CHCCCS023

SUPPORT INDEPENDENCE AND

WELL BEING
LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

CERTIFICATE IV LEISURE AND HEALTH COURSE CHC43415

Understand human development

Understand human development 2

The human lifespan model 3

What are the definitions of the 5 developmental areas? 5
What are the influences on development? 10
Development at each of the 5 life span stages 14

How do we learn? 25
Child development theories 25
Adult learning 27

Review 30

Check your progress 31

Feedback 31

Glossary 33

Feedback to activities 34
Activity 1 34
Activity 3 35
Activity 4 35
Activity 5 36
Activity 6 36
Activity 7 37

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The human lifespan model
Most people find human development a very interesting area. It is
interesting to try and understand what made us the person we are today and
what changes we can expect as we grow older.
There are many ways of looking at human development. In this learning
topic you will look at a model that brings together a range of disciplines:
biology, psychology, sociology and education. This is a useful model
because it looks at all ages in the lifespan from childhood, to adolescent, to
young, middle and older adulthood.
The human lifespan is the period of time of living from birth until death. On
average, for people living in a relatively affluent Western culture, the life
span is more than 70 years. During that time our bodies, intellect, and
emotions will undergo change, growth and also deterioration. Much of this
change is along a predictable path with differences determined by such
factors as our physical health and abilities, social circumstances, and
environmental situation.
The lifespan model is just one way of looking at how humans develop.

Figure 1: The human life span model

The diagram in figure 1 shows the major influences that affect the lifespan:
culture, gender, environment and disability. It also presents to the major
ages and developmental areas. We will look at all of these more closely later
in this learning topic.
The model is as follows:
The lifespan is separated into 5 periods that follow on from each other:
1. childhood (babyhood to 11 years)
2. adolescence (12 – 19 years)
3. young adulthood (20 – 30 years)

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 4. middle adulthood (40 – 60 years)
5. older adulthood (70 years plus).
Human development occurs in 5 broad areas during each of these
periods:
1. physical
2. cognitive
3. emotional and psychological
4. social
5. sexual.
Development continues right into our older adulthood.
Some aspects of human development occur because a person has
reached a certain age or entered a particular period in the lifespan. For
example sexual physical development commences when people enter
puberty which is generally around 11 – 13 years of age.
There are many aspects of development where age is not the most
important factor. This becomes evident as people progress through
adulthood. For example adulthood represents gaining independence and
responsibility. This may start for some people in their early 20’s (if not
sooner) and for others not until they are a decade or more older.
To move from one stage to another a person may need to mature and
change physically. Also they may need to gain new knowledge and
skills.
While human development is predictable in all people there are a
number of influences that may result in a difference in development.
These may include culture, gender, the environment and whether a
person has a disability.

Activity 1: What do you know about human

development?

See what you already understand about human development.

Complete the true or false questions.
Most development happens during adolescence True/False
Our greatest physical changes happen in the first year of life True/False
People develop at different rates True/False
Once you reach old age you do not continue to develop or change True/False
Most of our emotional development finishes after adolescent or young True/False
adulthood

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 All people develop in the same developmental areas – cognitive, social, True/False
emotional, physical and sexual
Girls develop more quickly than boys during childhood and adolescence True/False
Sexual development commences at puberty True/False

Refer to the end of this learning topic for feedback.

What are the definitions of the 5

developmental areas?
From the moment of conception, we are all in a state of change. We change
and develop physically, intellectually (this is also known as cognitively),
psychologically, socially and sexually. The concept of life-span
development is crucial to our understanding of how we, and those we work
with, become who we are.
Developmental psychologists and others who study life-span development
talk about the fact that during each period or stage of life, individuals are
able to learn and achieve new things.

Physical
We begin to develop physically from the moment we are conceived. In fact,
our greatest physical growing happens while we are in our mother’s womb.
We begin as a single cell that divides and keeps on dividing and growing
until we become recognisable as human babies. Once we are born, we
develop from being totally dependent physically on those around us to
having head control, pushing up on our arms, rolling, sitting, crawling,
walking, and so on.
Until puberty, physical development is usually seen in the acquisition of
new skills, and these skills are usually acquired in a predetermined sequence
(eg, babies have to have head control before they can sit). With the onset of
puberty, we see a number of physical changes. A female child grows pubic
and underarm hair, develops breasts and begins menstruating. A male
child’s voice becomes deeper, his penis and testicles become larger, he
grows pubic hair, underarm hair and later facial hair. Both males and
females have growth spurts and during this time reach their final height.
Physical development includes the internal and external changes that happen
to the body. However it also includes the capacity to be physically
independent, mobile, able to care for self and physical health and wellbeing.

