Elementary and Middle School Mathematics

SIXTH\EDITION ‘Middle School Mathematics Teaching Developmentally John A. Van de Walle Virginia Commonwealth University Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Paris, HongKong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town SydneyExecutive Editor: Stephen D. Dragin Series Editor: Traci Mueller ‘Development Editor: Sonny Regelman Ecitoral Assistant: Angela Pickard Executive Marketing Manager: Krista Clark ‘Supplements Editors Adamn Whitehurst Eeitorial-Produetion Service: Omegatype Typography; Inc. ‘Composition Buyer: Linda Cox ‘Manufacturing Buyer: Megan Cochran leetronie Composition: Omegatype Typagrephy, Inc. Interior Designs Carol Somberg Cover Administrator: Linda Knowles For related titles and support materials, visit our online catalog at wwrwablongman.com. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Favestion, Ine, Allsights reserved, No part of the material protected by this copysight notice may be reproduced orutlied in any form or by ay means, electronic or mechanical, inching Photocopying, recording, oF by any information orage and reieval ystm, without ‘written permission fom the copyright owner. ‘Te obtain permission() to use material fiom this work, please submit a written request ro Allyn and Bacon, Permissions Department, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116, or fx your request to 617-848-7320. ‘etween the time website information is gathered and then published, itis not unusual for some sites to have closed. Aso, the transcription of URIs can result in typographical errors. The publisher would appreciate notification where these errors occur so that they maybe corrected in subsequent edition. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ‘Van de Walle, John A. Elementary and middle school mathematics : teaching developmentally /John 8. Van de Walle th ed. at pe ct Includes bibliographical references and indes. ISBN 0-205-48392-5 1. Mathematies-—Study and teaching (Elementary 2. Mathematics Study and teaching (Middle school). Title. (QA135.6 362007 510.71'2—deo2 2005057485 Printed in the United States of America 109.8765 432 RRDOH 1 10 09 08 07 06&aBrief Contents DETAILED CONTENTS v TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS FROM THE AUTHOR xvii TO THE INSTRUCTOR FROM THE AUTHOR x SECTION L Teaching Mathematics: Foundations and Perspectives 1 4 chogoter Teaching Mathematics in the Era of the Planning in the Problem-Based NCTM Standards 1 Classroom 61 Exploring What It Means to Do Building Assessment into Mathematics 12 Instruction 78 Developing Understanding in Teaching Mathematics Equitably Mathematics 22 to All Children 95 Teaching Through Technology and School Problem Solving 37 Mathematics 107 SECTION rt Development of Mathematical Concepts and Procedures 120 9 a Developing Early Number Concepts Helping Children Master the and Number Sense 120 Basic Facts 165 Developing Meanings Whole-Number Place-Value for the Operations 143 Development 187iv _sref Contents a3 Strategies for Whole-Number Computation 216 44. Computational Estimation with Whole Numbers 245 Algebraic Thinking: Generalizations, Patterns, and Functions 259 16 Developing Fraction Concepts 293 a7 Computation with Fractions 316 18 Decimal and Percent Concepts and Decimal Computation 333 aD Proportional Reasoning 353 20 Developing Measurement Concepts 374 24 Geometric Thinking and Geometric Concepts 407 22 Concepts of Data Analysis 452 23 Exploring Concepts ‘of Probability 475 24 Developing Concepts of Exponents, Integers, and Real Numbers 492 it HA Principles and Standards for School Mathematics: Content Standards and Grade Level Expectations A-1 Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics: Teaching Standards B-1 € Guide to Blackline Masters C-1 REFERENCES R-1 INDEX 1-1&, Detailed Contents TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS FROM THE AUTHOR xvii TO THE INSTRUCTOR FROM THE AUTHOR xxili SECTION 1 Teaching Mathematics: _Foundations and _Perspectives_ ‘The fundamental core of effective teaching of mathematics combines an understanding of how children learn, how to promote that learning by teaching through problem solving, and how to plan for and assess that earning on a daily basis. Introductory chapters inthis section provide perspectives on. trends in mathematics education and the process of doing mathematics and develop the core ideas of learning, teaching, planning, and assessment, Additional perspectives on mathematis for special chil- ‘dren and the role of technology are alsa discussed. 