BIOLOGY

CHAPTER I
FROM CELL TO ORGANISM
There are different materials in the environment. There are also diverse kinds of
living things. This module will discuss different kinds of living things and what they are
made up of.

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is
composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from
food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also
contain the body’s hereditary material and can make copies of themselves.

Organ systems work together to help organisms meet their basic needs and to
survive. The digestive system helps organisms get energy from the food they eat. The
circulatory system moves the nutrients that come from digested food, along with blood,
to the different parts of the body. How do you think do the other organ systems work
together? Do plants have organ systems, too?

Organ systems are made up of organs that have related functions and are
grouped together. For example, the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines are
organs of the digestive system. The heart, arteries and veins are some parts that make
up the circulatory system. Are there organisms that do not have organs?

This module introduces you to the different structures that make up an organism.
These structures are formed from the grouping together of parts whose functions are
related. You will also discover in this module that organs themselves are made up of
even smaller parts. Anything that happens to these small parts will affect the functioning
of the organs, organ systems, and the whole organism.

Cells are considered the basic units of life in part because they come in discrete
and easily recognizable packages. That's because all cells are surrounded by a
structure called the cell membrane — which, much like the walls of a house, serves as
a clear boundary between the cell's internal and external environments. The cell
membrane is sometimes also referred to as the plasma membrane.
Cell membranes are based on a framework of fat-based molecules
called phospholipids, which physically prevent water-loving, or hydrophilic, substances
from entering or escaping the cell. These membranes are also studded with proteins
that serve various functions. Some of these proteins act as gatekeepers, determining
what substances can and cannot cross the membrane. Others function as markers,
identifying the cell as part of the same organism or as foreign. Still others work like
fasteners, binding cells together so they can function as a unit.

You are an organism just like the plants and animals.

The circulatory system is one of the organ systems that make up an organism. It
is made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Certain diseases affect the heart and cause it to function improperly.

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 To learn more about these diseases and what they do to the heart, interview
relatives or neighbors who have heart problems or who know of people who have the
disease. You can also use the internet to read articles about how certain diseases affect
the heart, its parts, and the whole organism.

The excretory system is another organ system that makes up an organism. It is

made up of different organs that help the body eliminate metabolic wastes and maintain
internal balance. These organs include a pair of kidneys. The kidneys are made up of
even smaller parts. Some parts eliminate wastes that are no longer needed by the body;
other parts function in the reabsorption of water and nutrients.

Like the heart, certain diseases also affect the kidneys and their function.

To learn more about these diseases and what they do to the kidneys, interview
relatives or neighbors who have kidney problems or who know of people who have the
disease. You can also use the internet to read articles or news clips about how certain
diseases affect the kidneys – and the other organs of the body – and the whole
organism.

Organs are made up of tissues. The heart, kidneys, and the parts that make
them up are made up of tissues. This tissue is made up of cells - the basic units of
structure and function in organisms.

Plants are also made up of organ systems: the root and shoot systems. The root
system absorbs water and nutrients; the shoot system moves them to the different parts
of the plant.

Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants. Together with the leaves and the
stems, they make up the shoot system.

When you get a small section of a root tip and view it under a microscope, you
will see that it is made up of many layers of tissues. You will also see that these tissues
are composed of similar cells that are arranged and grouped together to perform
specific functions.

Cells are the basic units of structure and function of all organisms. These cells
are grouped together to form more complex structures: tissues, organs, and organs
systems.

Animals and plants are very different organisms and yet, they are both made up
of parts that are organized similarly.

An organism refers to a living thing that has an organized structure, can react to
stimuli, reproduce, grow, adapt, and maintain homeostasis. An organism would,
therefore, be any animal, plant, fungus, protist, bacterium, or archaeon on earth. These
organisms may be classified in various ways. One of the ways is by basing upon the
number of cells that make it up. The two major groups are the single-celled (e.g.
bacteria, archaea, and protists) and the multicellular (animals and plants).

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 Important Terms to Remember

Autotroph Organisms that make their own food

Cell The basic unit of structure and function in an

organism

Controlled Experiment Identical tests that are carried out except for one
factor

Development The process of change that occurs during an

organism's life to produce a more complex organism

Multicellular Organism composed of many cells

Organism A living thing

Response A reaction to a stimulus that causes a change in

behaviour

Spontaneous Generation The mistaken idea that living things can arise from
nonliving sources

Stimulus A change in an organism

Unicellular Single celled organism

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NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. What are some advantages to being a single celled organism?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. Why can multicellular organisms be more complex than unicellular organisms?

Use the advantages of being multicellular to explain your answer.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. In your opinion, what cells are the most important in your body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think there are certain cells we could live without?

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__________________________________________________________________

5. Give an example of a cell, a tissue, an organ, an organ system, and an organism.

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______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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6. What is cell organization?

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__________________________________________________________________

7. List the three reasons why cellular organization is important.

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9. What is an example of connective tissue?

______________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________

10. What does the epithelial tissue protect the body from?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Complete each statement.

1. Living things need __________ for sleeping, thinking, eating and moving.

2. Anything an organism responds to is a(n) ____________________.

3. The ability to remain stable is called ____________________.

4. The smallest units of life are known as ____________________.

5. Another term for living things is ____________________.

6. The reaction to a stimulus is called a ____________________.

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 CHAPTER II
PLANT and ANIMAL CELLS
All organisms, big or small consist of cells. Some organisms are single-celled,
composed of only one cell. Others are multicellular, possessing many cells that work
together to form an organism. The moss plant for example, may be made up of
hundreds or thousands cells. Your body has billions of cells while very large animals like
elephants have trillions.

Most cells are so small that they can only be seen using the microscope. It is a
special equipment to make small objects like cells look bigger. One kind of microscope
used to study cells is called a light microscope. Light microscopes use diffused or
artificial light to illuminate the object to be observed. From the simplest to the most
powerful and sophisticated microscopes, scientists were able to gather information
about cells. What you will see and learn about cells later have been revealed by
microscopes. If your school has microscope, your teacher will teach you how to use it
through activities you will perform.

In this module you will study plant and animal cells, their parts and functions.

A cell has three basic parts: the nucleus, plasma membrane and cytoplasm. The
nucleus is a part of cells which is easily seen. It is very important because it controls all
the activities of the other parts that occur within the cell. The nucleus contains materials
that play a role in heredity. You will discuss about these materials in the later modules
and grade levels.

The plasma membrane encloses the cell and separates what is inside it from its
environment. It also controls what goes into and out of the cell. The plasma membrane
allows entry of materials needed by the cell and eliminates those which are not needed.

The cytoplasm consists of a jelly-like substance where all the other parts of the
cell are located. It does not however, include the area where the nucleus is located.
Many different activities of the cell occur in the cytoplasm.

You have seen that plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts that are not found
in animal cells. The cell wall is made of stiff material that forms the outermost part of
plant cells. This gives shape and protection to them.

Vacuoles are present in both plant and animal cells. In plant cells, they are large
and usually occupy more than half of the cell space. They play a role in storing nutrients
and increasing cell size during growth. Some plant vacuoles contain poisonous
substances. Vacuoles also store water, thereby maintaining rigidity to cells and provide
support for plants to stand upright. Plant cell vacuoles are responsible for the crisp
appearance of fresh vegetables.

Vacuoles in animal cells are small and are called vesicles. They serve as storage
of water and food and also function in the excretion of waste materials.

Plants and animals are made up of millions of cells and these cells have several
similarities and differences.

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 Considering that they are both eukaryotic cells, which means they have a true
nucleus, that is enclosed and separated from other organelles by a nuclear membrane,
is a crucial factor that defines their modes of multiplication. They have similar
reproduction processes of mitosis and meiosis, using their DNA that is housed by the
cell nucleus.

They are also both membrane-bound with several cell organelles in common
performing the same if not similar mechanisms to maintain and control the cells’ normal
function. These organelles include the nucleus, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, peroxisomes, and the cell membrane.

They also undergo cellular respiration, which performs processes of energy

production used to grow the cell and maintain its normal functions.

Despite having all these similarities they have several differences as well.

Structurally, plant and animal cells are very similar because they are both
eukaryotic cells. They both contain membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
Both also contain similar membranes, cytosol, and cytoskeletal elements. The functions
of these organelles are extremely similar between the two classes of cells (peroxisomes
perform additional complex functions in plant cells having to do with cellular respiration).
However, the few differences that exist between plants and animals are very significant
and reflect a difference in the functions of each cell.

Characteristic Animal cell Plant cell

Animal cells are also
Plant cells are basic
the basic functional
functional units of
unit of life for
plants constituting
animals constituting
all cell organelles
Definition all cell organelles that
performing a variety
perform a variety of
of functions that
functions to support
support the plants’
the animals’
metabolisms.
metabolisms.

Animal cells are

generally smaller
Plant cells are larger
than plant cells with
than animal cells
their cells ranging
with the cell size
from 10-30um in
ranging from 10um-
length.
100um in length.
Size and shape Animal cells shape
Plant cells similar in
and sizes vary
shape with most
greatly from irregular
cells being
shapes to round
rectangular or cube-
shapes, most defined
shaped.
by the function they
perform.

Cell wall They lack the cell They have both a

wall but possess a cell wall that is
plasma (cell) made up of cell

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 membrane, which
performs the function
of support and membrane and
protection of the cell cellulose. The cell
from external wall is, a rigid
damage. membrane matrix
It also plays a major found on the surface
role in selective of all plant cells
permeability allowing whose primary role
in and outflow of is to protect the cell
nutrient molecules, and its content.
water, and other cell
elements.

The presence of the

They have a plasma
plasma membrane
membrane that is a
made up of
thin flexible
cellulose, just below
membrane, which
the cell wall which
Plasma membrane acts as a protective
allows selective
covering for the
permeability of cell
animal cell.
contents into and
It also has selective
out of the cell
permeability.
cytoplasm.

It houses all the cell It houses most of

Cytoplasm
organelles. the cell organelles

They are present and

They are present
they are used for
and they are used
protein synthesis and
Ribosomes for protein synthesis
genetic coding of the
and cellular repair
protein, amino acid
mechanisms.
sequences.

They are present in They are present, in

two types: rough two types; rough
Endoplasmic reticulum endoplasmic and and smooth
smooth endoplasmic endoplasmic
reticulum reticulum

Plant cells rarely

Animal cells have contain lysosomes
lysosomes, that as the plant vacuole
contain digestive and the Golgi bodies
Lysosomes
enzymes to break handle molecule
down cellular degradation of
macromolecules. waste cellular
products.

Animal cells may Plant cells have a

have many small large central vacuole
Vacuoles vacuoles, a lot that can occupy up to
smaller than the 90% of the cell’s
plant cell. volume.

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 Present and it lies
Present and it lies at
Nucleus on the side of the
the center of the cell
cell

Present in the Present in the

Nucleolus
nucleus nucleus

They are present with

their major function
They are absent in
Centrioles involving the
plant cells
assistance of the cell
division process.

They are present in

They are present in the cell cytoplasm
the cytoplasm. functioning as cell
They perform the oxidizers for cellular
oxidation molecules, synthesis
Peroxisomes mechanisms for of lipids and
specific biomolecules recycling carbon
and they assist in the from
synthesis of phosphoglycolate
plasmalogen lipids. during
photorespiration.

They are present They are present, to

Microfilaments and microtubules
functioning to give give cytoskeletal
support to the cell support,
cytoskeleton, transport transportation of
materials across the molecules across the
cytoplasm into and out cytoplasm and the
of the nucleus. They nucleus and they play
are also involved d in a major role in
cytokinesis. cytokinesis.

They have a
Present and its major
cytoskeleton that
functions include
maintains the plant
creating a network
cell shape, supports
Cytoskeletons that organizes the
the cell cytoplasm
cell components and
and maintains the
maintains the cell
cell’s structural
shape.
organization.

Present, its where

Present and its where
most of the cell
Cytosol all the cell organelles
organelles are
are suspended
suspended.

They are present in

the intestinal lining to
Absent in plant
Microvilli increase the surface
cells.
area for the
absorption of food.

Granules Present Present

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 Present; they allow
movement of cells or
part of the cell, for
Cilia and Filaments Absent in plants
example, swimming
of the sperm to the
ova.

Present; they give

pigmentation color
to the plants and
Plastids Absent also facilitate
trapping of light
energy used for
photosynthesis.

Present; they
facilitate the
communication and
Plasmodesmata Absent
transport of
materials across
plant cells.

They have larger and They have smaller

fewer Golgi bodies but more Golgi
with their major bodies with their
function being to major role being
Golgi bodies process and package modification,
protein and lipid processing, sorting
macromolecules as and packaging
they are being proteins for cellular
synthesized. secretion.

They cannot The can synthesize

synthesize amino amino acids,
Synthesis of cellular nutrients
acids, vitamins, and vitamins, and
coenzymes. vitamins.

It takes place by It takes place in the

Cytokinesis
constriction cell plates

They take in water They absorb water

molecules by osmosis molecules by
and easily bursts osmosis but they do
Osmosis in a hypotonic solution when placed in not burst in a
hypotonic solution hypotonic solution
because of the lack of due to the presence
a cell wall of a cell wall.

THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

The microscope is a tool which can help you see tiny objects and living
organisms. It makes them look bigger. This ability of the microscope is called its
magnifying power or magnification. The microscope also has the capacity to distinguish

10
small gaps between two separate points which humans cannot distinguish. It is called
its resolving power or resolution.

The light microscope uses diffused light from the sun or artificial light to illuminate
the object to be observed. From its source, visible light passes through the small or thin
specimen to be observed through the glass lenses. As light passes through the lenses,
it is bent so specimen appears bigger when it is projected to the eye. The form and
structure of the specimen can then be seen because some of their parts reflect light.

The evolution of the Microbiology field put to perspective the need to identify,
view, observe and understand microorganisms, including their structural morphologies
and mechanisms. Microbiology’s scope is to study organisms and minute agents that
can only be examined and observed with a microscope.

Although scientifically, the first simple microscope was discovered by two Dutch
scientists, Zaccharias Janssen and his father, Hans who made spectacles, were the first
to experiment with their lenses by combining lenses in a tube and observed that the
objects that were nearby, appeared closer and larger. Despite not being included as a
scientific discovery, this act paved the way for scientific evolution.

From the History of Microbiology, Antony Van Lewnehoueek an amateur

Microbiologist made the first simple microscope, that enabled him to observe the
presence of tiny living organisms in pond water that appeared like dots. His simple
microscope was made up of a double convex glass lens that was held between two
silver plates.

The application of microscopy in Microbiology enhanced the visualization of cells

and microorganisms by magnifying their images to make them larger.

A light microscope is a biology laboratory instrument or tool, that uses visible light
to detect and magnify very small objects, and enlarging them.

They use lenses to focus light on the specimen, magnifying it thus producing an
image. The specimen is normally placed close to the microscopic lens.

Microscopic magnification varies greatly depending on the types and number of

lenses that make up the microscope. Depending on the number of lenses, there are two
types of microscopes i. e Simple light microscope (it has low magnification because it
uses a single lens) and the Compound light microscope (it has a higher magnification
compared to the simple microscope because it uses at least two sets of lenses, an
objective lens, and an eyepiece). The lenses are aligned in that, they can be able to
bend light for efficient magnification of the image.

The functioning of the light microscope is based on its ability to focus a beam of
light through a specimen, which is very small and transparent, to produce an image.
The image is then passed through one or two lenses for magnification for viewing. The
transparency of the specimen allows easy and quick penetration of light. Specimens
can vary from bacterial to cells and other microbial particles.

Invented by a Dutch spectacle maker in the late 16th century, light microscopes
use lenses and light to magnify images. Although a magnifying glass technically
qualifies as a simple light microscope, today’s high-power—or compound—
microscopes use two sets of lenses to give users a much higher level of magnification,

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along with greater clarity. The first set of lenses are the oculars, or eyepieces, that the
viewer looks into; the second set of lenses are the objectives, the lenses closest to the
object (specimen). Before purchasing or using a microscope, it is important to know the
functions of each part.
Eyepieces: The eyepieces are the lenses at the top that the viewer looks through; they
are usually 10X or 15X. To get the total magnification level, multiply the magnification of
the objective used (ex: 10X eyepiece * 40X objective = 400X total magnification).
Tube: Where the eyepieces are dropped in. Also, they connect the eyepieces to the
objective lenses.
Base: The bottom of the microscope—what the microscope stands on.
Arm: Structural element that connects the head of the microscope to the base.
Stage: The flat platform that supports the slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If
your microscope has a mechanical stage, the slide is controlled by turning two knobs
instead of having to move it manually. One knob moves the slide left and right, the other
moves it forward and backward.
Illuminator: A steady light source (110 volts in the US) that shines up through the slide.
Mirrors are sometimes used in lieu of a built-in light. If your microscope has a mirror, it is
used to reflect light from an external light source up through the bottom of the stage.
Nosepiece: This circular structure is where the different objective lenses are screwed
in. To change the magnification power, simply rotate the turret.
Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. The
most common ones are 4X (shortest lens), 10X, 40X and 100X (longest lens). The
higher power objectives (starting from 40x) are spring loaded. Spring loaded objective
lenses will retract if the objective lens hits a slide, preventing damage to both the lens
and the slide. All quality microscopes have achromatic, parcentered, parfocal lenses. In
addition, to get the greatest clarity at high levels of magnification, you will need a
microscope with an Abbe condenser. Lenses are color coded and are interchangeable
between microscopes if built to DIN standards.
Rack Stop: This feature determines how far up the stage can go. Setting the rack stop
is useful in preventing the slide from coming too far up and hitting the objective lens.
Normally, this adjustment is set at the factory, and changing the rack stop is only
necessary if your slides are exceptionally thin and you are unable to focus the specimen
at higher powers.
Condenser Lens: Condenser lenses focus the light that shines up through the slide,
and are useful for attaining sharp images at magnifications of 400X and above. If the
maximum power of your microscope is 400X, a stage mounted 0.65 NA (or greater)
condenser is ideal since it give you greater clarity without having to be focused
separately. However, if your microscope goes to 1000X or above, focusable condenser
lens with an N.A. of 1.25 or greater is needed. Most microscopes that go up to 1000X
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come equipped with an Abbe condenser, which can be focused by moving it up and
down. The Abbe condenser should be set closest to the slide at 1000X, and moved
further away as the magnification level gets lower.
Diaphragm or Iris: The diaphragm or iris is located under the stage and is an
apparatus that can be adjusted to vary the intensity, and size, of the cone of light that is
projected through the slide. As there is no set rule on which setting to use for a
particular power, the setting depends on the transparency of the specimen and the
degree of contrast you desire in your image.
cell basic unit of structure in living things

cell division process by which cells reproduce

cell membrane thin structure that surrounds a cell

cell wall thick outer layer that surrounds the membranes of plants and
some simple organisms

cellulose forms most of the cell wall of a plant cell

chloroplast structure in a plant cell that contains chlorophyll

cytoplasm gel-like substance inside the cell where most of the cell's
activities take place

endoplasmic small network of tubes that substances move along

reticulum

Golgi body organelle that packages and sends materials to other places

lens piece of curved glass or other clear material that causes light
rays to come together or spread apart as they pass through

lysosome small, round structure that breaks down nutrient molecules and
old cell parts

microscope tool that makes things look larger than they really are

mitochondria structures that release energy from a cell

mitosis division of the nucleus

nuclear thin structure that surrounds and protects the nucleus

membrane

nucleus control center of a cell

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 organelles small structures in cytoplasm that do special jobs

osmosis movement of water through a membrane

ribosome small, round structures that make proteins

vacuole space in cytoplasm that stores substances

Important Terms to Remember

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________

GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Compare the shape of a plant cell with that of an animal cell as shown in Figures 1
and 2.

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______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2. Which cell parts are found in both cells?

______________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________

3. Which are present only in animal cells?

______________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________

4. Which are present only in plant cells?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

5. Based on your observations and study of plant and animal cells, cite differences and
similarities between them.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

6. What do you think will happen to the cell if the plasma membrane does not function
properly?

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______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

7. What is the purpose of the cell wall in plants?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

8. Look at Fig. 1 again. Why are there several chloroplasts in the plant cell?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

9. How would vacuoles in plants serve as defense against animals that eat them?

______________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________

11. What are the parts of the microscope and how does each part function?

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______________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________
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12. What is the total magnification of the following objective lenses with the
eyepiece?
a. Medium: ________________
b. Low: ___________________
c. High: ___________________

13. Which adjustment knob should you use on the high power?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

14. How do you prevent the slide from falling off the stage?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

15. Which adjustment knob is used for bringing the specimen into focus?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

16. Which adjustment knob is used for sharpening the image of the specimen after it
is focused?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
17. What is the function of the diaphragm?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

18. How do you change the objective lenses?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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 ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

19. What power must be in place when you first find an image in the microscope?
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________

20. Why do we call the microscope a compound light microscope?

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________________________________________________________________
21. How is a wet-mount slide prepared?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
22. If an organism moves on the glass slide to the right and up, in what direction did
it move in the field of view? _______________________________

Tube - Eyepiece - Stage - Revolving Nosepiece - Stage clips - Diaphragm - Objectives -

Arm - Fine Adjustment Knob - Light source - Base - Coarse Adjustment Knob - Head

17
 CHAPTER III
LIVING THINGS OTHER THAN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

In this module, you will start examining life forms other than the plants and
animals. You will begin with the macroscopic forms or parts that you can see and move
to the barely noticeable ones, using a magnifying lens.