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 Figure 2: Changes to the body during adolescence

Cognitive
When we think of intellectual abilities we usually mean our ability to learn,
remember, think and problem solve or reason. Like our physical skills, our
intellectual abilities also grow and develop and then deteriorate throughout
the life-span. From the moment they are born, babies begin learning from
and reacting to what is happening around them.
Gething and Hatched (1989 page 94) state that learning is ‘a change in
behaviour that occurs as the result of experience. This experience may
include study, instruction, observation or practice, and the person has to be
able to remember the experience’. The more babies experience, the more
they firstly learn and later begin to predict what will happen. As they get
older, they begin to be able to think for themselves and solve problems—
and all of this begins to happen in the first year of life! Piaget, a Swiss
psychologist, describes cognitive development as happening in a number of
stages, from birth until middle adolescence. He describes a child as going
from reacting instinctively through to the ability to reason hypothetically.
We all develop and attain different levels of intellectual ability. However it
is important that, as workers in the disability field, we remember that
intellectual functioning is improved by stimulation. It is never too late to
learn something new and almost everyone has the ability to learn; it just
takes some people longer to learn some things than others.
Intellectual or cognitive development depends upon the genes we inherited
from our parents, the opportunities we were provided with and made use of,
our social situation and personality style. Damage to the brain before birth,
at birth, soon after birth and at any other time throughout the life-span can
damage intellectual development and functioning.

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 Figure 3: The capacity to communicate is an example of cognitive development

Examples are language development in childhood, problem solving and

abstract thinking during adolescence, applying knowledge and skills.

Emotional and psychological

Emotional development is about learning how to recognise, understand and
express emotions. It is also about learning how to cope, emotionally, with
all that life deals out, in a way that is constructive rather than destructive.
Learning how to recognise, understand, express and deal with emotions is
not always an easy process. To do all of these things we usually need insight
(the ability to look at ourselves and reflect on what is happening for and to
us), information about what name to put to a feeling and language skills to
communicate what we are feeling. We then need to know what to do with
the feelings we are experiencing—do we hold them in or let them out (and if
so, how do we do it?).
Emotional development can be tracked from infancy to old age. Babies and
very young children express their emotions or feelings in non-linguistic
ways (that is, by body language—crying, smiling, pulling or pushing away,
nodding the head, and so on).
As children learn how to talk, they start to use words to describe some
feelings, though they will still resort to behaviour to express how they are
feeling. Children often find it difficult to make sense of how they are feeling
and so act out those feelings rather than talking about them.
As children get older, they usually get better at recognising, understanding
and expressing their feelings and so, theoretically, by the time they become
adults they can recognise, understand and express the emotions they are
experiencing.
There are lots of reasons why some people are more emotionally mature
than others. These include personal skills and attributes, family background,
gender, community attitudes, mental health, intellectual development and
the quality of their social networks and resources.

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Examples of emotional development are the development of self-esteem
throughout life, the sense of self-identity, confidence and the capacity to
experience empathy.

Figure 4: development of the self-identity is an example of emotional and

psychological development

Social
Humans are social beings. We belong to families, groups and communities.
As we grow from babyhood to adulthood we learn to mix with others and
belong to different social groups. Through mixing with others and learning
the ‘rules’ of our families, friendship groups and society as a whole, we
develop a sense of self and a sense of others.
For very young children, the family is the most important influence on
social development. It is through interaction with their family that a child
learns what is acceptable and what is not. They also begin learning about
their worth as a person through interactions with parents, siblings and
extended family.
As children grow older, friendships become more important and so friends
begin to have a greater effect on social development. Play with other
children becomes central to learning how to interact with other children and
thus how to interact as adults.
Adolescence is a time of trying to work out who we are. This is usually
done in a social context. Friendships become increasingly important and
close, and the adolescent begins to develop an identity as a sexual being.
Risk-taking and anti-social behaviour can be part of social development at
this stage.
In young adulthood, social development is often marked by leaving home,
starting work or a career, establishing one’s sexuality, getting married and
having children. Socially it is a time of building new networks by using the
skills attained throughout childhood and adolescence. Often, the extended
family can become more important again as young adults form their own
families.

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 As young adults move into middle adulthood, more time seems to be spent
with family and perhaps less with friends—though relationships with others
are still vital.
During later adulthood or old age, relationships with family and friends
remain important, though often older people in our society feel less valued
than in previous generations. As an older person loses their independence
they can become socially isolated and dependent upon others for their needs
to be met.
The most important things for social development are social contact with a
range of different people and in a range of different settings, and integration
into the community in which we live. We cannot develop socially in
isolation and the social skills learnt in childhood are critical to the
development of a healthy self-concept. Our self-concept is crucial to how
we survive socially.
This includes the development of a person to enable them to be a member of
social groups and the broader community. It involves understanding social
rules, learning social behaviours and developing a belief system.

Figure 5: Fulfilling the role of a parent is an example of social development

Sexual
This includes the development of sexual awareness, sexual identity, and
sexual orientation.

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 Figure 6: An example of sexual development

Examples include awareness of bodies as a young child, awareness of

sexual orientation as an adolescent or young adult, interest in intimate
relationships as an adolescent or young adult.

