THE RECIPROCATING PUMP THEORY, DESIGN, AND USE Second Edition John E. Miller White Rock Engineering, Inc. Dallas, Texas & KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY MALABAR, FLORIDA 1995PUMP DESIGN 5.1 RATING STANDARDS’ ‘The following definitions are reprinted from Hydraulic Institute Standards, 1985, by courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute. The purpese ofthis section is to define terms used in pump ratings. These ratings ate characteristics of pump design and not conditions of the specific application, STROKE. One complete uni-directional motion of piston or plunger. Stroke length is expressed in inches. PUMP CAPACITY (0). The capacity of a reciprocating pump is the total volume through-put per unit of time at suction conditions. It includes both liquid and any dissolved or entrained gases at the stated operating conditions. The standard unit of pump capacity is the U.S. gallon per minate. PUMP DISPLACEMENT (0). The displacement of a reciprocating pump is the volume ‘swept by all pistons or plungers per unit time. Deduction for piston rod volume is made on double-acting piston-type pumps when calculating displacement. The standard unit of pump displacement is the U.S. gallon per minate, For single-acting pumps D- 6.) Bi ‘Nomenclature in Section 5.1 muy not be Consigent wih tht nthe main ext a051 RATING STANDARDS 141 For double-acting piston pumps with no tail-rod{) (2A ~ a)snm Daa 62) where A= plunger or piston area, square inch 4a = piston rod cross-sectional area, square inch (double-acting pumps) 5 = stroke length, inch n= RPM of crankshaft ‘m = number of pistons or plungers PLUNGER OF PISTON SPEED (v). The plunger or piston speed is the average speed of the plunger or piston. It is expressed in feet per minute ns F 6.3) he PRESSURES. The standard unit of pressure is the pound force per square i Discharge pressure (pg). The liquid pressure at the centerline of the pump discharge por. Suction pressure (p,). The liquid pressure at the centerline of the suction port. Diferential pressure (prs). The difference between the liquid discharge pres- sure and suction pressure. ‘Net positive suction head required (NPSHR). The amount of suction pres- sure, over vapor pressure, required by the pump to obtain satisfactory volumetric efficiency and prevent excessive cavitation ‘The pump manufacturer determines (by test) the net positive suction head re~ ‘quired by the pump at the specified operating conditions. NPSHR is related to losses in the suction valves of the pump and frictional losses in the pump suction manifold and pumping chambers. Required NPSH does not include system acceleration head, which is a system-related factor SLIP (S). Slip of a reciprocating pump is the loss of capacity, expressed as a frac tion or percent of displacement, due to leaks past the valves (including the back- flow through the valves caused by delayed closing) and past double-acting pistons. Slip does not include fluid compressibility or leaks from the liquid end, POWER P). Pump power input (P;)—The mechanical power delivered to a pump input shaft, at the specified operating conditions. Input horsepower may be cal- culated as follows:142 uu oESIGN @ x py T114 x my 6.4) Pump power output (P,)—The hydraulic power imparted to the liquid by the pump, atthe specified operating conditions. Output horsepower may be calculated 4s follows; Ox py Ta $5) “The standard unit for power isthe horsepower EFFICIENCIES (x). Pump efficiency (n,), (also called pump mechanical effi- cciency}—The ratio of the pump power output to the pump power input P, ™ 6.6) SI, Volumetric efficiency (7,)—The ratio of the pump capacity to displacement. 67) PLUNGER LOAD (SINGLE-ACTING PUMP). The computed axial hydraulic load, act- ing upon one plunger during the discharge portion of the stroke is the plunger load. It is the product of plunger area and the gauge discharge pressure. It is expressed in pounds force. PISTON ROD LOAD (DOUBLE-ACTING PUMP). ‘The computed axial hydraulic load, acting upon one piston rod during the forward stroke (toward head end) is the piston rod load. It is the product of piston area and discharge pressure, less the product of net piston area (rod area deducted) and suction pressure. It is expressed in pounds foree 5.2 FAMILY PLANNING It is usually anticipated that a family of pumps of any one type will be produced in a series of horsepower sizes. The choice of sizes should follow some order of progression, and the geometric series seems desirable. For example, non, n,n, nr ete (6.8) where n = base horsepower (BHP) 1r = progression ratio153, WINDOWS OF NONUTILZATION 143 TABLE 5.1. Geometric Size Progression n= 100 100 BHP m= 10x51 = 510 ny; = 100 1.5 = 150 ny = 1007.6 = 760 m= 100 x 23 = 230 m = 100 x 3.4 = 340 2 BHP 1m, = 100 + 100 = 200 m = 200 + 100 = 300 rns = 300 + 100 = 400 With a base of 100 BHP and a progression ratio of 1.5, each term is 50% larger than the previous term (sce Table 5.1). ‘An arithmetic series may sometimes be desirable. This i, mm in tdietc. (5.9) tdi man tdi ny =n + di my rn = base horsepower (BHP) d = progression difference ‘Table 5.2 illustrates the first seven members of an arithmetic series with a base of 100 BHP and a difference d of 100. 