CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER I
SOLUTIONS
Chemistry is a branch of science that involves the study of the composition,
structure and properties of matter. Often known as the central science, it is a creative
discipline chiefly concerned with atomic and molecular structure and its change, for
instance through chemical reactions.

Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions. When you put sugar into water, the
solid becomes part of the liquid and cannot be seen. You can say that the sugar
dissolves in water or the sugar is soluble in water. Solutions may be solids dissolved in
liquids or gases dissolved in liquids. There are also solutions where a gas is dissolved
in another gas, a liquid in another liquid or a solid in another solid. Gaseous, liquid, and
solid solutions are all around you. Many commercial products are sold as solutions.

What common properties do solutions have? Are solutions always liquid? Will all
solids dissolve in water? How fast do solids dissolve in water?

Most of the solutions, which are in liquid phase, are colorless.

The solutions that you have observed consist of two components called the
solvent and the solute. Generally, the component present in small amount is called the
solute. The solute and the solvent dissolve in each other. Usually the solvent is the
component present in greater amount. So in a sugar solution, sugar is the solute and
water is the solvent.

A solution is not always a liquid; it can be solid, liquid, or gas. In addition,

solutions may either be found in nature or are manufactured.

The major component of the solution is called solvent, and the minor
component(s) are called solute. If both components in a solution are 50%, the term
solute can be assigned to either component. When a gaseous or solid material
dissolves in a liquid, the gas or solid material is called the solute. When two liquids
dissolve in each other, the major component is called the solvent and the minor
component is called the solute.

Many chemical reactions are carried out in solutions, and solutions are also
closely related to our everyday lives. The air we breathe, the liquids we drink, and the
fluids in our body are all solutions. Furthermore, we are surrounded by solutions such
as the air and waters (in rivers, lakes and oceans).

Examples of solutions that occur naturally are natural bodies of water like the
seas and ocean, blood plasma, air, and some mineral ores.

Many materials in nature can be used efficiently only when these are in the form
of solutions. For example, plants cannot absorb minerals from the soil unless these
minerals are in solution. Components of the food that you eat go into solution during
digestion. The nutrient particles in solution can pass through the digestive tract and
dissolve in the blood.

Seawater is a solution having a higher percentage of salt and minerals than other
sources of water like ground water or rivers. Rainwater is a solution containing
1
dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. The water you drink contains
dissolved minerals like sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium and dissolved
gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air consists of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
1% argon, about 1% water vapor, 0.04% carbon dioxide and traces of argon, helium,
neon, krypton, and xenon. Water vapor is present in different amounts depending on the
location. Air above big bodies of water contains more water vapor than air above
deserts. Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in air.

Useful solutions are found not only in nature; many solutions are made for a
specific purpose.

Almost every household uses vinegar for cooking and cleaning purposes.
Vinegar usually contains about 5% acetic acid in water. Some vinegar are clear
homogeneous mixtures (solutions). Other kinds of vinegar are colloidal.

Gasoline is a solution made up of different substances called hydrocarbons. It is

important that gasoline contains no solid particles that may clog the vehicle engine.

A metal alloy is a solid solution made up of two or more metals or non metals. For
example, steel is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

Other examples of solutions that are processed include wine and liquor, brewed
coffee and tea.

A solution is clear. In a solution, the particles are too small that they cannot be
seen by the unaided eye. The particles in solution are smaller than the pores of the filter
paper or the cheesecloth and so these can pass through the filter.

Each part of a solution retains its characteristic properties. When a sugar solution
is filtered, the filtrate tastes sweet. The sweetness of sugar is present in any part of the
sugar solution.

There is a maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of

solvent at a certain temperature. This is what is called the solubility of the solute. From
your everyday experience, you also observe that there is a limit to the amount of sugar
you can dissolve in a given amount of water.

The solution that contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved by a given
amount of solvent is called a saturated solution. If you add more solute to the solvent, it
will no longer dissolve. The solution has reached its saturation point. The presence of
an excess solid which can no longer dissolve is evidence that the solution is saturated.

Like Dissolves Like.

This means that substances must have similar intermolecular forces to form
solutions. When a soluble solute is introduced into a solvent, the particles of solute can
interact with the particles of solvent. In the case of a solid or liquid solute, the
interactions between the solute particles and the solvent particles are so strong that the
individual solute particles separate from each other and, surrounded by solvent
molecules, enter the solution. (Gaseous solutes already have their constituent particles
separated, but the concept of being surrounded by solvent particles still applies.) This
process is called solvation. When the solvent is water, the word hydration, rather than
solvation, is used.

2
In general polar solvents dissolve polar solutes whereas nonpolar solvents will dissolve
nonpolar solutes. Overall, the solution process depends on the strength of the attraction
between the solute particles and the solvent particles. For example, water is a highly
polar solvent that is capable of dissolving many ionic salts.

Concentration of Solutions

In chemistry, concentration is defined as the abundance of a constituent divided

by the total volume of a mixture. All of us have a qualitative idea of what is meant
by concentration. Anyone who has made instant coffee or lemonade knows that too
much powder gives a strongly flavored, highly concentrated drink, whereas too little
results in a dilute solution that may be hard to distinguish from water. Quantitatively,
the concentration of a solution describes the quantity of a solute that is contained in a
particular quantity of that solution. Knowing the concentration of solutes is important in
controlling the stoichiometry of reactants for reactions that occur in solution, and are
critical for many aspects of our lives, from measuring the correct dose of medicine to
detecting chemical pollutants like lead and arsenic. Chemists use many different ways
to define concentrations. In this section, we will cover the most common ways of
presenting solution concentration.  These include: Molarity and Parts Per Solutions.

The concentration describes the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a given
volume of solution. When there is a large amount of dissolved solute for a certain
volume of solvent, the solution is concentrated. A dilute solution has a small amount of
dissolved solute in comparison to the amount of solvent.

You can express concentration in other ways such as:

(1) percent by volume, which is the amount of solute in a given volume of solution
expressed as grams solute per 100 millliter of solution (g/100 mL), and

(2) percent by mass, which is the amount of solute in a given mass of solvent
expressed as grams solute per 100 grams of solution.

Labels of products sold often show the concentrations of solutes expressed as

percent (%) by volume or mass. The alcohol used as a disinfectant is a solution of 70%
ethyl or isopropyl alcohol, meaning 70 mL alcohol. There are also solutions sold as 40%
ethyl or isopropyl alcohol. Vinegar is often labeled as “5% acidity,” which means that it
contains 5 grams of acetic acid in 100 g of vinegar. The common antiseptic, agua
oxinada is a 3% solution, that is, 3 grams hydrogen peroxide in 100 mL water.

The concentration of solid solutions, like gold jewelry, is expressed as karat. Pure gold
is referred to as 24 karats. Jewelry that is said to be 18 karats contains 18 grams of gold
for every 24 grams of the material, 6 grams consist of the other metal like copper or
silver. This material has a concentration of 75% gold, that is, [18/24(100)]. 14 karat
(14K) gold contains 14 grams gold and 10 grams of another metal, making it 58.3%
gold.

Molarity

The most common unit of concentration is molarity, which is also the most useful for
calculations involving the stoichiometry of reactions in solution. The molarity (M) of a
solution is the number of moles of solute present in exactly 1 L of solution. 

3
The units of molarity are therefore moles per liter of solution (mol/L), abbreviated as M.
Note that the volume indicated is the total volume of the solution and includes both the
solute and the solvent.  For example, an aqueous solution that contains 1 mol (342 g) of
sucrose in enough water to give a final volume of 1.00 L has a sucrose concentration of
1.00 mol/L or 1.00 M. In chemical notation, square brackets around the name or formula
of the solute represent the concentration of a solute. So
[sucrose] = 1.00 M
is read as “the concentration of sucrose is 1.00 molar.” The equation above can be used
to calculate how much solute is required to make any amount of a desired solution. 
Example Problem:
Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) needed to make 2.50 L of
0.100 M NaOH.
Given:
(1) identity of solute = NaOH, 
(2) volume = 2.50 L,  and 
(3) molarity of solution = 0.100 mol/L

(Note: when calculating problems always write out the units of molarity as mol/L, rather
than M. This will allow you to cancel out your units when doing the calculation.)
Asked for: amount of solute in moles
Strategy: 
(1) Rearrange the equation above to solve for the desired unit, in this case for moles. 
(2) Double check all the units in the equation and make sure they match. Perform any
conversions that are needed so that the units match. 
(3) Fill in values appropriately and do the math.

Solution:
(1) Rearrange the equation above to solve for moles.

(2) Double check all the units in the equation and make sure they match.

4
The given values for this equation are the volume 2.50 L and the molarity 0.100 mol/L. 
The volume units for both of these numbers are in Liters (L) and thus, match. Therefore,
no conversions need to be made.
(3)  Fill in values appropriately and do the math.

Preparation of Solutions
Note that in the example above, we still don’t have enough information to actually make
the solution in the laboratory. There is no piece of equipment that can measure out the
moles of a substance.  For this, we need to convert the number of moles of the sample
into the number of grams represented by that number. We can then easily use a
balance to weigh the amount of substance needed for the solution. For the example
above:

5
To actually make the solution, it is typical to dissolve the solute in a small amount of the
solvent and then once the solute is dissolved, the final volume can be brought up to
2.50 L.  If you were to add 10 g of NaOH directly to 2.50 L, the final volume would be
larger than 2.50 L and the solution concentration would be less than 0.100 M.
Remember that the final volume must include both the solute and the solvent.

The following sample problems show you that there is a way to know the exact ratio of
solute to solvent, which specifies the concentration of a solution.

Sample problem 1

How many mL of ethyl alcohol are present in a 50 mL bottle of rubbing alcohol?

Calculation for sample problem 1

Since rubbing alcohol contains 70% ethyl alcohol, it means that 100 mL of rubbing
alcohol contains 70 mL ethyl alcohol. So, the following calculations show that in 50 mL
of rubbing alcohol, there is 35 mL ethyl alcohol.

50 mL rubbing alcohol x 70 mL ethyl alcohol___ = 35 mL ethyl alcohol

100 mL rubbing alcohol

All portions of a solution have the same concentration. The composition of one part is
also the same as the composition of the other parts. But you can change the
concentration of solutions. This means you can prepare different solutions of sugar in
water of different concentrations (for example, 10%, 20%, or 30%). In the same way,
you can prepare different solutions of salt in water.

Sample problem 2

A one peso coin has a mass of 5.5 grams. How many grams of copper are in a one
peso coin containing 75% copper by mass?

Calculation for sample problem 2

75% by mass means 75 grams of copper in 100 grams of one peso coin.

So, a 5.4 grams one peso coin contains,

75 g copper x 5.4 g coin = 4.0 g copper

100 g coin

To help you explain the process of dissolving, imagine that in a solution, the particles of
the solute (table salt) and the solvent (water) are constantly moving. Water particles
collide everywhere along the surface of the particles of table salt, especially on the
corners and edges. This occurs at the surface of the solid solute when it comes in
contact with the solvent. The particles on the corners and edges then break away from
the crystal and become surrounded by the water particles. So the solute particles are
separated by the solvent particles.

6
 Important Terms to Remember

Mass Percent
The number of grams of solute divided by the number of grams of solution multiplied by
100%.

Molar Equivalent
The number of molar equivalents depends on the reaction of interest. For an acid-base
reaction the number of equivalents is the number of moles of acid or base needed to
fully neutralize the solute of interest. Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid, therefore, 1 mole of
sulfuric acid is 2 molar equivalents. For a redox reaction, the number of molar
equivalents is the number of moles of electrons that one mole of the solute can either
donate or accept in the particular redox reaction of interest.

Molality
The number of moles of solute divided by the number of kilograms of solvent.

Molarity
The number of moles of solute divided by the number of liters of solution.

Mole Fraction
The number of moles of solute divided by the total number of moles in solution.

Non-polar
A molecule with a low net dipole.

Normality
The number of molar equivalents of solute divided by the number of liters of solvent.

Polar
A molecule with a large net dipole.

Solubility
The amount of a particular solute that can dissolve in a given amount of a particular
solvent. Solubilities are generally listed in g / L.

Solute
A minor component of a solution.

Solution
A homogeneous mixture.

Solvent
The major component of a solution.

7
 Chapter II
SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES
Many things around you are mixtures. Some are solid like brass and rocks, or
liquid like seawater and fruit juices, or gas like air. Mixtures contain two or more
components. These components may vary in size. The variation in size may tell whether
a mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Mixtures

A material composed of two or more substances is a mixture. In a mixture, the

individual substances maintain their chemical identities. Many mixtures are obvious
combinations of two or more substances, such as a mixture of sand and water. Such
mixtures are called heterogeneous mixtures. In some mixtures, the components are so
intimately combined that they act like a single substance even though they are not.
Mixtures with a consistent composition throughout are called homogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures that are mixed so thoroughly that neither component can be
observed independently of the other are called solutions. Sugar dissolved in water is an
example of a solution. A metal alloy, such as steel, is an example of a solid solution. Air,
a mixture of mainly nitrogen and oxygen, is a gaseous solution.

Separating Components of a Mixture

Different separation techniques make components of a homogeneous mixture

more distinguishable, that is, those “unseen” components when they are in a solution
become “seen”. Distillation and evaporation will help you “see” the two major
components of seawater — water and salt.

Distinguishing Substances and Mixtures

Seawater is a solution of many different solids, including table salt, in water.

Since the solids are dissolved in water, decantation or filtration will not work in
separating water from the dissolved solids. Other separation techniques are needed.

There are mixtures that are homogeneous which may be mistaken as

substances. Being so, appearance may not be the best basis to differentiate substances
from mixtures. However, there are ways to tell by noting how a sample behaves during
boiling and melting. In the higher grade levels, you will learn why this is so.

During boiling, the temperature of a substance changes at the start then it

becomes the same; while the temperature of a mixture is different at different times.

During melting, a substance melts completely/smoothly within a short time; while a

mixture has portions that seem to be not melting.

 Heterogeneous vs. Homogeneous Mixtures. 

 A mixture contains more than one substance.  In the upper panel you see an example
of a heterogeneous mixture of oil and water.  The mixture is heterogeneous because
you can visibly see two different components in the mixture.  In the lower panel, you see
an example of a homogeneous mixture, coffee.  It is homogeneous because you cannot
distinguish the many different components that make up a cup of coffee (water;
caffeine; coffee alkaloids and tannins).  It looks the same throughout.  If the mixture is
8
homogeneous and is also see through or clear, it is called a solution. In our example,
the coffee is a solution; however, a concentrated espresso may be very opaque and
would only be homogeneous mixture, not a solution.

Important Terms to Remember

ALLOY:
A mixture of two or more metals.
AQUEOUS:
A term describing a solution in which a substance or substances are dissolved in water.
ATOM:
The smallest particle of an element.
CHEMICAL SPECIES:
A generic term used for any substance studied in chemistry—whether it be an element,
compound, mixture, atom, molecule, ion, and so forth.
COMPOUND:
A substance made up of atoms of more than one element, which are chemically bonded
and usually joined inmolecules. The composition of a compound is always the same,
unless it is changed chemically.
DISPERSION:
A term describing the distribution of particles in a fluid.
ELEMENT:
A substance made up of only one kind of atom. Unlike compounds, elements cannot be
chemically broken down into other substances.
EMULSIFIER:
A surfactant.
EMULSION:
A mixture of two immiscible liquids such as oil and water, made by dispersing
microscopic droplets of one liquid in another. In creating an emulsion, surfactants act as
bridges between the two liquids.
FLUID:
A substance with the ability to flow. In physical sciences such as chemistry and physics,
"fluid" refers both to liquids and gases.
HETEROGENEOUS:
A term describing a mixture that is not the same throughout; rather, it has various
regions possessing different properties. An example of a mixture is sand in a container
of water. Rather than dissolving to form a homogeneous mixture, as sugar would, the
sand sinks to the bottom.
HOMOGENEOUS:
9
A term describing a mixture that is the same throughout, as for example when sugar is
fully dissolved in water. A solution is a homogenous mixture.
IMMISCIBLE:
Possessing a negligible value of miscibility.
ION:
An atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained one or more electrons, and thus has
a net electric charge.
MISCIBILITY:
A qualitative term identifying the relative ability of two substances to dissolve in one
another.
MIXTURE:
A substance with a variable composition, meaning that it is composed of molecules or
atoms of differing types. Compare with pure substance or compound.
MOLECULE:
A group of atoms, usually but not always representing more than one element, joined in
a structure. Compounds are typically made of up molecules.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL:
A term describing scientific definitions based purely on experimental phenomena. These
only convey part of the picture, however—primarily, the part a chemist can perceive
either through measurement or through the senses, such as sight. A structural definition
is therefore usually preferable to a phenomenological one.
PURE SUBSTANCE:
A substance that has the same composition throughout. Pure substances are either
elements or compounds, and should not be confused with mixtures. A homogeneous
mixture is not the same as a pure substance, because although it has an unvarying
composition, it cannot be reduced to a single type of atom or molecule.
SOLUTION:
A homogeneous mixture in which one or more substances is dissolved in another
substances—for example, sugar dissolved in water.
STRUCTURAL:
A term describing scientific definitions based on aspects of molecular structure rather
than purely phenomenological data.
SURFACTANT:
A substance made up of molecules that are both water-and oil-soluble, which acts as an
agent for joining other substances in an emulsion.
SUSPENSION:
A term that refers to a mixture in which solid particles are suspended in a fluid.