What are the influences on

development?
Human development occurs in all 5 areas described in the human life span
model. This is true no matter where you are born, to which culture you
belong or whether you have a disability.
However there are major influences on people that impact on their
experience of each of these areas. Three influences are culture, environment
and gender.

Culture
Cultural groups may be constructed around belief systems, ethnicity or other
shared or common area. The cultural group to which a person belongs
influences a wide range of practices, values and beliefs. These impact on
such things as child rearing and views of childhood, family units, morals,
sexual expression, social ties, social class and status.

Figure 7: Cultural groups can be created from a number of factors: belief systems,
ethnicity etc

There are many ways culture impacts on human development. For example
some cultures do not encourage independence in children until they are 8 or
9 years old. They may continue to sleep with parents, socialise mainly in the
family unit, be fed, given limited responsibilities. Other cultures promote
independence in children from a very young age having expectations of

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 their capacity to take responsibility for domestic work, looking after
younger siblings, being a part of a wider world than the family.
These different views of childhood and child rearing mean that children
develop socially and emotionally at different rates.
For some, being a member of a cultural group can affect the actual lifespan.
A graphic example of this is that on average, Indigenous Australians age
faster than non-Indigenous people.

Environment
The environment refers to the physical and social world that people develop
in. The environment includes:
 how a person’s needs for food and shelter are met
 whether they live in an environment of peace and stability or violence
and trauma
 whether they have access to education and health services
 whether they live in an urban or rural and remote area.

Figure 8: On average Indigenous Australians age faster than non-Indigenous

people

The environment impacts on human development in many ways. For

example older adults who live in remote areas often do not have access to
health services that may support healthy ageing. This may be particular
relevant for people living in Aboriginal communities who have a reduced
lifespan in comparison to non-Indigenous people. They may have never
developed optimum physical health due to a range of factors and in old age
this results in early mortality.

Gender
Gender is important because males and females at each stage in the life span
develop differently. Males and females develop due to differences in
physical factors and how they are socialised.

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For example women during young adulthood may have to raise children and
temporarily move out of the workforce. This change may mean that a
woman has to adjust to social groups that centre on being a parent. This is
an important developmental period. It results in physical, emotional and
social changes.

Figure 9: Young adulthood for women may result in them having to juggle a number
of different things

Men during young adulthood may have to raise children and progress with a
career. This change for men may reinforce existing social groups that centre
on work and some leisure activities. For men this is also a period of
increased rates of accidents leading to death or disablement.

Disability
A person with a disability may experience life differently to a person
without a disability. This can lead to differences in their development.
Different life experience and development can be the result of either a
physical or cognitive impairment.
 A boy who is born without use of his legs will not achieve the gross
motor skills of children without his disability.
 A girl with severe epilepsy may take medication that makes it difficult
for her to focus on learning.
 A person with a disability may face a difference in life experience
because they had severely limited opportunities. This is because of the
way disability is viewed in society. A woman with an intellectual
disability may not be supported to develop intimate relationships. This

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 is because her carers do not feel that it is important for someone like
her.

Figure 10: A person with a disability may experience different life experiences due
to their disability

Activity 2: What are the influences at different life

stages?

Consider and reflect on your own life experiences.

1. List some of the most important things to you at the moment. Think of at least one
important issue for each of the developmental areas (ie physical, cognitive, emotional
and psychological, social and sexual).
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. List some of the things that were most important to you in the previous life span
period.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. What are the differences?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. What has influenced you to develop?

______________________________________________________________________

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 ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. List some of the things that you think may be most important to you for each of the
developmental areas in the next life span period.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

6. What might influence your development?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
There is no feedback to this activity.

Development at each of the 5 life span

stages
Here are some examples of the types of changes and issues that people face
at different life stages. It is not a comprehensive overview. There are some
references to further information about this learning topic in “Additional
resources”.
Examples are given in the developmental areas for each life stage:
childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood and older
adulthood.
As you know the developmental areas are: physical, cognitive, emotional
and psychological, social and sexual.
Physical development
Development includes the change in the individual of his or her growth,
physical independence, mobility and self-care.
Cognitive development
Development includes the change in the individual of his or her verbal and
non-verbal communication, literacy, language and ability to reason.
Emotional and psychological development
Development includes the change in the individual of his or her ability to
understand the feelings of others, relationships, self-esteem , self awareness
and identity and self confidence.
Social development
Development includes the change in the individual of his or her belief
systems, values and attitudes, social skills and behaviours and social roles.

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 Sexual development
Development includes the change in the individual of his or her body;
identity, and expression.

Childhood: birth to 11 years

Some examples of issues and changes in this stage include:
Physical
 dramatic increase in height and weight in first year
 develops from very limited physical independence to moving
independently.
 changes from being completely dependent in eating, dressing, toileting
to being completely independent in all areas.