These life forms are in the soil, water and air all around us. They are on our body
and inside it, on the food we eat and the things we use. Many are useful to humans
while some are harmful and may cause disease.

There are living things or organisms that cannot be readily identified by the usual
parts of plants we recognize like roots, stems, leaves, flowers, or fruits though they may
have the green color and some plant-like parts. There are also living things that we can
see only when we use magnifying lenses.

Aside from plants and animals, there are other organisms which can be useful or
harmful. These groups are FUNGI, ALGAE, and BACTERIA. They don’t have real roots,
stem, fruits, and leaves. They only possess root-like structure, stem-like structure, fruit-
like structure, and leaf-like structure.

Most macroscopic creatures are either plants or animals. Of course, humans are
animals. The distinction between the plant and animal kingdoms is based primarily on
the sources of nutrition and the capability of locomotion or movement. Plants produce
new cell matter out of inorganic material by photosynthesis. They do not have the ability
to move around their environment except by growing or being transported by wind,
water, or other external forces.

Living organism fall under the categories of Fungi, Protists, Eubacteria(Monera),

and Archaebacteria. Examples from these kingdoms are: Fungi: mold Protists: algae
Eubacteria (Monera): E. Coli Archaebacteria: Halophiles Animalia, Plantae, Fungi,
Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria are all other living things not plants and animals. Algae
and bacteria. They may be small, but they are living and not plants or animal.

ALGAE

Unicellular or multicellular plant-like protists that can make their own food.

18
 A simple, nonflowering, and typically aquatic plant of a large group that includes
the seaweeds and many single-celled forms. Algae contain chlorophyll but lack true
stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue.

BACTERIA

Unicellular organisms that are used in making fermented products, acts as

decomposers and may cause disease.

A member of a large group of unicellular microorganisms which have cell walls

but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some which can cause disease.

FUNGI

Big group of organisms that have plant-like characteristics but cannot make their
own food. Composed of varied heterotropic plantlike organisms adapted to take their
nutrition from living or dead organisms- range from mildews, rusts, mushrooms, morels,
bracket, fungi, smuts, molds and yeasts- have chitin(complex from of polysaccharide)-
store food as glycogen

Can be:

a. parasites – obtaining their organic nutrients from a living host

b. saprobes – obtaining their food from dead matter or wastes of organisms

c. symbionts – having a mutually beneficial relationship with a different organism

LICHEN

It is a combination of fungi and algae. a simple slow-growing plant that typically forms a
low crusty, leaflike, or branching growth on rocks, walls, and trees.

MUSHROOM

A type of fungus that cannot make its own food that can be used as food, act as
decomposer and some may cause diseases. a fungal growth that typically takes the
form of a domed cap on a stalk, with gills on the underside of the cap.

PROTIST

Big group of organisms having characteristics of both plant and animals. a single-
celled organism of the kingdom Protista, such as a protozoan or simple alga.

SPORES

Seed-like structure that mostly fungi and some algae used in reproducing their kind.

a minute, typically one-celled, reproductive unit capable of giving rise to a new individual
without sexual fusion, characteristic of lower plants, fungi, and protozoans.

In a plant exhibiting alternation of generations a haploid reproductive cell which

gives rise to a gametophyte.

In bacteria a rounded resistant form adopted by a bacterial cell in adverse conditions.

19
 Important Terms to Remember
Annulus Scar tissue left behind when a cap breaks free from the stipe to open &
release spores.
Asci Specialized sacs which form during sexual reproduction.
Ascomycota The group of fungi referred to as the Sac fungus.
Athlete's Foot This parasitic fungus prefers moist conditions and affects mainly humans.
Basidiomycota The group of fungi that includes the Club Fungi.
Blight It was the fungal disease to blame for the Irish Potatoe Famine
Budding Type of aesexual reproduction in unicellar yeast
Cap Specialized structures found on mushrooms which cover and protects the
spores.
Chitin A tough material composed mainly of cellulose found in the cell walls of
fungus.
Deuteromycota The group of fungi that includes the Imperfect Fungi.
Ergot Fungal disease affecting rye & other grains leading to psychotopic effects
on the body & death in some cases.
Gills Rows of ribbed structures under the cap on a mushroom which hold the
spores.
Hyphae A body mass of tiny individually entagled filaments
Lichens A symbiotic fungi/protist combination that exists in the harsh climate of
the Tundra.
Mushroom Button & Morels are examples of this Club Fungi.
Mycelium Term used to descibe the 'body' of a fungi (masses of tangled hyphae)
Mychorrhizae A mutualistic relationship that fungi form with the roots of trees.
Penicillium This fungus produces an antibiotic that humans have used for years.
Pores Openings which allow for the passage of digestive enzymes, food, &
gases
Rhizoids 'Root-like' structures which anchor a fungus & absorb food.
Rust Fungal disease which affects wheat crops.
Septa Walls which divide the hyphae into individual segments
Smut Fungal disease which affect corn crops.
Sporangium A specialized stalk with rounded cases that hold the reproductive spores.
Spore Cases Structures which hold the reproductive spores
Spore Type of sexual reproduction among fungi
Formation
Stipe The 'stalk-like' structure on mushrooms
Stolons Structures which connect groups of rhizoids together.

CHAPTER IV
REPRODUCTION: THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE
The beginning of a new life is truly a remarkable event. The sight of a chick
making its way out of the cracked shell or a germinating seed slowly pushing through
the soil can leave one fascinated. The ability of an organism to produce new individuals
is one of the characteristics that distinguishes living things from nonliving things. This
ability is called reproduction.

In the previous modules, you have already begun to explore the diversity of
organisms. These organisms bring about the continuation of their own kind through
reproduction. And although these organisms have different methods of reproduction,
every method leads to the beginning of a new life.

20
 This module will discuss the different modes of reproduction in representative
plants, animals, and microorganisms. Investigations are included in this module to help
you understand the different ways that organisms reproduce and differentiate the
offspring resulting from each mode of reproduction.

Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which

new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents".
Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists
as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual.

In order to continue their own kind, organisms must reproduce. Organisms may
reproduce either asexually or sexually.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs when an organism makes more of itself without

exchanging genetic information with another organism through sex.

In sexually reproducing organisms, the genomes of two parents are combined to create
offspring with unique genetic profiles. This is beneficial to the population because
genetically diverse populations have a higher chance of withstanding survival
challenges such as disease and environmental changes.

Asexually reproducing organisms can suffer a dangerous lack of diversity – but they can
also reproduce faster than sexually reproducing organisms, and a single individual can
found a new population without the need for a mate.

Some organisms that practice asexual reproduction can exchange genetic information
to promote diversity using forms of horizontal gene transfer such as bacteria who use
plasmids to pass around small bits of DNA. However this method results in fewer
unique genotypes than sexual reproduction.

Some species of plants, animals, and fungi are capable of both sexual and asexual
reproduction, depending on the demands of the environment.

Asexual reproduction is practiced by most single-celled organisms including bacteria,

archaebacteria, and protists. It is also practiced by some plants, animals, and fungi.

There are several ways by which organisms reproduce asexually. In the following
activity, let us examine how potatoes reproduce.

In asexual reproduction, the parent and the resulting offspring have the same genes
and this is the reason why they have the same traits. In other words, we can say that
they are genetically identical.

Vegetative propagation results in plants that reach maturity faster than plants grown
from seeds. Another good thing about vegetative propagation is that the same good
agricultural traits such as taste, yield, and resistance to pests will be passed on from
generation to generation. But one disadvantage is that the population might be wiped
out if environmental conditions become unfavourable.

Budding is another type of asexual reproduction. Some organisms split off a small
part of themselves to grow into a new organism. This is practiced by many
plants and sea creatures, and some single-celled eukaryotes such as yeast.
Yeast, hydra, and sponges reproduce this way.
21
Spore formation

Sporogenesis is the production of reproductive cells, called spores, which can grow into
a new organism.

Spores often use similar strategies to those of seeds. But unlike seeds, spores can be
created without fertilization by a sexual partner. Spores are also more likely to spread
autonomously, such as via wind, than to rely on other organisms such as animal
carriers to spread.

The black, round structure at the tip of a stalk is called a spore case which contains the
spores. When the spore case opens, the tiny spores are released and may be carried
by wind or water. Once the spore lands on a favourable environment, it develops into a
new organism.

Regeneration

Animals can also reproduce by regeneration. Did you know that when a hydra is cut
into several pieces, a process known as fragmentation, each piece can grow into
another hydra? In certain types of starfish, an arm that breaks off from the body can
develop into a new individual.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction that involves two parents. Parents

produce reproductive cells called gametes through a type of cell division called meiosis.

Gametes from the two parents unite in a process called fertilization. The fertilized cell is
referred to as a zygote which develops into a new organism.

Organisms reproduce sexually in a number of ways.

Sexual reproduction is the process in which new organisms are created, by combining
the genetic information from two individuals of different sexes. The genetic information
is carried on chromosomes within the nucleus of specialized sex cells called gametes.
In males, these gametes are called sperm and in females the gametes are called eggs.
During sexual reproduction the two gametes join together in a fusion process known as
fertilization, to create a zygote, which is the precursor to an embryo offspring, taking half
of its DNA from each of its parents. In humans, a zygote contains 46 chromosomes: 23
from its mother and 23 from its father. The combination of these chromosomes
produces an offspring that is similar to both its mother and father but is not identical to
either.

Conjugation

Some microorganisms undergo sexual reproduction by a process called conjugation. An

example of a microorganism that reproduces by conjugation is Spirogyra, a green alga.
Spirogyra can be found in freshwater habitats such as ponds and rivers.

During conjugation, a bridge forms between two cells of two Spirogyra filaments lying
side by side. The contents of one cell pass into the other cell through the bridge,
emptying the other cell. The contents of both cells combine in the other cell and form
the zygote. This zygote is able to secrete a substance that forms a wall around itself for
protection against unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g. when the pond dries up).
22
When conditions become suitable for growth and development, the zygote grows into a
new individual.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

The flower is the reproductive organ in flowering plants. Flowers have structures that
produce the gametes necessary for reproduction. Let us take a look at the parts of a
gumamela flower.

Pollination brings together the gametes of a flower and it occurs when a pollen grain of
the right kind lands on the stigma of the pistil. Each pollen forms a tube that grows
down through the pistil and reaches the ovule in the ovary. One of the nuclei in the
pollen tube unites with the egg nucleus in the ovule to form a zygote. The other sperm
nucleus combines with another bigger nucleus in the ovule which develops into the
endosperm.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans and Animals

Humans (and all animals that reproduce sexually) have cells called gametes. Gametes
are formed during meiosis and come in the form of sperm (produced by males) or eggs
(produced by females). When conditions are right, sperm and egg unite in a process
known as fertilization. The resulting fertilized egg, or zygote, contains genes from both
parents.

Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, a single organism is the sole parent and the offspring is
genetically identical to the parent.

In sexual reproduction, two parents produce offspring that have unique combinations of
genes. Offspring of sexual reproduction differ genetically from their siblings and both
parents.

Important Terms to Remember

Asexual Reproduction – A type of reproduction, in which offspring are a product of a

single organism.

Chromosomes – The structure within the nucleus of a cell, containing the proteins and
nucleotides that make up DNA.

Embryo – The unborn developmental stage of a eukaryotic organism.

Gamete – Sexual reproductive cells, which contain half of the parent organism’s genetic
material.

Reproductive strategy – A strategy that describes how a given population uses its
resources to produce offspring.

Sexual Intercourse – Sexual contact between individuals, which can result in the
exchange or transfer of cells, and therefore sexual reproduction.

23
Sexual Reproduction – A means of reproduction in which the genetic material of two
parents is combined to produce offspring with a unique genetic profile.

CHAPTER V
INTERACTIONS

The environment is a collection of living and nonliving things. Mosses growing on

rocks, garden snails gliding on garden fences, and fish swimming in water are just a few
examples of how living and nonliving things interact. The living components of the
environment are also called organisms. The nonliving components make up the
physical environment of these organisms.

Organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same place form a
population. The moss that grows on rocks makes up a population. Populations that live
in the same place and interact with each other form a community; goats grazing on
grass, chickens feeding on grains, and lizards preying on insects make up a community.

Interactions between organisms and their environment are also a familiar sight:
carabaos helping farmers till the soil, earthworms burrowing in the ground, and birds
using twigs to build their nests. Organisms interact with each other and their
environment to meet their basic needs and survive.

Some interactions are beneficial; others are harmful. There are also interactions
in which populations of organisms are neither benefitted nor harmed. All these
interactions take place in ecosystems.

In this module, you will discover more about ecosystems, the components that
make them up, and the interactions that take place among the components of the
environment.

This module will introduce you to levels of organization that are beyond the level of the
organism.

Your environment is home to many kinds of living and non-living things. You also see
interaction between them like in the rocks and fences that are inhabited by small plants
and algae. These rocks that are usually found in wet places provide anchorage and
nutrients to the small plants and algae.

Ecological Relationships

In the environment, there are plants, animals, and microscopic organisms such
as bacteria and fungi. A group of organisms of the same kind living in the same place
at the same time is called a population.

Populations that interact in a given environment form a community. In a

community interactions within and among populations may have important influences to
death rate and birth rates of the organisms and, in turn, on population growth and size --
these interactions may have positive, neutral, or even negative influences on interacting
populations.
24
 A population is the number of organisms of the same species that live in a
particular geographic area at the same time, with the capability of interbreeding.

For interbreeding to occur, individuals must be able to mate with any other
member of a population and produce fertile offspring. However, populations contain
genetic variation within themselves, and not all individuals are equally able to survive
and reproduce.

Populations can occur on various different scales. A local population can be

confined to a spatially small area, i.e., the fish in one pond. However, this locality can
operate on a regional, countrywide, island or continental scale; it may even make up the
entire species. If individuals of local populations are able to disperse between other
local populations, this is called a metapopulation.

Population biology is the study of population characteristics and the factors that
affect their size and distribution. The characteristics which are studied include the
migratory patterns, the population density, the demographics (the birth and death rates,
sex ratio and age distribution), the population genetics, the life history traits and the
group dynamics (the interactions within and between populations). Population ecology
is the study of how these populations interact with the environment.

Most populations are not stable, fluctuating in size over time (the letter ‘N’ often
denotes the number of individuals in a population). The fluctuations are usually in
response to changes in the abiotic and biotic factors, which act as limiting factors
against indefinite exponential growth of populations. For example, when food resources
are plentiful and environmental conditions are favorable, populations may grow.
Conversely, when predation is strong, populations may become depleted.

The characteristics of the population can influence how it is affected by certain

factors. The effects that density-dependent factors may have on a population are
determined by its size; for example, a larger, denser population will be decimated more
quickly by the spread of disease than a widely dispersed population. Life history traits,
such as the maturation rate and life span, can affect the rate of growth of a population; if
individuals mature later, the population will grow more slowly than if they mature
relatively young.

Aphids are small insects that suck liquid containing sugar from the conducting
tissues of plants. These aphids get a certain amount of sugar and other nutrients from
this liquid. However, much of the liquid called honeydew is released through the aphids’
anus. The ants consume this honeydew as food. The ants, in turn, protect the aphids
from their insect predators. Thus, both species benefit from each other. This
interaction between the populations of ants and aphids is referred to as mutualism.

Some interactions among organisms are easier to determine than others, and some
effects can easily be observed.

Epiphytes are plants that depend on other plants for support. Usually, epiphytes grow
on trunks and branches of trees. The Narra tree is a host that provides a place for the
fern to live. When it rains, the ferns get nutrients from rotting leaves and other organic
materials that collect at the root base of the fern plant. This relationship is called
commensalism -- one organism benefits from the host organism, while the host
organism is neither positively nor negatively affected.
25
The insect larva (the parasite) gets its nutrients by eating the leaves – thereby,
damaging the plant (the host). This relationship is called parasitism. A parasite gets its
nutrients from a living host harmed by the interaction. Another example of parasitism is
the flea that thrives on a dog. The dog is harmed by the flea that feeds on its blood.

Animals kill and eat other animals. This interaction is called predation. An animal that
kills and eat other animals is called a predator. An animal that is killed and eaten by its
predator is called a prey. Prey animals are usually smaller and less powerful than the
predator that eats them.

In a given community, predators compete with other predators for prey animals. In the
wild, a predator’s prey may be another prey’s predator. This means that while an animal
hunts and feeds upon another animal, it can also become prey to a larger and stronger
predator.

When two populations use the same resource, they participate in a biological interaction
called competition. Resources for which different populations compete include food,
nesting sites, habitat, light, nutrients, and water. Usually, competition occurs for
resources in short supply.

Energy Transfer in the Ecosystems

Plants, animals, and microorganisms must obtain energy to enable them to move, grow,
repair damaged body parts, and reproduce.

Plants are capable of converting energy from the Sun into chemical energy in the form
of glucose (food). The process is called photosynthesis; it uses water, carbon
dioxide, and sunlight. Most plants make much more food each day than they need.
Excess glucose is converted into starch by the plants and is stored either in the roots,
stem, leaves, tubers, seeds, or in fruits.

Humans and other animals are not capable of making their own food. They are
dependent on the organic matter made by photosynthetic organisms. These organisms
that include the plants and some microorganisms are considered as producers.

Animals and humans must eat either plants or other animals to obtain energy.
Organisms that feed on other organisms are called consumers. Those that get their
energy by eating plants only are called first order consumers.

Some energy in the first-order consumer is not used by the consumer itself. This
energy is made available to another consumer. A consumer that eats the plant-eaters
for energy is called a second-order consumer.

A second-order consumer gets only a fraction of energy from the first order consumer
that it fed upon. A part of this energy is stored and may be passed on to another
consumer. A consumer that eats a second-order consumer is called a third-order
consumer.

The transfer of energy can be sequenced. The sequence of energy transfer among
organisms to obtain energy and nutrients is called a food chain. A food chain starts
with the energy source, the Sun. The next link in the chain is the group of organisms
that make their own food – the photosynthetic organisms (producers). Next in the
sequence are the organisms that eat the producers; they are the first-order consumers.
The next link in the chain is the group of animals that eat the first-order consumers; they
are the second-order consumers. These organisms, in turn, are eaten by larger animals
26
– the predators; they are also called, third order consumers. Each food chain ends with
a top predator – an animal with no natural enemies.

When plants and animals die, the energy in their bodies can be transferred to another
group of organisms. Consumers that look for and eat dead animals or plants are
considered scavengers.

Once the scavengers are done with eating a dead organism, the decomposers
(microorganisms) take over and consume whatever was left by the scavengers.
Decomposers consume any dead plants and animals.

There are different kinds of decomposers performing different functions in the

ecosystem. Some groups of bacteria prefer breaking down meat or waste from the
consumers that eat meat.

Microorganisms that include bacteria and fungi break down proteins, starches, and
other complex organic substances that were once part of living things. During the
process of decomposition, decomposers release nutrients from the organic material
back into the soil, making the soil available to plants and other producers.

Based on the body structures and functions, organisms are classified using the
hierarchical taxonomic system (i.e. domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus, and species). Scientists use this system of classification to organize information
and to understand why living things exist the way they do in a particular environment.
Also, this helps us understand the role of each organism in the environment.

All these organisms need energy to sustain life. Every activity that organisms do
in ecosystems—breathing, moving, running, burrowing, growing—requires energy.

The flow of energy is the most important factor that controls what kinds of
organisms live in an ecosystem. In this module you will learn how organisms obtain
energy. This includes the discussion on how producers and consumers make possible
the flow of energy through ecosystems through food chains and food webs.

You have learned that plants, some kinds of bacteria, and algae are capable of
converting energy from the Sun into chemical energy and store it as chemical energy
known as food. This group of organisms is called producer. The process is called
photosynthesis; it uses water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight.

Most plants make much more food each day than they need. Excess glucose is
converted into starch by the plants and is stored either in the roots, stem, leaves,
tubers, seeds, or in fruits.

The stored energy is transferred to other organisms for their survival. When
people and other organisms eat plants, chemical energy from food substances is
transferred to their bodies. Organisms that consume food for their energy supply are
called consumers.

Scientists study how energy moves through an ecosystem by assigning

organisms in that ecosystem to a specific level, called a trophic level. Energy moves
from one trophic level to another. This means that energy flows from one organism to
another in the ecosystem.

Montfort Bat Cave

27
The Island of Samal, part of Davao del Norte Province, is off the coast of Mindanao. In
this island is the Monfort Bat Cave which is approximately 245 feet (75 meters) long and
has five entrances. Bats cover 75 percent of its ceilings and walls. An estimated 1.8
million bats, the largest known population of Geoffroy’s rousette fruit bats in the world,
are overloading Monfort Bat Cave on the Philippines’ Samal Island.

Geoffroy’s rousette fruit bats feed on fruit and nectar. Their role as pollinators and seed
dispersers is essential in sustaining Philippine forests, including such important
commercial fruits as durian. Each bat consumes 1½ to 3 times its body weight nightly in
fruit and nectar. This colony could consume 550 tons (500,000 kilograms) of nectar
from durian and other trees, pollinating an incredible number of flowers.

Worldwide, cave-dwelling bats are in alarming decline due to human disturbance and
destruction of their cave roosts. In some areas, including Samal Island, bats are
captured and eaten by humans. Colonies like the one in Monfort Bat Cave are now rare
and in urgent need of protection. Their loss would endanger the health of forests and
human economies.