Chapter III
ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
10
 All substances are homogeneous. Some mixtures are also homogeneous. Being
so, it is difficult to distinguish mixtures and substances based on appearance.

However, there are ways to tell if a sample is a mixture or a substance. The

temperature of a liquid mixture varies during boiling but for a liquid substance, it does
not. A solid mixture has portions that do not melt but a solid substance melts completely
within a short time.

In this module, you will find out that substances may be further classified into
two: compounds and elements. You will start with the primary characteristic that
distinguishes them.

Compounds

Like mixtures, compounds are also made up of two or more components. The
passage of electric current, components of water may be separated from each other.
This process is called electrolysis.

Electrolysis decomposed water, a compound, into hydrogen and oxygen.

Hydrogen and oxygen are elements. As you have seen from the activity above,
compounds are substances that consist of two elements. As you encounter more
compounds, you will find out that there are compounds that may be composed of more
than two elements.

Pure samples of isolated elements are uncommon in nature. While the 98

naturally occurring elements have all been identified in mineral samples from the Earth’s
crust, only a small minority of them can be found as recognizable, relatively pure
minerals. Among the more common of such “native elements” are copper, silver, gold,
and sulfur. Carbon is also commonly found in the form of coal, graphite, and diamonds.
The noble gases (e.g., neon) and noble metals (e.g., mercury) can also be found in their
pure, non-bonded forms in nature. Still, most of these elements are found in mixtures.

When two distinct elements are chemically combined—i.e., chemical bonds form
between their atoms—the result is called a chemical compound. Most elements on
Earth bond with other elements to form chemical compounds, such as sodium (Na) and
Chloride (Cl), which combine to form table salt (NaCl). Water is another example of a
chemical compound. The two or more component elements of a compound can be
separated through chemical reactions.

Chemical compounds have a unique and defined structure, which consists of a

fixed ratio of atoms held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds.
Chemical compounds can be:

molecular compounds held together by covalent bonds

salts held together by ionic bonds

intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds

complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds.

Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, even if they
consist of diatomic or polyatomic molecules (molecules that contain only multiple atoms
of a single element, such as H2 or S8).

11
 Note how different the properties are of hydrogen and oxygen from water.
Hydrogen burns and oxygen supports burning while water extinguishes fire. Hydrogen is
a gas at room temperature; so is oxygen. Water, on the other hand, is a liquid at room
temperature. The compound (in this case, water) that is composed of elements (in this
case, hydrogen and oxygen) has properties that are distinctly different from the
elements. In other words, when elements combine to form compound, a different
substance is formed.

Elements

There are 118 elements. Each element has different set of properties. No two
elements have the same set of properties.

Hydrogen gives off a “pop” sound when ignited; while oxygen induces a brighter
spark. This difference in behavior implies a difference in property. In effect, hydrogen
and oxygen are different substances, or to be more specific, they are different elements.

118 is quite a big number! Thanks to the works of our early scientists, they were
able to systematically organize all of the 118 elements in what we call the periodic table
of elements or sometimes simply referred as periodic table. You will find one at the back
page of this module. Amazingly, they were able to logically arrange the elements in the
table enabling one to have an idea of the properties of several elements by knowing
other elements related to them. This means that there is no need to memorize the
periodic table but it is an advantage to be familiar with it.

A chemical element is a pure substance that consists of one type of atom. Each
atom has an atomic number, which represents the number of protons that are in the
nucleus of a single atom of that element. The periodic table of elements is ordered by
ascending atomic number.

The chemical elements are divided into the metals, the metalloids, and the non-metals.
Metals, typically found on the left side of the periodic table, are:

often conductive to electricity

malleable

shiny

sometimes magnetic.

Aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury and lead are metals.

In contrast, non-metals, found on the right side of the periodic table (to the right of the
staircase), are:

typically not conductive

not malleable

dull (not shiny)

not magnetic.

Examples of elemental non-metals include carbon and oxygen.

Metalloids have some characteristics of metals and some characteristics of non-metals.

Silicon and arsenic are metalloids.
12
 There are many elements present in the food you eat —whether it is a natural
food like a banana or those processed like banana chips, biscuits, milk, and juice.
These are mostly nutrients which the human body needs in order to function well. Some
of these are calcium, magnesium, zinc, and selenium. Find these elements in the
periodic table. Can you name more? Did you also find them in the periodic table?

Nutrition Facts

The Nutrition Facts is a list of the different nutrients provided by the food product
with their corresponding percentage share on the daily recommended dietary
allowance. Refer to the figure on the right. Notice that some of these nutrients are
elements such as calcium. Is this food a good source of calcium?

On the other hand, Ingredients give you a list of the materials that have been
added to make the food product. These materials are the sources of the nutrients.
These are the ones that are taken in by the body.

A product label that lists sodium as a nutrient does not mean that you will be
eating the element sodium. It means that the composition of one of the ingredients
includes sodium. In the case of soy sauce, the ingredient is monosodium glutamate.

It is very rare and most of the time dangerous if you take in the element itself.
the properties of compounds are different from the properties of the elements it is made
up of. There are cases that the properties of a compound pose less risk than its
constituent elements. An example is sodium and one of its compounds. Sodium is an
element that burns when it comes in contact with water. Refer to the photo above.
Imagine the danger that you are in to if you will be eating sodium as an element.
However, sodium chloride, which is a compound made up of the elements sodium and
chlorine, does not burn when it comes in contact with water. In fact, sodium chloride is
sometimes used with water as common food ingredient. Perhaps, you are already
familiar with this. Does table salt ring a bell? Sodium chloride is commonly called as
table salt. As you know, it is safe to eat. Do take note though that it should be
consumed in the right amount. Excessive consumption of sodium chloride may lead to
kidney failure. This stresses the importance of reading product labels.

As you have seen, elements are part of almost anything around us — food,
clothes, rocks, and even this paper you are currently reading from. Elements are said to
be the building blocks of matter. They are like blocks that you can put together and build
something new. When you build something new from these elements, you call them as
compounds.

Compounds are made up of elements. Elements are the simplest form of matter.
Both elements and compounds are substances.

With the 118 elements, imagine how many combinations of elements you can
make into compounds and how diverse the materials around us can be.

Important Terms to Remember

13
Elements are classes of atoms. Atoms of the same element are similar (if not identical)
in their physical and chemical properties (but be aware of Isotopes which are physical
variations among atoms of the same element).

Molecules are a group of atoms covalently bonded to each other (which can be
considered a 'direct connection', if you will). The molecule can consist of atoms of the
same element, or atoms of different elements.

A substance (and a compound, when a compound is used to describe a quantity of

molecules) only consists of the same molecule. In water, all the molecules are H2O. If
there were also some H2 molecules among them, it would no longer be considered a
compound/substance (but instead; a mixture).

Mixtures are collectives of different molecules or atoms. The molecules and atoms are
like that in a substance; they're not bonded to each other, but are attracted, and in a
mixture specifically, the molecules/atoms are not all the same. Juice, for instance, is a
mixture. It contains some Vitamin C molecules, some water molecules, some sugar
molecules, etc.

CHAPTER IV
ACIDS AND BASES

14
 You will study a special and important class of compounds called acids and
bases. Examples of acids are acetic acid in vinegar and citric acid in fruit juices. The
solution used for cleaning toilet bowls and tiles is 10-12% hydrochloric acid. It is
commonly called muriatic acid. These acids in these mixtures make the mixtures acidic.
We can say the same about bases and basic solutions. An example of a base is sodium
hydroxide used in making soaps and drain cleaners. Sodium hydroxide is also called lye
or caustic soda. A common drain cleaner used in most homes in the Philippines is
called sosa. Another base is aluminum hydroxide used in antacids. The bases in these
mixtures make the mixtures basic.

In this module you will investigate the properties of acidic and basic mixtures
using an indicator, a dye that changes into a specific color depending on whether it is
placed in an acidic solution or in a basic one. Aside from knowing the uses of acidic and
basic mixtures, you will also find out the action of acid on metals and think of ways to
reduce the harmful effects of acids. Knowing the properties of acids and bases will help
you practice safety in handling them, not only in this grade level, but in your future
science classes.

The method can be used to distinguish acidic from basic mixtures. It is through
the use of the pH scale, which extends from 0 to 14. The pH scale was proposed by the
Danish biochemist S.P.L. Sorensen. In this scale, a sample with pH 7 is neutral. An
acidic mixture has a pH that is less than 7. A basic mixture has a pH that is greater than
7. In general, the lower the pH, the more acidic the mixture and the higher the pH, the
more basic is the mixture.

In 1661 Robert Boyle summarized the properties of acids as follows.

1. Acids have a sour taste.

2. Acids are corrosive.

3. Acids change the color of certain vegetable dyes, such as litmus, from blue to red.

4. Acids lose their acidity when they are combined with alkalies.

The name "acid" comes from the Latin acidus, which means "sour," and refers to
the sharp odor and sour taste of many acids.

Examples: Vinegar tastes sour because it is a dilute solution of acetic acid in

water. Lemon juice tastes sour because it contains citric acid. Milk turns sour when it
spoils because lactic acid is formed, and the unpleasant, sour odor of rotten meat or
butter can be attributed to compounds such as butyric acid that form when fat spoils.

In 1661 Boyle summarized the properties of alkalies as follows.

Alkalies feel slippery.

Alkalies change the color of litmus from red to blue.

Alkalies become less alkaline when they are combined with acids.

In essence, Boyle defined alkalies as substances that consume, or neutralize,

acids. Acids lose their characteristic sour taste and ability to dissolve metals when they
are mixed with alkalies. Alkalies even reverse the change in color that occurs when
litmus comes in contact with an acid. Eventually alkalies became known as bases
because they serve as the "base" for making certain salts.

15
Bases feel slippery, change litmus blue, and become less basic when mixed with acids.

While Boyle and others tried to explain why acids and bases behave the way

they do, the first reasonable definition of acids and bases would not be proposed until
200 years later.
In the late 1800s, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius proposed that water
can dissolve many compounds by separating them into their individual ions. Arrhenius
suggested that acids are compounds that contain hydrogen and can dissolve in water to
release hydrogen ions into solution.
Importance of pH

Acids and bases perform specific functions to balance the pH levels in the body.
When your body has too much carbon dioxide, the blood becomes too acidic. You
breathe slowly. Breathing is slowed to increase the pH in the blood. If pH in the body is
too basic, you will hyperventilate to lower the pH. This acid and base control is an
important part of biological homeostasis (balance) in humans. In fact, human life is
sustained only if the pH of our blood and body tissues is within a small range near 7.4.

Use of pH in Food Processing and Fruit Preservation

During food processing, pH is closely followed. Changes in pH affect the growth

of microorganisms, which cause food spoilage. Most bacteria grow best at or near pH
7. To prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, pickling is an effective food preservation
method because it lowers pH.

The control of pH is also needed in wine and jam preparation. A few species of
bacteria grow in a basic medium of pH 9-10. This is the pH range of stale eggs. Most
molds grow within the pH range of 2- 8.5. In acidic conditions, many fruits and products
made from fruits are easily attacked by molds unless the fruits are properly protected.

Control of pH in Soil

The pH of soil is very important. Some plants grow well in acidic soil while others
prefer basic soil. Farmers need to know the pH of their soil since plants will only grow in
a narrow pH range. The pH also affects how much nutrients from the soil become
available to plants.

Most plants in the Philippines grow in acidic soils. These plants are banana,
kaimito, durian, pineapple, soybean, coffee, eggplant, squash, kamote, and rice. Other
plants like grapes and pechay require basic soils. Some plants grow best in almost
neutral soil like orange, peanut, watermelon, beans, cabbage, tomato, corn garlic, and
onion.

pH of Rainwater

The average pH of rain is 5.6. This slightly acidic pH is due to the presence of
carbon dioxide in the air. In many areas of the world, rainwater is much more acidic,
sometimes reaching pH 3 or even lower.

Rain with a pH below 5.6 is called “acid rain.” The acidic pollutants in the air that
come from the burning of fuels used in power plants, factories, and vehicles produce
gases which are acidic. These gases enter the atmosphere and dissolve in water vapor
in the air. Some acid rain is due to natural pollutants like those from volcanic eruptions
and lightning.
16
Maintaining pH of Personal Care Products

Most personal care products have pH kept at specific levels to avoid harmful
effects on the body. This is true for hair products. For example, at pH 12, hair already
dissolves, that is why hair removers usually have pH of 11.5 to12. Most shampoos are
within the pH range of 4 to 6. This is because the pH of the product must be compatible
with that of the hair, which is in the range pH 4 to 5. Hair is least swollen and is
strongest at this pH range. But very often, using shampoo leaves the hair basic. So, in
order to avoid eye irritation and stinging, shampoos for infants and children have a pH
similar to that of tears (pH 7.4).

Hair has a protective covering called sebum. The use of conditioners after using
shampoo puts back this oily coating and penetrates the hair shaft itself.

You may look up other references to learn more about the importance of knowing about
pH.

Now that you have discussed with your teacher the importance of keeping the
proper pH in the human body, in food processing and food preservation, in farming and
in personal care products, it is also essential that you know the effects of acids on some
common metals. An important property of acids is their tendency to react with certain
metals. At higher grade levels, you will learn that the nature of the metal determines
how it is affected by specific types of acid. However, in this grade level, you will simply
investigate the effect of an acid on a common metal like iron.

Effect of an Acidic Mixture on Metal

What do you think will happen when an acid and a metal come in contact with
each other? What happens after the metal has been in contact with the acid for some
time? What changes take place?

Safety in Handling Acids and Bases

Now that you know the properties of acidic and basic mixtures, you can handle
them carefully. Acids and bases with high concentrations can cause serious burns. For
example, hydrochloric acid (commonly called muriatic acid) is used in construction to
remove excess mortar from bricks and in the home to remove hardened deposits from
toilet bowls. Concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid (about 38%) cause severe
burns, but dilute solutions can be used safely in the home if handled carefully. You can
find the following caution in a bottle of muriatic acid:

Harmful or fatal if swallowed. Strong irritant to eye, skin, and mucous membrane.
Do not take internally.

Avoid contact with eyes, nose and mouth. Use only in well ventilated areas. Keep
tightly sealed. Do not store above 60oC. Keep out of reach of children.

Acidic mixtures can easily “eat away” your skin and can make holes in clothes.
However, since vinegar is only 5% acetic acid, it will not irritate the skin and destroy
clothes.

Sodium hydroxide (commonly called lye or liquid sosa) is used to open clogged kitchen
and toilet pipes, sinks, and drains. Its product label shows the following warning:

What happens when acids and bases combine?

17
When an acid mixes with a base, water and salt are produced. Such a process is called
neutralization.

If a basic mixture is added to an acidic mixture, the resulting mixture will no

longer have the properties of the acidic mixture. In the same way, if enough acidic
mixture is added to a basic mixture, the properties of the basic mixture are changed.
This is because the acid and the base in each of the mixtures neutralize each other to
produce a mixture with a different set of properties.

The process of neutralization has some uses in everyday life.

The following are some examples:

 Treating indigestion.

The acid in our stomach, gastric juice, is hydrochloric acid with low concentration.
It helps in the digestion of food. If we eat too much food, the stomach produces more
acid which leads to indigestion and pain. To cure indigestion, the excess acid must be
neutralized by tablets called antacids. These contain bases to neutralize the excess
acid in the stomach.

