UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY

School of Liberal Arts and Teacher Education

Balzain High way, Tuguegarao City 3500

Name of Student:________________________ Year/Section:_____________

Subject: __Biochemistry___________________ Teacher:______________

MODULE No. 01
TITLE: OVERVIEW OF THE METABOLISM

OVERVIEW Carbohydrate metabolism is a fundamental biochemical process that

ensures a constant supply of energy to living cells. The most
important carbohydrate is glucose, which can be broken down via
glycolysis, enter into the Kreb's cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to
generate ATP.
.
Lipid metabolism entails the oxidation of fatty acids to either generate
energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller constituent molecules. Lipid
metabolism is associated with carbohydrate metabolism, as products of
glucose (such as acetyl CoA) can be converted into lipids.

INTRODUCTION Carbohydrate metabolism is the whole of the biochemical processes

responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion
of carbohydrates in living organisms. Carbohydrates are central to many
essential metabolic pathways.

Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells,

involving the breakdown or storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of
structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction
of cell membranes. In animals, these fats are obtained from food or are
synthesized by the liver.

LEARNING Demonstrate understanding on the pathways by which the major cell

OUTCOMES components are synthesized
Demonstrate knowledge of the digestion of carbohydrates
Discuss the two stages of glucose oxidation in the cell

Demonstrate understanding of the digestion and absorption of lipids

Demonstrate knowledge of classifying RNA and DNA
Demonstrate understanding on the processes of transcription and
replication

LEARNING At the end of the session, students should be able to:

OBJECTIVES A. Intro to Metabolism
1.enumerate the source of matter and energy for metabolism
1. describe the central pathway by which the major cell components
are synthesized and degraded

B. Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. explain the digestion of carbohydrates
2. explain the two stages of glucose oxidation in the cell

C. Lipid Metabolism
1. discuss the digestion and absorption of lipids
 2. explain fatty acids oxidation and condition that will result to
ketosis

Discussion/Situational analysis/Content Etc:

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Metabolism is the sum total of the chemical reactions of biomolecules. The molecules of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins taken into organism are processed in a variety of ways.

Question: What is the source of the energy used/fuel in the metabolic process? Where does the
energy currency of the cell come from?

Answer: Energy used by the organisms is derived from the oxidation of the metabolic fuels or
the energy released by the oxidation of nutrients in the form of chemical energy of ATP.
Production of ATP in the mitochondria is the result of oxidative phosphorylation, in which ADP
is phosphorylated to give ATP. This process is strongly linked to the transport chain but the
process is separated. The product of the hydrolysis of ATP which is the ADP + Pi + H 10 +
energy. The oxidative phosphorylation gives rise to most of the ATP production associated with
the complete oxidation of glucose.

DIGESTION - processing of food in body: the breaking down of foodstuffs in the body into a
form that can be absorbed and used or excreted.

Digestion of carbohydrates starts at the mouth and ends in the intestines. Food molecules
are broken down into simpler chemical units that can be absorbed by the body. In man, digestion
occurs primarily in the digestive tract.

Important Digestive Juices:

1. Saliva which is 99.4% water, salt, mucin (a complex protein present in mucus),
glycoprotein (protein that contains carbohydrates) and the enzyme amylase (enzyme in
saliva and pancreatic juice that breaks down starch into simple sugar or tyalin which
hydrolyzes carbohydrates to dextrin (amorphous, soluble carbohydrate, (C6H10O5) n,
produced by the action on starch paste of acids, heat, or enzymes such as diastase.
Mucin acts as the lubricant and is produced by the sublingual glands, whereas amylase is
secreted by the parotid glands. Ph of the Saliva varies from 6.4 to 7.3.

2. Gastric juice which is 99.4% water, mucin and enzyme including the proteases (enzymes
that breaks down protein (rennin and pepsin) and gastric lipase ( a pancreatic enzymes
that breaks down fats). It has high HCl content and is produced by the parietal cells
(cells that form peptic gland and secretes HCl). The high acid content prevents
fermentation and acts as antiseptic.