Figure 11: Example of physical changes during childhood

Cognitive
 develops from having no expressive verbal language (uses non verbal
methods) to reading, understanding basic abstract concepts, vocabulary
which increases everyday
 learns by observation, imitation, practice, visually, experientially

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  begins to develop problem-solving skills.
Emotional and psychological
 moves from being focussed only on self to needs of others
 starts to move away from family and into broader social world
 issues of attachment and separation to significant carer
 issues of long term separation impact on emotional development
 development of trust and security
 emergence of sense of self: self-awareness.
Social
 primarily influenced by family
 process of socialisation: learn rules of groups and society so can
function within them
 role of play for developing social skills and knowledge
 starts to develop moral judgement rather than applying moral rules.
Sexual
 capacity for sexual responses begins from babyhood
 babies and preschool aged children will explore their bodies
 interest in some areas of sexuality begin in preschool
 develops sense of gender and is socialised into gender specific roles.

Activity 3: How is development in childhood

different for people with a disability?

In what ways would a person in childhood with a disability experience these issues
differently to a peer without a disability? Consider the following scenario and respond to
the questions.
Jasmine has just turned 5 years old. She is a happy little girl whose favourite things include
wrestling on the sofa with her older brothers, watching HI 5 on the TV, horses and her
railway set. She was born with cerebral palsy and has no movement in her legs and has
jerkiness in the movement of her arms. She has involuntary mouth and tongue movements.
In comparison to a peer without a disability, how might Jasmine experience these issues?

1. Jasmine’s experiences would be similar in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Jasmine’s experiences would be different in that:

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 ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Refer to the end of this learning topic for feedback.

Adolescence: 12 – 19 years
Physical
 release of sexual hormones resulting in physical sexual development
 girls – menstruating begins starts around 11 - 12 years
 development of secondary sex characteristics such as growth of facial,
body and pubic hair
 completely independent in all areas of self-care.
Cognitive
 capable of introspection, problem solving and logical, abstract and
hypothetical thinking
 often boys’ learning is enhanced by physical activity
 often girls’ learning is enhanced by discussion
 learning from peers is important.
Emotional and psychological
 body image becomes a significant issue for both boys and girls
 physical attractiveness is important
 weight and eating disorders
 self awareness: conforming to peer group often more important than to
family
 a positive self-esteem is linked to competence in relationships, and
social adjustment and social well being
 emotions related to stress, anxiety, anger
 self concept stabilises.
Social
 early physical development can result in social advantages such as
leadership
 importance of peers and their acceptance: use of tobacco, drugs/alcohol
 challenges values of family and moral development influenced by peers
and outside world.

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 Figure 12: Social development for adolescents can be influenced by peers and
outside world

Sexual
 sexual identity and sexual preference become more important:
confusion often a feature especially if sexual orientation is towards
bisexuality or homosexuality
 values and attitudes about sexuality develop
 knowledge of sexuality increases: still carry a lot of misinformation
 sexual activity may commence
 safe sex and pregnancy and sexual health become important issues
 masturbation practiced by both men and women
 sexual coercion.

Activity 4: How is development in adolescence

different for people with a disability?

In what ways would an adolescent with a disability experience these issues differently to a
peer without a disability? Consider the following scenario and respond to the questions.
Steven is a 13 year old boy who lives in an Aboriginal family in a rural area. He has both
visual and hearing impairments. His school is a long drive from home because he goes to a
school with a special class for children with a disability.
In comparison to a peer without a disability, how might Steven experience these issues?

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1. Steven’s experiences would be similar in that:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Steven’s experiences would be different in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Refer to the end of this learning topic for feedback.

Early adulthood: 20 – 30 years

Physical
 continued changes in weight and body shape
 increased risks of some health problems such as some cancers
 increased risk of accidents for young adult men resulting in physical
impairment
 pregnancy and childbirth.
Cognitive
 continued learning in all areas particularly social and global issues
 learning associated with career choice
 language and expressiveness mature
 life experiences impact on problem solving skills.
Emotional and psychological
 developing a personal identity: may be linked to work eg professional
identity as nurse, banker
 achieving personal autonomy
 emotional stability increases
 self-esteem and personal confidence increases.
Social
 establish career
 find intimacy in a variety of ways
 become part of social groups
 select a mate
 adjust to marriage
 become a parent

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  adjust values to accommodate new life experiences and interpretations
of the world
 more socially skilled
 readjust relationship with family.

Figure 13: During early adulthood values may need to be adjusted to

accommodate new experiences and interpretations of the world

Sexual
 developing sexual identity
 exploring sexual expression
 sexual orientation clearer
 may have a number of sexual partners.

Activity 5: How is development in early adulthood

different for people with a disability?

In what ways would a person in early adulthood with a disability experience these issues
differently to a peer without a disability? Consider the following scenario and respond to
the questions.
Sania is a 24 years old woman. She was born in Egypt and her family migrated to Australia
when she was a toddler. The family has a strong Catholic faith and she is actively involved
in the local church and Egyptian community. Sania lives with her family in the suburbs of
a large city. Sania has Down syndrome and attends a training centre for people with
intellectual disabilities.
In comparison to a peer without a disability, how might Sania experience these issues?

