee Blige cod are the result of repeated thermal cycles that cause ‘expansion and contraction within the metal. If ther- tel cycles are caused by friction, es in the care of brake components, thermal fatigue ercks called heat checking can occur Engine cast maniflds thet an retried daring repeated beating and edi syle ray develop faligee icin iw tm residual tensile sires. Repeated thermal cycles of certain materials in an oxiizing tmosphere can create scaly onide layers over the material. These flaky layers may mask surface discontinuities and ‘ate shouldbe tken when inspecting arcas of this "Many metals exhibit calor changer when ‘exposed to elevated temperatures. Color photo- sriphs of known temperature extremes of specific metals canbe beneficial in judging this condition Environmental Factors Environmental factors tha affect a vial inspestion include atmosphere, cleanlines ofthe testing exvi- ronment, humidity ane temperature an saety of the inspector Atmosphere Atmosphere in this context ciers to the portion of the environment that has e physical or prychologi- cal influence on the examiner An atmosphere that isperceived as safe, as well as fee of high noise lev ls, dust smoke, and other distractions, is more Seanlacic tthe pence UP Sea Cleanliness As previously mentioned, the cleanliness ofthe iters tobe examined is impertaat. OF equal importance isthe cleanliness ofthe examination environment. ‘One oie af contemination is the movement of [fete reed ne ures ty aedicy Dict tne ole coy (teinante can be transferred fo the part curface during trans f the surrounding ate is nt res sonahly dean. An examination environment can [become contaminated in many diferent ways. One such way would be smoke anc vapor in the ar that settle on reflective surfaces and reduce the contrast three le locate ptenlisd dlsondinaticn edd or Haerrice Ropes isn apse theron aE coatings or insulation. Certain manufacturing processes may require cleaning before visual inspection, Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)), for example, will quire sag ‘emorl before inspection. Humidity ond Temperature While people diterin thei silty totoerat heat and humidity itis knovn that increased body core temperature decreases the mental ability of an inspector. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommends a wet bulb lobe tersperatare (WBCT) of 90°F (32°C) as essa fr the typical meni of me tore) work breaks (approximately 2h) fa WBGT is not sailableang the combined temperatare and humidity seem excessive, sound judgment should be exercised regarding the length of time an inc- vidual is exposed to these conditions Satety (Fall emvironmentl factors relating to examinations, safetyis one ofthe most important, Precautions cin betaken o minimize potetil Inszards and ride involved Information obtained before workis to begin can be use to prepare fer and lessen potetial safety istic Knovledge about the item or component (such as physical izeand shape), the inspection locaton time of the inspection, and sccenblity can hes inspection personnel gar the sppraptte cxipmentts perfor thet Tnepectin personal should have nowledye ‘or access to. the appropriate regulations concerning safety, and all necessary personal protective equip- ‘ment should be ised to them. Inspectors shoald receive comprehensive salty training intially nd regularly therester, Physlological Factors Prysiologica variables that may influence the out- ‘come ofan examination are the inspectors physical comiort health, mental atitude, fatigue, and the positon af he testitem to be examined. These vati- SENG together or spray cme the inpeton to Thee foc oro Fd the inepectin, Physical Comfort Although physical comfort is determined by the tler- ance of the person involve, a comforable range: ‘ment forthe inspector wllrest ia pear ateniion te deal and fer dstactioneand annoyances. An inspection performed from an awkward position, or fiom the same position foran extended period of time, may result incorrect calls or missed indica- tions. The inspector may tend o hurry the examina- tion inorder to return to amore comfortable postion Health Many physical conditions can affect eyesight, Some perceptual problems are inherited and some are ‘fected by 4 persons emotional state ar other phys ical conditions, Others may be the result of ocelar Structure deterioration due te cataracts, glaucoma, Ihemorshagingy or tumors. Ava person gets olde, the lene alee stilfene, This