3. Pancreatic juice has a pH of 7-8; neutralizes HCl. The entry of the acidic contents of the
stomach into the first part of the intestines (duodenum) triggers the release of hormone
secretions into the blood, which in turn stimulates secretion of pancreatic juices.

4. Intestinal juices are secreted by the cells of the intestinal mucosa, and contain enzymes
that hydrolyze smaller molecules like peptides, lipids and oligosaccharides. It contains
enterokinase, which converts trypsinogen to trypsin and therefore initiates protein
digestion in the intestine. Complete hydrolysis of CHO (carbohydrate) produces the
monosaccharide – glucose, fructose and galactose.
5. Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The yellowish brown color is due to
the degradation products of hemoglobin. It plays an important role in fat digestion.
Digestion
Digestion starts at the mouth where enzyme ptyalin catalyzes the hydrolysis of carbohydrates to
a mixture of dextrin. Very little change occurs in the stomach. The primary site of CHO
digestion is in the small intestine where amylopsin converts remaining starch and dextrin to
maltose. Maltose is cleaved to 2 glucose units by maltase. Sucrose and lactose are acted upon by
sucrase and lactase to yield monosaccharide.
3 Types of Monosaccharide result from CHO digestion:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose

These are absorbed through the wall of small intestine which is lined with finger-like
projections called villi, richly supplied with blood vessels, and into the blood stream. After absorption,
the sugars are carries by the portal vein to the liver where gal and fruc are enzymatically converted to
glucose. Glucose may then pass into the general circulatory system to be transported to the tissues or
incorporated into glycogen, to be stored in the liver as reserves for the maintenance of normal blood
glucose levels.

70-100mg/100 ml or 4.5-5.5 m moles/L) - normal blood glucose level

HYPOGLYCEMIA – lower than the normal blood glucose level
HYPERGLYCEMIA – higher than the normal blood glucose level

Extreme Hypoglycemia causes

- Unconsciousness - due to lack of glucose in the brain, brain is dependent mainly on glucose
for its energy requirement
- Convulsions – a violent shaking of the body or limbs caused by uncontrollable muscle
contractions, which can be a symptom of brain disorder and other conditions.
- Lower blood pressure, and
- mately death
Abnormally high blood pressure, known as hypertension, that remains untreated can lead to
stroke, heart attack, and kidney or heart failure. Hypertension may have no known cause or it
may result from heart or blood vessel disorders or from diseases affecting other parts of the
body.
Abnormally low blood pressure, known as hypotension, may be caused by shock,
malnutrition, or some other disease or injury.
After meal – glucose rises to 6.5 – 7.2 mmoles/L
Starvation – glucose falls to 3.3 – 3.9 mmoles/L

Extreme and prolonged hyperglycemia – causes renal threshold exceeded (160-170 mg? ml of
blood or 8.9 – 9.4 mmoles/L and excess glucose is excreted in the urine (Glycosuria).

Important control in maintaining the constant glucose level is the

- Glycogenesis (synthesis) and
- Glycogenolysis (breakdown) of glycogen
Utilization of Glucose:

Oxidation
Glucose is completely oxidized in all tissues to CO2 and H2O for physiological needs for
energy.
Sometimes in muscle, there is only partial degradation of glucose (glycolysis) forming lactic
acid.
energy but are excreted. Both triacylglycerols which are the main storage form of the chemical
energy of lipids, and phosphoacylglycerols which are important components of biological
membranes, have fatty acids, as part of their covalently bonded structures can be hydrolyzed,
with the reaction catalyzed by group of enzymes, lipases for triacylglycerols and
phospholipases for phosphoacylglycerols.

Dihydroxyacetone – ketose with 3 carbon atoms (ketotriose) (CH2OH-C-CH2OH)

Glyceraldehyde – aldose with 3 carbon atoms (aldotriose) CH2OH-CH2OH-CH=O
Steroid = organic compound – any of a large group of natural or synthetic fatty substances
containing 4 carbon ring including sex hormones
Sterol = waxy steroid substance – a steroid alcohol such as cholesterol that is present in animal
and plant lipids

Triglycerides/triacylglycerol = composed of three fatty acid molecules bonded to one glycerol

molecule.
Ex. Fats and Oils, group of naturally occurring organic compounds called
triglycerides.
Phospholipids = phosphorus-containing lipid: a phosphorus-containing lipid found in double-
layered cell membranes
= among the most important lipids are the phospholipids, which are major
components of the cell membrane. Phospholipids limit the passage of water and
water-soluble compounds through the membrane, enabling the cell to keep its
contents separate from the outside environment.