The bat’s colony should be able to survive natural predators – crows, rats, 10-foot (3-
meter) pythons and occasional monitor lizards – just as bat populations do elsewhere.
Untamed dogs and cats, however, also seem to do bat hunting at Monfort Bat Cave.

In most ecosystems, energy does not follow simple straight paths because individual
animals often feed at several trophic levels. This complex interconnected group of food
chains is called a food web. For example, one kind of food may be eaten by several
consumers. Or several foods may be eaten by one consumer.

In the case of the marine environment, food chains begin with microscopic algae called
phytoplankton. The algae are eaten by tiny sea animals called zooplankton, which are in
turn eaten by small fish, crustaceans, and a variety of other sea animals.

Decomposers act on dead organisms and change these to simple nutrients which
plants can use again.

Food Pyramid

When organisms eat, they take in matter as well as energy into their bodies. For
example, when you eat chicken, the flesh of the chicken containing nutrients and energy
enters your body. You use the nutrients and energy to build muscles and other parts of
your body and to perform various activities.

The energy pyramid is one type of graphical representation of ecological

relationships that is in the shape of a pyramid. The base must have the largest amount
of biomass (shown as the widest bar) so it can support the energy requirements of the
organisms at higher levels. Each higher level in the pyramid gets smaller (the bars get
narrower) because only about 10% of the available energy transfers to the next level.
The shape of the energy pyramid shows that there is enough biomass energy contained
in the primary producers at the bottom to support the predators at the top, even though
energy is lost at each level.

The transfer of matter expressed as biomass and energy in food from one trophic
level to another are not one hundred percent used. Biomass is the total mass of
organisms in a food chain or a food web. Not all plants or animals at one level are
eaten by organisms at the next level. Some parts of plants or animals are not edible, for

28
example, wood, peel of some fruits, some seeds, shells, and bones. In addition, much
of the energy is lost as heat. Only about 10% of biomass and energy are transferred to
the next level. This relationship between producers and consumers can be
demonstrated through a biomass pyramid and an energy pyramid.

In the case of the marine environment, the source of energy in the food chains is also
the Sun. As food is passed along the food chain, only about 10% of the energy is
transferred to the next level.

Cycling of Materials in the Ecosystem

The physical parts of the ecosystems cycle constantly. Carbon, for example, is
passed from one organism to another in a great cycling of use. Producers (plants) are
eaten by herbivores (plant-eating animals), herbivores are eaten by carnivores (meat-
eaters), and carnivores are eaten by top carnivores. Eventually the top carnivores die
and decay; the carbon in their bodies then becomes part of the soil and taken up by the
producers in a long and complex cycle that reuses this carbon.

Carbon is not the only element that is constantly recycled in this way. All
materials that cycle through living organisms are important in maintaining the health of
ecosystems, but four substances are particularly important: water, carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus. All organisms require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur in relatively large quantities. Organisms require also other elements, such as
magnesium, sodium, calcium, and iron, in smaller amounts.

The Oxygen-Carbon Dioxide Cycle

Organisms use and produce gases in photosynthesis and respiration. These gases flow
through organisms and the environment in a cyclic process called the oxygen-carbon
dioxide cycle. The oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle shows the interdependence between
plants and animals for these important gases.

When plants photosynthesize, they use carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Oxygen
produced by plants in photosynthesis is used by animals when they respire; animals in
turn produce carbon dioxide. Like animals, plants also carry out the process of
respiration. During respiration, plants use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.

Animals take in oxygen from the atmosphere and give off carbon dioxide during
respiration. This occurs day and night. Plants, however, give off oxygen and take in
carbon dioxide when they photosynthesize during the day. At night, when plants are in
darkness and cannot photosynthesize, they “breathe” just like animals. They take in
oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.

The Water Cycle

Of all the nonliving components of an ecosystem, water has the greatest influence to
the organisms. In the nonliving portion of the water cycle, water vapor in the
atmosphere condenses and falls to the Earth’s surface as rain. Some of this water
seeps into the soil and becomes part of the ground water which is water retained
beneath the surface of the Earth. Most of the remaining water that falls to the Earth
does not remain at the surface. Instead, heated by the Sun, it re-enters the atmosphere
by evaporation.

Water circulates around the environment – the oceans, land, air and living organisms.
The cycling process involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation.
29
When solar energy warms the Earth’s surface, water evaporates from the oceans,
rivers, lakes and land. The escape of water through leaf pores (transpiration) adds
water vapor to the atmosphere. Upon cooling at higher altitude, water vapor condenses
and forms clouds. Eventually, precipitation occurs in the form of rain or snow. On land,
plant roots absorb water. Some water seeps downwards and replenishes the ground
water. The excess eventually overflows into the oceans and the water cycle continues.

In the living portion of the water cycle, much water is taken up by the roots of plants.
After passing through a plant, the water moves into the atmosphere by evaporating from
the leaves, a process called transpiration. Transpiration is also a Sun-driven process.
The Sun heats the Earth’s atmosphere, creating wind currents that let the moisture out
from the tiny openings in the leaves of plants.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Organisms need nitrogen to build proteins and nucleic acids. The atmosphere is 79
percent nitrogen gas (N2). However, most organisms are unable to use it in this form.
Some bacteria have enzymes that can convert nitrogen into ammonia (NH 3). The
process of combining nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia is called nitrogen
fixation. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and are also found within swellings, or
nodules in most leguminous plants such as mung beans, and a few other kinds of
plants.

The nitrogen cycle is a complex process with four important stages.

1. Assimilation is the absorption and incorporation of nitrogen into plant and animal
bodies.

2. Ammonification is the production of ammonia by bacteria during the decay of

nitrogen-containing urea (found in urine).

3. Nitrification is the production of nitrate from ammonia.

4. Denitrification is the conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas.

How do Human Activities Affect the Ecosystem?

Humans are the top consumers in many food pyramids. To increase food production,
they use methods that have an effect on food chains and food webs. Some of the
farming practices are described as follows:

Monoculture. This is the cultivation of a single crop in large areas. Vast tracts of land
are converted to rice farms, sugar farms, and coconut farms.

By limiting the cultivation of different kinds of plants, people also deprive many animals
of their food and home. These animals, some of which feed on insect pests, move to
other places. Only the insect pests that eat the monocrop remain in the area. If
uncontrolled, these pests can totally wipe out the monocrop in a short time.

Some soil microorganisms depend on specific plants for food. Eliminating these plants
is harmful to the microorganisms. Since microorganisms are responsible for returning
plant nutrients to the soil, the cycling of nutrients for reuse of the plants is disturbed.

Herbicides and Insecticides. Farmers spray their crops with insecticides to kill insect
pests, and with herbicides to kill weeds. However, the chemicals also destroy other
organisms, including beneficial insects and soil organisms which help in decay.
30
 Insecticides move up the food pyramid and accumulate in the body of organisms. The
smallest concentration of the chemical is at the base of the pyramid occupied by
producers. The amount increases towards the top. The greatest concentration is found
in the top consumers such as birds, mammals, and humans.

Many insect pests become resistant to chemicals. This may lead to the use of
increased amounts of pesticide.

Chemical Fertilizers

Monocrops usually require large amounts of chemical fertilizers. Continuous and

uncontrolled use of chemical fertilizers may increase soil acidity, thus destroying soil
structure. Findings show that more fertilizers are needed for the same amount of yield
after years of monoculture.

Fertilizers may run off to rivers, ponds, and lakes. Accumulation of fertilizers may cause
the death of these bodies of water.

Fertilizers in the water will cause increased growth of algae and other water plants.
They cover the water’s surface and block the passage of oxygen. Thus, less oxygen is
dissolved in water. Furthermore, when algae and aquatic plants die, decay
microorganisms use oxygen. Dissolved oxygen becomes insufficient, causing fish and
other aquatic animals to die.

Important Terms to Remember

Altruism – Behavior of animal that benefits another, either with no benefit or with
detriment to the original animal.

Community – A group consisting of various species, which interact with each other
directly or passively, in a common location.

Competition – The interaction between two or more species that results from both (or
all) attempting to exploit a resource.

Evolution – The gradual change in characteristics or genes within and between

species.

Gene pool – The set of genes present within a population or species.

Predation – The process of one animal capturing and feeding on another ‘prey’ animal.

Species – A group of physically similar individuals, which are capable of reproducing

with the outcome of fertile offspring.

Speciation – The formation of new, distinct species.

Altruism – Behavior of animal that benefits another, either with no benefit or with
detriment to the original animal.

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 CHAPTER VI
BIODIVERSITY

You learned about those organisms that you find just around you and other
places in the country. You were taught that organisms form the biotic component of an
ecosystem. You were introduced to the cells that differ in plants and animals. In
addition, you learned about organisms other than plants and animals. Some of these
consist only of a single cell while others have many..

This module will introduce you to the concept of biodiversity, specifically the
variety of organisms living on Earth. This will discuss how they are classified and
named. It will also show the similarities and differences of these organisms. It will
describe the different groups to which these organisms belong. It will let you discover
uses of some not just as food but also in medicine, agriculture, industries and the
ecosystems where they are present. In addition, you will know about the harmful effects
of some to other organisms. The module will further show you the advantages of high
biodiversity over low biodiversity. It will also help you recognize the value of biodiversity
in your community. Most importantly, this hopes to encourage you to start or continue
protecting and conserving your community’s biodiversity for future generations.

Biodiversity is a term which describes every living organism within a single

ecosystem or habitat, including numbers and diversity of species and all environmental
aspects such as temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide levels and climate.
Biodiversity can be measured globally or in smaller settings, such as ponds.

Levels of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is coined from the words, biological diversity. Usually, scientists would refer
to three levels of biodiversity namely: different kinds of organisms (species diversity),
genetic information that organisms contain (genetic diversity) and different kinds of
places where organisms live and the interconnections that bind these organisms
together (ecosystem diversity).

Species diversity consists of the large number and all different kinds, shapes, colors
and sizes of organisms that inhabit the Earth. It includes the smallest and the simplest
bacterium (pl. bacteria) to the complex, bigger, brightly colored flower or fish. Add to this
the carabao, the tallest acacia, the biggest elephant and a human like you. These
organisms are found in various places from the soil, to the rivers, oceans, forests, salty
or hot places, in short in every corner of the Earth. Some of them even live in your body.
At present, more than a million organisms have been identified and named while many
more are being discovered every year. Just recently, foreign and local researchers have
found that diversity of reptiles and amphibians in the Northern Philippines is even
greater than what has been known and identified.

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Classifying and Naming Organisms

Taxonomy is the branch of biology that classifies all living things. It was
developed by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, who lived during the 18th
Century, and his system of classification is still used today. Linnaeus invented binomial
nomenclature, the system of giving each type of organism a genus and species name.
He also developed a classification system called the taxonomic hierarchy, which today
has eight ranks from general to specific: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus, and species.

For organisms to be studied and information about them shared to those who need it,
scientists grouped them into meaningful classifications. The different groups are ranked
from the largest to the smallest groups. Large groups include many organisms with few
similarities. Small groups include few organisms having more similarities. Organisms
which have more similarities would then, be closely related than those which have less
similarities. These classifications or categories consist of the domain, kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus and species.

The domain is the largest category into which organisms have been classified. This is
followed by the kingdom category subdivided into various phyla (sing. phylum). A
phylum consists of different classes, each class with several orders, an order with
different families. Families consist of several genera (sing. genus) and each genus
comprise the smallest group of various species.

A species is a group of similar organisms and capable of reproducing their own kind.
This means only members of the same species can mate and produce fertile offspring.
The dog, waling-waling (an orchid), milkfish (local name, bangus), rice plant and
humans like you are examples of a species.

With the information available about organisms from the early studies to the present,
scientists came up with the three-domain system of classification. Before, organisms
were only grouped into eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Remember in your previous year,
you knew about the nucleus in cells that contain DNA in chromosomes having a role in
heredity. In eukaryotes, these materials are enclosed in a membrane while in
prokaryotes they are not. Most prokaryotes are tiny and unicellular, thus, are referred to
as microorganisms. A lot of eukaryotes are multicellular, thus, are larger in size because
of the greater number of cells their bodies contain.

Recently, prokaryotes have been divided into two domains, namely: Archaea and
Bacteria. The eukaryote group was retained and now consists the third domain
(Eukarya) that includes protists, fungi, plants and animals.

For any organism identified, a Scientific Name is given. In this way, every scientist and
other people from different places would use the same name for the same organism.
This is what you see in the species row for each of the organisms. You must have
observed that a scientific name consist of two names.

This way of naming organisms is referred to as the binomial system of classification.

Also take note that scientific names are in the Latin language and are italicized.

You should know, however, that researchers may differ in classifying organisms. It is
important to bear in my mind that with further researches and discoveries this system of

33
classification may change as more information are gathered about organisms found all
over the Earth.

Early studies of organisms resulted to only the two-kingdom classification system. Later,
with the invention of the microscope and with more evidences gathered about different
forms of life, various scientists proposed three, to four, then, five and later to six or even
eight-kingdom classification. Here, the six-kingdom classification will be used namely:
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protist, Fungi, Plant, and Animal kingdoms.

Archaea Domain: Kingdom Archaebacteria

Organisms that belong to this kingdom are all microscopic. They live in various places,
some even in the most severe environments. Methanogens, halophiles and
thermophiles are examples of archaebacteria.

Do you know that methanogens can survive in places where there is no oxygen?

Some members of this group inhabit digestive tracts of animals and ponds where
animal, human and domestic wastes are treated. Methanogens are also present on
bottoms of lakes, swamps and rice fields. An important characteristic of this group is
they produce methane gas. If you live near rice paddies and swamps the bubbles that
pop at the water surface is methane.

Methane is utilized as biogas, a cheap alternative source of energy. There are already
communities and industries which obtain energy for their lighting and cooking fuel needs
from the biogas technology.

Bacteria Domain: Kingdom Eubacteria

Members of eubacteria are unicellular and microscopic. They are referred to as the true
bacteria and are usually called the “bacteria” group. Their cell walls are made of
peptidoglycan, a carbohydrate.

Bacteria consist of a very diverse group. They have varied shapes. They can be
found in almost all kinds of places, in soil, water and air. Some are present in raw or
spoiled food; others live in or on other organisms including your body. You must have
known that they also cause disease and harm to other organisms. But most importantly,
bacteria have a variety of uses for the environment and for humans.

Bacteria also cause diseases in animals. Bacillus anthracis is responsible for the
disease called anthrax. The bacterium is found in the soil and can survive for many
years. The disease affects animals like cows and carabaos but can be transmitted to
humans. Skin anthrax occurs in the Philippines through contact with animal tissues or
their products. Inhalation and intestinal anthrax caused by inhaling spores and eating of
contaminated or undercooked meat, respectively, are more deadly. It is strongly advised
to refrain from eating meat of dead animals suspected to have died of anthrax. In the
early 2000’s there was a worldwide threat of using anthrax spores to kill people in what
is termed as “biological” warfare.

Antiobiotics are substances that kill or inhibit disease-causing organisms.

Do you know that certain bacteria are used to produce antibiotics?

Streptomycin, an antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis and certain types of

pneumonia is made by Streptomyces griseus. Streptomyces venezuelae on the other

34
hand produces chloramphenicol used in killing bacteria that cause typhoid fever and
skin infections.

Escherichia coli is naturally found in the large intestine of humans. It feeds on partially
digested food moving from the stomach to the small intestines. These bacteria
meanwhile provide the much needed vitamin B12 that otherwise the human body
cannot produce. E. coli however, once present in other areas in the body can produce
poisons causing diarrhea or kidney damage and even death.

Some bacteria convert cheap materials into useful products such as food.
Examples are Lactobacilli bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus of the lactic acid
bacteria group. These are specifically involved in making sour milk or yogurt. Yogurt is
made by adding a culture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus present in the starter to skimmed
milk powder. Lactase in the bacteria changes the milk sugar into lactic acid. When this
occurs, proteins in milk curdle which gives yogurt its semi-liquid texture.

Protists

Members of Kingdom Protista come from unrelated ancestors. This grouping is referred
to by biologists as an artificial grouping. The inclusion of the large number of unicellular
organisms under this kingdom is just for convenience.

Protists differ in size, movement and method of obtaining energy. Though most of
protists are microscopic, some can grow to as high as several meters.

In terms of method in obtaining energy, protists are classified into three groups.
Phototrophs produce their own food. Heterotrophs feed on other organisms. This
group is also divided into a group with no permanent part for movement, those with cilia,
and those with limited movement. Others which are nonmotile and form spores belong
to the sporozoan group. Members of this group are all parasitic.

Phototrophs are like plants in that they have chlorophyll. This group includes the algae,
dinoflagellates, and euglenoids.

Algae may be green, golden, brown or red. The chlorophyll in green algae is not
masked in contrast to the other members of the group. The carbohydrate that green
algae produce is stored as starch. They grow on wet, humid rocks or bark of trees, in
non-flowing canals, in seas, freshwater bodies and even polluted waterways. Green
algae differ in size and shape. Some are unicellular; others form colonies, sheets,
filaments, tubes and ribbons. Some green algae are edible. The marine green alga
Caulerpa lentillifera is eaten fresh as salad.

Golden algae cells also contain chlorophyll but are masked by yellow pigments.
Members of this group are mostly microscopic. They store food in the form of leucosin
oil or chrysolaminarin.

Brown algae are the largest of the algae species. Giant kelps, a member of this group
can grow to more than 30 meters in length. This group of algae store carbohydrate in
the form of laminarin.

Red algae can change color depending on whether they are exposed or hidden from
light. When they are exposed to light, they are bright green in color. If they grow without
much light, they are colored red. Members of the group consist of both microscopic and
large multicellular organisms. Most of them are found in marine waters.

35
Most members of dinoflagellates live in oceans and seas. They are mostly unicellular.
Some occur as single organisms, while others form colonies. An important dinoflagellate
to know is Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum. They are the ones that cause “red
tide” when present in large numbers. During red tide, people should not eat clams and
mussels in the affected areas. This is because these organisms might have fed on the
dinoflagelates which produce toxins and cause paralysis of the diaphragm that can lead
to death.

The euglenoids are microscopic and unicellular. Euglena belongs to this group. It lives
in freshwater bodies. Organisms of this group have a whiplike flagellum for movement.
Some euglenoids have chlorophyll. Euglena has an interesting characteristic of getting
food. When light is available to, it makes food utilizing chlorophyll. In the absence of
light, it absorbs nutrients from dead organic matter.

Heterotrophs with no permanent structure for movement include the radiolarians,

foraminiferans and amoeba. They move by means of the pseudopods or pseudopodia.
Notice the extensions at the sides of these organisms. These temporary extensions are
formed when changes in the cytoplasmic concentration occur within the cell. This
change causes the cell membrane to contract and enable the organism to make a
creeping movement. Pseudopods may form as they are needed.

Entamoeba histolytica is a harmful species of amoeba living in freshwater bodies. If

present in underground water, it can contaminate drinking water. Once this happens,
the gastrointestinal tract is infected causing amoebiasis. If the protist invades the
intestinal lining it leads to amoebic dysentery. Proper sanitation must be practiced to
ensure clean and safe drinking water.

Another heterotroph, the paramecium, moves using the cilia attached to parts or all
over its body. The ciliate group are free-living and present in both fresh and salt water.
They also use the cilia to get food. Other examples are the Didinium and Vorticella.

Slime and water molds are motile in a certain stage in their life cycles. Thus, they are
considered to be heterotrophs with limited movements. Slime molds are usually the
colored yellow, orange, or whitish growths that you may see on damp rotting logs. They
feed on bacteria and decaying plant material in the same manner as an amoeba does.
Water molds are white cottony growths on dead fish or plant parts that you might see
floating in water. Certain species of water molds are parasitic on corn, grapes cabbage
and many other important crops.

Fungi

You must have seen the orange colored growth on spoiled corn, the gray to black or
white spots on a three-day old bread left in a warm and humid or moist place. Or the
kabuti, that your father gathered from the woods and yeast used in making bread. All
these are fungi.

You have also learned that they have no chlorophyll thus, cannot produce their own
food. Some are parasites, because they survive by living on a host organism. Others
feed on decaying matter and are called saprophytes. Fungi also have cell walls but are
made up of chitin.

Fungi undergo asexual reproduction by forming buds and many spores. Actually, the
black thing you see in fungi are spores in large numbers. These spores are abundant in

36
the environment as they are carried easily by wind, water, animals, or humans. When
spores land in areas suitable for their growth, new fungus develops.

Fungal bodies consist of hyphae with robot-like rhizoids that attach them to the
substrate on which they grow. Hyphae absorb and provide nutrients to the fungi by
extending downward into the substrate. Fungi also reproduce sexually when male and
female hyphae join together.

Fungi are involved in decomposing organic materials. Decomposition is made faster

using Trichoderma harzianum. An important mold to mention is Penicillium notatum. It is
used in making penicillin, a drug that kills disease-causing bacteria.

Some fungal species however, can be harmful to other organisms and humans. The
mold Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin, a poisonous substance. If large amounts of
aflatoxin in moldy corn, garlic or peanuts are ingested, both poultry and humans can be
poisoned. The parasitic fungi Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum, cause
athlete’s foot. T. rubrum can also cause ringworm.

The Plant Kingdom

They are multicellular and because they have chlorophyll, they can make their own
food. Plants consist of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport
water and food (nonvascular) and those that have this transport system (vascular).