 Using toothpaste to avoid tooth decay.

Bacteria in the mouth can change sweet types of food into acid. The acid then
attacks the outermost part of the tooth and leads to tooth decay. Toothpaste contains
bases that can neutralize the acid in the mouth.

 Treating soil.

You will recall in the earlier part of this module that some plants grow well in
acidic soil while others prefer basic soil. Farmers need to know the pH of their soil.
Most often, the soil gets too acidic. When this happens, the soil is treated with bases
such as quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or calcium
carbonate. The base is usually spread on the soil by spraying.

 Treating factory waste.

Liquid waste from factories often contains acid. If this waste reaches a river, the
acid will kill fish and other living things. This problem can be prevented by adding slaked
lime (calcium hydroxide) to the waste in order to neutralize it.

Important Terms to Remember

Acid: a solution with a pH of 1-6, contains H+ ions, is a proton donor and electron
acceptor.

18
Arrhenius Theory: Arrhenius's theory was that all acids generate H+ ions, and that all
bases generated OH- ions.

Base: a base is a solution with a pH of 8-14, contains OH- ions, is a proton acceptor
and electron donor.

Brønsted-Lowry Theory: The Brønsted-Lowry theory states that all acids are proton
donors and all bases are proton receivers.

Alkali: a base with a pH of more than 10 and is soluble.

Concentration: Concentration of an acid or base is measured by the number of moles

per volume in the solution.

Conjugate Acid: A base that received H+ ions from an acid in a reaction

Conjugate Base: An acid that has received OH- ions from a base in a reaction

Indicator: An indicator is used to tell the pH or composition of a solution.

Lewis Theory: Lewis's theory was that all acids are electron pair acceptors, and all
bases are electron pair donors.

Litmus Paper: Paper that when dipped in a solution, tells you it is an acid or a base.

Neutral: a solution with a pH of 7 (Water)

OH-: Hydroxide ions found within all bases and conjugate bases

pH: used to measure the strength of acids or bases, a scale of 1-14 with 1 being very
acidic and 14 being very basic

Strength: The strength of an acid or base is measured by pH and how many of its ions
it gives away.
NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________

Test yourself

Answer the following questions:

19
1. List all the characteristics of acids.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Where are acids found in the world around you, inside of you, and in the
environment?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. What happens when acids come into contact with objects in the world?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. What makes a solution a strong acid? What makes a solution a weak acid?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. List all the characteristics of bases.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

6. Where are bases found in the world around you, inside of you, and in the
environment?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
20
7. What makes a solution a strong base? What makes a solution a weak base?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

8. How can you determine if a solution is an acid or a base?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

9. What is the pH scale and how is it used?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

10. Explain how the pH scale is a logarithmic scale?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

11. What is neutralization? What occurs in neutralization? How does that occur?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

21
12. Give examples of acids, bases, and neutral substances and what are their pH
levels.

Name of substance pH level Acid, base, or

neutral

CHAPTER V
METALS AND NONMETALS

22
 Elements are the simplest form of substances. This means that whatever you do
with an element, it remains to be the same element. Its physical state may change but
the identity of the element will not. It may form compounds with other elements but the
element will never form anything simpler than it already is.

There are already more than a hundred elements and are organized in a Periodic
Table. Some of them are naturally occurring and some were produced in a laboratory.

In this module, you will find out more about the elements. You will see that majority of
them are metals, while some are nonmetals. In addition to these are the metalloids, so
called because they exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals.

Metals

Most elements are metals. This includes the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides. On the periodic table, metals are
separated from nonmetals by a zig-zag line stepping through carbon, phosphorus,
selenium, iodine, and radon. These elements and those to the right of them are
nonmetals. Elements just to the left of the line may be termed metalloids or semimetals
and have properties intermediate between those of the metals and nonmetals. The
physical and chemical properties of the metals and nonmetals may be used to tell them
apart.

Nonmetals, with the exception of hydrogen, are located on the right side of the periodic
table. Elements that are nonmetals are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
oxygen, sulfur, selenium, all of the halogens, and the noble gases.

Properties of Metals

In the earlier grades, you segregated objects according to the material they are made
of. You did this when you were starting the habit of 5Rs — recycle, reuse, recover,
repair or reduce. Look around you. Which objects are made of metals? What made you
say that they are metals?

Lustrous (shiny)
Good conductors of heat and electricity
High melting point
High density (heavy for their size)
Malleable (can be hammered)
Ductile (can be drawn into wires)
Usually solid at room temperature (an exception is mercury)
Opaque as a thin sheet (can't see through metals)
Metals are sonorous or make a bell-like sound when struck
Have 1-3 electrons in the outer shell of each metal atom and lose electrons readily
Corrode easily (e.g., damaged by oxidation such as tarnish or rust)
Lose electrons easily
Form oxides that are basic
Fave lower electronegativities
23
Are good reducing agents
Perhaps, you have been identifying a metal based on its appearance. Most of the
time, metals are shiny. They exhibit a luster which is the reason that they are used as
decorations.

Many metals are ductile. This means that metals can be drawn into wires. An
example is copper. The ductility of copper makes it very useful as electrical wires. Gold
is also a metal that is ductile; however, it is rarely used as an electrical wire. What could
be the reason for this?

Some metals are malleable. This means that they can be hammered or rolled
into thin sheets without breaking. An example is aluminum. It is passed into mills and
rolled thinly to produce the aluminum foil used to wrap food. Most soda cans are made
of aluminum, too.

Some metals are magnetic. This means that they are attracted by a magnet. The
common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt. Get a magnet. Try them in different metals in
your home or school. Were they all attracted to the magnet? What metals are these?

The general properties of metals are luster, ductility, malleability and magnetic
properties. Metals exhibit these properties in varying degrees.

You might wonder why some metals do not have electrical conductivity values
when supposedly all of them possess such property. Notice that these metals are the
ones mostly found at the last rows of the periodic table. Elements in those rows are
mostly radioactive. This means that the element is very unstable and exists in a very
short period of time. In effect, it would be difficult to test for their properties. In the higher
grade levels, you will learn that there are ways to infer the electrical conductivities of
these elements.

Electrical conductivity clearly distinguishes metals from nonmetals but there is

one exception. Refer to the periodic table. Which element is electrically conductive even
if it is a nonmetal?

Nonmetal Physical Properties:

Not lustrous (dull appearance)

Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Nonductile solids
Brittle solids
May be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
Transparent as a thin sheet
Nonmetals are not sonorous
Nonmetal Chemical Properties:
Usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer shell
Readily gain or share valence electrons
Form oxides that are acidic
Have higher electronegativities
24
Are good oxidizing agents
Both metals and nonmetals take different forms (allotropes), which have different
appearances and properties from each other. For example, graphite and diamond are
two allotropes of the nonmetal carbon, while ferrite and austenite are two allotropes of
iron. While nonmetals may have an allotrope that appears metallic, all of the allotropes
of metals look like what we think of as a metal (lustrous, shiny).

Thermal conductivity is the ability of an element to allow heat to pass through

it. The higher the value, the better heat conductor an element is. Find the elements that
are mainly used for the cooking pots. What can you say about the thermal conductivity
of this element compared with the other elements? Is this element, a metal or
nonmetal? In general, which are better heat conductors, metals or nonmetals?

Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals

Similarly, oxygen accounted in the graphs may also be in compounds. Some of

these compounds are called oxides. These oxides may be formed when an element is
burned. These oxides exhibit different acidities.

Most of the elements are metals. They are shiny, malleable and ductile but just in
varying degrees — like electrical and thermal conductivity. Nonmetals are electrically
nonconductive except for some forms of carbon.

It is important to note though that most objects are made not of a single material,
rather of a combination of materials so they become fitter for a purpose. This is where
your knowledge on the properties of materials comes in.

Metalloids are the smallest class of elements (the other two classes of elements
are metals and nonmetals). There are just six metalloids. In addition to silicon, they
include boron, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. Metalloids fall between
metals and nonmetals in the periodic table. They also fall between metals and
nonmetals in terms of their properties.

Chemical Properties of Metalloids

How metalloids behave in chemical interactions with other elements depends

mainly on the number of electrons in their outer energy level of their atoms. Metalloids
have from three to six electrons in their outer energy level. Metalloids with more than
four electrons in their outer energy level (arsenic, antimony, and tellurium) tend to act
like nonmetals by gaining electrons in chemical reactions. Those with exactly four
electrons in their outer energy level (silicon and germanium) may act like either metals
or nonmetals, depending on the other elements in the reaction. Most metalloids have
some physical properties of metals and some physical properties of nonmetals. For
example, metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity, whereas nonmetals
generally cannot conduct heat or electricity. And metalloids? They fall between metals
and nonmetals in their ability to conduct heat, and if they can conduct electricity, they
usually can do so only at higher temperatures. Metalloids that can conduct electricity at
higher temperatures are called semiconductors. Silicon is an example of a
semiconductor.

Important Terms to Remember

25
Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and
copper are the two best conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest
conductor of heat. Bismuth, mercury and iron are also poor conductors.

Density: Metals have high density and are very heavy. Iridium and osmium have the
highest densities whereas lithium has the lowest density.

Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. For example, 100 g of silver can be drawn
into a thin wire about 200 meters long.

Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can
be cut with a knife.

Luster: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and can be
polished e.g., gold, silver and copper.

Malleability: Metals have the ability to withstand hammering and can be made into
thin sheets known as foils. For example, a sugar cube sized chunk of gold can be
pounded into a thin sheet that will cover a football field.

Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have high melting and boiling points. Tungsten
has the highest melting and boiling points whereas mercury has the lowest. Sodium and
potassium also have low melting points.

State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury, which is
liquid at room temperature (Gallium is liquid on hot days).

Valency: Metals typically have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their Atoms

CHAPTER VI
THE PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER
26
 You recognized that there is a wide variety of materials and these materials
combine in many ways and through different processes. With this diversity of materials,
you learned that chemists came up with several ways of classifying them—
heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures, elements and compounds, metals and
non-metals, and acids and bases. By engaging in simple scientific investigations, you
were able to recognize some properties of solutions, which are classified as
homogeneous mixtures. You also studied the properties of common elements,
compounds, metals and non-metals, as well as solutions of acids and bases.

The approach in this module is for you to observe experience and represent
through drawings, illustrations, or cartoons the different phenomena that will help you
gradually understand what the particle nature of matter is all about.

Studying about what matter is made of involves dealing with very small “particles”
beyond what your eyes can see. In fact, the ancient Greek philosophers proposed ideas
about what matter was made of. Almost 2,500 years ago, Leucippus and his disciple,
Democritus believed that nature consisted of two things, “atoms and the void that
surrounds them” (Knieram, 1995-2013). They believed that “atoms are physically, but
not geometrically, indivisible.” For Democritus, atoms are indestructible and completely
full, so there is no empty space. Both Leucippus and Democritus had the idea that
there are many different kinds of atoms and each of them had specific shape and size
and that all atoms move randomly around in space. However they did not give an
explanation for the motion of atoms. (Knieram, 1995-2013).

Democritus believed that any piece of matter can be divided and subdivided into
very small particles but that this process ended at some point when a piece is reached
that could not be further divided. He called this particle, atomos, a Greek word which
means indivisible particle. Democritus’ ideas about the atom were later challenged by
other Greek philosophers, most strongly by Aristotle.

The idea of the atom was not further explored until a little over two centuries ago when
John Dalton presented concrete evidence that all matter is made of very small particles
called atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has all the properties of
the element. Today, we know that although atoms are very small, they are not
indivisible as Democritus thought, rather they consist of still smaller particles,
Democritus was right in one aspect of his belief, that is, atoms are the smallest particles
of which substances are made. In Grade 7, you learned about elements. Atoms of most
elements have the ability to combine with other atoms. Different elements have different
properties because the combining atoms are different and the way the atoms are joined
together are different. A molecule is a particle consisting of two or more atoms
combined together in a specific arrangement. It is an electrically neutral particle. It is the
smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist independently. For example,
a molecule of water consists of an oxygen atom combined with two hydrogen atoms.
Atoms of the same element can also combine to form a molecule. For example, oxygen
in the air consist of oxygen molecules which are made up of two oxygen atoms.

Atoms are too small to observe. These particles cannot be seen under the high-
powered light microscopes used in school laboratories. The size of an atom is
measured in angstroms. One angstrom is a unit of length equal to one ten millionth of a
millimetre.

The best light microscope can magnify an image only about 1,500 times.
Electron microscopes create a highly magnified image of up to 1 million times. The

27
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) allows scientists to view and scan the surface of
very small particles like atoms. It can magnify an image 10 million times. The STM
creates a profile of the surface of an atom and then a computer-generated model or
contour map is produced. So, only a model of the surface of an atom is generated by a
computer when a scanning tunnelling microscope is used. The picture of atoms
generated is unlike the picture we take with our cameras.

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. All physical objects are
composed of matter, and an easily observed property of matter is its state or phase.
The classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Several other states,
including plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate, do exist, but it is the classical
states that can transition directly into any of the other classical states.

Changes between a Liquid and a Gas

As evaporation takes place, the water molecules which did not escape and were
left in the liquid have a lower average kinetic energy than the molecules that escaped.
The effect of this is the decrease in the temperature of the liquid water. Evaporation is a
cooling process.

You can feel this cooling effect yourself when you apply acetone on your nails or
rubbing alcohol on your arms. Acetone and rubbing alcohol are volatile liquids. They
readily evaporate. As they evaporate, the molecules get heat energy from your body
leaving you with a cool sensation.

Evaporation still happens in a covered container. Some of the molecules of water

on the surface of the liquid escape and go into the gaseous state. These molecules may
then collide with the inner surface of the cover and as more and more of these
molecules do so, some may stay on the cover, accumulate and form droplets. This
process where a gas is changed into a liquid is called condensation. It is the reverse of
evaporation.

In a closed container, the molecules of water continue to evaporate and

condense, but there is no net change in the number of molecules in the liquid or in the
gas phase. Molecules of water that previously evaporated are condensing, but other
water molecules are evaporating.

There are many other examples of condensation that you may have observed.
Condensation is responsible for ground-level fog that we see on some cold days or
along the highway leading to Baguio, for your eye glasses fogging up when you go from
an air conditioned room or vehicle to the outdoors on a hot day, and for the water that
collects on the outside of your glass of cold drink.

The molecules that escape from the liquid and go into the gaseous phase is
called vapor and in this case, water vapor. The water vapor rises and some molecules
touch the glass. The glass is cooler than the boiling water so some of the heat energy of
the vapor molecules are transferred to the glass, in effect, cooling the water vapor.
When a gas is cooled, the motion of the particles slows down. If the particles lose
enough energy, their attraction for each other can overcome their motion and cause
them to associate with one another to become a liquid. This process is called
condensation.

Changes between a Solid and a Gas

28
 The ice cube, which was taken from the freezer, is at a lower temperature than
the surrounding room temperature. Some of the heat energy of the surroundings is
transferred to the water molecules in the ice. This increases the kinetic energy of the
molecules and as the heat transfer continues, the particles gain more and more kinetic
energy. The molecules vibrate faster and faster and at some point have enough energy
to overcome the forces that hold them in their fixed places in the solid. Since the
molecules vibrate so fast, they break away from their fixed positions. The arrangement
of the water molecules in ice gradually becomes disorganized and the solid where the
molecules are in fixed positions turns to liquid where the molecules are more free to
move. This transformation process in which a solid is changed to a liquid is called
melting.

On the other hand, when you put liquid water inside a freezer, the cooling system
of the refrigerator removes heat energy from the water molecules as a result of which
they have less kinetic energy and move more slowly. As more and more heat is
removed and as the molecules move more slowly, the forces of attraction between the
molecules cause the molecules to be aligned. As this removal of heat continues, the
molecules lose so much energy that they are not able to move from place to place but
only able to vibrate in place. In time, the liquid water becomes solid water, which is ice.
Freezing is the process in which a liquid is changed to a solid.

Some Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids and the Microscopic

Explanation for the Behavior

gas liquid solid

assumes the shape and
volume of its container
particles can move past
one another
assumes the shape of the
part of the container which
it occupies
particles can move/slide
past one another
retains a fixed volume and
shape
rigid - particles locked into
place

compressible not easily compressible not easily compressible

lots of free space between little free space between little free space between
particles particles particles

flows easily flows easily does not flow easily

particles can move past particles can move/slide rigid - particles cannot
one another past one another move/slide past one
another

Important Terms to Remember

Boiling Point

29
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

Condensation
Change water from gas to liquid, act of making something denser

Displacement Method
A means of finding the volume of irregularly shaped object by submerging it into a
known volume of water and measuring the change in volume that occurs. Want to know
your volume? Take a dip in the pool.