CATABOLISM OF FATS (LIPOLYSIS)

Lipolysis is the hydrolysis of fats to fatty acids and glycerol. The process is controlled by AMP,
hence epinephrine and glucagon promotes lipolysis.

Lipids have quantitatively the best caloric value of all foods. The chief storage form of available
energy in the animal cell is the lipid molecule. When caloric intake exceeds utilization, excess
food is stored in adipose tissues as fats depots (specialized tissues in which a large portion of the
cytoplasm has been replaced by lipids). Elsewhere lipids are bound to proteins as lipoproteins.

Fat Catabolism

The next favorite foods to make energy after sugars are fats. Fats are stored in our fat cells as
triglycerides, just like how glucose is stored as glycogen in our liver and muscles.  Triglycerides
are made of three saturated fatty acids.  Remember a fatty acid is just a long chain of carbons
with hydrogens attached. Fats can be catabolized or "burned" aerobically. They must first be
broken into their components: a 3-carbon molecule called glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Glycerol is
converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP). GAP enters glycolysis and can be "burned"
through the Kreb's (TCA) cycle or used by the liver to make new glucose in a process called
gluconeogenesis. Fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta-oxidation. Beta-
oxidation takes place in the mitochondria and produces molecules of acetyl-CoA, which join the
Kreb's (TCA) cycle.

OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS

FA is oxidized in the body in different ways. ß-oxidation is the most important pathway.
Oxidation takes place in the ß-carbon of the fatty acid with the removal of 2 carbon atoms from
the carbonyl end of the molecule. Tissues like liver, heart, kidney, muscle, brain, lungs and
other tissues have the ability to oxidize long chain FA.
FA-oxidase – collective name for all the enzymes in the mitochondria which catalyze the
oxidation of FA to acetyl coA.

Fatty acid oxidation begins with the activation of the molecule. In the reaction, a
thioester bond is form between the carbonyl group of the fatty acid and the thiol group of
coenzyme A (CoA-SH). The activated form of the fatty acid is an acyl-CoA, the exact nature
will depends on the fatty acid itself. Acyl-CoA molecules are thioesters and so it has to be
esterified by thiol group of CoA. Acyl-CoA synthetase catalyzes the formation of ester bond and
requires ATP for its action. ATP is converted to AMP and PPi, rather than to ADP and Pi. PPi is
hydrolyzed to two Pi, two “high energy” which provides energy for the activation of the fatty
acid and is equivalent to the use of two ATP. The formation of acyl-CoA is endergonic without
the energy provided by the hydrolysis of the two “high energy” bonds. Esterification takes place
in the cytosol, but the rest of the reaction of fatty acid oxidation occur in the mitochondrial
matrix.

In the matrix a repeated sequence of reactions successively cleaves two carbon units
from the fatty acid, starting from the carbonyl end. This process is called β-oxidation, since the
oxidative cleavage takes place at the β-carbon of the acyl group esterified to CoA.

REFERENCES:

1. Zenaida T. Nucum, Ed.D., Biochemistry for Nursing Students. Copyright 2005.,

Published in 2005 by C & E Publishing, Inc.
2. Zenaida Y. Nucum, Ed. D., Laboratory Manual for Biochemistry, Copyright 2005
by C & E Publishing Inc.
3. Frederick A. Bettleheim, William H. Brown, Mary K. Campbell, Shawn O. Farrell,
Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry 8th Edition,
Copyright @ 2007 by Brooks/ Cole
4. George I. Sackheim, Dennis D. Lehman, Chemistry for Health Sciences 8th Edition
5. Reddy, Kasarla R. , Medical Biochemistry for Nurses. Copyright 2003. Published
by Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Ltd.

Electronic References:
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