Nonvascular Plants

Liverworts, mosses and hornworts are nonvascular plants. They are attached to the
places where they live by means of their root-like rhizoids. These rhizoids absorb water
and nutrients instead of true roots. They also do not have true stems and leaves so they
grow very close to damp grounds, stone walls or tree trunks.

When nonvascular plants mature, they also form different reproductive structures.
Liverworts develop “umbrella-like” structures that produce eggs and sperms.

Nonvascular plants may seem very small but they play an important role in the
environment. They provide oxygen to many organisms. Their “carpetlike” growth
covering large areas in hilly grounds prevent erosion and increase the capacity of soil to
hold water. Dried Sphagnum or peat moss is used to wrap plants and breakable items
during transport. Gardeners use them to retain more water in the soil for important
crops. Old, dead sphagnum form thick deposits called peat, which is used as fuel in
some places.

Vascular Plants

From studying water-dwelling organisms, you now will deal with ferns which thrive on
land with true roots, stems and leaves. Ferns also reproduce by spores. More than 900
species of ferns can be found in moist, shaded and mountainous areas in the country.

Gymnosperms

Seed plants consist of those which bear seeds contained in cones and those inside a
protective layer of tissue. Plants whose seeds are borne in cones are called
gymnosperms. Examples of gymnosperms are the conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and
gnetophytes. Many conifers like pine trees grow in cold countries and in elevated places
in warmer climates. They are woody trees and have tough needle like leaves.

37
 Cycads are short, palm-like plant growing in tropical and subtropical areas. In the
Philippines they are seen in well-landscaped hotels and parks. Gnetopytes are
represented by Welwitschia which can be found in Namibia, Southwestern Africa.

Gymnosperms are sources of quality wood for making plywood and furniture. They
also supply pulp to paper-producing factories. Other species provide resin, used in
making perfumes and varnishes. Pine cones are popular Christmas decoration items.

Angiosperms

You are most familiar with members this group as you may have played with their
flowers even at an early age. They are also called flowering plants since flowers, as well
as fruits, are involved in their reproduction and development.

Angiosperms can be classified according to their lifespan. Annuals live for a year or one
growing season and die like rice and corn. Biennials develop roots, stems and leaves
during the first year, produce seeds on the second year, then die. Perennials live for
many years, usually producing woody stems like tsitsirika, bamboo, and trees.

Flowering plants are also classified as to the number of cotyledons present in their
seeds. Monocotyledons or monocots have only one cotyledon present, while
dicotyledons or dicots have two. Coconut and grasses are examples of monocots.
Gumamela and mango are dicots.

Angiosperms can also be differentiated by means of their flower parts. A flower may
have both petals and sepals or may have sepals or petals only. Others have stamens,
petals and sepals attached to the ovary. Some have their petals separated, others are
united. You can observe several flowers from different plants and you may see other
differences or similarities among them.

Angiosperms of importance worth mentioning are Filipinos’ staple food: rice for most of
us, corn in some areas; vegetables like camote tops, malunggay, cabbage, carrots,
saluyot and squash.

Harmful Plants

Some plants can be harmful to animals, humans, and even to other plants. Care must
be taken that cows and other livestock should not graze in areas where sorghum grow.
It is known to cause cyanide poisoning in livestock as young leaves contain a poisonous
substance.

The Animal Kingdom

Some animals can live inside other animals. Others are found in fresh or marine waters
and some in every habitat on land. They reproduce either sexually or asexually.

Despite their differences, animals share basic characteristics. By now you must have
known that this group are eukaryotic and multicellular. Some get nourishment from
other animals, others eat plants while others feed on protists. You knew that animal
cells have no cell walls. But they have cells involved in movement though some species
are nonmotile. Animals also have cells that transmit messages throughout their body.

Animals consist of two major groups, the invertebrates and vertebrates. Invertebrates
lack backbone which is present in vertebrates. In this section, you will discover the

38
diverse characteristics, uses and roles in the environment of nine in about thirty five
animal phyla.

Sponges

Sponges, the simplest animals, belong to Phylum Porifera. They live in shallow and
deep oceans. The young of sponges are motile, while adults are attached to solid
materials like rocks. The body of a hard sponge is supported by a “skeleton” called
spicules, made of either glasslike silica or calcium carbonate. A network of protein fibers
supports soft sponges. This is the one used for bathing and washing.

Cnidarians

Members of Phylum Cnidaria consist of animals whose tentacles contain stinging cells
called nematocysts. These poison-filled structures are used for defense and to capture
their prey or food. Once released, this can be painful and even fatal like an attack by
jellyfishes.

Corals form colonies of various colors and secrete a hard skeleton. These accumulate
to form coral reefs which are of great importance as they are one of the world’s most
productive ecosystems. A coral reef is where fishes and other marine organisms breed.
At present however, coral reefs are destroyed by pollution from oil spills and dynamite
fishing. Add to these the silt and sediments that flow down from the mountains because
of farming, mining and logging activities.

Flatworms

The flatworm group belongs to Phylum Platyheminthes (in Greek platys means flat,
helmins means worm). As their name suggests, they are flat and ribbonlike organisms.
Flatworms are found in freshwater, in wet places and marine waters. They include the
free-living or nonparasitic worms, the parasitic flukes, and the tapeworm group.
Planaria is an example of a free-living flatworm. It lives in moist surfaces, under rocks in
ponds, rivers and even aquariums. Flukes are parasites that live in other animals
including humans.

Tapeworms are also parasitic flatworms like flukes without a digestive system. It can
have fish, cows and pigs as hosts. Humans can be infected with tapeworms if they eat
uncooked fish, beef or pork.

Roundworms

Roundworms are members of Phylum Nematoda. Compared to flatworms,

roundworms also known as nematodes have long, cylindrical and slender bodies. Some
roundworms are free-living while others are parasites of animals and plants. The free-
living ones are important as they are decomposers in the soil in both marine and
freshwaters. A lot of them are found in decaying organic matter. Parasitic roundworms
can be found in moist tissues of plants and animals. Heartworms for example can infect
dogs and cats. Humans can be infected with parasitic roundworms such as trichina
worms, hookworms and the more common pinworms and Ascaris afflicting children.

Segmented Worms

The third group of worms among the animal phyla belongs to Phylum Annelida. Also
known as annelids, these animals are characterized by a segmented or repeated body
parts. This makes them move easily and with flexibility. Annelids are mostly found
39
crawling in moist soil or swimming in sea and freshwaters. Examples of annelids are
earthworms, polychaetes and leeches. Most polychaetes are marine living in tubes
attached to rocks or sand. They get floating food through the feathery gills. Sandworms
are examples of polychaetes.

Annelids have nervous, circulatory, digestive and excretory systems. Each segment
contains most of the internal structures of these systems. Gas exchange only occurs by
diffusion through their skin. This is why earthworms need to be in moist places like
under rocks or stay buried in the soil. As they feed and burrow through the soil, they get
nutrients and eliminate wastes (castings) through the anus. In this way they aerate the
soil and the castings serve as fertilizer.

Leeches are blood-sucking annelids. They have suckers in both ends of their bodies
that are also used to attach themselves to their hosts. They secrete an anticlotting
chemical that has been used in medicine.

Mollusks

Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) are soft-bodied invertebrates with most of them covered by
a shell. They have complex respiratory, reproductive, circulatory, digestive and
excretory systems functioning together for their survival. The mollusk’s body has three
parts: a muscular foot for locomotion, a mantle that produces the shell, and the visceral
mass that contains their internal organs. Mollusks consist of three classes: the
Gastropods, Bivalves and Cephalopods.

Gastropods, also called univalves, as you have observed, has only one shell. They are
mostly marine with freshwater and terrestrial members. Those living in seas have gills
for breathing and those on land use the lining of their mantle as lungs. Sea and land
slugs, as well as nudibranchs are examples of gastropods.

You may be most familiar with the bivalves as you see them on your dining table more
often. These molluscs as you have observed consist of two shells attached to each
other. Some bivalves are attached to rocks while others remain in the sand or mud.
They use their mantle cavity to feed by trapping suspended particles in water and for
gas exchange. Mussels, oysters, and clams are bivalves.

The cephalopod group include the squid and cuttlefish with internal skeleton. The
chambered nautilus has external skeleton while the octopus is shell-less. All
cephalopods are described as the most active molluscs, moving very fast using arms
and tentacles in catching prey.

Echinoderms

You can be fascinated by the star-shaped sea star or the spine–studded sea urchin
and the appearance of the sand dollar. Along with the brittle star and the sea cucumber,
they belong to Phylum Echinodermata. All echinoderms are found in a marine
environment. Sea lily, another echinoderm, is rooted in the sand at the bottom of the
sea, while sea cucumber burrows in mud of deep or shallow waters.

Parts of most echinoderms radiate from the center of the body. They also have spines
which are extensions made of hard calcium. Under the skin, these form an internal
skeleton called the endoskeleton.

Sea stars have the ability to regenerate. A cut arm can easily regrow into a new sea
star.
40
Echinoderm species which are edible include the sea urchin and sea cucumber.
Holothuria edulis, a sea cucumber, is dried and used as ingredient for chopsuey and
soups.

Arthropods

Have you observed what grasshoppers, spiders, crabs and centipedes have in
common?

If you take a look at each of these you will notice that they have jointed legs. These
animals belong to Phylum Arthropoda. The group is considered the most successful of
all animal phyla as they are present in almost all types of habitats. There are arthropods
that walk or crawl, some can fly, while others swim in salty and freshwaters.

Arthropods have an exoskeleton. This is made of chitin and varies from thin and
flexible to thick and hard exoskeletons. These animals grow a new skeleton many times
in their life to give way to growth, specifically, increase in size through the process of
molting.

Arthropods are grouped based on the type of exoskeleton, the number of body
sections and the kind of appendages like mouth parts present. Appendages may be
used for avoiding predators, getting food, walking or swimming. Crustaceans form one
group of arthropods which includes water fleas, crabs, shrimps, lobsters and barnacles.
They have hard exoskeletons and have mandible to bite and grind food. All
crustaceans live in water with the exception of the pill bug. You see it in the soil as the
small creature that rolls into a tiny ball when disturbed. Aquatic crustaceans have gills
for breathing. Many crustaceans are food to humans. The small ones are eaten by
fishes and even whales.

Arachnids have two body sections, most with four pairs of legs and mouthparts called
chelicerae and pedipalps. They use book lungs to respire. Spiders with thin and flexible
exoskeleton are the largest members of the group. Mites and ticks are parasitic
arachnids. They cause itching to some mammals,

including humans. Scorpions have a poisonous sting. The horsehoe crab, a close
relative of arachnids, is considered the oldest living arthropod.

Millepedes and centipedes, close relatives of insects have long, wormlike segmented
bodies. They have a pair of antenna and each segment bear a pair or two legs. These
animals live in the soil, under rocks or rotting logs and leaves. Millipedes have two pairs
of legs per segment and roll up when disturbed. They feed on decaying matter.
Centipedes have a pair of legs in a segment. They have venomcontaining claws and
feed on earthworms, even other arthropods and small animals.

Insects form the largest group among arthropods. They have three body sections, three
pairs of legs, a pair of antenna and one to two pairs of wings. Insects are more adapted
for flying and have tracheal tubes for respiration. They are present in great numbers in
all kinds of environments except in marine waters. Exoskeleton of insects as that of a fly
is thin. Insects are also successful animals because they reproduce rapidly. Dragonflies,
grasshoppers, aphids, and butterfies are some examples of insects.

Chordates

Animals belonging to Phylum Chordata have four characteristics that are present in any
of the stages in their life cycle. These are the notochord, the dorsal hollow nerve cord,
41
gill slits and a post-anal tail. In many chordates, the notochord later becomes the
backbone. Humans being a member of the chordate group have the notochord, tail and
gill slits only in the embryo stage.

However, there are lower chordates that do not have a backbone. Examples are the
tunicates and lancelets. The adult tunicates have only the gill slits present but the larva
stages have all the four features. Tunicates attach to solid materials like rocks or coral
reefs. They are filter feeders, taking in food particles suspended in water.

Lancelets have the four chordate characteristics present in the adult stage. They live in
the sandy ocean bottom. They are also suspension feeders. Lancelets move in a
fishlike motion using the muscles on both sides of their body.

Vertebrates

Most vertebrates are sea and land dwellers forming the large group of chordates. The
vertebrates’ notochord is replaced by the backbone or the vertebral column (vertebra,
plu. vertebrae). The nerve cord is enclosed by the projections of the vertebrae. The
protected nerve cord enlarges at the anterior end to develop into the brain. The tail can
be the bone and muscle that animals use for swimming in aquatic species. For some
vertebrates, the gill slits remain till the adult stage. In others, these are modified into
structures for gas exchange.

Fishes

Fishes are vertebrates found in salty, fresh, cold or even hot water. Most have scales
for protection, paired fins for movement and gills for gas exchange. Fishes may lay eggs
to reproduce or give birth to live young. They are cold bloodied because their body
temperature changes when environment temperature changes. Certain fishes do not
have true teeth or may be jawless as compared to the others.

Jawless fishes belong to Class Agnatha. Examples are the lampreys and hag fish.
Lampreys, being parasites, have tooth-like structures in their mouth that can attach to
bodies of other fishes and feed on their tissues and blood. The hagfish is wormlike and
use a toothlike tongue to eat dead organisms.

Cartilaginous fishes include the rays, skates and sharks. They have a skeleton made
of the soft, flexible protein material called cartilage. Most cartilaginous fishes are
covered with a tough, sandpaperlike skin due to the presence of toothlike scales.
Skates and rays have winglike fins and move in a gliding motion through the water.
Some of them eat floating planktons while others feed on invertebrates at the bottom of
seas and oceans.

Sharks may feed on small fishes or on floating algae. The whale shark (Rincodon
typus), the largest fish, and locally known as butanding is found in marine waters of
Cebu, Sorsogon and Dumaguete.

The diverse groups of bony fishes belong to Class Osteichthyes. These are the fishes
that have an endoskeleton made of hard, calcium material called bone. Bony fishes are
more familiar to you like bangus (milkfish), tuna, goldfish, and tilapia. The non-familiar
lungfish breathes through the lungs in addition to having gills also for respiration. Eels
are wormlike fishes.

Amphibians

42
 Amphibia means “double life” from which amphibians got their name. This refers to
animals that live part in water and part on land. Most lay small, shell-less eggs
surrounded by jellylike substance in moist places or in water. These hatch into tadpoles
with gills and tails. They lose the tail to develop lungs as well as legs and

move to land but close to water or damp habitats. They also have moist skin to help the
lungs for gas exchange while in dry land. Amphibians are divided into three groups, the
caecilians, salamanders, and frog and toads. Ceacilians live in water or bury
themselves in moist soil. Salamanders live in forest floors under rocks and decaying
logs.

Both frogs and toads jump. Some frogs can leap and attach to tree trunks and
branches. Toads are terrestrial and can even survive in hot places or desert. Frogs
have smooth skin while toads have rough or warty skin. Frogs and toads eat worms,
insects or small animals.

Reptiles

Reptiles are animals that exhibit more adaptations for living on land. They lay eggs with
shells to protect them from drying. They also have smooth or rough scales for protection
from loss of body water.

Lizards and snakes have smooth scales. Examples of lizards are the house lizard,
gecko (tuko), monitor lizard (bayawak), chamleleon and horned toad. Snakes are
legless and have flexible jaws to enable them to swallow their prey whole. A common
snake species is the reticulated python seen in zoos. Poisonous species include the
cobra and the rattle snake. Snakes however, avoid people and do not attack unless
provoked or hurt.

Crocodiles and alligators are also reptiles. They are predators of fish, deers, small
cows or carabaos, and even attack humans. Alligators live in freshwater and are only
found in North and South America. Crocodiles live in fresh and salty waters in tropical
and subtropical regions. In the Philippines, two species are present, the endemic
Crocodylus mindorensis (Philippine Crocodile) and the saltwater Crocodylus porosus.
The Philippine crocodile is considered a critically endangered crocodile species in the
world. Bodies of turtles and tortoises are enclosed in a shell. The head, legs and tail
are pulled inside this shell as protection from predators. Tortoises live on land while
turtles live mostly in water. Pawikan (marine turtles) live in the sea and females come to
shore only to lay eggs. There are species of marine turtles which are at present in
danger of extinction.

Birds

If reptiles are adapted to land life, most birds are adapted to fly. Characteristics of birds
that enable them to fly include: presence of wings and feathers, large flight muscles in
the breast bone and reduced weight. Birds weigh less because their bones are light and
hollow filled with air. Birds also have eggs with shells and the legs are covered with
scales. Their body temperature remains the same despite varying environmental
temperature due to the insulation provided by feathers.

Birds have bills or beaks and in coordination with the type of wings and feet they have,
are adapted to where they live and the kind of food they eat.

43
You often eat chicken during meals or even merienda. Or maybe balut and salted eggs
from ducks are your favourites! Snakes and big animals also prey on smaller birds. You
enjoy the relaxing chirping or singing of some birds and their varied colors. Although
certain birds feed on rice or corn grains, they have a role in dispersing seeds to various
places, resulting to perpetuation of many plant species.

Mammals

Mammals differ from other animals because they have mammary glands that produce
milk to nourish their young and most have hair or fur. They breathe in air, have four-
chambered hearts and are warm-bloodied. Most of them also give birth to live young
and care for them.

The first group of mammals, called monotremes, lay eggs similar to those of birds. The
spiny anteater (echidnas) living in Australia, New Zealand and New Guinea as well as
the duck-billed platypus are monotremes.

Marsupials or the pouched mammals also give birth to live young. After birth, the young
are kept inside pouches and are nourished with the milk from the mammary glands
within these pouches. Some marsupials are found in Central and South America. The
opossum lives only in North America. Others, such as the more familiar koalas,
kangaroos and wombats and flying phalangers, are found in Australia and New
Zealand.

The eutherians comprise the largest group of mammals. Known as the placental
mammals, they bear fully developed young inside the mother’s uterus. These young
are attached to the placenta through which they receive nourishment until they are born.
After birth, they continue to be cared for and nourished by milk from the mammary
glands.

Primates are the most highly developed of all animals. They are able to walk erect, with
fingers and toes adapted to grasp or hang on branches and hold things or manipulate
food. They also have a high degree of intelligence. Primates exhibit social behavior like
living in organized groups or communities. They take care of orphaned individuals or
even fight with competing groups. Scientists would like to believe that the care given by
females to their young contribute to their ability to survive.

Mammals are present in various places, from the very cold to the warmest regions and
in salt waters. Many live among humans. Mammals have become an important part of
ecosystems. In grasslands, zebras eat plants and in turn are killed and eaten by lions.
In forests, bats eat insects and compete with monkeys for fruits. Seeds are then spread
for plants to grow in other areas. Wastes of these mammals serve as fertilizers to
plants. In human communities, rats carry bacteria and dogs virus that cause diseases.
In farmlands, carabaos work for people, while cows, sheep and goats provide meat and
milk. Rats destroy crops and compete with humans for rice grains.

Protecting and Conserving Biodiversity

You have seen that organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent upon each other for
survival and harmonious existence. This interdependence among them demonstrates
the importance of biodiversity to an ecosystem. You must know however, that as more
species are discovered every year, others previously known and identified have
decreased in number or have disappeared. A good way to remember the causes of
species decline is through the acronym HIPPO*:
44
H - Habitat destruction
I - Invasion of introduced species,
P - Population increase
P - Pollution
O - Over collection/overharvesting of resources

Important Terms to Remember

Binomial nomenclature – A two-part system of naming species; species are referred

to by their genus name followed by their species name.

Taxon – A population of organisms that has been grouped together by taxonomists.

Taxonomic hierarchy – An ordered group of taxonomic ranks used to classify

organisms from general to specific.

Taxonomic rank – A level of a group of organisms in a taxonomic hierarchy

45
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

1. Will your dreams for the future come true by simply thinking about them?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Do you know of any on-going programs, initiatives and legislations related to

these priorities?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. What government agencies, organizations, groups and individuals are

responsible for or are working on the conservation of biodiversity, either locally or on a
global scale?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. What changes in your daily actions can you carry out to contribute to conserving
biodiversity?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Why is biodiversity important?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

6. What human activities help protect and conserve rare and economically important
species?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

7. What human activities destroy or endanger the existence of rare and economically
important species?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

46
 CHAPTER VII
Biodiversity and Evolution

Causes of Species Extinction

In any ecosystem, organisms need a balanced environment. A balanced
ecosystem is one in which all living and nonliving things are interacting successfully. If
any part of the ecosystem is disturbed, other parts will also be disturbed. What
happens to a community when its species diversity is reduced? Does loss of biodiversity
affect an ecosystem’s ability to sustain the species that remain or to perform certain
functions that may contribute to the needs of that ecosystem?

Different parts of the ecosystem interact with one another. Changes to one part
affect other parts. When all the members of a species die, that species’ place in the
ecosystem is gone forever. In this module you will study the various threats that are
considered causes of the loss of biodiversity.

A population is a group of living things within a certain area that are all of the
same species.
Several different populations may be found in a community. A population of one
kind may affect a population of another kind within the community. A jungle has a
greater amount of biological diversity, or biodiversity, than a cornfield. Biodiversity refers
to the variety of life in the area. In a jungle community, some populations, such as ants,
fungi, and ferns, can be very large in number. Other populations such as tigers and
snakes have fewer members.
In a balanced ecosystem, organisms need a balanced environment. A change in
population sizes may be due to factors affecting the environment. Why is it that
populations do not increase without end?