5.3 WINDOWS OF NONUTILIZATION Predictable pumping requirements include a wide order of displacement and pres- sure parameters. This unavoidably large variation of and mandatory economic limit, ‘on the number of pumps in a family contribute to the complexity of the family- size selection process. Sometimes a project may warrant the design and manufacture of a pump of particular size to exactly fit that project. This is true in the long slurry pipeline that entails a great number of large pumps and a long lead time from conception to completion. Nevertheless, there are unavoidable gaps or ‘windows of nonutilization” in the overlapping pump specifications, as shown in Figure 5.1. These are regions in the typical pressure vs. displacement curve for each pump of a family where op- eration is impossible on account of the pump overload. The chart shows the in-144 PUvP DESIGN awd ee pe rer fare po ne val) EN : 3200}- Ne || g 1 oer ' e é 4 &, 20 % X L ‘ , 1 Ne, | Ne 20] Ws r if | seo ‘Maram pam ores asin sien Tame) ,_{inmun pone sare ee Toy 00 300A 5a eT —GO cw igure 5.1. Performance characteristics of a typical family of reciprocating pumps. Win- dows of nonutlization (shaded areas). herent disparity in displacement vs. pressure characteristics of a family of four similar pumps of any practical progression For example, if a pump requirement falls at point A (280 GPM at 1300 PSI), just outside the 210-BHP envelope, one would be forced to choose 2 320-BHP pump (point B) and accept a certain amount of first-cost penalty of excess installed. power. 5.4 PISTON ROD LOAD There is no absolute mule for selecting the piston rod load (PRL) for a particular pump design. However, the nature of the mechanism associated with reciprocating ‘pumps of all types along with past practices dictate that the PRL be directly related to the hydraulic horsepower (HHP) in about the following ratio: oy, = 92 BHP 6.10 where n = number of cylinders An exception to this rule is the case of multicylinder plunger pumps where the same reciprocating parts, both power-end and liguid-end, are used for economic advantage in all of the cylinders of the triplex, quintuplex, septuplex, and nont- plex. In those instances, the PRL is based on the original triplex design and is ac biiisiaabeartiaaall54 PISTON ROD LOAD 148, TYPICAL, SMALL PIN FOR RETURN STROKE pasteNt ny For STENING END OF CONNECTING ROD MALF BI-HETAL GROUND TO BEARING BEARING FINISH Figure 5.1A. Mcans of Increasing Crosshead Pin Bearing Load on Single Acting Pumps Only. used for the other multicylinder pumps. The horsepower increase in each succeed- ing increase in the number of cylinders comes from this addition of cylinders rather than from an increase in PRL. ‘The PRL is a function of piston area 4, and the discharge pressure: PRL = 0.7854D3P, 6.1) where Py = maximum allowable pressure, PSI In double-acting pumps, the piston-rod diameter reduces the effective area of the piston on the crank-end stroke. The pump must be designed on the maximum PRL seen on the head end of the piston where the full area is subjected to the discharge pressure. A high suction pressure on a double-acting pump will tend to-reduce the PRL, but this should not influence the design of the pump, because the actual suction pressure cannot be predicted or guaranteed. 5.41 Unusual Pressure in the Pump Cylinder Naturally, any excessive pressure in the pump cylinder will show up in excessive bearing Joads and the question arises as to what maximum pressures can nor ‘mally be expected. An investigation started about 35 years ago on the failure of fluid ends on pumps due to corrosion-futigue, with some statements that, “*Pres- sure as high as seven times the average discharge (design) pressure have been ‘measured"*. This led first fo a study of the best means of measuring these pres- sures and the conclusion was that the strain gauge type of pressure transducer146 pUuP DESIGN with a small, fush, sensing diaphragm mounted directly into the pump cylinder head without any connecting pipes, valves, etc., is required. Then the pressure read-out should be by means of an oscilloscope to eliminate any mechanical (in- ertial) effects associated with any strip-chart type of recorder. With literally thou- ds of oscillographs taken in the eylinder of 1 BHP w 1700 BHP pump every conceivable service, it can be said that the normal cylinder over-pressure seldom exceeds 10% at the beginning of cach pressure stroke. Now there are occasions when a poor suction system or other contributions can cause an increased over-pressure but even then, the worst that has been ob- served is about 100% and in those cases corrective measures had to be taken While on this subject, it is important to note that a typical cylinder pressure is theoretically a ““good" square wave which means that the cylinder (and the associated bearings) “see” the full discharge pressure for almost all of the 180 degrees of discharge stoke. ‘This is a departure from the less severe pressure waveform seen in gas compressors and internal combustion engines. It is also of imerest that the “overshoot” pressure, sometimes seen in the cylinder, is usually not seen in the discharge pressure waveform. A good example is shown in Figure 4.3, Parts A and B. Never-the-less, the crankshaft and bear- ings “see” this elevated pressure load. 5.5 MAXIMUM PISTON DIAMETER There must be some size limit to the piston diameter, but here again there is no absolute rule, One guideline is that the practical diameter of the piston should be no greater than the pump stroke length s, thus setting the ratio of maximum dis- placement to maximum pressure limits: Dam = 8 (5.12) ‘A pump with such a piston diameter is known as a “'square"” pump. With pumps having a range of replaceable and multisize liners and pistons, the PRL /MAP relation must be maintained. The design approach in that case is to assume an arbitrary piston diameter of approximately half-stroke length: Dyye 8/2 6.13) ‘Maximum limits of PRL dictate that for extremely high pressure pumps (above 10,000 PSI MAP), a drastic reduction in the plunger size/stroke length ratio is required. 