Filtration
The act of passing a liquid or gas through a filter to remove solid particles.

Flammability
The quality of being easily ignited and burned rapidly.

Freezing
The conversion of a liquid into a gas.

Freezing Point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the vapor pressure
of the corresponding solid.

Gas
Matter in a form that has low density, is easily compressible, expands spontaneously
when placed in a larger container, and has particles that are far apart and move freely

Heat
A means by which energy is transferred from a hot body to a colder body when the two
are placed in thermal contact with one another.

Liquid
A state of matter that has a high density, low compressibility, takes the shape of their
container, and possesses particles that are close together but are still able to flow.

Mass
The quantity of matter in a body.

30
Matter
Anything that has mass and volume.

Melting
The process of a solid becoming a liquid.

Melting Point
The temperature at which liquid and solid coexist in equilibrium.

Particle
The building block of matter usually in the form of atoms, molecules, or ions.

Plasma
The fourth state of matter in which many electrons wander around freely among
positively charged nuclei of atoms.

Solid
A dense rigid state of matter with a definite volume and shape whose particles are
packed close together.

Sublimation
The process of a solid becoming a gas.

Substance
A sample of matter that has the same chemical composition and physical properties.

Suspension
A heterogeneous mixture in which solute particles settle out of a solvent after some time
has passed.

Vaporization (or Boiling Point)

The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

CHAPTER VII

31
 ATOMS
You learned that matter is made up of atoms which are too small to see with the
unaided eye or even with the use of the ordinary light microscope. When the idea of the
atom was conceived by the ancient Greek philosophers, they thought the atom is
indivisible, that it has no parts.

Scientists have proven, however, that the atom is composed of even smaller
particles. From experiments conducted in the latter part of the 19th century to the early
half of the 20th century, scientists collected evidence that atoms are composed of three
types of particles, namely, (1) protons, (2) electrons and (3) neutrons. These
components of the atom are collectively referred to as subatomic particles. In recent
years, scientists have discovered that protons and neutrons consist of even smaller
particles. There are still many things about the atom and what is inside it that scientists
are discovering. These extremely small particles are being studied using an extremely
big structure that serves as their instrument. The thick black circle in Figure 1 is the
entire scientific instrument and its circumference is precisely 26.659 kilometers and its
depth is about 100 meters. To give you a better idea how big this structure is, find from
the map a place which is about 27 km from your own town. Working in a laboratory that
aims to uncover the tiniest bits of matter that make up all that we see around us must be
truly exciting! Who knows, you might join this group of scientists and make more
discoveries about the atom. Inspiring and challenging, perhaps?

A magnet has two ends, two poles, the north and the south. Put the north ends
of two magnets next to each other and the magnets move apart. How about putting the
two south ends next to each other? Yes, the same observation would be made as when
both north ends are next to each other. How about when you place the north and south
ends next to each other, what will happen? They attract each other. These observations
indicate that like ends or poles repel, unlike ends or poles attract. Electric charges (or
simply charges), either positive charge or negative charge, behave similarly, that is, like
charges repel or push away each other and unlike charges attract or pull toward each
other.

When the idea of the atom was first proposed by the ancient Greeks, they
thought it was a particle with no parts. However, towards the 19th century, J.J.
Thomson was able to discover that atoms have negatively-charged particles, which he
called electrons. It led him to propose a new model for the atom, which he called the
plum pudding model. Thomson proposed that the negatively-charged electrons were
embedded in a kind of cloud or soup of positive charge, as shown in the figure on the
right. Since plums and puddings are not commonly known in the Philippines, it may
work better for you that we use the other name for the model, the raisin bread model.

In science, models, based on observations from experiments are tested further,

sometimes by other scientists, to determine their validity. A group of scientists
composed of Ernest Rutherford, Johannes "Hans" Wilhelm Geiger and Ernest Marsden
tested Thomson’s model by bombarding a very thin sheet of gold foil with positively-
charged alpha particles. Their experiment is referred to as the alpha particle scattering
experiment. In the next parts of the activity, you will simulate parts of the experiment
that the group of Rutherford did.

The nuclear model of the atom proposed by Rutherford in 1912 is still the picture
of the atom that we hold today. Observations made afterward in experiments
concerning the atom support the model.
32
 The other puzzle about the atom concerns the electrons. Imagine again the atom
as 100 meters in diameter, the nucleus, around one millimetre in diameter at the center
and the electrons are in this vast space around the nucleus. Where in this vast space
are the electrons? Are they moving? How do they move? How fast do they move?

One of the models of the electrons in atoms is the planetary model where the
electrons were thought to move in orbits around the nucleus similar to the way planets
like the earth move around the sun. This has since been found to be incorrect. The
behaviour of electrons in the space around the nucleus is not simple to describe. What
we do know, however, are the following: (1) The electron although it is negatively
charged does not collapse into the positively charged nucleus; (2) There is attraction
between the nucleus and the electron, evidence of which is that energy is required to
remove an electron from the atom.

Notwithstanding the complex behaviour of electrons in atoms, we continue to use

a model of electronic structure (or the way electrons are “arranged” in the atom) to help
us understand and study the way atoms combine to form the millions of compounds
discovered to date.

So far, you have learned about the three subatomic particles — protons,
electrons and neutrons — and how they are arranged in the currently accepted model of
the atom. Among these subatomic particles, it is the number of protons that identify the
atoms of an element. All atoms of an element contain the same number of protons in
their nuclei. This number is the element’s atomic number. In the next activity, you will
refer to the periodic table in determining the atomic number. Notice that no two
elements have the same atomic number.

An atom a fundamental piece of matter. (Matter is anything that can be touched

physically.) Everything in the universe (except energy) is made of matter, and, so,
everything in the universe is made of atoms.

An atom itself is made up of three tiny kinds of particles called subatomic

particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and the neutrons make up the
center of the atom called the nucleus and the electrons fly around above the nucleus in
a small cloud. The electrons carry a negative charge and the protons carry a positive
charge. In a normal (neutral) atom the number of protons and the number of electrons
are equal. Often, but not always, the number of neutrons is the same, too.

Important Terms to Remember

anion

33
an ion with a negative electrical charge

antiparticle
a type of particle in an atom that has the opposite electrical charge to the charge that a
normal particle has, although they both have the same mass

atom
 the smallest unit of any substance. It consists of a nucleus made of protons and
neutrons with electrons traveling around it

atomic
relating to the atoms in a substance

atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

cation
an ion that has a positive electric charge

electron
a part of an atom that moves around the nucleus (=center) and has a negative electrical
charge

ion
an atom with an electrical force created by adding or removing an electron

molecular
relating to molecules

molecule
the smallest part of an element or compound that is capable of independent existence.
It consists of two or more atoms

monomer
a simple molecule that can combine with other molecules to form a polymer

neutron
the part of the nucleus of an atom that has no electrical charge

nuclear
 relating to the central part of an atom

nucleus
 the central part of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons

particle
an extremely small piece of matter that is part of an atom, for example an electron,
proton, or neutron

proton
the part of the nucleus of an atom that has a positive electrical charge

valence
 a measurement of the ability of an atom to combine with other atoms

CHAPTER VIII
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
34
 Scientists have always searched for patterns, regularities and symmetries in
nature. If a pattern can be discovered, information and data can be arranged and
organized in ways that will make it more understandable, meaningful, and useful. An
excellent example of this is the periodic table. The elements, the building blocks of
matter, are listed in that table. You learned that the atoms that make up these elements
are identified by their atomic number. In this module, you will learn that elements were
arranged in the periodic table in rows and columns according to increasing atomic
numbers. This arrangement was based on properties of elements which were found to
be repeated regularly through the elements arranged according to increasing atomic
number. The properties were recurring periodically, hence, patterns in the properties are
observed. You will recognize this incredible feature of the periodic table in this module,
as you explore its full potential as a source of information about the elements. You
might even find it like a road map as you journey in your chemistry class. It would be
helpful to keep it handy all the time.

The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular
display of the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron
configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The structure of the table shows
periodic trends. The seven rows of the table, called periods, generally have metals on
the left and nonmetals on the right. The columns, called groups, contain elements with
similar chemical behaviours. Six groups have accepted names as well as assigned
numbers: for example, group 17 elements are the halogens; and group 18 are the noble
gases. Also displayed are four simple rectangular areas or blocks associated with the
filling of different atomic orbitals.

The periodic table was developed as a result of years of painstaking work by

different scientists. Its present form was a result of meticulous and thorough study by
scientists. The first activity provides you an experience similar to those of the early
scientists who developed the periodic table.

The development of the Periodic table could be traced back in 1817 to the work
of Johann Dobereiner, a German chemist who formed the triads of elements with similar
properties like the triad of calcium, barium and strontium. In 1863, John Newlands, an
English chemist proposed the Law of Octaves. He based his classification of elements
on the fact that similar properties could be noted for every eight element when they are
arranged in order of increasing atomic masses. Around 1869 two scientists determined
a way to put the elements in order. Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev both came up
with periodic tables that showed how elements should be grouped. It is interesting to
note that these two scientists did not personally know each other, yet they came up with
the same conclusions. Both scientists were teachers living and working in different
places. Meyer lived and worked in Germany while Mendeleev in Russia. Both arranged
the elements in order of increasing atomic mass while putting in groups those with
similar properties. Both of them also left blank spaces in their tables, believing that
these spaces would be filled later with elements yet to be discovered.

As more information was gathered about existing and newly discovered

elements, irregularities were observed. Some newly identified elements had properties
that did not match those of the groups already included in the periodic table. To fit into
the right groups, the positions of a few elements had to be rearranged. There were even
elements that had to be placed in the table as a new group. The table was thus revised.

35
 Later, in 1914, Henry Moseley, an English physicist observed that the order of
the X-ray frequencies emitted by elements follows the ordering of the elements by
atomic number. This observation led to the development of the modern periodic law
which states that the properties of elements vary periodically with atomic number.
Atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic
number is a common characteristic of all atoms of an element.

The modern periodic table organizes elements in such a way that information
about the elements and their compounds are easily revealed. The vertical columns of
the periodic table, called groups, identify the principal families of elements. Some
families have their special names. Group 1 is named as the alkali metals, Group 2 as
the alkaline earth metals, Group 17 as the halogens and Group 18 as the noble gases.
Groups 13 to 16 are named based on the first element found in their families. Thus
Group 16 is called the Oxygen Group. The horizontal rows or periods are numbered
from the top to bottom. For example, the elements lithium (Li) across neon (Ne) form
Period 2.There are 7 horizontal rows or periods in the periodic table.

The elements are grouped into blocks or series in the periodic table. In the later
grades, you will learn how elements were grouped in blocks. Group 3 to Group 12
constitutes one block wherein elements in this block are referred as the transition
elements. The lanthanides and actinides are special series of elements but are also part
of the transition block; they are also called the inner transition elements. Elements from
the taller columns (groups 1, 2, and 13 through 18) are called the representative
elements or main groups of the periodic table. This arrangement allows us to study
systematically the way properties vary with the element’s position in the table.
Similarities and differences among the elements are easier to understand and
remember.

We can use the periodic table to identify the known elements as metals,
nonmetals, and semimetals or metalloids, as shown in the figure on the right. A stair
step line separates metals and nonmetals.The majority of the elements on the left side
of the table are metals. The nonmetals are confined to the right side of the table.

Semimetals have the appearance and some properties of a metal but behave like
a nonmetal in certain instances. The seven elements commonly regarded as
semimetals are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and polonium.
Boron, although not resembling a metal in appearance, is included because it
resembles silicon. Silicon, germanium, and antimony, act as semiconductors, which are
important in solid-state electronic circuits. Semiconductors are insulators at lower
temperatures, but become conductors at higher temperatures.

The physical properties of metals include luster, malleability, ductility, and

conductivity. Metals vary in reactivity. The most reactive metals will react even with cold
water while the least will not react even with acid. The ease and speed with which a
metal reacts with another substance is called its reactivity.

The reactivity of metals can cause deterioration of materials. The gradual wearing away
of a metal due to interaction with other substances is called corrosion.

With respect to position in the periodic table of the representative elements,

metallic character increases from top to bottom and decreases from left to right; while
nonmetallic character decreases from top to bottom and increases from left to right, as
seen in the figure on the right.

36
 Metallic property relates to how easy it is for an atom to lose an electron. On the
other hand, nonmetallic property relates to how easy it is for an atom to gain an
electron. Why do metals tend to lose electrons while nonmetals tend to gain electrons?
In Module 2, you learned that the behavior of electrons is complicated to describe.
However, we use a model of electronic structure which presents a picture where
electrons occupy regions around the nucleus called electron shells. These are also
called energy levels because each electron shell corresponds to a particular energy.
Each electron shell can hold only a certain number of electrons. The way the electrons
of an atom are distributed in the various energy levels or electron shells is called
electronic configuration.

The lowest energy level is the one nearest to the nucleus. This is the energy
level that electrons occupy first. It can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons. If there
are more than 2 electrons, they occupy the succeeding higher energy levels. The
highest energy level that an electron occupies is referred to as the outermost shell or
valence shell. The electrons in the valence shells are called valence electrons. These
electrons are the ones involved in chemical reactions. The chemical properties of an
element depend on the number of valence electrons.

The reactivity of metals is related to the ease with which they lose electrons in
their valence shell. In Module 2 you learned that when an atom loses electrons, a cation
is formed. In the next grade level, you will learn that some nonmetals, on the other
hand, tend to gain electrons thus forming anions. The formation of ions among the
elements results in the formation of many different compounds. In later levels, you will
learn that some elements, instead of losing or gaining electrons, tend to share electrons
with other atoms to form compounds. In all cases, it is the valence electrons which
participate in the formation of these compounds.

With respect to position in the periodic table of the representative elements,

metallic character increases from top to bottom and decreases from left to right; while
nonmetallic character decreases from top to bottom and increases from left to right, as
seen in the figure on the right.

Metallic property relates to how easy it is for an atom to lose an electron. On the
other hand, nonmetallic property relates to how easy it is for an atom to gain an
electron. Why do metals tend to lose electrons while nonmetals tend to gain electrons?
We use a model of electronic structure which presents a picture where electrons occupy
regions around the nucleus called electron shells. These are also called energy levels
because each electron shell corresponds to a particular energy. Each electron shell can
hold only a certain number of electrons. The way the electrons of an atom are
distributed in the various energy levels or electron shells is called electronic
configuration.

The lowest energy level is the one nearest to the nucleus. This is the energy
level that electrons occupy first. It can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons. If there
are more than 2 electrons, they occupy the succeeding higher energy levels. The
highest energy level that an electron occupies is referred to as the outermost shell or
valence shell. The electrons in the valence shells are called valence electrons. These
electrons are the ones involved in chemical reactions. The chemical properties of an
element depend on the number of valence electrons.

Important Terms to Remember

37
Actinides
The actinides comprise elements 89 through 103. They, along with the actinides, are
often called the f-elements because they have valence electrons in the f shell.

Alkali Metals
The alkali metals make up the first column (group) of the periodic table, and comprise Li
through Fr.

Alkaline Earth Metals

The alkaline earth metals make up the second column (group) of the periodic table,
from Be through Ra.

Atomic Number
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atomic nucleus.

Atomic Orbital
Atomic orbitals are regions of space around the nucleus of an atom where an electron is
most likely to be found.

Atomic Radius
The atomic radius is the total distance from an atom's nucleus to the outermost electron
orbital.

Atomic Weight
The atomic weight is the average mass of an atom of an element.

Chemical Symbol
A chemical symbol is a notation of one or two letters representing a chemical element.

Conductor
A material that conducts heat or electricity, which means electrons can easily flow
through the object.

Diatomic
A complex consisting of two atoms.

The d-block
The d-block is the section of elements on the periodic table in groups 3 – 12.

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the amount of energy absorbed when an electron is added to an
atom.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction an atom has for electrons.

Element
An element is a substance composed of atoms with identical atomic number.

Exothermic
Exothermic is the term used to describe a reaction that releases heat.

The f-block

38
The f-block is the section of elements below the main section of the periodic table
consisting of the lanthanide and actinide elements.

Family
A taxon (group of organisms) made up of related genera.