Populations can be of the same size, but they may have different densities.
When we consider the number of individuals per unit area, we are referring to the
density of the population. Differences in population density in any community may be
attributed to many factors. Population sizes change when new members move into the
ecosystem. They decrease when members move out of an ecosystem. The birth rate
and death rates can also affect a population’s size. Anything that limits the size of a
population like certain environmental conditions are called limiting factors. Limiting
factors keep a population from increasing in size and help balance an ecosystem.
Examples of limiting factors are the availability of food, water, and living conditions.
Light, temperature and soil nutrients are also limiting factors because they help
determine the types of organisms that can live in an ecosystem. The maximum
population size an environment can support is called its carrying capacity. If the

47
population size rises above the carrying capacity, organisms die because they cannot
meet all their needs.

When a species, population becomes so low that only a few remain, the species
is considered endangered will possibly become extinct. In the Philippines, some
terrestrial species like the tamaraw in Mindoro, mouse deer in Palawan, Philippine deer,
Monkey-eating eagle, and aquatic species like the dugong found in Negros, Batangas,
and Leyte are in danger of extinction. Sometimes, there is a particular species that
declines so fast that it becomes endangered and is said to be threatened. In a study
conducted by field biologists on population size and distribution of Philippine fauna, they
reported that as of 1991, 89 species of birds, 44 species of mammals, and eight species
of reptiles are internationally recognized as threatened. These include also the
Philippine Eagle or Monkey-eating Eagle in the list of Philippine Endangered Species

Many changes take place in the communities. You may have noticed that the
natural vegetation in the area has been cleared. Concrete structures and increasing
populations of people and other organisms gradually take over the area. Perhaps some
areas were destroyed by natural disasters or by human activities. Just as vegetation
changes, animal populations also change. These may have major effects on the
ecosystem causing replacement of communities or development of a new environment.

Have you eaten? Did you turn on an electric light, ride a tricycle or jeepney, or use a
computer today? When you do any of these activities, you use one or more natural
resources. Natural resources are materials in the environment that people use to carry
on with their lives. But are you using these natural resources wisely? Will the time come
when these materials will no longer be available to you? You would probably have the
same question in mind. Many of the changes that man has done to the environment
were made by accident. If you examine your predictions in the activity, you probably
listed them in the column meant for the island inhabited by human population. Land
would be cleared for housing and farming. These might decrease plant and animal
populations, and some pollution and other environmental problems would result.

You probably need to know more about some of the local and global environmental
issues/problems that are also affecting your community.

Deforestation

One of the country’s environmental problems is the rapid rate at which trees are cut
down. Did you encounter the same problem in your community? In the Philippines, the
major causes of deforestation are:

 Kaingin farming  Forest fires

 Illegal logging  Typhoons

 Conversion of agricultural lands to

housing projects

As a consequence of cutting down trees, the following effects could take place:

 Soil erosion

 Floods

 Decrease in wildlife resources that will eventually lead to extinction

48
Wildlife Depletion

As human population gets bigger, huge space is needed for shelter, for growing crops,
and for industries. Deforestation is one of the major causes of the disappearance of
wildlife species. What happens to animal populations that are driven away from their
natural habitat? If they cannot find enough space, many will die or become extinct.
Some species may become endangered, or in the verge of becoming extinct. In other
cases, some animals may be threatened.

Water Pollution

A major problem in lakes, rivers and ponds is eutrophication. It happens when the
concentration of organic nutrients that comes from domestic garbage and thrown in
bodies of water, increases rapidly.

Another effect of water pollution is mass death of fish, or ‘fish kill’. Have you read
articles from the newspapers about ‘fish kill’ in Manila Bay or some other places? Have
you seen such an event in your area? A ‘fish kill’ usually happens when there is an
increase in concentration of organic nutrients in bodies of water. This condition causes
algal bloom and growth of aquatic plants. When the algae die, they sink to the bottom
and the process of decomposition proceeds. This process uses up oxygen and as a
result, aquatic animals die due to lack of oxygen. Bodies of water are also polluted with
toxic wastes, untreated sewage, and fertilizer run-offs from farm lands. One class of
dangerous chemicals present in water is PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl). PCBs are
toxic wastes produced in the making of paints, inks and electrical insulators.

At each level of the food chain, the amount of PCB in each organism increases. They
are unable to excrete PCB from their bodies. Through the process of biological
magnification, the PCB becomes concentrated in the body tissues of water organisms.
Biological magnification is the build-up of pollutants in organisms at higher trophic levels
in a food chain. Fish living in contaminated ecosystems contain built up high
concentration of PCB. The fish were not killed by the chemicals, but they stored them in
their tissues. As the salmon feeds on the smaller fish, it took in the PCB in their bodies.
Like the smaller fish, the salmon was not killed by the PCB. It stored the PCB in its
tissues. The concentration of PCB in the salmon has rise to 5,000 times the
concentration of PCB in the water in which it fed.

Air Pollution

Do you know that cars are one of the major contributors to air pollution? Pollutants can
enter the air as gases, liquids, or solids. Cars burn fuel and produce harmful gases–
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.

In Metro Manila where a great volume of cars travel each day, smog blankets the area,
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from car exhausts react with water vapour or dust
particles and produce new irritating chemicals. Carbon dioxide acts like a blanket over
the Earth, holding in the heat that would otherwise radiate back into space. The trapping
of heat by gases in the earth’s atmosphere is called greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is a natural process. But as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
increases, greenhouse effect also intensifies–this will lead to global warming. Global
warming is an increase in the earth’s temperature from the rapid build-up of carbon
dioxide and other gases. This, in turn, could change the world climate patterns. Are
there factories in your area? Factories and power plants that burn coal are also major
49
contributors to air pollution. Coal contains sulfur. When coal burns, sulfur combines with
oxygen in the air to form sulfur dioxide, with choking odor. Power plants also burn coal
to give off particulates into the air. Particulates are tiny particles of soot, dust, and
smoke. These particulates block sunlight and get into your lungs when you breathe. Do
you see smog and smell such foul odor and often wonder where it comes from? Well,
your place might be a victim of air pollution from the factories nearby.

Destruction of Coastal Resources

Coral reefs and coastal mangrove forests in the Philippines serve as breeding grounds
and nurseries of marine fishes. But due to man’s activities, coastal areas are getting
destroyed through the years. Some of these activities include the following:

 Deforestation, agricultural activities, and mining activities

 Dynamite fishing and muro-ami

 Coastal areas’ conversion to beach resorts, residential areas

 Overharvesting

Acid Precipitation

Acid precipitation is commonly known as acid rain. Rainwater is normally acidic,

because carbon dioxide is normally present. Other pollutants mostly sulfur and nitrogen
oxides make rainwater even more acidic, with a pH of 5.6 or lower. Emissions from
factories and from exhaust of motor vehicles are some examples of pollutants. Acid
rain can be harmful to living things. It causes yellowing of leaves of trees and cause
leaves to fall. Along with nutrients being lost through direct leaching from leaves and no
movement of nutrients in forest litter (leaves, stems, and fruits), nutrients can be lost
from the soil. Acid water flowing through the soil can exchange acidic hydrogen ions for
essential plant nutrient ions such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. If these
nutrients migrate beneath the rooting zone, they become unavailable to tree roots.

Human activities and overpopulation have caused most of the environmental problems
nowadays. People are beginning to realize that the way they interact with the
environment must change to ensure the survival of all living things. This is one big
challenge to maintain the resources needed for survival while ensuring that they will still
be available in the future. This is a practice called sustainable development. This means
that a sustainable society should live under the carrying capacity of the environment.
This means that the rate at which society uses renewable resources does not exceed
the rate at which the resources are generated.

50
 Important Terms to Remember

Species - A group of organisms that have certain characteristics in common and are
able to interbreed.

Biodiversity - refers to the variety of life in an area.

Population - the total number of organisms of the same species inhabiting a place at
the same time.

Population density - the number of individuals in an area Limiting factor

environmental conditions that keep a population from over increasing in size and thus
help balance ecosystems

Carrying capacity - number of organisms of one species that an environment can

support.

Endangered species - a species in which the number of individuals falls so low that
extinction is possible

Threatened species - species that have rapidly decreasing numbers of individuals

Deforestation - removing or clearing of a forest to include the cutting of all trees, mostly
for agricultural or urban use

Eutrophication - the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved

nutrients (such as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant, life usually
resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen

PCB - (polychlorinated biphenyl) toxic wastes produced in the making of paints, inks
and electrical insulators

Acid rain - broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited
material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and
sulfuric acids.

51
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF
I. Answer briefly the following questions in your answer sheet:

1. If the population species of a given area is doubled, what effect would this have
on the resources of the community?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. In a population, limiting factors and population density are often related.

Suppose that the population density of plant seedlings in an area is very high,
explain how limiting factors may affect population density.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. In a farm, soy beans were the only crop that that was planted on several
hectares of land. A farmer noticed that a fungus was growing all over the soy
bean fields. Predict what might eventually happen to the soybeans and the
fungus.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. How is forest ecosystem affected when trees are cut down?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5. What is the main cause of extinction in plant and animal species?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

52
 CHAPTER VIII
ECOSYSTEM: Life Energy
You have learned how changes in the environment may affect species extinction.
It helps you understand how to prevent extinction of organisms in an ecosystem. In this
module, you will learn that all organisms need energy to sustain life. Your study will
focus on how organisms obtain energy from food and how organisms produce energy.
In order to sustain life, all organisms require energy, but not all of them can use light
energy directly for life activities. To provide the energy needed by all organisms, plants
and other chlorophyll-bearing organisms capture the energy of sunlight and convert it
into chemical energy stored in the food. When people and other heterotrophic
organisms eat food from producers and consumers, chemical energy stored from food
is transferred to their bodies. Do you know how these processes are being done by our
body and by other living organisms?

Photosynthesis

Plants are great food providers. Why do you think they are called great food
providers? As you go through the activities in this module, you will understand how
plants provide food and help to make the flow of energy in the ecosystem possible.

You will understand how each plant structure helps in the process of food
making, as well as the factors that may affect the rate of food production done by plants.
Photosynthesis is a process of food making done by plants and other autotrophic
organisms. The presence of chlorophyll enables these organisms to make their own
food. Autotrophic organisms require light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water
(H2O) to make food (sugar). In plants, photosynthesis primarily takes place in the
leaves and little or none in stems depending on the presence of chlorophyll. The typical
parts of the leaves include the upper and lower epidermis, mesophyll spongy layer,
vascular bundles, and stomates. The upper and lower epidermis protects the leaves
and has nothing to do with photosynthetic processes. Mesophyll has the most number
of chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. They are important in trapping light energy from
the sun. Vascular bundles - phloem and xylem serve as transporting vessels of
manufactured food and water. Carbon dioxide and oxygen were collected in the spongy
layer and enters and exits the leaf through the stomata.

The parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes,

intermembrane space, stroma and thylakoids stacked in grana. The chlorophyll is built
into the membranes of the thylakoids. Chlorophyll absorbs white light but it looks green
because white light consists of three primary colors: red, blue, and green. Only red and
blue light is absorbed thus making these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes
while the green light is reflected which makes the chlorophyll looks green. However, it is
the energy from red light and blue light that are absorbed and will be used in
photosynthesis. The green light that we can see is not absorbed by the plant and thus,
cannot be used in photosynthesis.

There are two stages of photosynthesis:

53
 (a) Light-dependent Reaction and
(b) Calvin Cycle (dark reaction).

Light-dependent reaction happens in the presence of light. It occurs in the

thylakoid membrane and converts light energy to chemical energy. Water-one of the
raw materials of photosynthesis-is utilized during this stage and facilitates the formation
of free electrons and oxygen. The energy harvested during this stage is stored in the
form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and NADPH( Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate Hydrogen). These products will be needed in the next stage to complete
photosynthetic process. Calvin Cycle (dark reaction) is a light-independent phase that
takes place in the stroma and converts Carbon dioxide (CO2) into sugar. This stage
does not directly need light but needs the products of light reaction. This is why it occurs
immediately after the light-dependent phase.

Cellular Respiration

All heterotrophic organisms including man, depend directly or indirectly on plants

and other photosynthetic organisms for food. Why do we need food? Organisms need
food as the main source of energy. All organisms need energy to perform essential life
processes. The food must be digested to simple forms such as glucose, amino acids,
and triglycerides. These are then transported to the cells. The immediate energy source
of the cells is glucose. Glucose inside the cell is broken down to release the stored
energy. This stored energy is harvested in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP is a high-energy molecule needed by working cells.

Glycolysis

In glycolysis, the 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of
a 3carbon molecule called pyruvate. This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2
ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules.

Krebs Cycle

The Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of
chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end
product of glycolysis. Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon
dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized to
carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle, chemical energy is released and captured in the form
of NADH, FADH2, and ATP.

Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain allows the release of the large amount of chemical
energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH2). The energy
released is captured in the form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2).

The electron transport chain (ETC) consists of a series of molecules, mostly

proteins, embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This phase of cellular
respiration produces the greatest number of chemical energy in the form of ATP. In the
following activities, you will learn how the chemical energy of "food" molecules is
released and partially captured in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). You
should learn first the part of the cell where ATP is produced.

54
Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the cytoplasm of
most eukaryotic cells. Their main function is the conversion of the potential energy of
food molecules into ATP. This organelle has important parts. An outer membrane
encloses the entire structure that contains many complexes of integral membrane
proteins that form openings. A variety of molecules and ions move in and out of the
mitochondrion through the openings. An inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled matrix.

This membrane contains five complexes of integral proteins such as:

 NADH dehydrogenase
 succinate dehydrogenase
 cytochrome c reductase (the cytochrome b-c1complex)
 cytochrome c oxidase
 ATP synthase

Important Terms to Remember

Adenosine Triphospate (ATP): compound that stores energy in the cell

Autotrophs: organisms that can make their own food.
Calvin Cycle: name given to the cycle of dark reaction in photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration: catabolic process pathways of aerobic and anaerobic respiration,
which break down organic molecules for the production of ATP.
Chlorophyll: green pigment in the chloroplast of photosynthetic organisms that
captures light energy
Chloroplast: organelle found in photosynthetic organisms that absorb sunlight and use
it to synthesize carbon dioxide and water
Cristae: inner folded membrane of the mitochondrion
Guard Cell: specialized epidermal cell that controls the opening and closing of the
stomata by responding to the changes in water pressure
Heterotrophs: organisms that cannot make food
Krebs Cycle: cyclical series of reaction in cellular respiration that produces carbon
dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 Light
Reaction: stage/phase of photosynthesis that require light Mitochondrial
Matrix: the compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane,
containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle.
Mitochondrion: organelle that serves as site for cellular respiration
Photosynthesis: process done by autotrophs of converting light energy into chemical
energy that is stored in food (sugar).

55
 CHAPTER IX
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Food plays a central role in the survival of species. Food gives organisms energy
that enables them to carry out the many activities they do each day; this includes
predators chasing a prey or prey escaping a predator, arboreal organisms climbing
trees to gather fruits, or fish swimming in schools in search for food, to name a few.
Organisms are able to obtain energy from the foods they eat through digestion.

Digestion of food is carried out by the organs and substances of the digestive
system. During digestion, food is broken down to smaller parts -- a fraction of which is
made up of nutrients. These nutrients are circulated to the different parts of the body
through the bloodstream and assimilated by cells.

Almost all animals have a digestive system in which food enters the mouth, is
moved through a long tube, and exits the anus as feces. The food is broken down into
soluble molecules and is moved rhythmically by the smooth muscle in the walls of the
digestive organs.

Different species of organisms have different ways of digesting their food. In

humans, digestion starts in the mouth where food is chewed and broken down to
smaller pieces for easier digestion. This is called mechanical digestion. Initial
chemical digestion starts also in the mouth. This is carried out by enzymes --
molecules that speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes present in saliva such as
amylase helps break down carbohydrates, which are large complex molecules, into
simpler ones that can be used by the body.

After swallowing, the food -- now turned into a bolus -- enters the esophagus
(gullet) and is moved down into the stomach where it mixes with gastric juices and
acids. Other enzymes such as protease and lipase help break down proteins in the
stomach and fats in the small intestine, respectively. Digestion ends in the small
intestine where nutrients are absorbed in the villi and enter the circulatory system.
Wastes that remain after digestion go to the large intestine where water is also
reabsorbed. These wastes, including the water that was not reabsorbed, are temporarily
stored in the rectum before they are excreted out of the body through the anus.

Digestion in other organisms works similarly. However, there are specialized

structures found in some species that perform special digestive functions.

The digestive system is made up of different organs that work together to break
down food and nourish the body.

The digestive systems of animals and the organs that make them up vary across
species. Some structures like the rumen, crop, and gizzard are found only in some
species. The rumen is common among ruminants that include the goats, cows, and
carabaos.

56
 Almost all animals have a tubelike digestive system; one end of the tube serves
as the mouth while the other end serves as the anus. This digestive system is called a
Complete Digestive System. Food enters the mouth, passes through the long tube, and
exits as feces through the anus.

The smooth muscles of the tubelike digestive organs move the food rhythmically
through the system where it is broken down into absorbable forms. Outside of this tube
are attached some accessory organs -- the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas -- which
also help in the digestion of food.

Food undergoes physical and chemical change as it moves from one part of the
gastrointestinal tract to the other. Digestion makes the nutrients found in food available
to the different parts of the body for the organism’s nourishment and overall wellness

Bromelain refers to a group of enzymes from bromeliad plants that break down
proteins. They are proteases. Bromelain is found in both fresh pineapple and bromeliad
leaf juices. This should not come as a surprise because pineapple is a bromeliad plant

At certain times of the day, you hear your stomach rumbling. This is the sound
you hear as the gastric juices are churned in an empty stomach. This indicates that you
are already hungry and it is time for you to eat. The stomach and some glands start to
produce gastric juices to prepare your stomach for the food you will eat. These gastric
juices provide an acidic environment in the stomach.

Carbohydrates are broken down to simple sugars that are absorbed in the small
intestines; they are circulated to the different parts of the body as they join the
bloodstream. They are used up as sources of energy once they are assimilated by the
cells; those that are circulated into the liver are stored.

Proteins are broken down to their component parts -- also called amino acids --
in the stomach. This process is aided by acids secreted by the cells that make up the
walls of the stomach and enzymes that are present in the gastric juice. Like the simple
sugars, amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine through the villi -- the fingerlike
structures that line the walls of the small intestines -- and circulated to the different parts
of the body. Those that are circulated into the liver are stored as glycogen.

In the case of fats and lipids, their digestion is completed in the small intestine
where bile secreted from the liver disintegrates them into fatty acids and glycerol –
particles that are circulated to the rest of the body and stored in fatty tissues.

Digestion starts when food is taken into the mouth. This is called ingestion. As
you chew, you are breaking the food into small pieces as a means of mechanical
breakdown. The pieces mix with saliva before you swallow. Saliva is a watery liquid
made by the salivary glands. It softens and wets the food in the mouth and also initially
starts chemical digestion through enzymes present in it. Then the food passes through
the esophagus. Muscle contractions in the esophagus help move the food down to the
stomach. This process is called peristalsis.

The digestive glands in the stomach lining produce acids and enzymes that digest
proteins. A thick mucus layer coats the mucosa and helps keep the acidic digestive
juice from dissolving the tissues of the stomach.
57
Most digested molecules of food, as well as water and minerals, are absorbed through
the small intestine. The walls of the small intestine contain many folds that are lined up
with tiny fingerlike projections called villi. These villi are in turn covered with even
smaller projections called microvilli. These structures increase the surface area through
which nutrients are absorbed. During absorption, these nutrients pass through the walls
of the intestine and into the bloodstream where they get transported to the different
parts of the body.

The undigested parts of food or those that were not absorbed by the body are
eliminated as feces. This process is called elimination or defecation.

Important Terms to Remember

Acid reflux: a painful condition in which acids regurgitate from the stomach into the
esophagus, also referred to as GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease)

Anus: the opening of the rectum through which solid waste leaves the body

Barrett's esophagus: a pre-cancerous condition of the esophagus caused by chronic

acid reflux

Colon: the main part of the large intestine

Digestive system: Comprised of the esophagus, small intestine, colon, rectum and
anus

Duodenum: the first part of the small intestine

Endoscope: a long, narrow, flexible tube with a small light and camera at one end

Endoscopy: the process of inserting an endoscope for diagnostic or preventive

purposes

Enteroscope: a tool used to examine the inside of the intestines

Esophagus: the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach

Gastrointestinal: relating to the stomach and intestines

58
 CHAPTER X
NUTRITION AND WELLNESS
In this module, you will survey the nutritional requirements of our body. This
module will discuss nutrition and consider the choices we make that affect the proper
functioning of the digestive system. This module will also consider how our diet and
lifestyle contribute to the functioning of the human body as a whole.

Your body needs food for energy, growth and repair, and as a source of substances for
body processes. Different types of food provide different nutrients.

The Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) has developed a food pyramid for
Filipinos, a simple and easy to follow daily eating guide. This guide is useful in helping
people select food that supply all the nutrients for energy and growth.

The Food Pyramid for teenagers recommends eating a variety of foods to ensure that
all nutrients are provided in proper amount and balance.