5.6 STROKE LENGTH ‘The selection of a design stroke length is roughly related to accepted past practices, dictated by the mechanisms associated with reciprocating pumps, usually resulting. a)58 sPcED 147 TABLE 5.3. Pump Stroke Length amp BAP Stroke, in ‘Stoke, ia 30 4 10 100 5 B 200 7 18 in the “'square’” pump limitation previously described, with the maximum stroke ‘being about equal to the piston diameter. Stroke length is usually more closely related to pump horsepower in the following arbitrary manner: = 0.7(BHP)"* (6.14) But some departure will be encountered. This relation is illustrated in Table 5.3 for some common pump horsepower values. ‘See also the relation of pump RPM to stroke in Sections 5.9 and 5.10. 5.7 NUMBER OF CYLINDERS Duplex double-acting pumps with four pressure strokes per eyele Would naturally requite 90° crank angle spacing of the two throws to generate a tolerable flow ‘variation pattern, Multicylinder pumps ean be designed with any number of cylinders, but for most efficient distribution of flow variations per cycle, the use of an odd number of cylinders, namely 3, 5, 7, or 9, is desired. Even nurabers of cylinders fest superjacency of two or more flow pattems per cylinder, which in tum result in ‘emphasized peaks that generate greater pressure pulsations. Sometimes the main reason for using a multicylinder pump is its more desirable flow patter, with lower values of flow variation and subsequent pulsation. AS illustrated in Table 5.4, even-numbered eylinders have an inherently greater vari ation. 5.8 SPEED ‘There is a great temptation to increase the horsepower rating of pumps by simply increasing the speed. An existing pump can be uprated only slightly in speed. At a higher speed the liquid velocity through the valves may be greatly exceeded, to the extent that hydraulic difficulties would be encountered. The valves in an ex- isting pump were probably designed for a practical maximum velocity as deter- ‘mined for its original rated pump speed and piston size.{ABLE 54 Pp Tie Fw Vrition Pane Te Gis Awe At Pen Kis) Sipe SA Mw v ease Sirs DA 1 te t pe Dae sa 2 te t ims Dales DA 2 % lm Sipe Se rd 2 btw Tepe sk Bono. Tepes 3 = Gam pie sate) 3 ba ‘ree DA sie DB tme amass B ble Gude Blk Gamers 2 Sloe Gane Dk |S 2 + ase Scunersh BoM SauperOR 8D Bo kaw Smmersh Faia ae fate Squmecon 7 Ska ah bane ‘Onue Sa ‘ ‘is eine a” os cups DA ' & is 1 tem Nowe 9 o hy toe NoweDA fo Ome Rta ("A ew vin ste mens cin, (9) Stns pe lt pin wit np pve. (2° Rowan en a1) Ped a a tao png mpc 12 eer, wa pone (by nde sg ef tu pn came (2 teow rca amps) Ft fs geen ee sop foes510 SPEED OF MULTICYUNDER PUMPS 149 ‘TABLE 5.5, APM of Duplex Pumps RPM ‘stroke, in RPM 600 2 100 300 4 36 200 16 15 150 18 oa 120 However, due to competition and economic reasons, there has been a tendency to design greater speed into pumps, and the hydraulic limit has probably been reached. Greater speeds will no doubt require drastic design approaches, such as positively actuated valves, tending to offset any economic advantages associated with the speed ‘The greater the pump speed (RPM), regardless of stroke length, the greater the detrimental effect of high acceleration pressure atthe pump suction and discharge. In other words, maintaining a constant piston speed (FPM) by choice of RPM ¥s. stroke length results in constant displacement in GPM, but the short-stroke high- speed pump suffers most from acceleration problems. It has also been shown that liquid-end parts life is exponentially reduced by increases in RPM and/or in number of reversals. See Chapter 10, Parts Wear and Life. 5.9 SPEED OF DUPLEX AND SIMILAR PUMPS ‘Aside from the hydraulic limiting factors affecting maximum RPM, the imbalance of pump crankshafis with nonsymmetrical throws, such as the duplex double-act- ing with two throws at 90° separation, creates intolerable rotary imbalance. Such ‘pumps must be limited to a relatively low RPM, because the effects of the unbal- anced forces (centrifugal) increase to the power 2 with rotating speed. Accord- ingly, a practical speed rating for such pumps is RPMyua, = FPM,/(25/12) 6.15) where FPM, = 200 ‘Table 5.5 was constructed on that basis. 5.10 SPEED OF MULTICYLINDER PUMPS Pumps with symmetrical erankshafts (equally spaced crank angles) such as a du- plex single-acting and all multicylinder pumps can be operated at much higher180 PUMP DESIGN ‘TABLE 5.6, RPM of Mult-Cylinder Pumps Stroke, in RPM Suoke, in RPM 2 00" 2 160 4 430 4 130 6 300 16 ug 8 225 18 100 10 180 “Note: An arity limit has Deen seta 600 RPM for stroke of $n. or less. speeds because of the inherent static balance of the crankshaft, but now being ited by the hydraulics. Liquid flow or friction pressure increases directly with velocity. Liquid accel= ctation pressure increases as the second power of crankshaft rotating speed. Both, of these factors affect the volumetric efficiency of the pump, and there must be some limit to the maximum speed at which the pump can operate. ue to economic factors and competition, the industry has seen a