1. Sania’s experiences would be similar in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Sania’s experiences would be different in that:

______________________________________________________________________

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 ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Refer to the end of this learning topic for feedback.

Middle adulthood: 40 – 60 years

(Note: for many Aboriginal people this would be considered the age at
which people are in older adulthood due to the reduced average lifespan
compared with non Indigenous people)
Physical
 women go through menopause
 increased experience of health issues including cancers, heart disease,
arthritis
 physical ageing process more obvious including skin tone, mobility,
vision and hearing changes.

Figure 14: During middle adulthood there may be some of health issues such as
arthritis

Cognitive
 continue to learn through life experiences
 move towards learning for enjoyment rather than career.
Emotional and psychological
 adjusting to changing roles in community: parent of young children to
parent of adults to grandparents (sense of loss/freedom), changes in
social status (move from work to retirement)
 shifts in intimate relationships: death, relationship breakdown.
Social
 values and attitudes continue to be shaped by larger social world but are
often quite set

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  impacted on by society that discriminates against older people and
which values youth: influences work opportunities and sense of worth
 affirmation of worth of family
 caring for ageing parents
 caring for grandchildren
 caring for the community: giving back in return for what has been
gained.
Sexual
 increased capacity for sexual expression eg due to menopause (no risk
of pregnancy), not caring for children (increased privacy)
 sexual dysfunction due to health issues.

Activity 6: How is development in middle adulthood

different for people with a disability?

In what ways would a person in late adulthood with a disability experience these issues
differently to a peer without a disability? Consider the following scenario and respond to
the questions.
Claudia has lived in a large institution since she was 5 years old. She has autism and has
had a long history of challenging behaviours. Now that she is 60 years old she is quiet and
solitary. Both her parents have died and it is many years since any other family members
have even visited her.
In comparison to a peer without a disability, how might Claudia experience these issues?

1. Claudia’s experiences would be similar in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Claudia’s experiences would be different in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Refer to the end of this learning topic for feedback.

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 Older adulthood: 70 years plus
Physical
 decreased mobility
 increased experience of health issues including those associated with
memory loss
 deterioration in vision and hearing
 increasing dependence on others for care.
Cognitive
 continues to learn through life experiences
 may have reduced interest in broader social world
 difficulty in adapting to new technology.
Emotional and psychological
 adjusting to ageing and own mortality
 loss of peer group, partners
 sense of long life history and connectedness with extended family
 social limitations, isolation
 preparing for end of life.

Figure 15: Older adulthood can lead to the development of a sense of long life
history and connectedness with extended family

Social
 impact of ageist culture which does not value elders vs. impact of
culture which does
 values and attitudes different from younger community
 increased sense of vulnerability
 adjusting to balance between independence and dependence
 reduced self-determination.

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 Sexual
 sexual dysfunction
 limited opportunities for sexual expression because not supported eg
living in nursing home and no privacy, mobility and physical capacity
may impact, lack of partner.

Activity 7: How is development in older adulthood

different for people with a disability?

In what ways would a person in older adulthood with a disability experience these issues
differently to a peer without a disability? Consider the following scenario and respond to
the questions.
Jacob has lived in a group home with 3 other elderly men since his mother died. He has no
other family. He is now 74 years old. He no longer works and does not get to the day
centre very often any more. He has a mild intellectual disability and has always been quite
an independent man. He is now blind and has developed severe arthritis in his hands and so
he needs a lot more care than he used to.
In comparison to a peer without a disability, how might Jacob experience these issues?

1. Jacob’s experiences would be similar in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Jacob’s experiences would be different in that:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Refer to the end of this learning topic for feedback.

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How do we learn?

As a disability support worker you will be working with both children and
adults. You will be helping them to learn new skills. It is important that you
are aware of child development theories and how adults learn. This
knowledge will help you have an understanding of how children develop
and what may work best for them in terms of teaching methods. Also
knowing how adults learn will help you to ensure that your adult clients
learn in the best possible way.

Child development theories

Many theories have been suggested to explain children’s behaviour and
development. Different theories focus on different aspects of development
and behaviour.
Some theories emphasise the importance of the environment and some
theories emphasise the importance of heredity. Some theories focus on a
particular area of development (eg cognitive or personality development)
and other theories focus on processes in development and are relevant to all
areas of development. Theories are also influenced by the life experiences of
the theorists.
For example, the child psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1935) grew up in
the Soviet Union where Communist ideas dominated. Communism is based
on the principle of an equal share for all. Vygotsky also came from a large
family and his interest in child development came from his efforts to help
children with disabilities fulfil their potential. His theory about cognitive
development emphasises social relationships and interaction in the
community in which the child lives. Vygotsky’s life experiences had a great
influence on the type of theory he developed.
Now let’s have a look at the background of another theorist, the
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980), who was also interested in cognitive
development. Piaget grew up in Europe. He was an only child and grew up
in a household that emphasised scientific study and academic pursuits.
He first studied in the area of the natural sciences. His main source of
information about children’s behaviour was his own three children. His
theory about cognitive development emphasises the child as an individual
and learning through discovery and experimentation. So, just like Vygotsky,
Piaget’s life experiences had a great influence on the type of theory he
developed.