Flame Test
A flame test is a test for detecting the presence of certain metals by determining the
color they emit when put in a flame.

Group
A group is also called a family. It is a column of elements in the periodic table that all
have similar properties.

Halogens
The halogen elements are a subset of the nonmetals. They comprise group 17 of the
periodic table, from F through At.

Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom.

Lanthanides
The lanthanides comprise elements 57 through 71. Along with the actinides they are
often called the f-elements because they have valence electrons in the f shell.

Main-Group Elements
Groups 1-2 and 13-18 are called the main-group elements.

Noble Gases
The noble gases comprise group 18. They are generally very stable, colorless, and
odorless.

The p-block
The p-block is the section of the periodic table composed of the last six groups or
columns.

Period
A period is a horizontal row of the periodic table.

Periodic Law
The periodic law is the principle that the properties or characteristics of the elements
recur periodically as their atomic numbers increase.

The s-block
The s-block is the section of elements on the periodic table composed of the first two
groups or columns.

Transition Metals
The transition elements are metals that have a partially filled d subshell and comprise
groups 3 through 12 and the lanthanides and actinides.

CHAPTER IX
Electronic Structure of Matter
39
 You have learned the Rutherford’s atomic model which pictures the atom as mostly
empty space and its mass is concentrated in the nucleus, where you find the protons
and the neutrons. This model has worked well during his time, but it was only able to
explain a few simple properties of atoms. However, It could not explain why metals or
compounds of metals give off characteristic colors when heated in a flame, or why
objects–when heated to much higher temperatures first glow to dull red, then to yellow,
and then to white. A model different from Rutherford’s atomic model is necessary to
describe the behavior of atoms.

Niels Bohr refined Rutherford’s model of an atom. Based on his experiments,

Bohr described the electron to be moving in definite orbits around the nucleus. Much
later, scientists discovered that it is impossible to determine the exact location of
electrons in an atom.

In addition, you will know more about the present model of the atom, which is
called the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It is important for you to understand
that the chemical properties of atoms, ions and molecules are related to how the
electrons are arranged in these particles of matter.

How does the Bohr atomic model differ from Rutherford’s model? What is the
basis for the quantum mechanical model of the atom? How are electrons arranged in
the atom?

The questions above were anchored on the following learning competencies:

 Describe how the Bohr Model of the atom improved Rutherford’s Atomic Model.
 Explain how the Quantum Mechanical Model of the atom describes the energies and
positions of the electrons.

Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy, which increases as the distance of
the orbit from the nucleus increases. As long as the electron stays in its orbit, there is no
absorption or emission of energy. When an electron of an element absorbed extra
energy (from a flame or electric arc), this electron moves to a higher energy level. At
this point the electron is at its excited state. Once excited, the atom is unstable. The
same electron can return to any of the lower energy levels releasing energy in the form
of light with a particular color and a definite energy or wavelength. Bohr’s model
explained the appearance of the bright line spectrum of the hydrogen atom but could
not explain for atoms that has more than one electron.

The energy levels of electrons are like the steps of a ladder. The lowest step of
the ladder corresponds to the lowest energy level. A person can climb up and down by
going from step to step. Similarly, the electrons can move from one energy level to
another by absorbing or releasing energy. Energy levels in an atom are not equally
spaced which means that the amount of energy are not the same. The higher energy
levels are closer together. If an electron occupies a higher energy level, it will take less
energy for it to move to the next higher energy level. As a result of the Bohr model,
electrons are described as occupying fixed energy levels at a certain distance from the
nucleus of an atom.

40
However, Bohr’s model of the atom was not sufficient to describe atoms with more than
one electron.

Instead, these scientists believed that there is only a probability that the electron
can be found in a certain volume in space around the nucleus. This volume or region of
space around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to be found is called an
atomic orbital. Thus, we could only guess the most probable location of the electron at
a certain time to be within a certain volume of space surrounding the nucleus.
The quantum mechanical model of the atom comes from the mathematical solution to
the Schrodinger equation.
The quantum mechanical model views an electron as a cloud of negative charge
having a certain geometrical shape. This model shows how likely an electron could be
found in various locations around the nucleus. However, the model does not give any
information about how the electron moves from one position to another.

The quantum mechanical model also gives information about the energy of the electron.
The model also describes the region of space around the nucleus as consisting of
shells. These shells are also called principal or main energy levels. The principal energy
levels or shells may have one or more sublevels. These sublevels are assigned with
letters: s, p, d, f, and g.

Principal Energy Levels and Sublevels of Electrons

Principal energy Number of Type of Sublevel Maximum number
level, n Sublevels and number of of electrons
orbitals

1 1 1s (1 orbital) 2
2 2 2s (1 orbital), 2p (3 8
orbitals)
3 3 3s (1 orbital), 3p (3 18
orbitals) 3d (5
orbitals)
4 4 4s (1 orbital), 4p (3 32
orbitals) 4d (5
orbitals), 4f (7
orbitals)
5 5 5s (1 orbital), 5p (3 50
orbitals) 5d (5
orbitals), 5f (7
orbitals) 5g (9
orbitals)
The principal quantum number always equals the number of sublevels within that
principal energy level. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a principal
energy level is given by the formula 2n2, where n is the principal quantum number.

Orbitals have specific energy values. They have particular shapes and direction in
space. The s orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.

In an atom, electrons and the nucleus interact to make the most stable arrangement
possible. The way in which electrons are distributed in the different orbitals around the
nucleus of an atom is called the electron configuration.

41
 Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model describes the atom as mostly empty space. Its mass
is concentrated in the nucleus that consist of protons and neutrons. However it could
not explain the chemical properties of elements. Bohr’s atomic model describes the
atom like a solar system, where the electron is found only in specific circular paths, or
orbits, around the nucleus. In the Bohr model, each electron carries a fixed amount of
energy and does not lose energy as long as it stays in its given orbit. The fixed energies
that the electrons have are called energy levels. An electron that has received enough
energy can jump to a higher energy level. When the electron returns to a lower energy
level, energy is emitted in the form of light.

The Bohr model was later replaced by a model of the atom that showed that
electrons are not limited to fixed orbits around the nucleus. Through mathematical
calculations, scientists explained that there is only a probability that the electron can be
found in a certain volume in space around the nucleus. This volume or region of space
around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to be found is called an atomic
orbital
Schrodinger formulated a mathematical equation that describes the behavior of the
electron. The solution to the equation is used to calculate the probability of finding the
electron at a particular region in space around the nucleus. The quantum mechanical
model of the atom describes the atom as having a nucleus at the center around which
the electrons move. This model describes a region in space where the electron is most
likely to be found.

An electron is imagined to be a cloud of negative charge having a certain

geometrical shape. The electrons are arranged in principal or main energy levels that
consist of one or more sublevels. The way in which electrons are distributed in the
different orbitals around the nucleus of an atom is called the electron configuration.
Filling of electrons start from lower energy level to highest energy level.

Electron Configuration

Electron configurations are the summary of where the electrons are around a
nucleus. As we learned earlier, each neutral atom has a number of electrons equal to its
number of protons. What we will do now is place those electrons into an arrangement
around the nucleus that indicates their energy and the shape of the orbital in which they
are located. Here is a summary of the types of orbitals and how many electrons each
can contain:

Order of Fill

The order in which electrons are placed into the orbitals is based on the order of their
energy. This is referred to as the Aufbau principle. The lowest energy orbitals fill first.

How to Write an Electron Configuration

42
The symbols used for writing the electron configuration start with the shell number (n)
followed by the type of orbital and finally the superscript indicates how many electrons
are in the orbital.

For example:

Looking at the periodic table, you can see that Oxygen has 8 electrons. Based on the
order of fill above, these 8 electrons would fill in the following order 1s, 2s and then 2p.
So Oxygen's electron configuration would be O 1s22s22p4.

Special Cases

Configurations of ions present a special case of electron configuration and also

demonstrate the reason for the formation of those ions in the first place.

If you need to write the full electron configuration for an anion, then you are
just adding additional electrons and the configuration is simply continued.

For example, we know that Oxygen always forms 2- ions when it makes an ion.
This would add 2 electrons to its normal configuration making the new configuration:
O2- 1s22s22p6. With 10 electrons you should note that oxygen's electron configuration is
now exactly the same as Neon's. We talked about the fact that ions form because they
can become more stable with the gain or loss of electrons to become like the noble
gases and now you can actually see how they become the same.

The electron configurations for Cations are also made based on the number
of electrons but there is a slight difference in the way they are configured. First you
should write their normal electron configuration and then when you remove electrons
you have to take them from the outermost shell. Note that this is not always the same
way they were added.

Here is an example of what I mean:

Iron has 26 electrons so its normal electron configuration would be:

Fe 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6

When we make a 3+ ion for Iron, we need to take the electrons from the outermost shell
first so that would be the 4s shell NOT the 3d shell: Fe3+ 1s22s22p63s23p63d5

One other note on writing electron configurations: A short cut. When writing some of the
lower table configurations the total configuration can be fairly long. In these cases, you
can use the previous noble gas to abbreviate the configuration as shown below. You
just have to finish the configuration from where the noble gas leaves it:
43
Exceptions

As with every other topic we have covered to date there are exceptions to the
order of fill as well. But based on the electron configurations that are generated, these
exceptions are easy to understand.

In the d block, specifically the groups containing Chromium and Copper, there is an
exception in how they are filled.

Here are the actual configurations:

In these columns, the 4s and 3d

Orbital Diagrams

Another way to represent the order of fill for an atom is by using an orbital
diagram often referred to as "the little boxes":

The boxes are used to represent the orbitals and to show the electrons placed in them.
The order of fill is the same but as you can see from above the electrons are placed
singly into the boxes before filling them with both electrons. This is called Hund's Rule:
"Half fill before you Full fill" and again this rule was established based on energy
calculations that indicated that this was the way atoms actually distributed their
electrons into the orbitals.

Periodic Properties

One of the really cool things about electron configurations is their relationship to
the periodic table. Basically the periodic table was constructed so that elements with
similar electron configurations would be aligned into the same groups (columns).

The periodic table shown above demonstrates how the configuration of each element
was aligned so that the last orbital filled is the same except for the shell. The reason this
was done is that the configuration of an element gives the element its properties and
similar configurations yield similar properties.

Let's go through some of the Periodic Properties that are influenced directly by the
electron configuration:

Electronegativity

44
 Electronegativity may be the most important of the periodic properties you can
learn and understand since so many other properties are depend on its value.
Electronegativity is an atoms ability to pull electrons towards itself.

Electronegativity is generally expressed by the Pauling Scale and the values

were determined experimentally. The table below shows the scale values for the
elements.

The electronegativity values increase from left to right and bottom to top in the
periodic table excluding the Noble gases. The most electronegative element is Fluorine.

From these electronegativity values we can derive the patterns of two other periodic
properties: Ionization Energy and Electron Affinity.

Important Terms to Remember

Atomic orbital – the region of space in which there is a high probability of finding the
electron in an atom

Electron cloud – an imaginary representation of an electron’s rapidly changing

position around the nucleus over time

Electron configuration – the distribution of electrons within the orbitals of the atoms of
an element

Excited state – any electron configuration of an atom or molecule other than the
lowest energy (ground) state

Exclusion Principle – a principle developed by Wolfgang Pauli stating that no two

electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers

Ground state – the electron configuration of an atom or ion that is lowest in energy

Quantum number- a number that specifies a property of an orbital or an electron

45
 CHAPTER X
Chemical Bonding

Get your periodic table. What do you notice about the electronic configuration of
the noble gases? You’re right! Except for helium, all of them have eight electrons at the
outermost energy level. The sharing or the complete transfer of electrons causes an
atom to have the same electronic configuration as that of the nearest noble or inert gas.
The sharing or the complete transfer indicates that the atom has attained stability. Either
the sharing or the complete transfer of electrons leads to the formation of compounds.

Going through this module will make you understand what is happening in the
atoms during the formation of compounds. Look at the periodic table. Did you notice
the vertical arrangement of the elements? This is called family or group. Notice the
number in each group? Do you know what information it gives you? It tells about the
number of valence electrons. Do you still remember the meaning of valence electrons?
Valence electrons give you the number of electrons at the outermost energy level of the
atom. This is the information you need to know in order for you to determine whether
atoms transfer, accept, or share electrons to become stable. Why do we need to talk
about the transfer or the sharing of electrons? You will discover the answer to this
question as you study this module.

When discussing the history of chemistry it’s always dangerous to point to the
specific origin of an idea, since by its very definition, the scientific process relies upon
the gradual refinement of ideas that came before. However, as is the case with a
number of such ideas, one can point to certain seminal moments, and in the case of
chemical bonding, a famous early 18th century publication provides one such moment.

In his 1704 publication Opticks, Sir Isaac Newton makes mention of a force that
points to the modern idea of the chemical bond. In Query 31 of the book, Newton
describes ‘forces’ – other than those of magnetism and gravity – that allow ‘particles’ to
interact.

In 1718, while translating Opticks into his native language, French chemist
Étienne François Geoffroy created an Affinity Table. In this fascinating first look at the
likelihood of certain interactions, Geoffroy tabulated the relative affinity that various
substances had for other substances, and therefore described the strength of the
interactions between those substances.

While Newton and Geoffroy’s work predated our modern understanding of

elements and compounds, their work provided insight into the nature of chemical
interactions. However, it was over 100 years before the concept of the combining power
of elements was understood in a more modern sense. In a paper in the journal
Philosophical Transactions entitled “On a new series of organic bodies containing
metals” (Frankland, 1852), Edward Frankland describes the “"combining power of
elements,” a concept now known as valency in chemistry. Frankland summarized his
thoughts by proposing what he described as a ‘law’:

A tendency or law prevails (here), and that, no matter what the characters of the
uniting atoms may be, the combining power of the attracting element, if I may be
allowed the term, is always satisfied by the same number of these atoms.
46
 Frankland’s work suggested that each element combined with only a limited
number of atoms of another element, thus alluding to the concept of bonding. But it was
two other scientists who performed the most important contemporary research on the
concept of bonding.

In 1916, the American scientist Gilbert N. Lewis published a now famous paper
on bonding entitled “The atom and the molecule” (Lewis, 1916). In that paper he
outlined a number of important concepts regarding bonding that are still used today as
working models of electron arrangement at the atomic level. Most significantly, Lewis
developed a theory about bonding based on the number of outer shell, or valence,
electrons in an atom. He suggested that a chemical bond was formed when two atoms
shared a pair of electrons (later renamed a covalent bond by Irving Langmuir). His
"Lewis dot diagrams" used a pair of dots to represent each shared pair of electrons that
made up a covalent bond.

While still in college, a young chemist by the name of Linus Pauling familiarized
himself with Lewis’s work and began to consider how it might be interpreted within the
context of the newly developed field of quantum mechanics. The theory of quantum
mechanics, developed in the first half of the 20th century, had redefined our modern
understanding of the atom and so any theory of bonding would be incomplete if it were
not consistent with this new theory (see our modules Atomic Theory II: Bohr and the
Beginnings of Quantum Theory and Atomic Theory III: Wave-Particle Duality and the
Electron for more information).

Pauling’s greatest contribution to the field was his book The Nature of the
Chemical Bond (Pauling, 1939). In it, he linked the physics of quantum mechanics with
the chemical nature of the electron interactions that occur when chemical bonds are
made. Pauling’s work concentrated on establishing that true ionic bonds and covalent
bonds sit at extreme ends of a bonding spectrum, and that most chemical bonds are
classified somewhere between those extremes. Pauling further developed a sliding
scale of bond type governed by the electronegativity of the atoms participating in the
bond.

Pauling’s immense contributions to our modern understanding of the chemical

bond led to his being awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize for "research into the nature of the
chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex
substances."

Types of chemical bonds

Chemical bonding and interactions between atoms can be classified into a
number of different types. For our purposes we will concentrate on two common types
of chemical bonds, namely covalent and ionic bonding.

Molecular bonds are formed when constituent atoms come close enough
together such that the outer (valence) electrons of one atom are attracted to the positive
nuclear charge of its neighbor. As the independent atoms approach one another, there
are both repulsive forces (between the electrons in each atom and between the nuclei
of each atom), and attractive forces (between the positive nuclei and the negative
valence electrons). Some constituents require the addition of energy, called the
activation energy, to overcome the initial repulsive forces. But at various distances, the
47
atoms experience different attractive and repulsive forces, ultimately finding the ideal
separation distance where the electrostatic forces are reduced to a minimum. This
minimum represents the most stable position, and the distance between the atoms at
this point is known as the bond length.