gradual i crease in the maximum allowable speed (MAS) for multicylinder pumps. It appears that a limit has been reached beyond which the problems associated with high speed cannot be tolerated. In fact, some manufacturers have followed a trend to lower speeds. Speed reduction is desirable in many cases where suction conditions are minimal. See Chapter 2, Dynamics. ‘An acceptable range of basic speeds for multicylinder pumps is determined by the following formula, based on a constant piston speed of 300 FPM: RPMuaz, = FPM,/(25/12) (5.16) where FPM, = 300 Table 5.6 illustrates this relationship. For further discussion of the effects of pump speed see Section 10.1.4 Chapier 10, Parts Wear and Life. 5.11 DIRECTION OF ROTATION 5.11.1. Rotation ‘‘Overrunning”’ In an overrunning pump the crank rotation is such that the crank approaches the crosshead from the top of the rotation circle as shown in Figure 5.2. This motion is preferred for horizontal pumps because the connecting rod force component R ‘and the weight component W are always directed downward. To resist the normally high crosshead forces, more rigidity can be built into the lower crosshead guide,Crank ese me o Figure $.2. Direction of rotation. @) Overrunning. (#) Underruning, ew Ay cROSSHEAD conn BEARING ine contac CROSSHEAD PIN AND SEARENG ASSEMBLY VITH CLEARANCE OBTAINED viTW PsRTS OF DIFFERENT DianErEy/ | SHOVING (EXAGGERATED) THE “LINE CONTACT PRESSURE RESULTING IN EXTREVELY HIGH COMPRESSION STRESS FRUM APPLIED LUADS THE MODULUS OF ELASTICLTY UF THE METALS OF BUTH PARTS (THAT OF THE BEARING BEING THE LOVEST) ALLUVS AN “AREA CONT: To BE GENERATES BEARING anpe Figure 5.24. Oscillating Crosshead Bearing Atrangoment. 181182 PUMP DESIGN since it is tied into the base of the power end. Overrunning also minimizes eross- head slap or knock. 5.11.2 Rotation “Underrunning” Rotating in the opposite direction, an underrunning pump, in Figure 5.2(6) has @ force component R that is always directed upward while the weight component W is always downward. These altemating forces can cause crosshead slap or knock, Extremely close crosshead and guide clearances must therefore be incorporated, 5.12 OFFSET CRANKSHAFT {As described in Section 5.11, all crosshead forces or loads are usually directed downward in a horizontal reciprocating pump. The offset crankshaft (Fig. 5.3) causes a modification of these loads in such a manner that the maximum downward load at the center of the stroke is reduced by an amount that is transferred t0 the Upper guide at the beginning and end of the stroke (Fig. 5.4). A slight improve- ‘ment in mechanical efficiency should be expected, but there is the possibilty of crosshead slap or knock at the points of load reversal ‘The offset crankshaft offers little if any advantage with respect to the hydraulic standpoint, The acceleration at the ends of each stroke is not altered, and the flow pattern change is almost undiscemible, ‘The following special formulas apply to the offset crankshaft: x= r(1 — cos 6) + (rsin@ + h)/2L, 6.17) @ = arctan [(r sin 9 + h)/VE2 — (r sin 6 + h)'] (5.18) Figure $.3. Offset crankshaft518 CONNECTING ROD FORCES 183 UPPER GUIDE RUNNING CLEARANCE pate sane LuvER GUIDE“ ran eran Asses Figure 5.3A. Shin-Adjusted Crsshead Shoe and Guide Fis o (5.19) fu 6.20 12° Sin (1 » r h a = 0.0847a?(c0s 0 + © cos 20 + 21 o.oet ra oe femme 6.20) R= (tana) PRL 6.2) 5.13 CONNECTING ROD FORCES 5.13.1 Introduction ‘The fundamental mechanism of the power end of a reciprocating pump is the crank- connecting rod-crosshead system. The design of a crankshaft provides single or158 PUMP DESIGN 2° Offset crankshaft T Onsen 2a0e 3 otal seao| Unserroning = Ke | i Lt i — 4 { - aE aT Be 2° Oftset crankshatt | Oversnning em || nother a 18 B10 BO 270 MO RD ie) 210-240 B70 300 BD 80 Crankange. deg Figure $.4. Offset crankshaft, erosshead loads. ‘multiple throws or crank pins, the axis of which are on the desired distance (radius) from the axis of the main shaft Many forms of crankshaft configuration are used, most representing different methods of manufacture sich as forged, cast and machined-from-billet and even bolted assemblies, Figure 5.5 shows the general shape of several erankshalt de- signs, all having opinionated features. The basic geometry of a crank-connecting rod-crosshead system is shown Figure 5.6, The pump mechanism forces are shown in Figure 5.7 for a conven- tional crank mechanism and in Figure 5.8 for an articulated mechanism. 5.13.2 Formulas ‘The following formulas are used io calculate the crank mechanism forces and an example is shown in Figure 5.9. Example: Triplex Single-Acting; Type Ill Crankshaft See Figure 5.7, 3 in; L, = 18 in; PRL = 10,000 Ib Py = 1415 PSI; P, = 100 PSIi Bearing Frame cast ecentrie Mutieyioder Single oF double acting Gear wi W ‘eae Shafteccentrie (Overman crank Muteyinder Duplex only Sinle-or double aetne w ww = ‘Cast marine type Modular eccentric Matinee Muticyhadee Single of double seine Single or double-cting v ——— Optional fal or | vi et "backup routnals Forged marine type Maltetinder Single or double acting Intermesiat ournat Figure 5.5. Crankshaft types, 185saieloaial strove, 7 uit connection 270° " Piston diameter, in tle Ccank ena + Connecting od enath ie Init connection ip Sze, in Figure $.6. Pump geometry. / hist pine —— 180" «360° Oe Denzae nate cosines ay cairn ethed serene re Sy, Cia See Thay Dschrceprecsre . Sictonresue ef ofl ; + Paton roo sd Tb sa Fp ee — T 9° 180° cyte | a) Suction Inside