Foods that contain the same type of nutrient belong to a food group. Foods have been
divided into five groups – a) rice, rice products, corn, root crops, bread, noodles; b) fruits
and vegetables; d) milk and milk products, eggs, fish, shellfish, meat and poultry, dried
beans and nuts; and e) sugar and sweets, fats and oil. The recommended daily amount
for each food group will supply your body with the nutrients it needs for good health.

Daily Servings

For each day you should eat six to eight servings from the rice and rice products group,
three servings from the vegetable group, three servings from the fruit group, one glass
from the milk group, and two and a half servings from the fish and meat group. Only
small amounts of sweets, fats, and oils should be consumed.

The size of a serving is different for different foods. For example, one cup of rice or 5
pieces of small pandesal is equivalent to one serving of the rice and rice products
group. One piece medium-sized fish or 1/3 cup cooked dried beans is equivalent to one
serving of the fish, meat and beans group.

Fiber

Fiber is a carbohydrate portion of a plant that the body cannot digest and absorb. This
makes fiber very important for cleaning the digestive tract as it passes through the body.
Fiber can absorb water and help get rid of the body’s waste products. Fiber may help
prevent certain diseases such as heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Not eating
enough fiber can cause constipation and other intestinal problems. You should have just
enough fiber in your diet as eating too much fiber can cause nutrient to pass through the
system too quickly to be absorbed. Foods containing fiber are whole grain cereals,
starchy roots, fruits, most vegetables, beans, peas and other legumes and oilseeds.

Water

Your body is made up of 55 to 60 percent water. Water plays important roles in

important processes such as digestion, elimination of waste products, and regulation of

59
body temperature. You need to drink about 8 glasses of water a day to replace the
amount you lose through sweat, urine, and respiration.

Food Plate

Another tool in helping you monitor what you eat is the food plate. It is recommended
that you should divide your food plate into four parts – the first part for grains like rice,
corn, or bread, the second part for fruits, the third part for vegetables, and the fourth
part for protein like meat or fish. Since vegetables differ in nutrient content, it is
recommended that you eat a variety of vegetables each day. The most important thing
to remember is to fill one-half of your plate with fruits and vegetables. The Food Plate is
divided into four parts as a general guide for how much a person should choose from
each food group.

Nutrition disorders can be caused by an insufficient intake of food or of certain

nutrients, by an inability of the body to absorb and use nutrients, or by overconsumption
of certain foods. Examples include obesity caused by excess food intake, anemia
caused by inadequate intake of iron, and impaired sight because of not enough intake
of vitamin A. Nutrition disorders can be particularly serious in children, since they
interfere with growth and development, and may predispose to many health problems.

Important Terms to Remember

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. The body produces many amino acids
and others come from food. The body absorbs amino acids through the small intestine
into the blood. Then the blood carries them throughout the body.

Blood Glucose

Glucose — also called blood sugar — is the main sugar found in the blood and the main
source of energy for your body.

Calories

A unit of energy in food. Carbohydrates, fats, protein, and alcohol in the foods and
drinks we eat provide food energy or "calories."

Carbohydrates are one of the main types of nutrients. Your digestive system changes
carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar). Your body uses this sugar for energy for your
cells, tissues and organs. It stores any extra sugar in your liver and muscles for when it
is needed. There are two types of carbohydrates: simple and complex. Simple
carbohydrates include natural and added sugars. Complex carbohydrates include whole
grain breads and cereals, starchy vegetables and legumes.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that’s found in all cells of the body. Your body
needs some cholesterol to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you
digest foods. Your body makes all the cholesterol it needs. However, cholesterol also is
found in some of the foods you eat. High levels of cholesterol in the blood can increase
your risk of heart disease.
60
Dehydration

Dehydration is a condition that happens when you do not take in enough liquids to
replace those that you lose. You can lose liquids through frequent urinating, sweating,
diarrhea, or vomiting. When you are dehydrated, your body does not have enough fluid
and electrolytes to work properly.

Diet

Your diet is made up of what you eat and drink. There are many different types of diets,
such as vegetarian diets, weight loss diets, and diets for people with certain health
problems.

Dietary Supplements

A dietary supplement is a product you take to supplement your diet. It contains one or
more dietary ingredients (including vitamins; minerals; herbs or other botanicals; amino
acids; and other substances). Supplements do not have to go through the testing that
drugs do for effectiveness and safety.

Digestion

Digestion is the process the body uses to break down food into nutrients. The body
uses the nutrients for energy, growth, and cell repair.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes are minerals in body fluids. They include sodium, potassium, magnesium,
and chloride. When you are dehydrated, your body does not have enough fluid and
electrolytes.

Enzymes

Enzymes are substances that speed up chemical reactions in the body.

Fatty Acid

Fatty acid is a major component of fats that is used by the body for energy and tissue
development.

Fiber

Fiber is a substance in plants. Dietary fiber is the kind you eat. It's a type of
carbohydrate. You may also see it listed on a food label as soluble fiber or insoluble
fiber. Both types have important health benefits. Fiber makes you feel full faster, and
stay full for a longer time. That can help you control your weight. It helps digestion and
helps prevent constipation.

Gluten

Gluten is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley. It can also be in products such as
vitamin and nutrient supplements, lip balms, and certain medicines.

Glycemic Index

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The glycemic index (GI) measures how a carbohydrate-containing food raises blood
sugar.

HDL

HDL stands for high-density lipoproteins. It is also known as “good” cholesterol. HDL is
one of the two types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol throughout your body. It
carries the cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver. Your liver
removes the cholesterol from your body.

LDL

LDL stands for low-density lipoproteins. It is also known as “bad” cholesterol. LDL is one
of the two types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol throughout your body. A high LDL
level leads to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries.

Metabolism

Metabolism is the process your body uses to get or make energy from the food you eat.

Monounsaturated Fat

Monounsaturated fat is a type of fat is found in avocados, canola oil, nuts, olives and
olive oil, and seeds. Eating food that has more monounsaturated fat (or "healthy fat")
instead of saturated fat (like butter) may help lower cholesterol and reduce heart
disease risk. However, monounsaturated fat has the same number of calories as other
types of fat and may contribute to weight gain if you eat too much of it.

Nutrient

Nutrients are chemical compounds in food that are used by the body to function
properly and maintain health. Examples include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins,
and minerals.

Nutrition

This field of study focuses on foods and substances in foods that help animals (and
plants) to grow and stay healthy. Nutrition science also includes behaviors and social
factors related to food choices. The foods we eat provide energy (calories) and nutrients
such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, minerals, and water. Eating healthy foods
in the right amounts gives your body energy to perform daily activities, helps you to
maintain a healthy body weight, and can lower your risk for certain diseases such as
diabetes and heart disease.

Polyunsaturated Fat

Polyunsaturated fat is a type of fat that is liquid at room temperature. There are two
types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): omega-6 and omega-3. Omega-6 fatty
acids are found in liquid vegetable oils, such as corn oil, safflower oil, and soybean oil.
Omega-3 fatty acids come from plant sources—including canola oil, flaxseed, soybean
oil, and walnuts—and from fish and shellfish.

Protein

Protein is in every living cell in the body. Your body needs protein from the foods you
eat to build and maintain bones, muscles, and skin. You get proteins in your diet from

62
meat, dairy products, nuts, and certain grains and beans. Proteins from meat and other
animal products are complete proteins. This means they supply all of the amino acids
the body can't make on its own. Plant proteins are incomplete. You must combine
different types of plant proteins to get all of the amino acids your body needs. You need
to eat protein every day, because your body doesn't store it the way it stores fats or
carbohydrates.

Saturated Fat

Saturated fat is a type of fat that is solid at room temperature. Saturated fat is found in
full-fat dairy products (like butter, cheese, cream, regular ice cream, and whole milk),
coconut oil, lard, palm oil, ready-to-eat meats, and the skin and fat of chicken and
turkey, among other foods. Saturated fats have the same number of calories as other
types of fat, and may contribute to weight gain if eaten in excess. Eating a diet high in
saturated fat also raises blood cholesterol and risk of heart disease.

Sodium

Table salt is made up of the elements sodium and chlorine - the technical name for salt
is sodium chloride. Your body needs some sodium to work properly. It helps with the
function of nerves and muscles. It also helps to keep the right balance of fluids in your
body.

Sugar

Sugars are a type of simple carbohydrate. They have a sweet taste. Sugars can be
found naturally in fruits, vegetables, milk, and milk products. They are also added to
many foods and drinks during preparation or processing. Types of sugar include
glucose, fructose, and sucrose. Your digestive system breaks down sugar into glucose.
Your cells use the glucose for energy.

Total Fat

Fat is a type of nutrient. You need a certain amount of fat in your diet to stay healthy,
but not too much. Fats give you energy and help your body absorb vitamins. Dietary fat
also plays a major role in your cholesterol levels. Not all fats are the same. You should
try to avoid saturated fats and trans fats.

Trans Fat

Trans fat is a type of fat that is created when liquid oils are changed into solid fats, like
shortening and some margarines. It makes them last longer without going bad. It may
also be found in crackers, cookies, and snack foods. Trans fat raises your LDL (bad)
cholesterol and lowers your HDL (good) cholesterol.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are a type of fat found in your blood. Too much of this type of fat may raise
the risk of coronary artery heart disease, especially in women.

Water Intake

We all need to drink water. How much you need depends on your size, activity level,
and the weather where you live. Keeping track of your water intake helps make sure
that you get enough. Your intake includes fluids that you drink, and fluids you get from
food.
63
 CHAPTER XI
Respiratory and Circulatory Systems Working with Other
Organ Systems

Your body is a fascinating creation that can carry out incredible tasks and
activities. It is like a machine that is able to function with proper organization of parts
and systems. However, our bodies also require proper care and maintenance. It is just
fitting to keep going with a healthy lifestyle to ensure that each part is maintained
appropriately while getting the most out of it. In the past, you were introduced to the
different levels of organizations in the human body and the mechanisms involved in it.
You have learned that the human body is composed of different systems, which are
collections of cells, tissues, and organs, each of which has a special job that keeps you
alive. Whether you eat, play, dance, sing, or sleep; each part of your organ systems
performs particular functions. You also discovered how the digestive system breaks
down food to nourish your whole body.

Now, you will learn how the different structures of the circulatory and respiratory
systems work together to transport oxygen-rich blood and nutrients to the different parts
of the body. You will also understand the prevention, detection, and treatment of
diseases affecting the respiratory and circulatory systems.

Respiratory system is made up of the organs in the body that help us to breathe. Just
remember that the word respiration is linked to breathing. Circulatory system is
responsible for distributing materials throughout the body. Take note that circulation
means transportation or movement in circles. Both systems are essentially meant for
each other. The common purpose could not be attained without the other system.

The Human Breathing System

Breathe in and out. Notice your chest and belly moving and feel the soft air
passing from the nose. Listen to the quiet sounds of breathing in and out. Imagine the
air moving from the nose into the throat, through the air tubes, and into the airsacs. The
parts of the respiratory system that are in charge of supplying oxygen are the nose,
nasal passageways, windpipe, lungs, and diaphragm. In the nose and nasal passages,
the entering air is made warm, damp, and clean of unknown particles. Next, the air
moves down through the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Trachea is the
empty tube that serves as passageway of air into the lungs. Bronchi are the two
branching tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs. Bronchioles are the hairlike tubes
that connect to the alveoli. Alveoli are the airsacs that allow gas exchange in the lungs.
Perform the following simple activity to widen your understanding of the human
breathing system.

The air we breathe goes through the nose, nasal passages, and then through the
trachea or windpipe, which separates into two branches, called bronchial tubes or
bronchi, one entering each lung. The bronchi subdivide many times inside the lungs,
analogous to the branching pattern of grapes, finally becoming hairlike tubes called
bronchioles. In the last part of the terminal bronchioles are tiny bubble-like bunch of
structures called alveoli or airsacs.
64
The circulatory system is the life support structure that nourishes your cells with
nutrients from the food you eat and oxygen from the air you breathe. It can be
compared to a complex arrangement of highways, avenues and lanes connecting all the
cells together into a neighborhood. Sequentially, the community of cells sustains the
body to stay alive. Another name for the circulatory system is the cardiovascular
system. The circulatory system functions with other body systems to deliver different
materials in the body. It circulates vital elements such as oxygen and nutrients. At the
same time, it also transports wastes away from the body.

The following are the three major parts of the circulatory system, with their roles:

1. Heart – pumps the blood throughout the body

2. Blood vessel – carries the blood throughout the body  Arteries - carry oxygenated
blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues and organs of the body  Veins - carry
deoxygenated blood to the heart  Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body,
connecting the smallest arteries to the smallest veins - the actual site where gases
and nutrients are exchanged

3. Blood – carries the materials throughout the body

The Human Heart

Do you know how big your heart is?

Take a look at your fist. The heart is a hollow muscle which is just as big as your fist. It
has four chambers with specific tasks to do: two ventricles and two atria. The atria are
the receiving chambers of the heart, accepting blood from the body (right atrium) and
from the lungs (left atrium). The ventricles are the pumping chambers, moving blood to
the lungs (right ventricle) and into the body (left ventricle).

The heart has two pumps. Each pump has two chambers, the upper and lower
chambers. The upper chamber is the atrium that receives blood coming in from the
veins. The lower chamber is the ventricle that forces the blood out into the arteries.
There is a valve between each atrium and ventricle to prevent the blood from flowing
backwards. The valves are like one-way doors that keep the blood moving in only one
direction. Valves control movement of blood into the heart chambers and out to the
aorta and the pulmonary artery.

All of the muscle tissues of the heart do not contract at the same time. Different parts of
the heart contract at different times. When the top portion contracts, the bottom part
relaxes. When the bottom contracts, the top relaxes. When a chamber contracts, it
becomes smaller and the blood inside gets squeezed or pumped out.

65
 Important Terms to Remember

 Arteriosclerosis – a condition in which there is thickening and hardening of the

arteries

 Atrium – the upper chamber of the heart that receives blood coming in from the veins

 Chamber – the empty space of the heart where blood is contained

 Chest Cavity – a hollow space in the body enclosed by the ribs between the
diaphragm and the neck and containing the lungs and heart

 Chronic Disease – any illness that is prolonged in duration, does not often resolve
suddenly, and is rarely treated completely

 Coronary – relating to, or affecting the heart

 Diaphragm – a large flat muscle that separates the lungs from the stomach area and
that is used in breathing

 Emphysema – a type of pulmonary disease involving damage to the airsacs

 Pulmonary – relating to, or affecting the lungs

 Pulse – the number of times the heart beats per minute

 Vascular – relating to the blood vessels, which includes the arteries, capillaries, and
veins

 Ventricle – the lower chamber of the heart that squeezes blood out into the arteries

66
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. The nutrients obtained from the food during digestion are supplied by the
circulatory system to the body. What does the circulatory system distribute to the
body as it works with the respiratory system?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. If solid and liquid wastes are removed from the body through defecation and
urination, what is released by the body as waste during respiration?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. Why is the human heart called a double pump?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5. What will happen if oxygen is not transported by the blood to the different parts
of the body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

67
 6. Since the valves act as the doors of the heart, what might happen if these
doors do not close?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

7. When we breathe in, we inhale many gases present in the air, including
oxygen. What do you think happens to the gases that are not needed by the
body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

8. You always hear and see the statement, “Government Warning: Cigarette
smoking is dangerous to your health.” How does cigarette smoking increase the
risk of developing cardiovascular diseases?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

9. How does singing from the diaphragm, instead of the throat, help improve the
voice quality of a singer?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

10. An old woman joined a kilometer-dash sprint and felt very exhausted
afterwards. How did the old woman’s activity affect her heart rate?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

68
 CHAPTER XII
COORDINATED FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS,
ENDOCRINE, AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

The human body is made up of different systems that coordinate with one
another in order to perform their functions well. If any part of these organ systems
malfunctions, the body will become unbalanced. The instability caused by the
malfunctioning of one system cannot be made stable by other systems because each
system has its own function in the body. You have studied in the past that human body
systems are the combined functional units composed of various organs that work in full
coordination with one other. As you go through this module, you will be able to
understand organisms having feedback mechanisms, are coordinated by the nervous
and endocrine systems. You will also learn how these feedback mechanisms help
organisms maintain homeostasis to reproduce and survive.

Your nervous system connects all your body parts and transmits signals from one part
to another. It is a system of cells, tissues, and organs that regulates the body’s
responses to internal and external stimuli. Each part of the nervous system has a
specific role as it functions as an important part of a system.

Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system. It
consists of two main components, namely the:

a. Brain This is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and
distributor of information for the body. It has three main parts:

Cerebrum –  large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.

Cerebellum – the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and
coordination.

Brain Stem – the part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic
functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure.

b. Spinal Cord This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of
the body, and controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs. It has two main
divisions:

a. Somatic Nervous System

This system is associated with the voluntary control of body movements and has two
main parts:

Spinal Nerves –  the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal
cord and the body.
69
Cranial Nerves – the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem

b. Autonomic Nervous System

This system is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and has two
subdivisions:

Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress. (e.g.,

increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating, etc.)

Parasympathetic - it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or

relaxed mode

The Nerve Cell

The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell. Nerve cells are called
neurons. There are billions of neurons in the body. Some exist alone. Others are joined
together to form organs like the brain and spinal cord.

There are twelve to fourteen billions of neurons in one part of the brain alone. A
neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus. Projecting out from the cell body are
root-like structures. These are the dendrites and axons. Dendrites carry impulses
towards the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying impulses
toward the cell body. A single dendrite can be over one meter long. Axons carry
impulses away from the cell body. Axons pass impulses to the dendrites of other
neurons or cell body of muscle cells. Axons can be grouped together into cable-like
bundles called nerves.

Control of Body Processes through the Nervous System

The Nerve Impulse

Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses. Thoughts,
emotions, learning, and many body functions are carried by nerve impulses in the
neurons. A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical
reaction. A nerve impulse is not a flow of electricity, but an electrochemical signal
moving along a neuron.

Imagine that you have a board with a row of switches. Quickly click each switch
in the row on and off. This will give you an idea of how a nerve impulse travels along a
neuron.

A nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron to another. When a nerve impulse
comes to the end of an axon, it produces the chemical, called neurotransmitter, to be
released. The chemical crosses the space between neurons called synapse and
stimulates the nerve impulse to start in the next dendrite.

The nervous system is assisted by five sense organs - the eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
and skin. These sense organs are constantly receiving information from the
environment and sending messages to the brain. These senses aid in the survival of
human beings. A stimulus (plural: stimuli) is any factor in the environment that may
trigger a nerve impulse. A response is a reaction to a stimulus. A stimulus is received by
the body and a response is made. An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus in
order to survive.

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 Messages do not travel in both directions along the same neuron. Only the axon
of the neuron releases neurotransmitters that cross the space between neurons.
Reaction time is the length of time between application of a stimulus and detection of a
response.

Did you know that your brain works round the clock for as long as you live? Your
brain does not only control your thoughts, emotions, and movements but also numerous
things that you are less aware of such as your breathing, your heartbeat, and even the
stress that you feel.

How does your nervous system work?

This system is like a network that relays messages back and forth from the brain
to various parts of the body. It transmits information through the spinal cord, which
extends from the brain down through the back and consists of fine nerves that branch
out to every organ and body part. When a message reaches the brain from any part of
the body, the brain commands the body to respond. You can think of your nervous
system as a relay team where one runner passes the object to another runner.
Relatively, you have nerve cells handing its information to the next cell, which passes
the information to another cell. Finally, the information reaches into its destination and a
reaction takes place. For instance, if you hold a rose stem and accidentally prick your
fingers, the nerves in your skin release a message of pain to your brain. Your brain, in
response to the signal, commands the muscles in your hand to pull away. This split
second relay inside your body happens in a much shorter period than it took you to read
about it.

Neurons are specially intended for information processing and signaling. They
relay and receive messages (impulse) between the brain and body, and within the brain
and spinal cord. Motor neurons transmit impulses from the brain to muscles, glands, or
other neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).Sensory neurons transmit
impulses from sensory nerves (receptor cells) to the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Similar to the nervous system, the endocrine system controls and regulates body
processes. Generally, the endocrine system is in control of the mechanisms in the body
that slowly take place, such as cell growth. Rapid processes, such as body movement
and breathing, are controlled by the nervous system. Although these two systems are
different, they work together in a coordinate manner to enable the body to function
properly.

The Endocrine System Function of Endocrine System

The endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones
that affect almost every cell, organ, and function of our body. It is essential in regulating
growth and development, metabolism, as well as reproductive processes and mood.
How does your endocrine system function? Endocrine glands secrete chemicals known
as hormones into the bloodstream, which carries them throughout the body. When a
hormone in the blood reaches the target organ, it produces a notable effect. The
endocrine system sends signals all over the body, much like the nervous system, but
unlike the instant responses activated by the nervous system, the effects can take a few
hours or even weeks.

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Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

The endocrine system contains a group of glands that release hormones into the body.
The following table lists all the major glands in the body, with their functions, locations,
and the hormones they release.