Covalent bonding
As the name suggests, covalent bonding involves the sharing (co, meaning joint)
of valence (outer shell) electrons. As described previously, the atoms involved in
covalent bonding arrange themselves in order to achieve the greatest energetic stability.
And the valence electrons are shared – sometimes equally, and sometimes unequally –
between neighboring atoms. The simplest example of covalent bonding occurs when
two hydrogen atoms come together to ultimately form a hydrogen molecule, H2.

Ions and ionic bonding

Ionic bonding occurs when valence electrons are shared so unequally that they
spend more time in the vicinity of their new neighbor than their original nuclei. This type
of bond is classically described as occurring when atoms interact with one another to
either lose or gain electrons. Those atoms that have lost electrons acquire a net positive
charge and are called cations, and those that have gained electrons acquire a net
negative charge and are referred to as anions. The number of electrons gained or lost
by a constituent atom commonly conforms with Lewis’s valence octets, or filled valence
shell principle.

In reality even the most classic examples of ionic bonding, such as the sodium
chloride bond, contain characteristics of covalent bonding, or sharing of electrons of
outer shell electrons. A common misconception is the idea that elements tend to bond
with other elements in order to achieve these octets because they are 'stable' or, even
worse, 'happy', and that’s what elements 'want'. Elements have no such feelings; rather,
the actual reason for bond formation should be considered in terms of the energetic
stability arising from the electrostatic interaction of positively charged nuclei with
negatively charged electrons.

Substances that are held together by ionic bonds (like sodium chloride) can
commonly separate into true charged ions when acted upon by an external force, such
as when they dissolve in water. Further, in solid form, the individual atoms are not
cleanly attracted to one individual neighbor, but rather they form giant networks that are
attracted to one another by the electrostatic interactions between each atom’s nucleus
and neighboring valence electrons. The force of attraction between neighboring atoms
gives ionic solids an extremely ordered structure known as an ionic lattice, where the
oppositely charged particles line up with one another to create a rigid, strongly bonded
structure.

If ionic bonding and covalent bonding sit at the extreme ends of a bonding
spectrum, how do we know where any particular compound sits on that spectrum?
Pauling’s theory relies upon the concept of electronegativity, and it is the differences in
electronegativity between the atoms that is crucial in determining where any bond might
be placed on the sliding scale of bond type.

Pauling’s scale of electronegativity assigns numbers between 0 and 4 to each

chemical element. The larger the number, the higher the electronegativity and the
greater the attraction that element has for electrons. The difference in electronegativity
48
between two species helps identify the bond type. Ionic bonds are those in which a
large difference in electronegativity exists between two bonding species. Large
differences in electronegativity usually occur when metals bond to non-metals, so bonds
between them tend to be considered ionic.

When the difference in electronegativity between the atoms that make up the
chemical bond is less, then sharing is considered to be the predominant interaction, and
the bond is considered to be covalent. While it is by no means absolute, some consider
the boundary between ionic and covalent bonding to exist when the difference in
electronegativity is around 1.7 – less of a difference tends toward covalent, and a larger
difference tends towards ionic. Smaller differences in electronegativity usually occur
between elements that are both considered non-metals, so most compounds that are
made up from two non-metal atoms are considered to be covalent.

The valence electrons are the electrons directly involved in forming bonds to
form compounds. It is important that you know the number of valence electrons so that
can illustrate how bonds are formed. It is good that you have found out that metals have
low electronegativity and non-metals have high electronegativity because this property
plays an important role in forming compounds. Do you know what electronegativity
means? Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons,
the higher its value, the higher its tendency to attract electrons. How about ionization
energy? Did you know that ionization energy is the energy needed to pull or remove one
or more electron/s from a neutral atom? The lower the ionization energy the easier it is
to remove its valence electrons.

You can also show the number of valence electrons through the Lewis Symbol.
This symbol is composed of the chemical symbol of the element and dots that represent
the number of valence electrons.

Lewis used dots to represent valence electrons. Lewis dot diagrams (see Figure
1) are a quick and easy way to show the valence electron configuration of individual
atoms where no bonds have yet been made.

The dot diagrams can also be used to represent the molecules that are formed
when different species bond with one another. In the case of molecules, dots are placed
between two atoms to depict covalent bonds, where two dots (a shared pair of
electrons) denote a single covalent bond. In the case of the hydrogen molecule
discussed above, the two dots in the Lewis diagram represent a single pair of shared
electrons and thus a single bond

You will gain information about chemical bonding that involves gaining and losing
electrons.

In covalent bonding, a pair of shared electrons is equal to one (1) bond. Notice
that after the sharing of electrons, each of the atoms in the compound attains a stable
configuration and a covalent compound is formed. Such compound could exist as
independent units called molecules. As a whole, the molecule does not carry a charge.

The valence electrons are the outermost electrons which are directly involved in
chemical bonding. Lewis symbol is composed of the symbol of the element and dots
which represent the number of valence electrons of an atom that can easily be

49
determined through the family/group number in the Periodic Table of Elements. Atoms
form bonds with one another to become stable and attain the electronic configuration of
the noble gas nearest it. An ionic bond involves complete transfer of electrons, thus
ions are formed. It involves metals with low electronegativity and non-metals with high
electronegativity.Ionic compounds conduct electricity when in solution but not in solid
phase. Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water and in polar solvents. A covalent
bond involves the sharing of electrons that results in the formation of covalent
compound whose representative particle is a molecule. As a whole, a molecule does
not carry a charge. Covalent bonds may be polar or nonpolar. Two identical non-
metallic atoms always form nonpolar covalent compound such as N2, O2, H2, F2 and
other diatomic molecules. Non-identical atoms with electronegativity difference higher
than 0.4 and lower than 1.9 produce polar covalent bond. Covalent compounds are
non-conductors of electricity in the solid phase and in solution. They have a lower
melting temperature than compounds formed by ionic bonds. Metallic bonding exists in
metals through the attraction between the freely moving valence electrons and the
positively charged metal atom. The valence electrons of these metal atoms are usually
called “sea of electrons.” Thermal and electrical conductivity in metals are due to the
free flow of electrons in the solid phase. Aside from these properties, metals are
lustrous, malleable, and ductile. These properties are related to the kind of bonding
metals have.

Important Terms to Remember

Anion - a negatively charged particle

Cation- a positively charged particle

chemical bond -the force or energy that holds atoms or ions together

covalent bond -a bond formed when atoms share electrons to attain stability

electronegativity -is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electron

ionic bond- a bond which involves complete transfer of electrons

ions -charged particles

metallic bond - a bond formed by the attraction of cations and the electrons
around them

valence electrons - the electrons at the outermost energy level

CHAPTER XI

50
 The Carbon Compounds

In the previous module, you have learned about how non-metals make chemical
bonds by sharing electrons from their outer shells to attain stable electronic
configurations. This is also the process by which every carbon compound or organic
compound is formed. In this module, the lessons will be about the uses and
properties of common organic compounds like hydrocarbons, aldehydes and
ketones, carboxylic acids and alcohols.

Carbon is very special because it can form so many compounds. The

explanation lies deep inside the atom. Carbon atoms can form strong links with four
other atoms. This dramatically increases the number of patterns that carbon atoms
can make.

Carbon can also link together in long chains or rings, carbon to carbon to carbon
to carbon and so on. Chemists call these links chemical bonds; very long chains,
made by joining short ones, are called polymers. And, quite unusually, these long
chains cannot be destroyed by water or air or be attacked by bacteria. This explains
why so many plastics do not disintegrate in the environment in the way that other
materials do. Only sunlight can destroy some polymers, causing the chains to break,
and the material to become brittle.

Carbon is part of many compounds, all of which have certain common properties.
For example:

1 Few carbon based-compounds change quickly at ordinary temperatures, but they

begin to react fiercely at high temperatures (as in burning).

2 All carbon compounds that form tissues plants, tar, oil, natural gas, etc. will burn
(they are combustible) and can be used as a fuel. When they burn, the compound is
oxidised and carbon dioxide is produced. The remaining material is nearly pure
carbon (which can be seen in the charred nature of burnt wood, for
example).

3 Many carbon-based compounds are not attracted to water and so in general do

not dissolve in water. As a result, water alone cannot be used to remove grease or
oil from a surface, nor will water dissolve our skin, because all of these things are
carbon compounds.

4 Groups that contain carbon and nitrogen often have an unpleasant smell in liquid
form. Some people compare it to rotting fish. Such smells are mainly confined to the
factories where the materials are made. The common fabric material nylon, for
example, which is a plastic that contains nitrogen, has no smell once it is made into
a yarn.

5 Some compounds of carbon and nitrogen are very unstable and can be made into
explosives. Two of the more common explosives are TNT (trinitrotoluene) and
nitroglycerine (glycerol trinitrate).

Organic Compounds: Are they Useful?

51
 Organic compounds are group of compounds that contain the element carbon.
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen combined with other elements
namely oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, and halogens (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, and iodine) Ethyl alcohol, acetone, gasoline, napthalene, acetic acid,
vanillin, acetylene, and esters are just a few examples of many useful organic
compounds. These kinds of compounds are produced by plants and animals.
However, these carbon-containing compounds can also be produced artificially.
There are also organic compounds that are produced from petroleum: liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline, lubricating oil and kerosene. These compounds
have different uses in the community.

Many organic compounds are formed because of the special characteristics of

the element carbon. A carbon atom has four (4) valence electrons. This kind of
atomic structure makes the carbon atom able to form four covalent bonds with atoms
of other elements and other carbon atoms. Carbon atoms can also make many
types of arrangements: single bond, double bond, and triple bond. With these
abilities of the carbon atoms, chemical bonds between carbon atoms and other
elements can form different kinds of compounds with short and long straight and
branched chained structures such as the following compounds.

What makes organic compounds ubiquitous is the chemistry of their carbon

core. Recall that carbon atoms have four electrons in their valence shell, and that
the octet rule dictates that atoms tend to react in such a way as to complete their
valence shell with eight electrons. Carbon atoms do not complete their valence
shells by donating or accepting four electrons. Instead, they readily share electrons
via covalent bonds.

Commonly, carbon atoms share with other carbon atoms, often forming a long
carbon chain referred to as a carbon skeleton. When they do share, however, they
do not share all their electrons exclusively with each other. Rather, carbon atoms
tend to share electrons with a variety of other elements, one of which is always
hydrogen. Carbon and hydrogen groupings are called hydrocarbons. If you study the
figures of organic compounds in the remainder of this chapter, you will see several
with chains of hydrocarbons in one region of the compound.

Many combinations are possible to fill carbon’s four “vacancies.” Carbon may
share electrons with oxygen or nitrogen or other atoms in a particular region of an
organic compound. Moreover, the atoms to which carbon atoms bond may also be
part of a functional group. A functional group is a group of atoms linked by strong
covalent bonds and tending to function in chemical reactions as a single unit. You
can think of functional groups as tightly knit “cliques” whose members are unlikely to
be parted. Five functional groups are important in human physiology; these are the
hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, methyl and phosphate groups.

Carbon’s affinity for covalent bonding means that many distinct and relatively
stable organic molecules nevertheless readily form larger, more complex molecules.
Any large molecule is referred to as macromolecule (macro- = “large”), and the
organic compounds in this section all fit this description. However, some
macromolecules are made up of several “copies” of single units called monomer
(mono- = “one”; -mer = “part”). Like beads in a long necklace, these monomers link

52
 by covalent bonds to form long polymers (poly- = “many”). There are many
examples of monomers and polymers among the organic compounds.

Properties of Common Organic Compounds

Every kind of organic compound has specific properties or characteristics.

Although these compounds may show similarities in some properties, these compounds
do not have exactly the same properties. Gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil,
vanillin, acetic acid, and ethyl alcohol are organic compounds with different properties.
Gasoline, for example, has a strong odor, is volatile, and highly flammable. In this
activity, you will find out about the properties-namely, odor, viscosity, volatility, and
flammability-of some other common organic compounds. Odor is the smell of the
compound. Every compound has its own specific odor.

Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. Volatility is the measure of

the tendency of a compound to evaporate or turn into gaseous state. Flammability is the
measure of how easily material burns.

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen atoms
only. Hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane and butane are components of natural
gas. Hydrocarbons are grouped into families namely, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

Alcohols are another group of organic compounds. These organic compounds

also have very important uses. Some alcohols are used as antiseptic or disinfectant,
some are used as cleaning agents, others are used as components of liquors and a few
alcohols are used as fuel for portable stoves or other types of burners.

Acetone and formalin are examples of simple carbonyl containing compounds

which have common uses. Carbonyl containing compounds are organic compounds
that contain carbonyl functional group, which is composed of a carbon atom
doublebonded to an oxygen atom: C=O.

Carbon atoms have special abilities: carbon atoms can form chemical bonds
with other carbon atoms and other nonmetal atoms in many ways. They can form
single, double, and triple bonds. These abilities of carbon atoms are the reasons why
there are som many kinds of organic compounds.

Hydrocarbons are a specific group of organic compounds which contain carbon

and hydrogen only. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes are the three (3) basic groups of
hydrocarbon compounds. Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have single bonds between
carbon atoms. Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have double bonds between carbon
atoms and Alkynes have triple bonds between carbon atoms.

Ethyne or commonly known as acetylene is an alkyne hydrocarbon with a

chemical formula C2H2. This organic compound is commonly used as fuel in an oxy-
acetylene welding torch. Ethyne (acetylene) is also produced when Calcium carbide,
CaC2, reacts with water in the air. It has the ability to hasten the ripening of fruits. That
is why fruit vendors use calcium carbide in ripening their fruits in just a few days.

Ethene is a gaseous organic compound with a chemical formula CH2CH2. It is a

plant’s compound that is responsible for the ripening of fruits.

53
 Alcohols are a group of organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group, -OH,
that is chemically bonded to a carbon atom in the compound. They have special uses
such as a disinfectant, fuel, and as a main component (ethyl alcohol) of liquor and other
alcoholic drinks.

Carbonyl compounds like acetone, and formaldehyde have a carbonyl

functional group, C=O, which is chemically bonded to a carbon atom in the compound.
These common carbonyl compounds also have important uses: acetone is used as a
cleaning agent like a nail polish remover, and formaldehyde is used in preserving
organic materials like an animal specimen. This is also the compound used in
embalming human cadavers.

RULES FOR NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

1) Find the longest carbon chain which contains the functional group or multiple bond if
present and name it (using the correct ending).

2) Number the longest chain (left to right or right to left) so that the functional
group/multiple bond/longest side chain (branch) is on the lowest numbered carbon
possible.

3) Name each side group but change the ending to -yl.

4) Use a prefix di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. to denote how many side groups of each length are
present.

5) Before naming the side group give the number of the carbon to which the side group
is attached.

6) Arrange the side groups in alphabetical order ignoring the prefixes di-,tri-, etc.

Important Terms to Remember

54
Alkanes. Alkanes are hydrocarbon compounds where atoms only form single bonds
with other carbon atoms.

Alkenes. Alkenes are hydrocarbon compounds which have double bonds between
carbon atoms.

Alkynes. Alkynes are hydrocarbon compounds which have triple bonds between
carbon atoms.

Boiling point. It is the temperature in which a substance goes from the liquid phase
to the gas phase.

Carbonyl containing compounds. Carbonyl compounds are organic compounds

where a carbon atom is bonded to a carbonyl group (C=O). To illustrate: C—C=O

Flammability.Flammability is the property of a substance that describes how easily

it burns.

Hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting primarily of

carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Organic compound. Organic compound is any chemical compound that mainly

contain carbon that is chemically bonded with hydrogen and other nonmetal
elements like oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen.

Viscosity. Viscosity is the property of a fluid that describes a substance’s resistance

to flow or deformation.