condition ix called pray ‘pia. the inability t Focus on near abject, Other factors that compromise inspection integrity include blurring, light sensitivity watery eyes pain, burning, orather ciscomfort. I any of these symp: toms accar.a thorough eye examintion is neces- sary. Other physical aliments such aaa cold or the fa Gan provide Uidrudtont und bi of foo ‘Mental anitude ike physical ailments the inspectors mental ati- tude may affect an inspection. Preconceived mental Foctors That Affect Visual Testing Saige mapas Ge way hapa. ing the eyes percived and interpreted, therefore, Affecting inspection resus, ‘When performing repetitive inspections, find- ing one paticalar discontinaity may cass the inspector to mentally expect nd look for only that Aiscontiny. Vision ina elective sense that etrong, yd by what the obeerter wants and pect to see. Intent can affect perception if he inspecter is looking ony fr certain aspects ofa particular scere. Even though thereis «large emount of infor- mation avalabe athe time of viewing, some char acteristics may not be recognized until ancther sei in portoaed ASS eceipn parc iy wall ino acrowded room and immediately recog. nize a familiar face across the room while complete: Ij missing nother familiar person who was not expected to be present. The same holds true for visual inspection If an inepestor is prepared t find only perostyon the surface of aweldment, fusion problems a! the weld foes may be inadvertently Sie Fatigue ‘The effect fatigue has on the general well-being of the inspector cannot be evesated. Fatigue not only Affects overall pliysielfeling ofthe inspecor, but slberates deine wel assy a the tates tation of vial dasa Repetitive inspections while siting ot an inspection table or dimbing on objects in the Feld produce diferent types of fatigue; how ‘ever both can be distractingand reduce the accura- cy of the inspection. Another form of fatigue, fatigue ofthe eye muscles caused by poor Uhumins- ion and awlevard body postions eed: to ove, Son ob he cpcand ph. Thisiea cominon oriee of inetfctve visual examinations Test item Position “The position ofthe item and its cistence from the Sdagetlos avant ou te pts learnt grin the rormmended viewing dntance ed ale: for vial examination eto hive the eye within 24 in (61 cm) ofthe object and positioned at en angle net less than 30 to the inspection surface as shown in Figere in Chapter 1 If the caminstio surface is immovable ane situated so thatthe je cannot be placed within this region, sulle vnual aid, such Sines u/c Flevated objects present another abstae to proper examination. A component elevated toa point beyond the reach of the inspector cannot be thoroughly examined without adequate access abba wed Visual Testing Method | CHAPTER 3 Review Questions When examining objects of substantial size ‘4. a scanning plan shoald be formed and foloved. 1. glare shouldbe increased. the wse of mirots and magnifies prohibited portal cmmination aceptae, ‘When isthe surface condition ofa past an important factor during visual testing” a. Only ifthe partis painted. 1 Surface condition ls never «factor . Alldiscontinuities should be visible without the factor ofthe surface condition, 4. Poor sefice condition could mask sliscontinities apres pina ie roc rb intpectioa oi part? ‘4. Dimming the ligt source & Teereoing the energy f the light ous Decreasing the angle of sight. 4d. Incressng the amount of reflection. Environmental fictors that fet visul inepecticn inclu: 44. shapeand sizeof the part, 6 steriphege ore desea typeof part and conditions 4. color and texture, ‘Taiigiae Re teiea aim anieEd colored object: sy Signy incr igh |b. scect the aptimel clorof lighting to enhance esird characteristics, «always attempt to use LED lighting. {lightly abrade the surface for beter contrast rightness Battery drain, coated chips and high ight are all considerations when using: incandescent lightning TED sources overhead room lightning, CcDemnys When inspecting a reflective surface, glare from the surfce 44 can be best controlled by the amount, angle, and ‘qeality of ight provide. 1A. Gin be tedoned by decreasing ihe angle cbeen ihe Gare sex end he ine of sight «econ be mansged by increasing light intensity 4d. may be intensified unnecessarily through the use of trnslicen filters. Decreasing the ange between thelight source and the line of sight is helpful when examining surfaces highly reflective by rough polished painted ‘Which ofthe fllossing would rere the most methodical san pattern? a Raw casting be. Partially formed forging. ¢ Intermetite passes oft thick weld joint. 