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The theories of both Vygotsky and Piaget are well respected and offer ideas
that are useful in explaining the processes in cognitive development.
There is no such thing as a right or wrong theory about child development,
there are just different theories. You might reject a theory because it does
not appeal to you as an explanation for children’s behaviour and
development. As you read about another theory, you will nod your head and
say to yourself, ‘this makes sense’. Some theories will appeal to you and
perhaps be a big influence on the way you interact with and care for
children. Other theories will not. It is a bit like a person’s preferences for
food or clothes. You will prefer some foods or styles of clothes over others
but that does not mean that another person’s ideas about these things is
wrong. There are no wrong theories about child development, just different
theories.
However, some theories have stood up well over time, and some have been
validated by research. These theories could be seen as more valid than other
theories.

The value of research in exploring and developing

theories of child development
There are a lot of child development theories around. As a person working
with children, child development theories will help to provide you with:
 an idea of what sort of behaviour children will develop in the future (eg,
research suggests that if a child is unable to develop a sense of trust
with a primary caregiver because their needs are not consistently met, it
may be difficult for that child to develop trusting relationships later in
life)
 strategies to use to support children’s development (eg, research has
suggested ways to encourage children to develop negotiating
behaviours such as ‘use your words to tell so and so that you are upset’
from a young age).
Of course, what you learn about each of the above will depend on the theory
or theories that you study and then what you decide to accept or reject.

Important child development theories and theorists

Here is a list of some important child development theorists relevant to
different domains of development and a brief description of the focus of the
theory. If you would like more detailed information about any child
development theory or theorist, you might like to go to your local library or
to the nearest TAFE library or do a search of the Internet.
Cognitive
 Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
 These two theorists focus on how children develop their cognitive
skills.

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 Socialemotional
 Urie Brofenbrenner
 This theorist is particularly interested in how the environment
influences children’s behaviour, and how children impact on their
environment.
Socialemotional
 Erik Erikson
 Erikson’s theory explains the development of self-concept and
personality.
Socialemotional
 John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
 These have looked at the development of the attachment or the bond
between babies and their caregivers.

Adult learning
If you are to provide the best learning opportunities to adults with
disabilities you need to know why and how people learn.

Motivation
Learning occurs when individuals acquire new skills, habits, knowledge or
attitudes. It involves change which usually means some effort and
discomfort. If learning entails effort and discomfort, why do adults do it?
First, curiosity. Learning something new is intrinsically interesting. We are
inquisitive creatures. We want to know how, when, where and why things
happen. Though we may lose some of this inquisitiveness as we grow out of
childhood, it is still a strong motivating force.
Second, power. The power of knowledge is not power over people but
power over technology and the power to get things done. We all feel good
when we can accomplish something and when we can speak with authority.
Knowledge gives status. The reverse is also true in that we feel powerless if
we can’t do what we want to do or what is expected of us: ‘I hate having to
ask people to show me how to do things all the time; it makes me feel so
stupid.’
Third, rewards. Many of us undertake training because we believe that will
be better off with the training than without it. As adults we don’t blindly
accept that what we are learning will be good for us. We need to see very
clearly the connections between what we are learning and its usefulness or
benefits. We need to see direct benefits to our work or our lifestyle.
Use the three motivating forces when providing learning opportunities.
Spell out to people what the benefits will be, provide credentials or
statements of completion, and make the learning a challenge.

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How do adults learn?
The ways in which adults learn are many and varied, but there are three
imperatives that underpin most forms of adult learning:
 relate it to the known
 use it in various ways
 ensure that the learner is involved.
Relate it to the known
When we acquire new knowledge and skills we have to be able to relate
them to something we already know or can do. We need to hang it off
already existing knowledge or skills. We cannot accommodate learning
which is so new that we cannot even think of it in terms of what we already
know. For example, if we read a book about a totally new subject we try to
link it to whatever we might already know about that or related topics.
This means that you should introduce new material gradually and build on
what people already know. You should also encourage learners to make
links with what they already know. One way of doing this is to introduce
some new material, then ask how it differs from what participants are doing
now.
Use it in a variety of ways
We learn and remember knowledge and skills that we have ‘manipulated’ in
more than one medium. New learning becomes more firmly embedded if we
‘play’ with it and use it in several different ways. This is why primary
school teachers have their children not only listen to a story but draw a
picture about it and perhaps even act it out as a play or a game. They are
manipulating the new ideas in a variety of mediums and hence becoming
familiar with them.
That is why trainers often ask people to explore concepts in a small group
and then report back to the larger group. At the same time as the reporting
back, the main points are being listed on a white board. Here we have at
least three manipulations of the information. The minimum manipulation is
to hear or read something and then discuss it either orally in a group or in
writing. To simply read or hear and do nothing with that knowledge
provides a slim chance that much of the learning will be understood and
retained.
Ensure that the learner is involved
Learning is an active process, not a passive one. For something to stick, we
have to be actively involved in it. This is just as true for adults as it is for
small children.
At the broader level of how we learn we can extend the ideas of multiple
manipulation and involvement into a sequence of learning. When we first
learn something we tend to remember some aspects of it but not be very
confident. If we go on to think about it some more and perhaps try to apply
it we will be more confident and capable. If we proceed further on to
reflecting about how we used it or can use it we develop a deeper

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 understanding of it. Eventually after this process of knowing about,
applying, reflecting and refined application we can regard ourselves as
expert.
If we are trying to acquire complex knowledge and skills, our learning will
need to be spread over some time.