Gland Location Hormones Released Function

Pituitary at the base of Oxytocin, Vasopressin, stimulates growth, and
the brain Growth Hormone, controls the functions of
Adrenocorticotropic other glands
Hormone (ACTH),
Prolactin, Luteinizing
Hormone, Follicle
Stimulating hormone
(FSH)
Thyroid below the Thyroxin, calcitonin regulates body metabolism,
voice box and causes storage of
calcium in bones
Parathyroid In the neck Parathyromone controls the calcium levels
in your body, and
normalizes bone growth
Thymus In front of the thymosine enables the body to
heart produce certain antibodies
Adrenal On top of the adrenaline prepares the body for
kidneys action, controls the heart
rate and breathing in times
of emergency
Pancreas Between Insulin, Glucagon regulates blood sugar levels
kidneys
Reproductive lower Androgen, Testosterone control maturation and male
-Testes abdomen characteristics
(Males)
influence female traits, and
-Ovaries lower support reproductive
(Females) abdomen Estrogen, Progesterone function

Effects of Hormones in the Body

Several processes in the body are coordinated by hormones which regulate and
balance the working of organs, tissues, and cells. The endocrine system influences how
your heart beats, how your bones and tissues develop, and even your capacity to have
a baby. It plays an essential role in the occurrence of disorders such as diabetes,
thyroid disease, growth disorders, and/or sexual dysfunction. Both men and women
produce hormones in the same areas with one exception, the reproductive glands.
Additional male hormones are produced in the testes while female hormones are
produced in the ovaries. Some hormones have short-term effects while other hormones
have long-term effects such as those that control our growth and the changes at the
onset of puberty. During puberty, there are many hormonal changes that happen in your
body. One moment you laugh, and then suddenly you feel like crying. Sudden mood
swings are relatively caused by the increasing amount of hormones in the body at this
stage. It is therefore important to maintain a positive outlook in life and remember that
these changes are only temporary and will stabilize with time.

Hormones act in very small amounts. If the organ and hormones do not produce the
regulated amount of chemicals to your body, it may result in an abnormality of your
72
body. This condition is called hormonal imbalance. An increase or decrease in its
amount may have a significant effect in the human body.

For most living creatures, reproduction is basically a normal process controlled by

hormones. Even though human reproduction is also controlled by hormones, the
process is rather more complicated. Unlike other organisms such as plants and animals,
you can make decisions about reproduction. What influence these decisions are your
values, emotions, expectations, and goals. However, like any other living things,
humans depend on reproduction for the survival of the species. If people stop to
reproduce, the human species would become extinct.

The Reproductive System

The system involved in sexual reproduction is called the reproductive system. There is a
striking difference between the male and the female reproductive systems, although
they also share a number of similarities. For example, the reproductive organs of the
male and female are developed from the same embryological structures, and some
hormones are commonly found in both male and female, in varying quantities and
produce different responses.

Be familiar with the specific functions of each basic part using the table below:

Part Function
Testis Produces sperm cells
Scrotum Sac of skin that holds the testis
Penis Deposits sperms into the vagina during
mating
Vas deferens (tube) Carries sperm from testes to urethra
Urethra Carries sperm and urine out of the body
Glands Provide liquid in which sperm can swim
a. seminal vesicle - Secretes a fluid that makes up most of
b. prostate gland the components of the semen
c. bulbourethral gland - Secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid
that is discharged as part of the semen
- Secretes a thick and clear mucus that
lubricates and neutralizes the any trace of
acidic urine in the urethra

The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system has the following functions:

1. Produces female sex cells
2. Receives sperm cells from the male
3. Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individual
Part Function
Ovary produces egg cells Oviduct serves as passageway of eggs
from the ovary to the uterus; site of egg
fertilization

Uterus serves as site of egg implantation; is

where the fertilized egg develops

Vagina receives the penis of male during mating

73
The Role of Hormones in Female and Male Reproductive Systems

The male reproductive system also has prostate glands. Chemicals from these glands
nourish the sperm cells and help them mature.

The production of sperm cells and the release of semen can be regulated by hormones
or special chemicals that come from the testis, the brain and the pituitary. These
hormones keep the reproductive system properly functioning.

The female reproductive system, just like the male reproductive system, is also
regulated by hormones. The follicles produce hormones that control the growth and
release of eggs from the ovaries. While other hormones prepare the uterus so a baby
can grow in it, other hormones still control the stretching of the uterus during pregnancy.

Feedback Mechanisms Involved in Regulating Processes in the Female

Reproductive System

The Menstrual Cycle

We have learned that, on average, an ovary releases only one egg every 28 days. Now,
what controls this timing? Hormones control many of the changes in the reproductive
system. Remember that hormones are chemicals that affect certain body organs. The
monthly changes that take place in the female reproductive system are called
menstruation. This cycle occurs every month from the first onset which could happen
when a female is between 10 to 13 years old. The monthly cycle continues for about 40
years.

To summarize, the important events during the menstrual cycle are as follows:

1. The pituitary gland controls and starts the cycle.

2. The pituitary gland releases hormones that cause the egg in the ovary to mature. The
luteinizing hormone (LH) initiates the maturation of the follicles, converts ruptured
follicles into corpus luteum and causes the secretion of progesterone. The follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) assists in the maturation of the follicles and causes the
secretion of estrogen from the follicles.

3. Meanwhile, the ovary itself releases a hormone called estrogen, which causes the
uterine lining to increase in thickness. The uterine lining becomes thicker so that the
fertilized egg can attach to it.

4. The ovary releases an egg on day 14. Assume that no sperm is present.

5. The egg moves through the oviduct and enters the uterus. 6. Meanwhile the uterine
lining continues to thicken.

7. The egg has not been fertilized, therefore, it will not attach to the uterus.

8. The thick uterine lining is no longer necessary, so the cells of the thickened uterine
lining break off and leave the vagina. The unfertilized egg is lost and some blood is lost
too. This loss of cells from the uterine lining, blood, and egg is called menstruation.

9. After menstruation, the cycle starts again.

Did you know that menstrual cramps are the results of the strong contractions of the
uterine wall that occur before and during menstruation? The cramps can be caused by

74
excessive secretion of prostaglandins. Shedding of the endometrium of the uterus
results in the inflammation in the endometrial layer of the uterus and prostaglandins are
produced as a consequence of the inflammation.

Nervous System Working Together with Endocrine System to Maintain

Homeostasis

Both the nervous system and endocrine system are important in enabling the body to
maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of the body
functions in equilibrium with other parts. This is attained through the regulation of the
bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous systems. Most body systems maintain
homeostasis by using feedback mechanisms. When the brain receives messages from
the body about an internal change in one of its systems, it works to restore the system
to its normal state. The levels of hormones in the body are controlled by feedback.

It is important that the amount of hormones in our body is kept at the right level. The
endocrine system plays an important part in homeostasis.

To achieve homeostasis, the nervous and endocrine systems maintain a normal range
of the following variables:

• Body temperature

• Amount of water in the body

• Amount of metabolic wastes in the cell

• Blood calcium level

• Hormones in the blood

75
 Important Terms to Remember

Axon the part of the neuron that transmits impulses away from the cell body

Dendrite the branchlike structure of the neuron that extends from the cell body to
receive an impulse

Embryo an organism in its early stages of development, especially before it has

reached a distinctively recognizable form

Endocrine Gland an organ that produces chemical secretions released directly into the
bloodstream

Egg Cell also called ovum (plural: ova); the female gamete

Fertilization a process that occurs when the sperm and egg combine to produce an
embryo

Homeostasis the ability or tendency of an organism to maintain internal equilibrium by

regulating its processes

Hormone a chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the
activity of certain cells or organs

Impulse an electrochemical gradient moving along a neuron

Neuron the basic unit of the nervous system, also called nerve cell, that transmits
messages to and from the central nervous system

Semen the ejaculated fluid containing sperm cells and secretions from the seminal
vesicle, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland

Sperm shorter term for spermatozoon (plural: spermatozoa); the male gamete

Stimulus any factor in the environment that influences the behavior of an organism

Synapse the space between neurons where electrochemical signals pass

76
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

TEST YOURSELF

I. Answer briefly the following questions.

1. Which gland of the endocrine and nervous system controls the other glands in
the body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. How will you differentiate thyroid and parathyroid glands in terms of location
and function?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. If a person’s blood sugar level becomes unstable, what glands might be

involved in the problem?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. How important is the thymus gland in keeping your body free from diseases?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5. What might happen to a person born without a thymus gland?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

77
6. How will you explain the sudden boost of energy, increased strength and
extraordinary ability to lift very heavy objects especially during emergency
situations?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

7. Why is injecting insulin an essential part of the daily regime for most people
with diabetes?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

8. Why does the menstrual cycle stop during menopause?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

9. How do oral contraceptives, specifically birth control pills, prevent pregnancy?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

10. Breastfeeding releases oxytocin and prolactin, hormones that relax the
mother and make her feel more nurturing toward her baby. On the other hand,
how does the baby benefit from the production of these hormones in the
mother’s body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

78
11. What might happen to a person whose nervous and endocrine systems fail to
maintain homeostasis?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

12. Suppose a boy skipped his lunch for the day. How will the hormones
(glucagon) from his pancreas help his body to cope when his blood sugar level
drops below normal?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

13. Suppose a girl ate too many sweets such as candies and chocolates. How will
the hormones (insulin) from her pancreas help her body cope with a possible
blood sugar level rise above normal?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

14. How do the nervous and endocrine systems respond to an increase in

environmental temperature to achieve homeostasis?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

15. How do the nervous, endocrine, and reproductive systems perform their
coordinated functions in various functions such as pregnancy and childbirth,
menstrual cycle, breastfeeding, and sexual intercourse?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

79
16. How does the Central Nervous System (CNS) function similarly to the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

17. Why are there significant changes in the body at puberty stage?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

18. In what way do the nervous and endocrine systems differ in the way they
communicate messages throughout the body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

80
19. Why is it important to maintain homeostasis in the body?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

II. Draw and label the parts of a neuron.

CHAPTER XIII
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION AND GENETICS
When you look at your parents, you can see features that you share with them,
such as the shape of the eye, the presence of dimples, or even the hand you use when
you write. The sharing of features can be explained by heredity, where traits are
passed on from parents to offspring. Yet when you look at your brothers and sisters,
even if you share the same parents, each one of you can be considered unique based
on the combination of traits each possesses.That is variation, which demonstrates
differences among individuals.

Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. It aims to understand how traits
can be passed on to the next generation and how variation arises.

Every living thing undergoes reproduction. The nutrients taken by an individual

will provide for energy for metabolic processes, for growth and development as well as
reproduction. The cellular level of reproduction, in the form of cell division, provides for
the backdrop for the organismal level of reproduction.

This module will differentiate the two types of cell division, mitosis and meiosis,
as well as correlate heredity with the behavior of the chromosomes in the cell during
meiosis. Investigations are included that will help you understand the mechanisms of
heredity and the expression of traits.
81
The Chromosome

All living things contain what we call the genetic material that serves as the set of
instructions that direct the activities and functions of the cells. These genetic materials,
also known as the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, are passed on from one generation to
the next to ensure the continuity of life. In eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles), the
DNA are bound with proteins and are organized as beads on strings to form
chromosomes.

The number of chromosomes in a cell is characteristic of the species to which it

belongs. For example, humans have 46 chromosomes while rice have 12.

The Cell Cycle

The chromosomes of a cell change form as the cell transitions from one stage to
another in a typical cell cycle. The cell cycle may be divided into two stages: the
interphase where the chromosomes are long and extended and are also referred to as
chroatin, and the cell division phase where the chromosomes become condensed or
thickened.

The interphase refers to the period that follows one cell division and precedes
another. During this stage, the cell does not divide; it merely grows. The chromosome
doubles or replicates itself because the DNA molecule contained in the chromosome
produces an exact copy of itself.

The interphase is divided into three substages. The stage from the formation of a
new cell until it begins to replicate its DNA is called the first gap period or G1, during
which time the cell grows initially. This stage is characterized by protein and ribonucleic
acid (RNA) synthesis. RNA, which is synthesized based on the DNA, is then used to
synthesize proteins.

The middle stage of interphase, called the synthesis stage or S, is the period of
DNA synthesis or replication. The chromosomes are duplicated in preparation for the
next cell division. The second gap period or G2, falls between the S period and the next
cell division or M (mitosis or meiosis, see discussion below) phase. G2 represents a
period of rapid cell growth to prepare for cell division.

During interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane bound

organelle. In stained cells, this membrane can be clearly seen under the light
microscope. One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus. On the other hand, the
chromosomes cannot be clearly seen. They appear as an irregular mass that is grainy
in appearance because the DNA they contain is stretched out thinly in the nucleus. This
facilitates the replication of DNA during the S phase.

Cell Division

Alternating with the interphase is the cell division phase. In eukaryotic cells, there
are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

1. Mitosis

This type of cell division produces two identical cells with the same number of
chromosomes. Mitosis is divided into four stages.

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STAGE A: Prophase. The nuclear membrane and nucleoli may still be present. The
chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of repeated coiling. At this stage, each
chromosome is made up of two identical sister chromatids as a consequence of
replication of DNA during the S phase. The two chromatids produced from one
chromosome are still attached at one point, called the centromere. The centromere may
divide the chromosome into the shorter arms, also called the p arms (‘p’ stands for
petite in French) and the longer q arms. If the chromosomes are stained using Giemsa,
alternating dark and light regions will appear.

STAGE B: Metaphase. The nuclear membrane has disappeared while the highly coiled
chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane equidistant between the
cell’s two poles. Spindle fibers are also formed. Each fiber binds to a protein called the
kinetochore at the centromere of each sister chromatid of the chromosome.

STAGE C: Anaphase. The paired centromeres of each chromosome separate towards

the opposite poles of the cells as they are pulled by the spindle fibers through their
kinetochores. This liberates the sister chromatids. Each chromatid is now regarded as a
full-fledged chromosome and is only made up of one sister chromatid.

STAGE D: Telophase. The chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the spindle.
They start to uncoil and become indistinct under the light microscope. A new nuclear
membrane forms around them while the spindle fibers disappear. There is also
cytokinesis or the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
immediately after mitosis.

2. Meiosis

The number of chromosomes normally remains the same within the species. It
does not double or triple for every generation. This suggests that a different kind of cell
division must take place in an individual. This kind of cell division is called meiosis, from
a Greek word which means “to make smaller.” Meiosis reduces the chromosome
number in half. It takes place in plants and animals whenever gametes, or sex cells, are
formed through the process called gametogenesis.

Meiosis is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two rounds of
cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the chromosome number as
the original parent cell and with a unique set of genetic material as a result of exchange
of chromosome segments during the process of crossing over.

The first round of meiotic division, also known as meiosis I, consists of four
stages: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. Prophase I of meiosis I,
unlike its counterpart in mitosis, is more elaborate and should be understood well in
order to grasp the mechanisms of heredity.

STAGE A: Prophase I. Meiosis starts with this stage and includes the following
substages:

Leptotene. Each chromosome is made up of two long threads of sister chromatids as a

result of replication during the S phase of the cell cycle.
83
Zygotene. The chromosomes begin to pair off. Pairs of chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes, and this pairing process is exact.

Pachytene. The chromosomes contract due to repeated coiling. Crossing over takes
place during this stage where a segment of a sister chromatid of one chromosome is
exchanged with the same segment of the sister chromatid of the homologous
chromosome through the formation of a cross-linkage of the segments called a
chiasma. After crossing over, the sister chromatids of each chromosome may no longer
be identical with each other based on the genetic material they contain.

Diplotene. The chromosomes begin to uncoil.

Diakinesis. The paired chromosomes disperse in the nucleus.

STAGE B: Metaphase I. The paired chromosomes arrange themselves along the

equatorial plate.

STAGE C: Anaphase I. Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of the
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes separate from each other completely
and start their movement toward the poles of the cells as they are pulled by the spindle
fibers. As the centromere of each chromosome does not divide, the sister chromatids
remain together.

STAGE D: Telophase I. This is the stage when the chromosomes reach their
respective poles. Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed. Each cell now
has only half the chromosome number because only one chromosome from each pair
goes to the daughter cell. This is called the haploid condition, in contrast to the diploid
condition at the beginning of meiosis I where each chromosome pair is intact.
Telophase I is followed by interphase II.

Note that each chromosome still has two sister chromatids; it is therefore
necessary for the cells to undergo another round of division.

The second meiotic division, also known as meiosis II, is mitotic in nature and
consists of the following stages: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase
II; these stages are identical with the mitotic stages. The results are four cells, two from
each daughter cell from meiosis I, with one half the diploid chromosome number and
with only one sister chromatid for each chromosome.

Role of Meiosis in Gametogenesis

Gametes such as eggs and sperms unite during fertilization, forming a diploid
zygote. The zygote has one set of chromosomes from the male parent and another set
from the female parent. In humans, both father and mother contribute 23 chromosomes
each through their gametes. Thus, the zygote has 46 chromosomes. The zygote divides
many times. This produces a new diploid multicellular organism. Sperm cells are
produced in the testes of male animals. Meiosis produces four cells which are very
small but of similar size. These cells become spermatozoa (singular form is
spermatozoon) or sperms. The nucleus is found in the head of the sperm; mitochondria
are found at the midpiece that connects the head to the tail. These mitochondria provide
the energy for the movement of the sperm’s tail.In female animals, egg cells are
produced in the ovary. When a cell in the ovary undergoes meiosis, new cells which
differ in size are produced. After meiosis I, two cells – one big and one small – are
84
produced. Meiosis II produces one big and one small cell from the first big cell. The
small cell produced from meiosis I may or may not divide. If it does, two small cells are
produced. The big cell becomes the egg cell; the small cells disintegrate. The egg cell
contains a lot of stored food which is used by the growing embryo at the start of its
development. In fertilization, the tiny sperm cell only contributes its genetic material
found in the head.

When Something Goes Wrong During Meiosis

Meiosis may not always proceed normally. Accidents sometimes happen. These
accidents may affect the functioning of the spindle fibers or the movement of one or
more chromosomes. In humans, some accidents have been known to cause abnormal
conditions. For example, when chromosomes in a pair fail to separate from each other
during Meiosis I, the resulting gamete acquires both members of a pair of
chromosomes. If this involves chromosome pair 21, for example, and one of the
gametes contains two copies of the chromosome, then the individual produced will have
47 chromosomes in his or her cells (with three copies of chromosome 21). This
condition is known as Down’s syndrome, named after Dr. Langdon Down who first
studied the condition. The extra chromosome 21 will lead to an imbalance of genetic
material in the cell. People with this condition suffer from variable degrees of mental
retardation, sterility, and increased risk beyond the age of 40 of Alzheimer’s disease,
which affects the functioning of the brain. Down’s syndrome is usually associated with
pregnancy in women above 35 years of age.

Sometimes, a piece of chromosome breaks off and gets lost. The effects of this
accident depend on the particular genetic material lost. For example, when a part of
chromosome 5 is lost, the afflicted individual will have a face that is round, moonlike,
cries feebly and is mentally and physically retarded. This condition is called Cri du chat
syndrome; cri du chat is French for cat’s cry, which is the sound a baby with this
condition makes when he/she cries.

Several drugs may cause breaks or other abnormalities in the chromosomes.

Chlorpromazine (a popular tranquilizer), diphenhydramine (an antihistamine), and
lysergic acid diethylamide or LSD (a hallucinogen) are some drugs known to cause
breaks in the chromosomes.

Mendelian Genetics

How is the behavior of the chromosomes during meiosis related to heredity?

In order to answer this question, we must first look back at the experiments of
Gregor Mendel. The results of his garden experiments laid down the foundations of
Modern Genetics.

Mendel’s Discovery of the Principles of Heredity

Gregor Mendel was an Augustinian monk in a monastery in Brünn,

AustriaHungarian Empire (now Brno, Czech Republic). He was interested in
investigating how individual traits were inherited. He wanted to find out whether both
parents contributed equally to the traits of the offspring. He also wanted to know if the
traits present in the offspring were produced by the blending of the traits of the parents.

85
 Mendel chose the garden pea (Pisum sativum) for his experiments. Before he
started his experiments, Mendel first produced pure-breeding plants. Mendel allowed
his pea plants to self-pollinate for many generations until all the offspring had the same
features as the parents, generation after generation.

When he has pure-breeding plants, Mendel began cross-pollinating peas with

contrasting traits. The pure-breeding peas constituted the parental or P1 generation. All
offspring of these crosses resembled one another. For example, when he crossed pea
plants that produced round seeds with pea plants that produced wrinkled seeds, all the
offspring had round seeds.

The offspring of the parental cross are called the first filial (F1) generation. In
Mendel’s experiments, the F1 generation are also called hybrids because they resulted
from a cross between two pure-breeding plants with contrasting traits (for example, pea
plants with round seeds crossed with pea plants with wrinkled seeds).

When the plants from the F1 generation were crossed with each other or self-
pollinated, the offspring (F2 or second filial generation) were of two types.

For example, Mendel counted 5,474 round seeds and 1,850 wrinkled seeds in
the F2 generation. Note that the round seeds were about three times as many as the
wrinkled seeds. The ratio of round seeds to wrinkled seeds was 2.96:1 or nearly 3:1.
Moreover, the wrinkled seed type did not appear in the F1 generation.

Based on the results of his experiments, Mendel hypothesized that there was a
factor in the plants which controlled the appearance of a trait. These factors are what
we call genes today.

Since two alternative expressions of a trait (e.g., round or wrinkled seed) were
possible, he hypothesized that traits were controlled by a pair of genes, now called
alleles. Mendel’s first hypothesis was: in each organism, there is a pair of factors which
controls the appearance of a particular trait.