crosshead w Dischrge Oute crosshead (asbiescing pros. Subtract suction pressure on CE tom decharge pressure on HE.) ne. Flor diameter (Conia pane Figure §.7. Pump mechanism forces, 186513 CONNECTING ROD FORCES 157 Rod 1, 8 = 86 ay = aresin (7 sin 6 /L,) = aresin (3 sin 86°)/18 = +9.57° (5.23) PRL = 0.7854 x D? x PSI = 0.7854 x 3? x 100 = +707 Ib (5.24) CRL = PRL/cos « = 707/0.986 = +717 Ib (5.25) XHL = CRL sina = 717 x 0.166 = +119 Ib (5.26) Normal load = CRL cos (@ + a) = 717 (~0.097) = ~70 Ib 6.27 ‘Tangent load = CRL sin (9 + a) = 717 (0.995) = +714 tb (5.28) where Symbols: ‘rod to crosshead axis angle, deg, £B-r0d to crank angle, deg. ‘#6-crank rotation, deg. L-conneeting rod length, in r-erank radius, in, Artcuisted ena Regular end Figure 5.8. Articulated purup mechanism forces. a= angle between rod and crosshead angle, deg: 8 = angle between articulated rod and crosshead angle, deg: = crank angle, deg; L. = connecting rod length, in; L, = articulated rod length, in; r; = erank radius, in; 1 = elective radius of articulated rod, in; e = connecting rod extension, in; ry = sin a(L, + €) 8 = aresin (r2/L,) «x = aren (7/Le)ate ste i tb ia i in % oa Jets se CRL = 10044 Ib 1415 PSI PRL = 10,0001 i 93610 Oy 6, 41208 = 326° 2 @ Figure 5.9. Connecting rod geometry of forces for Example A: triplex single-acting, Type lf crankshaft See Section 5.13 for calculation. (a) Forces on connecting rod 1. (b) Forces ‘on connecting rod 2. (c) Forces on connecting rod 3. Consider crosshead weight if signif= icant‘514 CRANKSHAFT BENDING MOMENTS—CALCULATIONS 159 PRL RL = Connecting rod load, Ib XHL = crosshead load, Ib PSI = pressure, PSI Rod 2, @; = 86° + 120° = 206° a, = ~4.19° XHL = ~733 Ib PRL = 10,000 Ib Normal load = —9309 1b CRL = 10,027 th Tangent load = ~3725 tb Rod 3, 8, = 206° + 120° = 326° =5.34° XHL = =935 1b 10,000 PSI Normal load = +7768 Ib RL = 10,044 Ib ‘Tangent load = ~6367 Ib Note: Consider each crosshead weight if significant, 5.14 CRANKSHAFT BENDING MOMENTS—CALCULATIONS See Figure 5.10 for bending moment diagram construction. Example: Triplex Single-Acting Pump, Type lll Crankshaft Moment signs: Clockwise, plus (+); counterclockwise, minus (—). Calculate forces on rods 1, 2, and 3 at any degree of @ for rod 1, at @ + 120° for rod 2, and at 6 + 240” for od 3. See Section 5.13. ‘To solve for RAA, take moments about RBA: M = ~(D4 x PRL3) ~ [(D4 + D3)x PRL2] ~ [(D4 + D3 + D2) x PRLI] + [(D1 + D2 + D3 + Ds) x RA] =0 Solve forRAA. (5.29) To solve for RBA, take moments about RAA: M = + (D1 x PRLI) + [(D1 + D2) x PRI2] + [(DI +2 +3) x PRL] -[(D1 + D2+D3+ D4) x RBA]=0 Solve for RBA. (5.30)cS Figure 5.10. Crankshaft bending moment diagram for Example A: triplex single-acting, ‘Type HL crankshaft. See Section 5.15 for calculation. (a) Axial plane. (6) Coaxial plane (© Resultant 160 iain ati ln Ac i ean15.15. CRANKSHAFT BENOING STRESS—CALOULATIONS 161 Calculate bending moments (axial), MA, and plot on Figure 5.10: MA at rod 1 = (DIX RAA) 63) MA at rod 2 = (DI + D2) x RAA — (D2 x rod 1 force) (8.32) MA at rod 3 = (DI + D2 + D3) x RAA ~ (D2 + D3) x rod 1 force) = (D3 X rod 2 force) 633) Calculate bending moments (coaxial), MC, and plot. Repeat as for MA but with forces from coaxial plane. Caleulate bending moments (resultant), MR, and plot R = VMAP + MC (6.34) Nomenclature RL = connecting rod load, Ib RAA = reaction A, axial, Ib RBA = reaction B, axial, Ib RAC = reaction A, coaxial, Ib RBC = reaction B, coaxial, 1b RAR = reaction A, resultant, Ib RBR = reaction B, resultant, Ib MA = moment, axial, MC = moment, coaxial, MR = moment, resultant, in-Ib D = spacing between rods, in ‘M = moment, in-Ib 5.15 CRANKSHAFT BENDING STRESS—CALCULATIONS Example ‘Assume 5-in uniform diameter. Select: 4340 oil-quenched and tempered steel, 360 BHN Ultimate strength, 170,000 PSI Yield, 156,000 PSI Allow combined stress of 18% of ultimate, or 30,600 PSI. Reduce by 25% for stress risers, or allowable stress, 23,000 PSI.162 PUMP DESIGN [= Wid x rt = aid x 2.5¢ = 30.7 int Gage = Mril = 150,480 x 2.5/30.7 = 12,254 PSL BHP pump = 145; RPM = 300 ‘Torsional stress -y = Tr/J Je2xt=2x307=714 T = 63,000 x BHP /N = 63,000 x 145/300 = 30,450 in-b y= 30,450 x 2.5/71.4 = 1066 PSL ‘Maximum Principal Stress s= 0+ Voy = 12,2542 + VOUT ISaDE F 1736356 = 12,631 Nomenclature = moment of inertia, area, in* = moment of inertia, polar, in* bending moment, in-tb RPM shaft radius, in stress, PST torque, Ib-in normal stress, PST = torsional stress, PST 5.16 CROSSHEADS (5.35) (5.36) 6.37) 6.38) (5.39) 6.40) (4) From the mechanical and lubrication viewpoint, the crossheads and crosshead bearings of reciprocating pump power ends are the most critical, and too, they ate a most inefficient mechanism, contributing to a significant lowering of the pamp’s mechanical efficiency. Because of the reversal oF intermittent loading and the oscillatory motion of the crosshead bearing, itis impossible to depend upon much of a dynamic-cil film and an oil-pressure-film is hard to come by because of the difficulty in making a reliable oil-pressure connection to the reciprocating part seietioee tar ies ives ada haSa7 BEARINGS 16 See Figure 5.1A for one method of increasing crosshead pin bearing capacity on single acting pumps Figure $.2A shows the difficulty of obtaining sufficient bearing area in typical fixed-diameter pin-and-bearing fits ‘The author's opinion of full-compliment needle-type crosshead bearings is somewhat negative because of the tendency for the rollers to