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Review

Having completed this learning topic can you:

 Describe a life span model of human development.
 Describe the significant developmental stages from childhood to older
adulthood.
 Describe issues that impact on the development of people with a
disability.
 Have a basic understanding of child development theories and how
adults learn.

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Check your progress

Costa and Simon are both 60 years old. They come from quite different
backgrounds.
Costa grew up with his family in a suburb of Sydney. He married when he
was 23 years old and had a family of his own. He worked all his life as an
electrician and recently retired. He has had a couple of health problems but
is quite well at the moment. He lives with his wife.
Simon grew up with his family in rural NSW. He was born with spina bifida
which has resulted in him needing a wheelchair for mobility. He never
married but has had girlfriends although he is now single. He worked for a
while as a teacher’s aide at a special school but as he aged his physical
needs increased which made work difficult. He has recently moved into a
private nursing home.
Provide a description comparing some of the ways in which Costa and
Simon’s development from childhood to middle adulthood may have been
different. Explain why these differences may have existed. Address the
differences in the 5 developmental areas and provide reasons for these
differences.

Feedback
Physical
 Simon would not have achieved the same physical development eg
walking. He would have been dependent on others for care for longer.
 Simon has experienced the physical effects of ageing earlier. He may
have reduced physical ability to reproduce.
Cognitive
 Simon may not have had the same educational opportunities. For
example he may have not had special education or access to early
intervention services in the rural area where he lived.
 He may not have been encouraged to go on to tertiary education to
develop his career skills.

Emotional

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 Simon’s family may have felt protective of him and not supported him
to experience opportunities that would encourage the development of
self-confidence etc.
 Simon may have had to adjust to having a disability and being different.
This may impact on his self-confidence as there are few positive role
models in media.
 He may have had less capacity and opportunities to be independent
from his family and this may have impacted on his self-identity and
self-esteem .
Social
 Simon may have experiences social isolation due to physical access
issues. For example getting transport to social events and access to
buildings.
 He may have had limited opportunities to develop relationships, take
risks, experiment. As a result he may have less friends.
Sexual
 Simon may have had less access to sexuality education at school.
 also he may have had less opportunities to develop sexual relationships,
express himself sexually.
Reasons for differences:
 physical incapacity and limitations.
 fewer opportunities.
o protective family
o inaccessible community
o isolation
o reduced formal education
o discrimination.

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Glossary

autism
A dysfunction of the central nervous system which effects a person’s ability
to process information and impacts on their ability to communicate,
socialise, and learn.

cerebral palsy
A disorder of movement control which results from damage to part of the
brain, usually before birth. It results in mild to severe movement disorders
and includes muscle weakness, stiffness, clumsiness, difficulty coordinating
movements and balancing.

challenging behaviour
A term used to describe a wide range of behaviours that a person with a
disability may display as a way of communicating but results in harm to
themselves, others and property.

chromosomes
Carry genetic information within the cell structure. If there is an abnormal
number or structure of chromosomes it may result in a physical or mental
impairment.

down syndrome
An abnormality in the chromosomes resulting in a set of recognised physical
features and mild to more severe intellectual disability.

hydrocephalus
Accumulation of fluid within the head. Can cause enlargement of the skull
and compression of the brain.

spina bifida
A disability that occurs when the foetus’ spine does not completely form but
is spilt or divided with the spinal cord and its covering usually protruding
out from the back somewhere between the neck to the buttocks. This can
result in paralysis, incontinence and or hydrocephalus.