Mendel noted that for each trait he studied, there is one trait that dominates the
other. Based on the results for the F1 generation, the trait for round seeds is the
dominant trait. The trait of wrinkled seeds, which did not appear in the F1 generation, is
called the recessive trait. Its appearance was either prevented or hidden by the
dominant trait. This is now known as the principle of dominance: The dominant trait
dominates or prevents the expression of the recessive trait. Today, dominant and
recessive traits are represented by a capital and a small letter, respectively. A dominant
trait like round seed, for example, is represented by letter R and a recessive trait like
wrinkled seed is represented by a small letter r. Since genes occur in pairs, a pure-
breeding round-seed plant is symbolized as RR and pure-breeding wrinkled-seed pea
plant as rr.

Law of Segregation

Before Mendel’s time, it was believed that all traits become mixed when they are
transmitted from generation to generation, as red and blue paints mix to give a violet
color. However, when Mendel crossed pure-breeding pea plants, the pea plants did not
produce offspring with blended or intermediate traits.

In Mendel’s experiments, the pure-breeding parent plants had two identical

genes for a trait: round seed = RR, wrinkled seed = rr. Mendel hypothesized that: The

86
pair of genes segregate or separate from each other during gamete formation. This is
now known as the Law of Segregation.

Genes and Gametes

Following Mendel’s reasoning, a pure-breed, round-seeded parent plant has an

allelic combination or genotype of RR while a pure-breed, wrinkled-seeded parent plant
has a genotype of rr. Individuals that are pure-breeding for a particular character
therefore have identical alleles. These individuals have a homozygous genotype. For
seed shape, a homozygous dominant individual will produce round seeds while a
homozygous recessive individual will produce wrinkled seeds.

Mendel’s law of segregation states that the genes of a pair, for example RR,
separate during gamete formation. One gene goes to one gamete, while the other gene
goes to another gamete. Since the genes of this pair are alike, all the gametes
produced by this homozygous parent will be alike. All have gene R. The same is true for
the other parent. All its gametes will have gene r.

Now recall what we have learned in meiosis. During anaphase I of meiosis I, the
chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite poles. Now remember that a trait is
governed by a pair of alleles. Each allele is found in a chromosome of a chromosome
pair. In other words, the chromosomes serve as vehicles for these alleles. So when
these chromosomes segregate during anaphase I, the alleles they carry also segregate.
This becomes the chromosomal basis of Mendel’s first law.

At fertilization, when the gametes formed during gametogenesis by RR and rr

plants unite, all the zygotes will have the genotype Rr. Thus, all the F1 plants will have a
genotype of Rr. An individual with contrasting alleles (a dominant and a recessive allele)
for a particular character is said to have a heterozygous genotype. However, Rr
individuals will still produce round seeds because of the presence of the dominant allele
R. These will be just as round as all the seeds produced by the RR parents. The
expression of the genotype of an individual for a particular character is referred to as its
phenotype.

Knowing the Genotype

When you observe a pea plant, you can easily see the plant’s yellow pods or its
axial flower. By simply looking at the plant, you can immediately tell a plant’s phenotype.
However, you cannot always tell its genotype. For instance, a plant with wrinkled seeds
certainly has a rr genotype. What about a plant with the dominant trait, round seed? Its
genotype could either be RR or Rr. There is, however, a way of knowing whether the
plant is homozygous or heterozygous for a given character. Mendel applied two
techniques in determining the genotype of a pea plant. These are self-fertilization and
testcross techniques.

1. Self-fertilization Technique

When self-fertilized, homozygotes always produce pure-breeding plants. Thus,

round-seeded peas will breed only round-seeded peas. What about heterozygotes?
Heterozygous round F1 peas produce round and wrinkled seeds in the ratio three round
seeds to one wrinkled seed. This ratio (3:1) is called a phenotypic ratio.

Self-fertilization enables us to determine whether an individual is homozygous or

heterozygous for a given trait by observing the phenotype(s) of its offspring.

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Homozygotes are pure-breeding. Heterozygotes produce two kinds of offspring; three
out of four offspring show the dominant trait and one out of four excessive the recessive
trait.

2. Testcross Technique

Testcross involves a cross between the recessive parental type (rr in our sample
cross) and the individual with the dominant trait but with unknown genotype.

Probability

Chance plays a role in the inheritance of a trait. During fertilization, the union of
a male gamete with gene R and a female gamete with gene r, for instance, happens by
chance. During meiosis, the assortment of the different chromosomes also occurs by
chance.

Diagramming a Cross

Mendel’s crosses can be recorded in a chart called a Punnett square. The

Punnett square helps us to predict the outcome of a given cross. It allows us to
determine the possible combinations of genes in a cross.

The use of the Punnett square can be best illustrated by solving an actual
problem, like determining the expected result when two hybrid round-seeded peas are
crossed. From previous discussions, you know that the expected phenotypic ratio from
this cross is 3:1. This time, we will determine the expected genotype of the offspring.

Cross with Two Factors (Dihybrid Cross)

Mendel also studied the inheritance of two pairs of factors in an individual. A

cross between individuals that involve two heterozygous pairs of genes is called a
dihybrid cross.

Mendel crossed a plant with genotype RRYY (round, yellow seeds) and a plant with
genotype rryy (wrinkled, green seeds). The F1 peas exhibited the dominant traits for the
heterozygous genotype RrYy. Assuming Mendel’s Law of Segregation, each pair will
segregate during the formation of gametes. Each gamete will therefore receive one
allele from each pair. If the pairs of alleles are found on different chromosomes, then
each dihybrid will produce four different types of gametes with ¼ probability each.

Law of Independent Assortment

From the results obtained from his hybrid crosses, Mendel formulated his last
hypothesis: The distribution or assortment of one pair of factors is independent of the
distribution of the other pair.

The law of independent assortment explains why traits are inherited independent
of each other. The law applies to factors (or genes) that are found on separate
chromosomes. Since they are found on separate chromosomes, the segregation of one
pair of factors is not affected by the segregation of the other pair. Therefore, their
distribution in the resulting gametes will be at random.

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The Birth of the Science of Genetics

Mendel published his experimental results and analysis in 1866. However,

biologists of that time paid little attention to them. Nobody tried to repeat Mendel’s
experiments or to apply the techniques he used to study the different traits in other
organisms. For many years, Mendel’s results remained unnoticed. However, these
results were rediscovered independently in 1900 by three scientists, namely: Karl
Correns, Hugo de Vries, and Erich Tschermark von Seysenegg. Only then did the
scientific world come to know and benefit from Mendel’s findings.

This rediscovery marked the beginning of the analytical study of heredity. It also
gave birth to genetics as a new science, founded on Mendel’s findings. Genetics also
includes the study of genes and chromosomes and their properties and behavior in
cells, individuals, and the population.

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

1. Incomplete Dominance

When a pure red-flowered four o’clock plant is crossed with a pure white
flowered four o’clock plant, the offspring will produce neither red nor white flowers.
Instead, all flowers will be pink. In other words, the offspring will have a phenotype
intermediate between the phenotype of both parents. Such a phenomenon is called
incomplete dominance. This means neither of the two alleles is completely dominant,
and the heterozygous will be a new phenotype. Therefore, the genotypic ratio also
becomes the phenotypic ratio.

2. Codominance

Another pattern of inheritance is codominance. This results when one allele is

not dominant over the other. The resulting heterozygotes exhibit the traits of both
parents. One example of codominance is the MN blood typing in humans.

On the surface of our red blood cells are proteins bound to sugar molecules,
forming complexes called antigens. One group of antigens are controlled by a pair of
alleles, LM and LN. The pairing of these alleles will determine the blood type of an
individual, and there are three: M, MN and N.

Note that in the heterozygote condition, both LM and LN alleles are expressed in
that the red blood cells will have the M and N antigens. Just like in incomplete
dominance, the genotypic ratio in codominance also becomes the phenotypic ratio.

3. Multiple Alleles

Sometimes, even if only two alleles control a trait, there may actually be more
than two types of alleles available. This will also lead to more than two phenotypes
expressed.

Another blood group system in humans, the ABO system, is an example of a

character governed by multiple alleles. Three alleles are responsible for this blood
system: IA, IB, and i. The ABO blood type is determined by the presence or absence of
two antigens, A and B. Allele i does not code for an antigen.
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Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination

Observation of the human body cells shows 23 pairs of chromosomes for both
male and females. 22 pairs are somatic chromosomes. The 23rd pair consists of sex
chromosomes.

Human males and some other male organisms, such as other mammals and fruit
flies, have non-identical sex chromosomes (XY). Females have identical (XX) sex
chromosomes.

If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y chromosome, as shown in Figure 11,

the offspring is male. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm carrying an X chromosome,
the offspring is female. Note that there is a 50 percent chance of having a male or
female offspring. The greater the number of offspring, the greater is the chance of
getting the expected 1:1 ratio of male and female.

4. Sex-Linked Genes

Genes located on the X chromosomes are called X-linked genes. Genes on the
Y chromosomes are called Y-linked genes.

An example of an X-linked trait in humans is hemophilia. A person suffering from

hemophilia could die from loss of blood even from a small wound because the blood
either clots very slowly or does not clot at all. Another example of X-linked trait is color
blindness.

To illustrate the inheritance of an X-linked trait, we will use color blindness in our
discussion. The X chromosome with the gene for color blindness is represented as XC,
while the one without is represented as X.

Notice that for a female to become color blind, she must be homozygous (XCXC)
for the color blind genes. The trait is therefore recessive in females. If a female only has
one X chromosome with the allele for color blindness, she becomes normal but can
pass on the trait to her offspring. She is therefore a carrier for the trait.

Since males have only one X chromosome, the gene for color blindness when
present in the male will always be expressed because it does not have an allele to hide
or prevent its expression. Thus, the male will be color blind. This is the reason why color
blindness is more common in males than in females.

An example of a Y-linked trait is hypertrichosis pinnae auris, a genetic disorder in

humans that causes hairy ears. Since the trait is found in the Y chromosome, then only
males can have the trait. A father who has the condition will pass it on to all his sons,
and they, in turn, will pass it on to their own sons.

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 Important Terms to Remember

Allele
One of two or more alternate forms of a gene or marker at a particular locus on a
chromosome.

Anticipation (genetic)
Apparent earlier age of onset and increased severity of a disease in successive
generations, eg, Huntington's disease.

Complex disease
A disorder in which the cause is considered to be a combination of genetic effects and
environmental influences.

Genotype
The genetic constitution with respect to the alleles at one or more pairs of genetic loci
under observation. The genotype of an individual is the sum total of the genetic

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information contained on the chromosomes, as distinguished from the individual's
phenotype (idiotype).

Haploid
A single genome or set of chromosomes (eg, in human gametes, n=23), compared to
the normal diploid (double) set of chromosomes (n=46).

Haplotype
A combination of alleles at closely linked gene loci that are inherited together.

Homozygous
When one or more genes is present in only one, instead of two copies, eg, men are
homozygous for most genes on the X and Y chromosomes.

Heterozygous
Having different alleles for one or more genes in homologous chromosome segments,
as opposed to being homozygous with identical alleles at these loci.

Phenotype
The observable properties (structural and functional) of an organism, produced by the
interaction between the organism's genotype and the environment in which it finds itself.

CHAPTER XIV
Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

Gregor Mendel’s principles form the base for the understanding of heredity and
variation. Although Mendel’s work failed to discuss thoroughly the ‘factors’ or genes he
mentioned in his laws of inheritance, his findings prompted other scientists to probe
further into the mystery of heredity. Several researches were conducted after the
rediscovery of Mendel’s work. Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri became popular
because they found the best evidence that an inherited trait is determined by
chromosomes. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance explained that genes are in the
chromosomes. Mendelian laws of inheritance have important exceptions to them. For
example, not all genes show simple patterns of dominant and recessive alleles.

In the Mendelian patterns of inheritance, the effects of the recessive gene are not
observed when the dominant gene is present. In this lesson, you will find out that certain
traits do not always follow the Mendelian principles of heredity.

1. Incomplete Dominance

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 In incomplete dominance, a heterozygote shows a phenotype that is intermediate
between the two homozygous phenotypes. Neither allele is dominant over the other. An
example of incomplete dominance is flower color in four o’clock plant,. When a pure
red-flowered four o’clock plant is crossed with a pure white flowered four o’clock plant,
the offspring will produce neither red nor white flowers. Instead, all flowers will be pink.

 Do you think the alleles blended to make pink?

In incomplete dominance, it is only the phenotype that is intermediate. The red and
white alleles remain separate and distinct. Half the gametes of the pink four o’clock
carry the allele for red and half carry the allele for white. Therefore, the genotypic ratio
also becomes the phenotypic ratio.

DNA: The Genetic Material

Scientists now know that the genetic material is DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). Modern
research techniques helped scientists to answer many questions about DNA and
heredity. The work of earlier scientists gave Watson and Crick a lot of information about
DNA. By the end of the 1940’s, scientists had found that DNA consists of long strands
of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a pentose sugar called deoxyribose, a
phosphate group, and one of the four compounds called nitrogenous bases.
Many characteristics have more complex inheritance patterns than those studied
by Mendel. They are complicated by factors such as codominance, incomplete
dominance, multiple alleles, and sex-linked traits. Incomplete dominance occurs when
the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere in between the phenotypes of both
parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur. Codominance occurs when both
alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote.

Many genes have multiple (more than two) alleles. An example is ABO blood type in
humans. There are three common alleles for the gene that controls this characteristic.
The alleles IA and IB are dominant over i. In humans, XX chromosomes determine
femaleness and XY determine maleness. A sex-linked trait is on the X chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes; they can inherit or carry the trait without being
affected if it acts in a recessive manner. Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed
exclusively in one sex. Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more
frequently in one than in the other sex. Genes are located in the chromosomes.

DNA contains the information needed to form and control the physical make-up
and chemical processes of an organism. DNA is a double-stranded helix made up of
repeating units of nucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of the following: sugar and
phosphate molecules, and nitrogeneous bases. The base can either be adenine,
guanine, thymine, and cytosine.

Important Terms to Remember

Allele – a different form of a gene that controls a certain trait.

Antigen - A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of
an antibody .

Codominance – two dominant alleles of a contrasting pair fully expressed at the same
time in the heterozygous individual.

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid

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Gamete - are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell
called a zygote.

Incomplete dominance - occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere in

between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur.

Multiple Alleles – when more than two alleles control the inheritance of a character.

Punnett square – the method by which one can determine the possible genotypes and
phenotypes when two parents are crossed

Sex-influenced traits – are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one sex
than in the other.

Sex-linked traits – traits that are controlled by genes located on the same sex
chromosome.

CHAPTER XV
HEREDITY: INHERITANCE and VARIATION

Now, you will work on activities to assess your understanding on the structure of
the DNA, explain how DNA replication takes place, how ribonucleic acid (RNA) is made
using the information from DNA, how information in some genes is translated into
proteins, and explain how mutations may cause changes in the structure and function of
a protein.
Many investigations of how the genes control cells were done even before
scientists first knew that genes were made of DNA. The American geneticists George
Beadle and Edward Tatum established the connection between genes and enzymes.
The experiments of Beadle and Tatum linked genes to actual products of cells and
showed the importance of genes to cellular activity. In other words, a gene is a portion
of DNA that contains the instructions for the synthesis of specific RNA or protein.
Building a house usually requires a blueprint, or a plan of the structure of the house to
determine how it would look like after construction. Organisms have blueprints which
contain information that will determine their physical and chemical characteristics. This
blueprint is DNA.

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Do you understand the process by which DNA copies itself?
The following are the events while DNA copies itself:
• Step 1. An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between nitrogenous bases. The
two strands of DNA split.
• Step 2. The bases attached to each strand then pair up with the free nucleotides found
in the cytoplasm.
• Step 3. The complementary nucleotides are added to each strand by DNA polymerase
to form new strands. Two new DNA molecules, each with a parent strand and each with
a new strand are formed. The DNA replication is known as semi-conservative
replication, because one of the old strands is conserved in each new molecule.

What do you think is the role of RNA in making proteins in the cell? Can you
imagine a car being assembled in a car factory? By way of analogy, different cars are
being built in many simple steps. Engineers tell workers how to make cars, and the
workers follow directions to build the cars. Suppliers bring parts to the factory so they
can be installed in the car. Protein production is similar to car production. It is the role of
the DNA to provide workers with the instructions for making the proteins, and the
workers build the proteins. Other workers known as amino acids, bring parts to the
factory. RNA molecules or the workers for protein synthesis get the instructions from the
DNA on how the protein should be assembled.
Moreover, do you know that there are three types of RNA that help build proteins? You
can consider these RNA molecules to be the workers in the production of protein.

• One type of RNA, messenger RNA (mRNA) brings information from the DNA in the
nucleus to the protein manufacturing area, the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA
becomes the template of information to make proteins.
• Ribosomes, made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and ribosomal proteins hold tightly into
the mRNA using its information to assemble the amino acids in correct order.

TRANSLATION
The DNA directs the production of proteins and determines the formation of mRNA. The
order of bases of mRNA determines the protein synthesized.
Proteins control the activities of the cell, as well as so the life of the entire organism.
In translation, each set of three nucleotides in an mRNA molecule codes for one amino
acid in a protein. This explains why each set of three nucleotides in the mRNA is called
a codon. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid. For example, the first codon
which is, cytosine-guanine-uracil (CGU), instructs the ribosome to put the amino acid
arg (arginine) in the protein. The sequence of codons in the mRNA determines the
sequence of amino acids in the protein.
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Human Karyotyping
Occasionally, chromosomal material is lost or rearranged during the formation of
gametes or during cell division of the early embryo. Such changes, primarily the result
of nondisjunction or translocation, are so severe that the pregnancy ends in miscarriage
– meaning loss of an embryo or fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy or fertilization
does not occur at all. It is estimated that one in 156 live births has some kind of
chromosomal abnormality.
Some of the abnormalities associated with chromosome structure and number can be
detected by a test called a karyotype. A karyotype is an image of the full set of
chromosomes of an individual that displays the normal number, size, and shape.
Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus or test for certain defects through
examination of cells from uterine fluid – a procedure called amniocentesis – or through
sampling of placental membranes.
To produce a karyotype, chromosomes commonly derived from actively dividing white
blood cells are stained and photographed. The homologous pairs of chromosomes are
identified and arranged in order by size, with the exception of the sex chromosomes;
these appear last as shown in Figure 16. These tests are typically done on a blood
sample, although any body cell could be used. The cell must be undergoing mitosis –
preferably in metaphase – so that the chromosomes are replicated, condensed, and
visible under a microscope.

Genetic Engineering
Understanding the gene has led to the remarkable development of methods for
changing a cell’s DNA. A modern biotechnology called genetic engineering produces
transgenic or GM crops of organisms. Scientists have developed methods to move
genes from one species into another. When DNA from two different species are joined
together, it is called recombinant DNA. This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave
one organism’s DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into
a plasmid or viral DNA. Transgenic organisms are able to manufacture genetic products
foreign to them using recombinant DNA. Genetic engineering has already been applied
to bacteria, plants, and animals. These organisms are engineered to be of use to
humans.
Component molecules
1. The DNA molecule is composed of three types of component molecule: phosphate
group, the sugar deoxyribose, and the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine (A, T,
C, G).
Nucleotides

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2. There are three molecules that form the basic building block of DNA, the nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is composed of one phosphate group, one sugar molecule, and one of
the four bases – in the example. Across the strands of the helix, A always pairs with T,
and G with C.
Ribonucleic Acid, like DNA, is a nucleic acid. However, RNA structure differs from DNA
structure in three ways. First, RNA is single stranded – whereas DNA is double
stranded. Second, the sugar in RNA is ribose; DNA has deoxyribose. Finally, both DNA
and RNA contain four nitrogenous bases, but instead of thymine, RNA contains a
similar base called uracil (U). The uracil pairs with adenine. The major types of RNA
include: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

Replication
Deoxyribonucleic acid is copied during interphase prior to mitosis and meiosis. It is
important that new copies are exactly like the original molecule. The structure of the
DNA provides a mechanism for making accurate copies of the molecule. The process of
making copies of DNA is called replication. When DNA replicates, two identical copies
of DNA molecules are produced, which are exactly the same as the original.

Important Terms to Remember

Amino acid the building blocks of a protein molecule

Anticodon the complement of the mRNA; triplet code in the Trna

Chromosomal changes in the chromosomes where parts of mutations the

chromosomes are broken and lost during mitosis.

Codon each set of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA representing an amino acid or a
start/stop signal

DNA replication process in which the DNA is copied

Genetic code set of rules that specify the codons in DNA or RNA that corresponds to
the amino acids in proteins

mRNA messenger RNA; brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the
cytoplasm

Mutation any change in the DNA sequence.

Nitrogenous base is a carbon ring structure that contains one or more atoms of
nitrogen. In DNA, there are four possible nitrogen bases: adenine(A), thymine(T),
cytosine(C) and guanine(G)

Recombinant DNA a form of DNA produced by combining genetic material from two
or more different sources by means of genetic engineering.

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rRNA ribosomal RNA; hold tightly to the mRNA and use its information to assemble
amino acids

Transcription process of copying DNA sequence into RNA.

Translation process of converting information in mRNA into a sequence of amino

acids in a protein.

tRNA transfer RNA; a type of RNA that attach the correct amino acid to the protein
chain that is being synthesized in the ribosome.

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