Volatility. Volatility is the property that describes how a substance easily evaporates

CHAPTER XII

55
 What’s in a Mole?

In real life situations, pieces of matter are quantified by finding the mass or by
counting. Market vendors for example, would rather sell mongo seeds by getting the
mass and salted eggs by counting. The choice of quantifying goods is determined by
convenience. It is easier to get the mass of rice grains rather than count the grains.
It is more convenient to count the number of eggs rather than get their mass. To
measure these quantities, mass units such as kilogram or gram, or counting units
such as dozen or case are being used. In the laboratory, chemists measure out a
chemical substance and react it with another substance to form the desired quantity
of a new product. In this case, chemists want to know the number of atoms, ions, or
molecules because these are the ones that react with each other. However, these
things are too small and too many to count individually so chemists use a unit called
mole to count them by weighing. Like a dozen, a ream, or a case, a mole also
represents a certain number of particles. Can you guess how many particles are
equal to one mole? As you go through this module you will be able to answer the
following key questions:

Avogadro's number is the number of particles in one mole of a substance. It is

a very large number equal to 6.02 x 10 23 particles. So, a mole (mol) of a substance
is 6.02 x 10 23 representative particles of that substance. The representative particles
can be atoms, molecules, or formula units. So, one mole of carbon-12 contains 6.02
x 10 23 atoms, one mole of water contains 6.02 x 10 23 water molecules and one
mole of sodium chloride (table salt) contains 6.02 x 10 23 formula units of sodium
chloride. For you to figure out how large Avogadro’s number is, try to imagine this, “if
you put together 6.02 x 10 23 basketballs, it will be as big as the Earth or if you have
6.02 x 10 23 rice grains, it would cover the land masses of the Earth to a depth of 75
meters.”

Applying the mole concept can be a useful quantitative tool in daily life.
Understanding this concept gives you an idea of how many molecules of vitamins
and or medicines are introduced into our body. Given the mass, you also have a
clearer idea of how many molecules of pollutants are produced and released in the
environment due to human activities even though your unaided eyes cannot see
them.

Percentage Composition of a Compound

Are you interested to know how much of an element is present in a compound?

You can answer this question by determining percentage composition. The

mass of each element in a compound compared to the entire mass of the compound
multiplied by 100 percent is called the percentage composition of the compound. So,
the percentage composition of a compound tells you the percentage of the mass
made up by each element in a compound. Let us compare it in a classroom
situation. You are 50 in your section with 21 boys and 29 girls. If you will be asked
what percent of the class are boys and what percent are girls, how are you going to
compute for the answer? If your answer is 42% boys and 58% girls, you got it
correctly! Let us have an example for the compound which is so important to all of
us, water (H2O). The computation below shows the molar mass of water. If you will
56
be asked to compute for the percentage of oxygen and hydrogen in water, how are
you going to do it?

Did you answer 89% oxygen and 11% hydrogen? Your answer is correct! To get
the percent oxygen, mass of oxygen is divided by the mass of water multiplied by
100%. The same is true with hydrogen.

Can you present a general formula for the computation of percentage composition?
We can have the formula as:

mass of element in the compound

% mass of element = mass of the compound x 100%

Knowledge about percentage composition is useful in choosing the best fertilizer

that gives higher amount of nitrogen and potassium in the soil. Aside from this, it will
help us to be a wise consumer because it is a good basis of choosing the food
product we need to eat based on its content. Whenever you buy t-shirt, it is good to
check whether it is 100% cotton or just 75% cotton. In terms of product
development, percentage composition will indicate the correct amount of substances
needed in order to produce the expected product. For example, if a manufacturing
company wants to produce resin, it will not be able to do if it does not know the
correct percentage of every component needed to form resin.

Different kinds of materials with the same number of particles have different
masses.
One mole contains Avogadro’s number of particles equal to 6.02 x 10 23.
Different substances with the same number of moles have the same number of
particles but they have different masses.
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams.
The molar mass of a monatomic element like Na, Li, Mg is numerically equal to its
atomic mass expressed in grams.
The mass of the substance divided by its molar mass gives the number of moles of
the substance.
The number of moles multiplied by Avogadro’s number gives the number of
particles.
Percentage composition of a compound tells you the percentage of the mass made
up by each element in a compound.

The mole is the unit of amount in chemistry.  It provides a bridge between the
atom and the macroscopic amounts of material that we work with in the laboratory. 
It allows the chemist to weigh out amounts of two substances, say iron and sulfur,
such that equal numbers of atoms of iron and sulfur are obtained.  A mole of a
substance is defined as:
The mass of substance containing the same number of fundamental units as there
are atoms in exactly 12.000 g of 12C.
Fundamental units may be atoms, molecules, or formula units, depending on the
substance concerned. At present, our best estimate of the number of atoms in
12.000 g of 12C is 6.022 x 1023, a huge number of atoms.  This is obviously a very
important quantity.  For historical reasons, it is called Avogadro's Number, and is
given the symbol NA.
57
 Unfortunately, the clumsy definition of the mole obscures its utility.  It is nearly
analogous to defining a dozen as the mass of a substance that contains the same
number of fundamental units as are contained in 733 g of Grade A large eggs.  This
definition completely obscures the utility of the dozen: that it is 12 things!  Similarly, a
mole is NA things. The mole is the same kind of unit as the dozen -- a certain number
of things.  But it differs from the dozen in a couple of ways.  First, the number of
things in a mole is so huge that we cannot identify with it in the way that we can
identify with 12 things.  Second, 12 is an important number in the English system of
weights and measures, so the definition of a dozen as 12 things makes sense.
However, the choice of the unusual number, 6.022 x 1023, as the number of things in
a mole seems odd. Why is this number chosen?  Would it not make more sense to
define a mole as 1.0 x 1023 things, a nice (albeit large) integer that everyone can
easily remember? The atomic weight scale defines the masses of atoms relative to
the mass of an atom of 12C, which is assigned a mass of exactly 12.000 atomic mass
units (amu). The number 12 is chosen so that the least massive atom, hydrogen,
has a mass of about 1 (actually 1.008) on the scale.  The atomic mass unit is a very
tiny unit of mass appropriate to the scale of single atoms.  Originally, of course,
chemists had no idea of its value in laboratory-sized units like the gram.  The early
versions of the atomic weight scale were established by scientists who had no
knowledge of the electron, proton, or neutron.  When these were discovered in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, it turned out that the mass of an atom on the
atomic weight scale was very nearly the same as the number of protons in its
nucleus.  This is a very useful correpondence, but it was discovered only after the
weight scale had been in use for a long time.

Important Terms to Remember

Avogadro’s Number - the number equal to 6.02 x 10 23 which refers to the number
of atoms or ions or molecules equal to 1 mole.

Chemical formula - a combination of the symbol of elements and subscript

numbers representing a compound

molar mass - the mass of one mole of a substance

mole - SI unit to express the amount of a substance

molecule - the smallest unit of a substance that retains its physical and chemical
properties, it may be composed of one kind of atom or two or more kinds of atoms
bonded together.

Percentage - composition the percentage by mass of each element in a compound

NAME:_____________________________________ DATE:__________
GRADE AND SECTION: ______________________
58
 TEST YOURSELF

Test your understanding about the mole concept by answering the following
problems.

1. A cancer patient needs to increase his ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) intake to fight
cancer cells. a) How many moles of ascorbic acid does he need to complete the
doctor’s prescription of 13.00g of intravenous ascorbic acid every day for one
month? b) How many molecules of ascorbic acid does he need everyday to fight the
cancer cells?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. Aspartame (C14H18N2O5) is synthetic table sugar substitute in food and drinks. If

a food product needs 0.25 g of C14H18N2O5 to sweeten the Chemitria cupcake,
and you ate this food product, how many molecules of aspartame have you eaten?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. During exercise, lactic acid (C3H6O3) forms in the muscles causing muscle
cramps. If 5.0 g of lactic acid (C3H6O3) concentrate in your leg muscles, how many
moles of lactic acid (C3H6O3) are causing you pain? 4. Paraffin (C22H46) is a
wax used in candle-making. During combustion, a 20.0 g candle produces 1.42
moles of CO2. How many molecules of CO2 are released in the atmosphere after
using the candle?
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_

CHAPTER XIII

59
 BEHAVIOR OF GASES

This module offers interesting discussion about gases. You will have a chance to get
to know important concepts that will make you appreciate the properties and the
behavior of gases.

Most gases are invisible. We can name as many solids and liquids that we see
around us but not gases. It is only the very few colored ones like the black smoke
produced by smoke belchers that can be seen. Unseen gases are present, to name a
few, in a bottle that seems to be empty, in the production of food by the plant, and even
in playing our favorite sports. Even our very own existence requires the presence of
unseen gases. We take in oxygen and we exhale carbon dioxide. Can we survive here
on earth without the desirable gases which support life?

Most of the properties of gases can be attributed to the random and scattered
arrangement of its molecules, which are located as far away as possible from each
other because they have very weak intermolecular force of attraction.

When you open a can or bottle of softdrinks, it fizzes because of the escaping
dissolved carbon dioxide due to change of pressure. When the wind blows, it exerts
pressure too. There are a lot of manifestations of gases though we cannot see them.

Volume units and their equivalents:

1 mL = 1 cm3 1 L = 1 dm3 1 m3 = 1000 L

Pressure units and their equivalents:

1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 76 cm Hg = 760 torr = 101325 Pa = 14.6956 psi

Temperature units and their equivalents:

0˚C = 273.15K 0˚C = 32˚F

Boyle’s Law

The relationship between the volume and pressure of gases at constant

temperature was first stated by Robert Boyle during the 16th century.

He performed an experiment wherein he trapped a fixed amount of air in the J-tube, he

changed the pressure and controlled the temperature and then, he observed its effect to
the volume of the air inside the J-tube.
He found out that as the pressure is increased, the volume decreases.
He finally concluded that the volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure at constant temperature.

Gas particles have a very weak intermolecular force of attraction, hence they
move as far as possible from each other. They have the tendency to occupy all the
spaces they are contained in. If the pressure is increased, the volume will be decreased
60
forcing the gas particles to move closer to one another. The observations in Activity 2
can be expressed in the Boyle’s Law equation

Where: V = volume, P = pressure, T = temperature and n = amount of the gas. How

will you read the above sited equation? It is read as: The volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure, if temperature and amount of a gas are held constant.

Charles’ Law

The volume - temperature relationship in gases (k = V/T) was determined by and

named after Jacques Charles. In his experiment, Jacques Charles trapped a sample of
gas in a cylinder with a movable piston in water bat at different temperatures. Jacques
Charles found out that different gases decreased their volume by factors 1/273 per °C
of cooling. With this rate of reduction, if gas will be cooled up to -273°C, it will have zero
volume! Interesting, isn’t it? Charles’ Law states that at constant pressure, the volume
of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin (K) temperature.

Where: V = volume and T = temperature expressed in Kelvin

Why is there a need to convert °C to K? Kelvin is the basic unit for measuring
temperature in the International System (SI). “It denotes the absolute temperature scale
whereby 0K or absolute zero is defined as the temperature when molecules will have
the lowest energy.”

Note: To convert °C to K, use this formula: K = °C + 273.15

Gay-Lussac’s Law

The person who is credited with the determination of the temperature-pressure

relationship in gases at constant volume is Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. He deduced that
the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its temperature.

This means that when the temperature of gases increases its pressure also
increases or vice versa. Hence, we can state the Gay-Lussac’s Law as: At constant
volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.

Combined Gas Law

Can you think of applications involving combined gas law?

The weather balloon which carries instruments upward to be able to send back
information on atmospheric pressure, humidity, temperature, and wind speed through
radiosonde also applies Combined Gas Law. As the weather balloon rises up from the
ground, it responds to three variable changes in the surroundings; volume, pressure,
and temperature.

Have you ever notice the warning label in the aerosol container? What is the
temperature requirement for its storage? Have you seen an explosion of a can of this

61
kind? The explosion of this container is also an application of Combined Gas Law.“The
exposure to high temperature increases the kinetic energy of the gases causing an
increase in the pressure due to the increased collision of the gases on the walls. An
increase in pressure would result in expansion of volume. But because the can is
contained, thus the container explodes.”

No one is credited for the Combined Gas Law. Putting together Boyle’s Law and
Charles’ Law together will result to this statement.

The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other, but are both
directly proportional to the temperature of that gas.

Avogadro’s Law

Do you still remember the mole concept? Can you still recall what a mole
means? The number of moles quantifies the amount of a substance. What could be
the possible relationship of the amount of gas in a mole to its volume? Can you make a
prediction about it?

In 1811, Avogadro wrote in a paper that, “Equal volumes of all gases, kept at the
same pressure and temperature, contain the same number of molecules.” Avogadro
was the first to suggest that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
number of moles of gas present at a given temperature and pressure.

If the volume of gases is directly proportional to the number of mole whose symbol is n,
what will be the mathematical equation for the volume-mole relationship? Can you still
recall the way we represent the relationship in a mathematical equation?

where V is the volume of gas

n is the amount of gas in moles and

k is a proportionality constant

• Gas is one of the phases of matter. It has no definite shape and size. It can be
compressed easily.

• Properties of gases include mass, volume, temperature, and pressure.

o The amount of a gas or its mass could be expressed in moles or grams. The mass of
gases is negligible.

o The volume of a gas is the amount of space occupied by the gases. Gases have the
tendency to occupy all the spaces of the container that they are confined. They have
weak intermolecular force of attraction; hence they are arranged as far away as
possible from each other. The common units used in expressing the volume of a gas
are liter (L) and milliliter (mL).

o The temperature of a gas is the measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. It is

proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules. It can be measured in
Celsius or Kelvin. Kelvin is the absolute scale.

o The pressure of a confined gas is the average effect of the forces of the colliding
molecules. It can be measured in atmosphere, torr, psi, cmHg or mmHg. It can be
quantified using this equation:
62
P =F/ A Where: P= pressure, F = force, and A= area

F = ma Where: F = force, m = mass and a = acceleration

• The properties of gases can affect one another. They are related to each other.

o The volume of a gas is directly related to its temperature at constant pressure.

o The pressure of a gas is directly related to its temperature at constant temperature.

o The volume of a gas is inversely related to its pressure at constant temperature.

Important Terms to Remember

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE:

Temperature in relation to absolute zero (−273.15°C or −459.67°F). Its unit is the

Kelvin (K), named after William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), who created the
scale. The Kelvin and Celsius scales are directly related; hence, Celsius temperatures
can be converted to Kelvins (for which neither the word or symbol for "degree" are
used) by adding 273.15.

AVOGADRO'S LAW:
A statement, derived by the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856),
which holds that as the volume of gas increases under isothermal and isobarometric
conditions, the number of molecules (expressed in terms of mole number), increases as
well. Thus the ratio of volume to mole number is aconstant.

BOYLE'S LAW:
A statement, derived by English chemist Robert Boyle (1627-1691), which holds
that for gases in isothermal conditions, an inverse relationship exists between the
volume and pressure of a gas. This means that the greater the pressure, the less the
volume and viceversa, and therefore the product of pressure multiplied by volume yields
a constantfigure.

CHARLES'S LAW:
A statement, derived by French physicist and chemist J. A. C. Charles (1746-
1823), which holds that for gases in isobarometric conditions, the ratio between the
volume and temperature of a gas is constant. This means that the greater the
temperature, the greater the volume and vice versa.

DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE:

63
 A statement, derived by the English chemist John Dalton (1766-1844), which
holds that the total pressure of a gas is equal to the sum of its partial pressures—that is,
the pressure exerted by each component of the gas mixture.

GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW:
A statement, derived by the French physicist and chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac
(1778-1850), which holds that the pressure of a gas is directly related to its absolute
temperature. Hence the ratio of pressure to absolute temperature is a constant.

HENRY'S LAW:
A statement, derived by the English chemist William Henry (1774-836), which
holds that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas above the solution. This holds true only forgases, such as hydrogen
and oxygen, that are capable of dissolving in water without undergoing ionization.

IDEAL GAS LAW:

A proposition, also known as the combined gas law, that draws on all the gas
laws. The ideal gas law can be expressed as the formula pV = nRT, where p stands for
pressure, V for volume, n for number of moles, and T for temperature. R is known as
the universal gas constant, a figure equal to 0.0821 atm · liter/mole · K.

INVERSE RELATIONSHIP:
A situation involving two variables, in which one of the two increases in direct
proportion to the decrease in the other.

IONIZATION:
A reaction in which anatom or group of atoms loses one or more electrons. The
atoms are then converted toions, which are either wholly positive or negative in charge.

ISOTHERMAL:
Referring to a situation in which temperature is kept constant.

ISOBAROMETRIC:
Referring to a situation in which pressure is kept constant.

MOLE:
A unit equal to 6.022137 × 10 23 molecules.

CHAPTER XIV
64
 CHEMICAL REACTION
Introduction

From the time we get up in the morning to the time that we sleep at night,
chemical changes are taking place, within us and outside of us. Plants grow through
photosynthesis, foods that we eat are digested by the body, metals corrode, raw
materials are being converted to useful products, new medicines are being developed,
more versatile and cost effective materials are being made.