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Feedback to activities

Activity 1
Most human development happens during adolescence False
It is true that there is a lot of change in all developmental areas during adolescence.
This is particularly evident in a person’s physical development as the body changes
to enable it to reproduce. However people change at all ages and these changes can
be just as significant.
Examples of some of these significant changes are: in middle years women change
physically as they lose the capacity to reproduce as they progress through
menopause. The social adjustments young adults make to become parents are also
very significant. The need to adapt to changing health and prospect of death is a
major development stage for older adults.
Our greatest physical changes happen in the first year of life True
Physically there is no other stage that compares to the development of a person
from a new born baby to a one year old child.
People develop at different rates True
Many factors impact on how quickly a person develops. These may include having
a disability, cultural background, environment, gender and health.
Once you reach old age you do not continue to develop or change False
Development and change happens until we die. Older people are still learning new
skills and knowledge by their involvement in leisure activities, current affairs and
news etc. They are also dealing with social and emotional changes such as possible
reduction in involvement in community, loss of friends and partner. They are
adapting to the end of their life drawing closer and loss of physical function.
Most of our emotional development finishes after adolescent or young adulthood False
How we manage our feelings is learnt to a great degree through life experience. We
are constantly building on our skills in this area as we experience new things.
People develop in the same developmental areas True
All people develop in the 5 developmental areas described in the human lifespan
model.
Girls develop more quickly than boys during childhood and adolescence. True
Girls and boys and men and women develop differently and in some areas girls and
may progress through the stage more quickly than boys. But the reverse is also False
true. Importantly males and females are socialised according to their gender and
this means that there is a different emphasis on different areas. For example often
boys’ gross motor skills such as running, climbing are encouraged. Often girls’ fine
motor skills such as drawing and writing are encouraged. It is this that may account
for some differences.

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 It is commonly thought that young girls mature emotionally more quickly and
certainly girls on average commence puberty earlier than boys.
Sexual development commences at puberty False
Just like all the other developmental areas, sexual development starts in babyhood.
Babies are interested in their bodies and like to explore themselves. Children are
interested in knowing basic information about sexual activity and may begin some
experimentation with children of the same age. Children develop a gender identity
in the first few years. Puberty signals a major change as this is preparing the body
to reproduce.

Activity 3
1. Jasmine’s experiences would be similar in that:
 She will learn the same social rules as everyone else and learn how to
conform to these.
 She will be influenced by her family in developing a set of values and
beliefs that reflect those around her.
 She will learn about being a ‘girl’ and will fit in with other girls and she
will probably learn how boys are different to girls.
 She will develop her sense of belonging and trust by being part of a
family.
2. Jasmine’s experience may be different in that:
 Her physical development will be different eg she may not be able to
walk or run.
 Her self-care development my be slower eg she may need assistance
with eating for longer than her peers.
 She will start to recognise the ways in which she is different to her
peers and may need to emotionally adjust to this.
 Her opportunities for social development may be constrained by her
physical disability. It may also be constrained by family protectiveness.
 She will be expected to engage with a whole range of people outside of
the family unit such as doctors, therapists and psychologists.

Activity 4
1. Steven’s experiences would be similar in that:
 He would be developing sexually and physically.
 He would be adjusting his sense of identity and place in the world.
 He would be reflecting on his belief system and developing this in
relation to the broader social environment.

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 He would be interested in sexuality and the changes he is experiencing.
 He would want to belong to a broader social world beyond his family
and begin separating from them.
2. Steven’s experiences would be different in that:
 He may be isolated from peers and socially may not develop the same
skills as his peers eg through involvement in sports, attending parties.
 He may have limited access to education about sexual issues eg through
school and the general media, and so not have the information he needs
to make decisions or understand his development.
 His parents may feel protective of him and limit his opportunities to
have social experiences and not recognise or respond to his developing
sexuality.
 His formal education may be limited by fewer teaching resources in the
school.
 He may feel different from his peers because of his disabilities and this
may impact on his confidence, self-esteem and feelings of belonging.

Activity 5
1. Sania’s experiences may be similar in that :
 She is interested in forming intimate relationships.
 She will continue learning through work.
 Her social groups will change and she will need to adjust to this.
2. Sania’s experiences may be different in that:
 She may have reduced opportunities to form relationships particularly
intimate relationships because of reduced independence. She may not
marry or have children. Her family may constrain her activities because
of cultural values and fear of Sania being at risk. She may lack privacy
in her life.
 She may have less opportunity for a career and the development of a
work related identity. This may be due to lack of jobs, lack of skills,
people not supporting her because they do not see value in her working.
 She may have reduced personal autonomy and independence. This may
be due to her lack of skills, protectiveness of her family and lack of
social experiences.

Activity 6
1. Claudia’s experiences may be the same in that:

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  She is physically ageing: her mobility might be reduced and her vision
may have deteriorated.
 She would have progressed through menopause.
2. Claudia’s experiences may be different in that:
 She does not have a role within a family.
 She does not have the opportunity to be in relationships of any form and
is socially isolated.
 Her opportunities for learning are limited :she has limited awareness of
the social world outside the institution.
 Her disability may have impaired her emotional development.
 Being institutionalised all her life will have impaired her emotional and
social development.

Activity 7
1. Jacob’s experiences would be the same in that:
 He has a reduced social life.
 There are physical changes that impacts on his independence.
 He would be aware of changes in his life. this would lead to a sense of
loss.
 He would lose his peers.
 He would have increased contact with health services.
2. Jacob’s experiences may be different in that:
 There may be reduced recognition of health problems by carers because
they may be attributed to his disability rather than the ageing process.
 He may not be aware of life coming to end: understanding of mortality
may be different. He may be less prepared for issues at the end of life.

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