4 Standards Coed Curia 10 ntne Rescues 10 Teaching Mathematics in the Era of the NCTM Standards 1 2 “The Leadership of NGIM 1 Exploring What It Means Principles and Standards for School Mathematics 2 to Do Mathematics 12 ‘The Six Principles 2 Contrasting Perceptions of School APre-K-to-12 Perspective 3 fameanene io Mathematies 12 “The Five Comtent Standards 4 “Traditional Views of Mathematics 12 ‘The Five Process Standards 4 ‘Mathematics as « Science of Pattern and Order 13 ‘The Professional Standaris for Teaching ‘What Does It Mean to Do Mathematics? 13 Mathematics | ' The Verbs of Doing Mathematics 13 Five Shifts in Classroom Environment 5 What Is Basic in Mothernaties? 14 ‘The Teaching Standards 6 ‘AnEnvironment for Doing Mathematics 14 ‘The Assessment Standards for School Mathematics 6 x. tavitation to Do Mathematics 14 Influences and Pressures on Reform 6 Let’ Do Some Mathematics! 14 National and International Studies 6 No Answer Book 19 State Standards 7 Some More Explorations 19 Curriculum 8 Helping Sradents Do Mathematics 20 eer ea ene sere REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 2 20 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 1 9 Writing to tearn 20 ‘Writing toLearn § For Discussion and Exploration 21 For Discussion and Exploration Recommendations for Further Reading 21 Recommendations for Further Reading 9 Online Resources 21vi__pesiled Contents 3B Developing Understanding in Mathematics 22 A Constructivist View of Leaming 22 ‘The Construction of ideas 22 Understanding 24 Examples of Understanding 25 Benefits of Relational Understanding 26 Concepts and Procedures 28 ‘Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge 28 Interaction of Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge 28 Classroom Influences on Learning 28 Reflective Thought 29 ‘Students Learning from Others 28 ‘The Role of Models in Developing Understanding 30 ‘Feaching Developmentally 34 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER3 34 ‘Writing to Learn 34 For Discussion and Exploration 35 Recommendations for Further Reading 35 Online Resources 38 chapter & Teaching Through Problem Solving 37 Problem Solving as a Principal Instructional Strategy 37 Problems and Tasks for Learning Mathematics 37 An lustration 38 {A Shif in Thinking About Mathematics Instruction 38 ‘The Value of Tesching with Problems 39 Examples of Problem-Based Tasks 39 Conceptual Mathematics 39 Provedures and Processes 40 AThree-Part Lesson Format 41 ‘The Befre Phase of aLesson 41 “Teacher Actions inthe Before Phase 42 “The During Phase fora Lesson 44 “Teacher Actions ia the During Phase 45 The After Phase of a Lesson 46 “Teacher Actions inthe Afer Phase 46 Designing and Selecting Effective Tasks 48 ‘Your Textbook 48 Good Problems Have Multiple Entry Points 51 Childrens Literature 51 Other Resources 52 ‘A Tusk Selection Guide 52 “The Importance of Student Writing 53 ‘Teaching Tips and Questions 53 ‘Let Students Do the Talking 53 How Much to Telland Not to Tell 54 Frequently Asked Questions 56 ‘Teaching About Problem Solving 57 ‘Strategies and Processes 57 Developing Problem-Solving Strategies 57 ‘Mecacognition 58 Disposition 58 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 4 59 ‘Writing tolearn $9 For Discussion and Exploration 59 Recommendations for Further Reading 59 Online Resources 60 5 Planning in the Problem-Based Classroom 61 Planning a Problem-Based Lesson. 61 ‘Sample Lessons | 63 Variations ofthe Three-Pert Lesson 63 Dealing with Diversity 64 Plan for Multiple Entry Points 64 Plan Differensited Tasks 65 {Use Heterogeneous Groupings 65 ‘Make Accommodations and Modifications 65 Listen Carefally © Students 65 Planning Considerations for English Language Learners 67 Diill or Practice? 67 —'New Definitions of Drilland Practice 67 Whet Drill Provides 67 “What Practice Provides 69 Whea Is Drill Appropriate? 69 Kids Who Dont Get It 69 Homework 70 Practice as Homework 79 Drills Homework 70 “The Role of the Testhook 70 Hiow Aze Textbooks Developed? 70 Teacher’ Editions. 74 “Two-Page Lesson Format. 71 Suggestions for Textbook Use 71 1 EXPANDED LESSON: Fixed Areas 72 1 EXPANDED LESSON: Two More Thani Two less Than 74REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 5 76 ‘Writing to Learn 76 For Discussion and Exploration 76 Recommendations for Further Reading 76 Online Resources 77 6 Bui 1g Assessment into Instruction 78 Blurring the Line Between Instruction and Assessment 78 What Is Assessment? 78 ‘The Assessment Standards 78, Purposes of Assessment 79 What Should Be Assessed? 