4d. Comptes gest afer final gin (Operator performance, when visual testing, is mast affected by a material type component cor. . environmental conditions a peti uy (Mil scale, wield dag, and surface coatingscan 8 ptensall s. musk discontinuities, 1b enhance snfice featres, promote thorough surface inspection 4. duce visual lighting requirements 1 Beingaware of hazards or risks related toa fortheoming inspection shuld be par of. pinning: . engincering 1 enlety ©. breaktime 4. environmental Answers ta 2d abt aaa Factors That Aifect Visual Testing Eye muscle fatigue ie driven by: a: Sie condom Cala prttiapl bb cold and fla symptoms, awkward body postions and poor lighting. 4. limited knowledge of inspection crite Which ofthe flowing distances and angles for ‘viewing an chjct oe feature ae within the Hii? 12m (30.5 cam) from the object and «viewing, angle of 90°. bb 281m (63.5 cm) from the object and «viewing angle of 90°. 24m (61 crm) ftom the objectand a viewing angle of 45° 4. 20m (61 em) ftom the objectand a viewing angle of 29° Ceoyay AST al eesresaved UcaSed mM Cas ROA Kno. EAD. 7017 11524AMEST. She UerLensaony. Cena "esa an esonng one, CHAPTER 4 Principles and Theory Lens Optics [Allens isa device that converges or disperses ight by ‘efaction. Converging ses focus ight on asingle point wh divergent lenses disper light. When Aeserbing lense, the conventional standard isto descnbe the shape ofthe ens sure fom ef to right using the eliowingterinelogy Pane descres Mat face. Cone enas are converging nae they are ‘hicker inthe centerthan athe edge. Concave lems are dergen: hey ae thinner in the enter than atthe cee Figure | shows examplesof thes lenses “Tin lenses are those where the thickness ofthe Jens is small compared to the focal length. The properties o thin lenses ae describ using the Jena lee This law relate the image distance object ea Figure & Mecharical gage, or microthicknoss ‘gage: (a) manuel and (b) digital. [Measurement with the mechanical gage occurs between thearil and spindle. Asthe thimble is otet- cd counterclockwise, the spindle end anv separste tnd the bare gracastions are revealed in succession ‘With the part betwcen the anvil and spindle, slowly turn the thimble cloclorse until the anvil fd epindle make contact with the part, The prt should be able tobe rtated abot the spindle exis with the feeling of sight drag, Barrel gracuations ae reveled bythe outward movement ofthe thim- bie, To rad the dimension, note the largest major slvsion uncovered, the gradeation closes 1 the thimble, and the thimble division aligned with the al ieee Boe Visual Testing Equipment Figure 6: Mechanical gage reading. Referring o Figure 6 the 2 of 02 in. division is revealed, and the closest graduation tothe thimble is the second, or 05in, and the 11 or 0.012 in {graduation on the thimbie is aligned with theretr- ict line ofthe barre, Adding ese togcther,0.2 plus (05 plus 0.012 gives the dimension 0262 in Weid Gages ‘There ares varity of weld gages commonly used in visual testing igure?) The wel filet gage ia simple, easy-to-use device that measures eg lengths and determines if ‘here is sulficient cheba in weld flee (Figure 7s) "This gue faically easipartiw — the Seep Ablesize is etched into the gage and arcs ate cat ito the gage tollow space for the weld beed. The gage is placed square agtnst the welded components and the actual Wele i compared tothe standards ofthe ‘gage. This ype of gage offers a quick and precise Trees: of rennin eoncies na acres filed we from 0.13 im. 3 mm) to lin 5 mm). “Anther more versatile deve ured for weld inspection is commonly referred toas the cam- bricge gage (Figure 7). The Welding Istiute of Cambrege, England, developed this versatile too}, hence the name. With this device, join preparation snglen joint misalignment, weld ft size, and depih taenuisemints can he ly abt 25 Visual Testing Method | CHAPTERS: “Te pang oe aplaestan wai shoven in Figare 7d. can he used to measare the sire ofillet welds, the actual throa sizeof conver and concave filet welds, reinforcement of but welds And root openings af 0.3 in. (8mm) and 0.13 in, (mm, Pie wal o © Figute 7:Typicel weld gages: (a) gage fer ancave fl! weld: (b)Higt-low gage for Inside dlamete: mismatch of small-diameter pipe: (e) cambridge gage for chackng alignment; (4) weld