Various chemical changes that occur around us have significant effectsto our
environment and consequently to our health. Chemical changes occurring in industries
result to products that are useful to us. The wastes we throw continue to undergo
chemical changes and this has an impact on our wellbeing as well. The irresponsible
use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides have negatively affected plants and aquatic
life. We continue to pollute the atmosphere with vehicle and industrial gas emissions.

In this module , you will further understand how a chemical change proceeds, how
bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, and how chemical reactions are
translated into chemical equations, where rearrangements of atoms causes the
formation of new substance/s. A lot of these chemical changes made the quality of our
lives better.

Chemical bonding results to breaking of bonds and formation of new bonds, thus
new substances are formed. Formation of new substances means a chemical reaction
has taken place.

When a physical change occurs there is no breaking and forming of bonds. There are
certain things that will help us identify if a chemical reaction has taken place. We call
these evidences of chemical reactions.

1. Production of light

2. Evolution of gas

3. Temperature change

4. Change in intrinsic properties (color, odor)

5. Formation of precipitate

Oxygen is vital to life. One interesting reaction which involves oxygen is the production
of fire.

Fire has fascinated people for so long, that the ancient people even regarded it as
one of the earliest elements. Fire was so important to them and they described it as an
element that changes everything. The earliest theory about burning was the Phlogiston
Theory. This theory by George Ernst Stahl in the 17th century stated that when a
material burns, it releases a substance known as phlogiston, and this theory was
accepted for a very long time.

Antoine Lavoisier through his careful observations from his experiments,

debunked the phlogiston theory as he discovered that instead of releasing a substance
(phlogiston) a material accurately burns as it reacts (uses) with oxygen. This is now
known as the Theory of Oxidation, and this is accepted up to this day.

65
For burning to occur, 3 factors should be present in proper conditions and proportions.

1. Fuel

2. Oxygen

3. Heat

A chemical equation is a chemist’s shorthand for a chemical reaction. The equation

distinguishes between the reactants, which are the starting materials and the products
which are the resulting substance/s. It shows the symbols or formulas of the reactants
and products, the phases (solid, liquid, gas) of these substances, and the ratio of the
substances as they react.

A. COMBINATION (Synthesis) REACTION:

A reaction when 2 or more reactants combine to form a single product.

The general formula for this reaction is : A + B AB

B. DECOMPOSITION REACTION:

In this reaction, a single reactant breaks down into simpler ones. (2 or more
products).

This is the reverse of combination reaction. The general formula for this reaction is:
AB A+B

C. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT (Replacement) REACTION:

This is when one element replaces another element from a compound.

The more active element takes the place of the less active element in a compound.
The general formula for this reaction is: A + BC AC + B

D. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION (Metathesis):

This is when the positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions) of different
compounds switch places, forming two entirely different compounds.

The general formula for this reaction is: AB + CD AD + CB

E. COMBUSTION (Burning) REACTION:

This is when oxygen combines with a hydrocarbon (compound containing hydrogen

and carbon) to form a water and carbon dioxide. Example of which is the burning of
butane gas C4 H10 + O2 CO2 + H2O

66
 F. ACID-BASE REACTION:

This is a speacial kind of double displacement reaction that takes place when an
acid and base react with each other. The H+ of the acid reacts with the OH- of the
base forming water.

The other product is salt. Example of which is: HCI + NaOH NaCI = H2O

Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass is conserved in a chemical

reaction. The total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products. No
new atoms are created or destroyed, there was only grouping or regrouping
(rearrangement) of atoms.

Note that the coefficient (number) placed before the formulas indicate the number
of molecules or moles.

Determining the correct coefficients balances the number of atoms in the

reactant and in the product side, allowing it to follow the Law of Conservation of Mass.

Steps in Balancing Equations:

Write the unbalanced chemical equation, make sure you have followed correctly
the rules in writing formulas of compounds.

• Take note of the elements present in the reactant and product side.

• Count the number of atom/s of each element present in the reactant and product side.
• Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms of every
element on each side of the equation. Balance chemical equations by placing the
appropriate coefficients before the symbol or formula. Do not change the subscripts of
the formula in an attempt to balance the equation as it will change the identity of the
components.

• For a chemical equation to conform to the Law of Conservation of Mass, it has to be

balanced.

• Chemical equations are balanced by placing the appropriate coefficients before the
symbols or formulasof reactants and products.

• Certain steps are observed in balancing reactions.

In 1888 Svante Arrhenius suggested that particles must possess a certain

minimum amount of kinetic energy in order to react. The energy diagram is shown
below.

Energy diagrams are used to analyze the changes in energy that occur during a
chemical reaction. The energy of the reactants must be raised up over an energy
barrier.

Activation energy is the energy required to initiate a reaction and force the
reactants to form an activated complex.The activated complex is located at the peak of
the energy diagram for a reaction.

COLLISION THEORY:
67
 Collision theory explains how collision between reactant molecules may or may
not result in a successful chemical reaction.

Based this theory, not all collisions between the molecules result in the formation of
products. Effective collisions between molecules, which result in the formation of
products, only occur when the following two conditions are met:

(a) the colliding molecules should possess a minimum kinetic energy, known as
activation energy, to start a chemical reaction.

(b) the reactant molecules should be in correct orientation when they collide.

Activation energy is needed to break the bond between reactant molecules to form new
bonds leading to formation of the products.

Discussion on acid rain, a chemical reaction that has environmental issues

An example of a chemical reaction that has an environmental concern is the acid

rain. Acid rain has been the leading significant cause of destruction in our
environment. In infrastructure, it is the cause of corrosion of metals in alloys like steel in
buildings, bridges, and transport vehicles. This is due to the displacement reaction of
active metals with hydrogen in acids. Materials with historical and cultural values such
as monuments and statues are also destroyed by acid rain. They are mostly made up of
limestone and marble which like metals form a chemical reaction with acids, lead to
their dissolution. Marine life is also affected by acid rain. It causes the pH of bodies of
water to decrease; this change in pH will increase marine life mortality, retard fish
growth, decrease egg production and embryo survival. Acid rain also tends to
dissolve vital minerals in the soil. Crops grown in these depleted soils give poor yields, if
they grow at all.

In areas of high automobile traffic, such as in large cities, the amount of

nitrogen oxides emitted into the atmosphere can be quite significant. In urban
areas, the main source of acid rain is from automobiles. Other sources are thermal
power plants and coal mining industries. Gas emissions like CO2, CO, SO2, NO2, and
NO from these sources react with water vapor in the air producing acids. Rain
contaminated with these acids are what we know now as acid rain. Removing the
offending oxides from exhaust and using alternate energy sources are much preferred
courses of action at the present time. One of the most important means of reducing
sulfur emissions is the swith to low sulfur fuels. Another is the scrubbing of stack gases
before they are released to the atmosphere. In this process, the stack gases percolate
through a solution that absorbs the oxides of sulfur. The solution is renewed frequently,
and waste sulfur can be recovered from the spent solution.

Important Terms to Remember

68
ACID-BASE REACTION:
A chemical reaction in which an acid is mixed with a base, resulting in the formation of
water along with a salt.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS:
A mixture of water and any substance that is solvent in it.

BALANCED EQUATION:
A chemical equation in which the numbers of atoms in the reactants and those in the
product areequal. In the course of balancing an equation, coefficients may need to be
applied to one or more of the chemical species involved; however, the actual formulas
of the species cannot be changed.

CATALYST:
A substance that speeds upa chemical reaction without participating in it either as a
reactant or product. Catalysts are thus not consumed in the reaction.

CHEMICAL EQUATION:
A representation of a chemical reaction in which the chemical symbols on the left stand
for the reactants, and those on the right for the product or products. On paper, a
chemical equation looks much like a mathematical one; however, instead of an equals
sign, a chemical equation uses an arrow to show the direction of the reaction.

CHEMICAL KINETICS:
the study of the rate at which chemical reactions occur.

CHEMICAL REACTION:
A process whereby the chemical properties of a substance are changed by a
rearrangement of the atoms in the substance.

CHEMICAL SPECIES:
A generic term used for any substance studied in chemistry—whether it be an element,
compound, mixture, atom, molecule, ion, and so forth.

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS:
The study of the amounts of heat and other forms of energy associated with chemical
reactions.

69
COEFFICIENT:
A number used to indicate the presence of more than one unit—typically, more than one
molecule—of a chemical species in a chemical equation. For instance, 2H 2 O indicates
two water molecules. (Note that 1 is never used as a coefficient.)

COLLISION MODEL:
The theory that chemical reactions are the result of collisions between molecules that
are strong enough to break bonds in the reactants, resulting in a rearrangement of
atoms to form a product or products.

DECOMPOSITION REACTION:
A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler compounds, or
even into elements. This is the opposite of a synthesis or combination reaction.

DOUBLE-DISPLACEMENT REACTION:
A chemical reaction in which the partners in two compounds changeplaces. This can be
symbolized as AB + CD →AD + CB. Compare single-displacement reaction.

ENDOTHERMIC:
A term describing a chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed or consumed.

EXOTHERMIC:
A term describing a chemical reaction in which heat is produced.

OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION:
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons.

PRECIPITATION REACTION:
A chemical reaction in which a solid isformed.

PRODUCT:
The substance or substances that result from a chemical reaction.

REACTANT:
A substance that interacts with another substance in a chemical reaction, resulting in
the formation of aproduct.

SINGLE-DISPLACEMENT REACTION:

70
A chemical reaction in which an element reacts with a compound, and one of the
elements in the compound is released as a free element. This can be represented
symbolically as A + BC →B + AC. Compare double-displacement reaction.

STOICHIOMETRY:
The study of the relationships among the amounts of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction. Producing a balanced equation requires application of stoichiometry
(pronounced "stoy-kee-AH-muh-tree").

SYNTHESIS OR COMBINATIONREACTION:
A chemical reaction in which a compound is formed from simpler materials—either
elements or simple compounds. It is the opposite of a decomposition reaction.

UNBALANCED EQUATION:
A chemical equation in which the sum of atoms in the product or products does not
equal the sum of atoms in the reactants. Initial observations of a chemical reaction
usually produce an unbalanced equation, which needs to be analyzed and corrected (by
the use of coefficients) to yield a balancedequation.

CHAPTER XV
BIOMOLECULES
71
 Think about the food you eat everyday. Different types of food give you different
nutrients for energy, growth and repair. These were introduced to you when you were at
the elementary grades. You have learned that the bonding characteristics of carbon
result in the formation of larger variety of compounds. In this module, you will learn
more about compounds which are essential to life. These compounds belong to four
main classes of biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates and lipids are generally made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Proteins and nucleic acids and some derivatives of carbohydrates and lipids also
contain nitrogen. You will also have the opportunity to test food for the presence of
biomolecules.

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in
the maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living
molecules are the actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. They range
from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to
large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or

compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. In layman’s terms, we acknowledge
carbohydrates as sugars or substances that taste sweet. They are collectively called as
saccharides (Greek: sakcharon = sugar). Depending on the number of constituting
sugar units obtained upon hydrolysis, they are classified as monosaccharides (1 unit),
oligosaccharides (2-10 units) and polysaccharides (more than 10 units). They have
multiple functions viz. they’re the most abundant dietary source of energy; they are
structurally very important for many living organisms as they form a major structural
component, e.g. cellulose is an important structural fibre for plants.

Glucose, a 6-carbon sugar, is a simple carbohydrate or "mono-saccharide."

Sugar is a source of quick energy for the body because it is easily metabolized (broken
down). Larger, more "complex carbohydrates" are made by stringing together chains of
glucose subunits into di-saccharides, tri-saccharides, poly-saccharides. Starch is a
complex carbohydrate which plants create for energy storage, and is the most common
carbohydrate in the human diet. Foods like potatoes, corn, rice, and wheat are rich in
starch. Animals break the starches back down into glucose subunits and convert the
glucose into glycogen for storage. Glycogen is a complex storage molecule made from
glucose using insulin. Diabetics, who lack insulin, cannot make glycogen so they
excrete excess sugar in their urine. Glucose is broken down through a process called
glycolysis (lysis means splitting) in order to release energy stored in the carbon-carbon
bonds.

Proteins

72
 Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules which make up around
50% of the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the
form of polypeptide chains. The structure of proteins is classified as primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary in some cases. These structures are based on the level of
complexity of the folding of a polypeptide chain. Proteins play both structural and
dynamic roles. Myosin is the protein that allows movement by contraction of muscles.
Most enzymes are proteinaceous in nature.

Proteins are the primary building materials of the body. Your hair, skin, muscles,
and organs are composed mostly of proteins. Proteins are strong yet flexible, and they
have a complex 3-D structure. Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins.
Amino acids have an NH2 (amine) group on one end, a H-O-C=O (carboxyl) group on
the other end, making it acidic, and an R group which extends from the central carbon
atom. The chemical makeup of this R group varies from one amino acid to another and
gives each amino acid its unique properties. There are 20 amino acids that are
important to humans, and all proteins are made from combinations of these subunits.
Chains of amino acids are called peptides. In the poly-peptide chain shown below, can
you see the individual amino acids that are strung together in a repeating N-C-C
pattern? Between the terminal C of one amino acid and the N of the next one, energy
from ATP is used to pull the O-H from the C, and the H from the N, forming H2O and
joining them in a peptide bond, lengthening the chain. When we get to the genetics
section of the course, we will study protein synthesis. That's the process by which DNA
instructions are transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into the amino acids that
are strung together to form long poly-peptide chains. These chains are then woven
together like strands in a rope or like threads in a blanket to form various proteins.
When food is consumed, the proteins are broken down into their constituent amino
acids and rebuilt into the proteins of the body. However, excess amino acids are not
stored for future use, and the body only starts to break down its own proteins during
starvation, when the ordinary sources of fuel (fats and carbohydrates) are not available.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the
hereditary information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids
namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main function of
nucleic acid is the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins by processes
known as translation and transcription. The monomeric unit of nucleic acids is known as
nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate. The
nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen base attached
to the pentose sugar makes the nucleotide distinct. There are 4 major nitrogenous
bases found in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, thymine is
replaced by uracil. The DNA structure is described as a double-helix or double-helical
structure which is formed by hydrogen bonding between the bases of two antiparallel
polynucleotide chains. Overall, the DNA structure looks similar to a twisted ladder.

These molecules contain the genetic code, which has all the information
necessary to build the body. The basic unit is called a nucleotide, which is composed of
a sugar-phosphate backbone attached to one of four nitrogenous bases; cytosine,
guanine, adenine or thymine. C joins to G, and G to C by three hydrogen bonds,
indicated by the dotted lines. A joins to T and T to A by two hydrogen bonds. Note that
the DNA molecule shown below is double stranded, and that the two strands run in
opposite directions, denoted by the 3' and 5' ends. While nucleic acids are important as
information carrying molecules, they are not nutritionally important.
73
Lipids

Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic
solvents, are related to fatty acids and are utilized by the living cell. They include fats,
waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids, etc.
Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids are not polymeric molecules.
Lipids play a great role in the cellular structure and are the chief source of energy.

Fats are the primary long-term energy storage molecules of the body. Fats are
very compact and light weight, so they are an efficient way to store excess energy. A fat
is made up of a glycerol, which is attached to 1 to 3 fatty acid chains. Most of the energy
from fats comes from the many carbon bonds in these long, fatty acid chains. Fatty
acids connect to glycerol in the region where each molecule has an -O-H group. Two
hydrogens and one oxygen are split off, forming H-O-H (water) and the long carbon
chain is attached to the glycerol. Each glycerol can carry up to three fatty acid chains,
which would make it a "tri-glyceride." When each fatty acid is attached to glycerol, a
water molecule is produced. To reverse the reaction and split the fatty acid from the
glycerol, just add water and energy.

Important Terms to Remember

• Biomolecule is any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large

macromolecules such as proteins, polysachharides, lipids and nucleic acids.

• Condensation reaction is a process by which two molecules form a bond with the
removal of a molecule of water. • Hydrolysis is a reaction in which water is added to a
reactant, breaking the reactant into two product molecules.

• Monomer is a small molecule that joins with other similar molecules to make a
polymer; repeating units of a polymer

• Polymer is a large organic molecule consisting of small repeating units called

monomers.

74