skew or cant and result in difficult assembly or damage to the bearing. Caging the rollers to pre vent this, drastically reduces the number or rollers (and bearing capacity) Very good performance has been had with plain sleeve bronze or bi-metal crosshead pin bearings, properly grooved to conduct oil around the outside di ‘ameter 10 at least three equally spaced (120 degree) closed-end inside longitudinal jyooves, running on a hardened and ground steel pin. In horizontal pumps sat- isfactory lubrication can be hiad by use of an oil gallery to supply a flow of oil toa funnel-shaped oil-hole in the eye of the connecting rod or by use of a sepa- rate oil line ftom the oil pump. In either case, ample flow should be provided to ‘overcome any possibility of capillary altraction diverting all of the oil along the upper shoe surface to the outer edge. A system of upper shoe oil grooves that ‘do not extend beyond the edges or ends of the shoe, thereby preventing the diversion of oil from the connecting rod through open-ended grooves, is also recommended. In vertical pumps, the only possible means, other than “splash”, of Iubricat- ing the crosshead bearing is by the use of a rifledrilled connecting rod, sharing oil pressure delivered through a drilled crankshaft In horizontal pumps the bottom crosshead shoe should also incorporate closed- ‘end oil grooves and it is imperative that a pressured oil supply be furnished through the bottom guide on heavily loaded pumps. The closed-end grooves will then provide a desirable hydraulic lifting action on the crosshead near the center of the stroke where the load is maximum. The closed-end grooves at each end of the longitudinal oil groove should be allowed to slightly over-stroke beyond the guide at both ends of the stroke so as to provide a momentary but repeated “flushing” effect for ejection of any unwanted trapped foreign mater at each of the two zero-load positions. With vertical pumps, both crosshead shoes should be supplied with pressured oil in heavily loaded pumps. Because of the vulnerability of crosshead problems, it is wise to use compat- ible materials for the shoes and guides that tend to minimize the generation of destructive debris from wear, particularly in an oil bath lubricated power end. Bronze shoes running on cast iron guides is most satistactory Figure 5.34 illustrates @ method of obtaining full bearing area for crossheads by using shim-adjusted shoes turned to diameter of ways, 5.17 BEARINGS In the matter of the selection of bearing types, roller o journal, for the power end fa pump, both types seem t0 be widely used with complete satisfaction.164 PUMP DESIGN ‘It cannot go without notice that pump manufacturers in the United States have ‘completely converted to roller bearings for drilling mud pumps, mostly in the 500 1700 BHP size. Of course, some plain bearings are still used at such locations as crosshead pins, eccentrics, and some erankpins Roller bearings are thought to be rather immune to occasional oil contamina~ tion, particulary to contamination by solids, which can be flushed out. All joumal bearings are intolerant of any contamination. ‘The question of whether a roller bearing can be readjusted seems moot, since there is only one recommended clearance for the application at hand, and if a bearing wears to the point of requiring readjustment it is probably wom beyond its useful life. ‘A practice that should be avoided in the installation of bearings is the provision for a dam or reservoir at the bottom of that bearing to retain a small quantity of oil in place for start-up. Because of their tendency to accumulate water and debris, such pockets do more harm than good. ‘At certain minimum speeds, plain or journal bearings depend upon the dynamic generation of a high-pressure load-carrying and scparating oil film, and the me- chanical efficiency is equal to that of roller bearings. For assurance against accidental damage from a start-up and the lack of lubri- cation on crosshead guides, sacrificial bronze crosshead shoes running on cast-iron guides are usually used. Should any scuffing of the shoe take place, the generated debris is not damaging to the other bearings in the pump if itis mixed in the main oil bath, 5.17.1 Roller Bearing B-10 Life The life of a bearing is expressed as the number of revolutions or the number of hhours at a given speed for which the bearing can be used before any evidence of fatigue develops on the rolling elements or the raceways. Bearing life may vary from one bearing to another, but it stabilizes into a predictable pattem when a large group of bearings of the same size and type are considered. The rating life of a group of similar bearings is defined as the number of hours or revolutions (at a given constant speed and load) that 90% of the tested bearings will exceed before the first evidence of fatigue develops. This is called ““B-10 life” or “minimum life.” 5.17.2 Roller Bearing Average Life ‘The results of testing a large group of ball or roller bearings may be graphically illustrated. The distribution curve is oblained by plotting relative life versus per- cent of bearings tested. From this curve itis determined that the average life is approximately five times the minimum life. About SO% ofthe bearings will exceed the average life. Sine it is not possible o predict the exact life ofa single bearing,S17 BEARINGS 165 aa safety factor must be allowed to minimize the risk of early failure. The cost of replacing a bearing plus the expense of machine downtime may greatly exceed the relatively low cost of the bearing. Therefore, most designers prefer to use mini ‘mum life as a design basis, In some applications where safety or maintenance economy is not critical and low initial bearing cost is desirable, the average life value may be used 5.17.3 Journal Bearings Some of the problems to be avoided with split journal bearings are: 1, Distortion or pinching-in of split bearings by poor mating or distortion of the bearing housing, 2. Improper selection or installation of shims, where used, that allows the shims to rub against the journal with resultant oil scraping. 