throat gage; (e) high-low ‘welding gage for misalignment after welding. Indirect Visual Testing Insituations where theinspector docs not hive acces to place the eye within 24 in, (61cm) ofthe test surface, mechanical and optical instruments, such as borescopes, can supplement the eyein 3 faeily of textniques called indirect or remo vial testing Instruments fr incirect visual testing have components for thre functions: llurination, {mage transmission to the inspector's eye, and one ‘or more santa circuits to coptrol the cameras llumination Indirect visual tests can beclassifed according to the source of light that illuminate the text surface Light may be ambient that is, any ight thats aval able atthe inspected item’ location, and may be ‘natural lighting from the sun oF mooa, for example, aiid Bghting euch a light in aon Light maybe introduced by alamep or fach init atthe objective end ofthe probing instrument. A lamp may be powered through a cable integral the boresope, Light may alo be generated atthe eyepiece end ofthe instrument snl conveyed fo the test terface throwgh the fiber opti cable. This pe of ithumination ie integral tothe design of virtually all boressopes, Image Transmission A rig borescope transmits the image inside the tube using lenses ard possibly mirror. ‘Aber optic borexope uses traneparct gles or plats fibers in a flesitle cable, The image may be aptied by a-camer and viewed on 3 video screen, such as acomputer display. A camera borescope of video borescope senses light with a small camera and thea converts the light o an electronic signal tha is sea through a ebb kxidoo seen Rigid Borescopes Rigid borescopes (ns opis) allow visual inspection tobe periormed on areas inside assemblies, cn remote abjects that ae out ofthe normal inspection cnvironment, oron remote objects or assemblies with etrcted playsical acces (Figure 8). Using spt ont pres Bertopes cn pw the image ofthe ares of interes while permiting ‘amination Light the inspection ste is provided bya bulbat the distal end ofthe scope or through a Fguie & Lens sysiem In representative rigid borescope. ‘iber optic bundle or ligui igh gue fom & ‘emote, high-inensty ight soarce, Borescopes ore ictlcblein ssany diameter aod leigih corobinetoc ‘Borescopes cance convex lens elay syste 2 Inybrd rod, or a rigid pass rod, pls objective and ‘ocular leases. “The convex lens relay system transmits images by relaying them from the objectlens through the relay lems dong the length ofthe borescope tothe bject lene. “The hybrid rod len consists of series of rod lenses to relay the image, Rod lens trans have sn advantage oer simple lens transi that there sre {ewer retracon points resulting les ight scatter lng. and they may be made ina smaller diameter, ‘which in tum reduces the botercope diameter. Fiber Optic Borescopes ‘As stated in Chapter 4 an industrial fiberoptic borescope isa fexile layered sheath protecting ‘sro ber opic bundles, each comprising thousands ‘of glee foe. One burl serve asthe image guide ‘and the other bundle laminates the test object. Focusing rg Figure # Representalve ibar apie borescope. Priston ete Visual Testing Equipment Ligh travels in straight lines, bu optical glass Siners bend light by internal reflection to carry ight around corners (Figure 9) Because each fer transmits only a small por- tion ofthe image, the image bundle must be trranged eo the each fiber ends at the ocular lens in the same postion itoriginates in atthe objective lens. This iscaled cohen alignment which allows far acobesive image atthe eyepcce. Khe fibers were random paced at each ead, the resultant image ‘ould be an unrecognizatie jumble of dots cr pels. ‘Although the light ie efectively rapped within ‘ach Ber, nt ll fit emerges ram the opposite end, Some of the lights dbserbed by the fiber tse, tnd the amount of absorption deperds on the length of the fiber and its optical quality. For exam le plastic fiber can transmit ight and i es fxpensire te produce than optic glass, but plstic flew ficient te tomeminion ead hereire unstable for fiberoptic borescopes Video orescope Kelatively small opening: can be accessed by using a small camer, which i typically «solid-state ‘licen hg orlight eeneer knows ula charge coupled device (CCD). and light transmited through a fiber bundle to the test surface, as stat- od in Chapter 4, The returning image is passed tlectronicaly from the charge-coupled device taroagh a wire ta the mage