3. Lack of proper backing for the beating shells due to improper machining of the housing or effects listed above. Anything that interferes with good metal-to- ‘metal contact of the shell to the housing interferes with heat transfer and allows local destructive “hot spots” to develop on the bearing, 4, Ductile iron joumals rotating in bearings in the opposite direction to that at which the joumals were originally tumed and polished may result in rapid wear of the bearings. ‘The ability of journal bearings to generate a dynamic oil film that reduces friction is a very powerful argument in their favor. The following formulas show the fac- tors that affect such friction: T= Flr 6.42) P= QxpUr/C (5.43) U = xDN/60 (6.44) [2mp.(xDN/60) r/C] Lr (S45) D= Bink SAE 70 oil at 150°F in, C = 0.006 in, RPM = 85, PRI 100 cP, p< = 0.00209 Ib-s /ft® 30,000 Ib T= [6.28 x 0,00200(3.1416 x 8 x 85/60) x 4/.006] % 8 x 4'= 9974 Ibsin166 PUMP DESIGN ‘The relationship ZN /P is used to classify journal bearing applications, since it contains the three most important limiting factors. Any value below about 15 is considered marginal 85 2N/P = 100 x TE TH IS radial bearing clearance, in bearing diameter, in tangential friction force per unit axial length, Ib bearing length, in RPM force per square inch of projected bearing area, PSI piston rod load, Ib bearing radius, in torque, frietion, Ib-in absolute viscosity, cP absolute viscosity, cP absolute viscosity, Ib-s /#? tangential velocity, in/s See Tables 13.17 and 13.18 for viscosity equivalents. 5.18 LUBRICATION 5.18.1 Pressure Lubrication With pressure lubrication applied to the bearings, the actual pressure is not as critical as the amount of oil or rate to and through the system. Most lubricatin systems use positive-displacement oil pumps (gear, vane, piston, etc.), and unlest excessive bearing clearances exist somewhere in the system the required amount Of ojl should be circulating to the proper places. In other words, as the oil increases in temperature, the pressure drops radically but the volume or rate probably in- ‘creases duc to self-improved volumetric efficiency of the oil pump. Ina power pump, the lube oil pressure drop due to temperature increase presents a problem in monitoring because the great change in viscosity prevents the pre- diction of an exact operating pressure, Pressure ranges of 20-40 PST at operating, temperature are usually acceptable and give good reference for monitoring. In many applications, the lube oil pump is driven by the main pump and at reduced speeds below the recommended, a separately driven oil pump and perhaps cooling equipment are recommended. a ac Se dan aaa anaes ARi510 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY 167 5.18.2. Oil Cleaning the eu accomiaton of aboot, i, sand, du, nd even met particles carried into the crankcase through the “breathers” or the diaphragm packing can be injurious to bearings, particularly joumal bearings, so continuous removal by proper filtering is most desirable. (In some humid, corrosive, and ditty environments it is the practice to bleed an inert dry gas such as nitrogen or clean dry air into the crankcase of any pump so as to maintain a slight positive pressure of a few ounces to minimize entrance of such materials.) 5.18.3 Oil Temperature ‘The viscosity of oil is affected by ambient temperature, and in certain geographical locations this can be a problem. In extreme cold, the oil has a tendency to congeal and the pump may run for several minutes before oil circulation is established. In such cases it is usually the practice to install electric crankcase heaters so the oil can be heated before start-up. An annoying problem with cold operation is the excessive momentary pressure buildup that may damage the pressure-sensing or pressure-controlling devices, In cold climates, some operators follow a dangerous practice of diluting the oil with diese] fuel. Heaters or special low-temperature oils should be specified 5.19 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY (Eq. 2.26) Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual displacement of liquid 10 the calculated theoretical (100% VE) displacement based on pump piston diame- ter, stroke, and speed, on a percentage basis. Accurate volumetric efficiency is difficult to calculate on account of the unpre- dictable value of valve slip, a term used to describe a combination of conditions, namely, dynamic delay in valve closing and opening (a function of valve spring load, valve weight, dimensional proportions of the valve, life limitations, liquid viscosity, and specific gravity—none of these being the result of pump speed or pressure). Another important factor is the physical condition of the valve and seat ‘A.wom valve or valve insert will allow a certain amount of