processor. From the peceninn Gee eeenisiciel ped teage oe ly aliquid crystal dis a Visual Testing Method | CHAPTER 5 Video Borescopes Measurement Techniques Characteristics measured by indirect visual testing describe a featur. There are seven ways that a features shape, orientation, or extent can be meas ured on the txt surface © adstarce (linear) measurement on aflat surface; © Sshew memurcimnt which is alinear ictearementon the varkio otc eagle (igure 10) © a depth measurement ofthe depth or height of the object (Figure 11) fan erea measurement that calculates the surface © a circle gage to check that a feature dos nat epeted scart Gnmeter oe distance inary direction Figure 12) © uitiple short segments, which meesure the length of a nonlinear featare, © poiat-to-line measurement, which provides data tn to dimensions, along an X axis and Y axis, The length of ine perpendicular ea line Debwoed two joists W iensared Figure 10: skew measurement Is ath ‘measuroment of an object on the surface at a skewed angie fo the optical ax of he probe. Figure 11: Deptt measurement mecsures ne height or depth of an object by determin distances fem probe to upper and iower sutfaces and calculating the diference, Figure 12:The cele goge technique makes c Cfcle of known sle on an Image lo compare fo.a feature, based on known relorence dimension. Remole Video Cameras Push Cameras ‘A pb omen ind ca erga areal rod that ieinserted int an aperture ar cavity. A Separate electronics cable coatrls the eamera and Cartes images to the inspector ce workstation. A push camera can be adapted to various applications ‘with specific able lenges, camera diameters ne Jens options to perform «variety afinspections ‘rith ae vides eytin. Applicaions ary foundi the nfrastrictare, procetting, power generation, and water treaiment industries, Camera heads an be cxchanged lor diffe pie openings and diamte. ‘The push camera design i unsuited forlarge- Giameter channels or open spaces vibere speciic Girectional views are dested Without pan, it, and alan eapebiltes,the vic blaine falda be tron ditis by Be operten Crawlers Crawlers are wsefl for pipe inspections and entrances to hazardous space, Pape crawler camera systems are commonly made ofa tacts lights a camera a cable rel central control unis and yar Sen acitaeere! ted enticda Setodng aly lights and centering cevies Figure 13 Robotic crawlers ere avadable with options to ‘mount CCD camere with 35 W spot or flood lamps. (Crawlers can explore enclosed spaces and channels such a ai ducts and electrical conduit, Jubvieaion oil lines, team lines, team headers, and small pressure vessels and tanks. If water- proof, crawlers ae suited for environments that ‘may have liquid up to in. (10m) deep — sewer lines, concrete pipe storm lines end intake or dis- hinge nes. A rarety of whee emcblins ee eval ale for retrieving loose partsand maneuvering through wreckage. Pan, Tit, and Zoom Cameras (Cameras that are able pan, it and zoom (Figure 1) facta inopectins by direting the Fame ruses ances noe ‘The pa til, and z00m camera is suited for sur- vwllance, large-diameter piping, online applications, radiation environments, underweter applications, sumps, manifolds, and steam headers. The pan, tit {and 200m camera is not suited for small-dimecer feng hot Galangee! Auxlary Video Equipment Aaxliary video equipment is needed in soniunction with a camera to take the image data from the (CCDs in the camera (imager) to the processor via ‘ables and to the monitor viacabes for rewing by te faapecten: Monitors ‘An LCD menitor is thin, light computer monitor that displays image through the use of liquid crystal dsplay. LCD screens ae found in most lap- top computers 2s wel asin at-pune! monitors. and Ihave seplcal tudiional cathode ray tbe (CRT) ‘ohilon for wieny uses CRTs once wee prefered bby many users fr their superior color presentation: improvements in LCDs have mace the difference less noticeable, Whether the ICD monitor is stanc-alone device or integral with the camera, an. LLEDis the mos comnion monitor for remote ‘ual inpections Processors Inthe making of video images for remote visual inspection, « camera with a CUD to capture the ‘mage is used. The signal eset toa video processor “The viden processor then processes the elecioaic Heeal ‘Nica pelea a iar vias aie a pponeat that provides video format conversion ‘Video processing chips arc built ita video

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