leakage, and of course the amount of leakage is related to the discharge pressure and the time of subjec- tion, ‘Subjection time leads to a phenomenon that generates @ curve for volumetric cfficiency versus RPM that shows a tendency to peak early on the RPM base, showing that at a low speed the valve will leak for a longer period of time at closure due to ““wear-clearance"” leakage. The effect becomes less apparent at slightly higher speeds, but then the dynamic effects of NPSH take over, causing a drastic ‘te of VE reduction as shown in Figure 5.11168 PUMP DESIGN Volumetric eicieney, 0100 305 my Figure $.11. High-pressure valve performance plex single acting pump at 3000 PSI, with 2,4 and 8 POSIVA valve springt #3 by 6010 s. Thischar shows the dsb of prope Valve low sped ihe d POSIVA Sag ou. pring fod sper, bat at ugh seed the PASO: Foy avant. High-speed requires high POSIVA, obviously ),POSTVA SE or chat pump I also shows the “peaking” of volumetric eficiency ,7 sine the NTH, where the time petiod for salve sips rlively shortened. Tram tt Shout 200 PM a of sce ‘ rb cylinder filling (cavitation) duc 0 inereased spe {P&S UPA aie wo a rapid drop in volumetric efficiency. Peed starts to © 5.20 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY Mecamea? Eicon (ME) of fechanical Efficiency (ME) of a pump jg eal (BHP) or energy imparted (o the liquid being ren ME = (GHHP/BHP) 45 5.46) HHP = (8PM * Psiny i714 4 MED 4 With modem pump design and construct, sie! ficiency of 85% in double-actng pumps and 90% in single-agy’* EM. expected. ‘The horsepower required for a double 1% PUMPS uid be calculated from formula (5.39), Section 5.22. ing pump For the same reason that a single-acting jigh svetion pressure has higher stresses in the power end, all the je PU™P Witt heavily loaded in re- lation to the work being done and therefor si ffcieney is reduced. input horsepower "arings are the mechatil521 INTERMITTENT SERVICE 169 19) | f oa} YT ° oF 0408 08 0 10 Mechanical eticeney ME Figure 5.12. Single-acting pump mechanical efficiency vs. suction pressure /discharge pressure, To determine BHP: CalGulate pressure ratio; determine mechanical efficiency from curve; substitute in BHP = (Py ~ ,) x GPM/1716 % ME 6.48) where Py = discharge pressure, PSI; and P, = suction pressure, PSL {thas been determined by test that the relation shown in Figure 5.12 exists. There- fore, for a single-acting pump the required horsepower is derived from formula (5.40) Section 5.22. ‘Since the manifestation of low mechanical efficiency is sensible heat generation, higher power-end temperatures will be expected with high suction pressure. 5.21 INTERMITTENT SERVICE Any pump can be overloaded by a reasonable amount for a few minutes of oper- ation at rare time intervals by increasing cither the pressure or speed or both. And any pump can probably be operated at extremely slow speed for a short period without harm, Spurred by the need for the greatest amount of power packed in a small space for portable use in the oil fields for sand fracturing, acidizing, and cementing, ‘most manufacturers offer such pumps for this and other services. By increasing the170 PUMP DESIGN ow om v0 TB wo iw a x Se et $ KK g £ a 10% im Lay Bio | | Jee : roy ys 8 0 aa : Se ° 00ST 1s RPM ‘QuvveA — Intermittent service, canstant nersepawer ure B= Contnuaus sere proportnalRefsepower Carve © ~ Intermittent soee, proportional pres {Carve B— Conttuous servic, constant pressur Figure 5.13. Continuous vs. intermittent duty design piston rod load (PRL) three- or fourfold and increasing the maximum speed about twofold, pumps with a threefold reduction in weight per horsepower have been produced. ‘These so-called constamt-horsepower pumps are rated for inter- mittent service and typically limit the duty to 1% hours per day. Figure 5.13 shows the performance curve of two pumps of this type with equal des power. It is obvious that such pumps will require more frequent replacement of bearings and parts. 5.22 CONTINUOUS SERVICE Continuous service denotes operation at rated conditions of speed and pressure for 24 hours a day. Basically, this is @ constant-torque operation with a speed turn- down of about 50% allowed, such tumdown usually being limited by the types oF bearings and the lubrication system provided. Antifriction (roller) bearings throughout the power end will allow a greater tumndown than journal or plain bear- ings “The design criteria incorporated into this text apply to continuous service op- eration. soins amie523 RECIPROCATING PUMPS WITH HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE 171 5.23 RECIPROCATING PUMPS WITH HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE For Double-Acting Pumps BHP = (P, ~ P,) x GPM/1714 x 0.85 5.49) For Single-Aeting Pumps BHP = (P,~ P,) x GPM/1714 x ME (5.50) Taiplex pumps P= P,+4P, (51) Quintuplex pumps P=P,+3P, 6.52) ‘Septuplex pumps P=P,+3P, 6.53) Nonuplex pumps P= Py+$P, (5.54) where P = anifcial discharge pressure upon which plungerpiston is selected ‘when suction pressure isin excess of 5% of discharge pressure P, = actual discharge pressure P, = actual suction pressure BHP = input brake horsepower GPM = actual U.S. gal /min = mechanical efficiency from Figure 5.12 z 5 " Example ‘A certain triplex pump rated at 1000 PSI with 3-in plungers (PRL 7200 Ib) would have to be equipped with 2-in plungers (1250 PSI at PRL 7200 1b) to pump at actual 1000 PSI with 500 PSI suction pressure. Pa Pi+4p, P = 1000 + 500/2 = 1250 PSI