60 Concepts and Procedures 80 ‘Mathematical Processes 80 Disposition 80 Assessment Tasks Are Learning Tasks 80 ‘Fxamples of Assessment Tasks 81 ‘Thoughts About Assessment Tasks 82 Rubrics end Performance Indicators: Scoring—Not Grading 82 Simple Robries 82 Performance Indicators 63 Student Involvement with Rubries 84 Using Observation in Assessment 84 Anecdotal Notes 85 ‘An Observation Rubric 85 Checklists or Forms for Individuals 85 Checklists for Full Classes 86 Writing and Journals 86 ‘The Value of Writing 88 Journals 87 ‘Writing Prompts and Kdeas 87 Journals for Farly Learners 88 Student Self-Assessment 89 Tests 90 Improving Performance on High-Stakes Tests 90 ‘Avoid “Teaching tothe Test 91 ‘Teach Fundamental Concepts ané Processes 91 ‘Test-Taking Strategies 92 Grading 92 Confronting the Myth 92 Grading Issues 92 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTERS 93, Writing to Learn 93 For Discussion and Exploration 94 Recommendations for Further Reading 94 Online Resources 94 Detaled Contents vii a Teaching Mathematics Equitably to All Children 95 ‘Mathematics for All Children 95 Diversity in Today’ Classroom 95 ‘The Goal of Equitable Instruction 96 Negative Ffects of Tracking and Homogeneous Grouping 96 Instructional Principle for Diverse Learners 96 Specific Learning Disabilities 96 ‘A Perspective on Learning Disabilities 97 Adaptations for Specific Learning Disabilities 97 Intellectual Disabilities 98 ‘Modifications in Instruction 98 Modifications in Curviculom 99 Culturally and Linguistially Diverse Studenes 99 Culturally Relevant Mathematics Instruction 99 Ethnomathernatics 100 English Language Learners (ELLs) 100 Specific Strategies for Teaching Mathematics to English Language Learners 101 From Gender Bias to Gender Equicy 102 Possible Causes of Gender Inequity 102 Working Toward Gender Equity: What Can Be Done? 103 Providing for the Mathematically Promising 103 ‘Tdentifcation of Mathernatically Promising Seudents 103 Acceleration, Enrichment, and Depth 104 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 7105 Writing to Learn 105 For Discusion and Exploration 105 Recommendations for Further Reading 105 Online Resources 106 3S Technology and School Mathematics 107 Calculators in the Mathematics Classroom 107 Benefits of Calculator Use 107 Adiressing Myths and Fears About Using Calculators 108 Calculators for Every Student, Bwery Day 109,Detailed Contents Graphing Calculators 109 Guidelines for Selecting and Using Software 115 ‘What the Graphing Calculator Offers 109 “How to Select Sofware 115 Electronic Data Collection 110 Guidelines for Using Software 116 “The Computer asa Tool in Mathematics 111 Mathematics Education Resources Electronic Manipulatives for Numeration 111 ‘on the Internet 116 Geometry Tools 112 Probability and Data Analysis Tools 113 Function Graphers 114 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 8 117 Writing to Learn 117 For Discussion and Exploration 117 Instructional Software 114 Recommendations for Further Reading 117 Concept Instruction 114 Online Resources 118 Problem Solving 114 Drill 115 SECTION mt Development of Mathematical _Concepts and Procedures _ “This section serves asthe application of the core ideas of Seetion I. Here you will ind chapters on every msjor area of content in the K-8 mathematics euriculum. Numerous problem-based activities | to engage student ar interwoven with a discussion ofthe mathematical content and how children develop their understanding ofthat content. At the ouset of each chapter, you will finda listing of “Big Teas,” the mathematical umbrella for the chapter. Also inched are ideas for incorporating children’ literature, technology, and essessment, These chapters ae designed to help you develop pedagogical | ___ somes and tose ares or your eng g ‘One and Two More, One and Two Less 126 “Anchoring Numbers to Sand 10.127 Developing Early Part-Pare-Whole Relationships 129 Number Concepts and Dot Card Activities 133 Number Sense 120 1B INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND Waiaimene tis SPACE: Grade K, How Many in All? 135 Relationships for Numbers 10 to 20 135 MATHEMATICS CONTENT AA’CONNECTIONS 120 ‘A Pre-Place-Vale Relationship with 10.136 f Extendiag More and Less Relationships 138 Number Development in Pre-K and Double and Near-Double Relationships 136 Kindergarten 121 ‘The Relationships of More, Less, and Same 121 Early Counting 122 Numeral Writing and Recognition 122 Number Sense and the Real World 137 Estimation and Measurement 137 ‘More Connections 137 Counting On and Counting Back 123 Cease Barly Number Sense 124 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 138 Relationships Among Numbers 1 Through 10 124 Anns Counting House 139 ‘ACallection of Number Relationships 125 The Very ngry Caterpiler 139 Spatial Relationships: Patterned Set ‘Fioo Ways 10 Count to Ten 139 Recognition 125 Extensions to Early Mental Mathematics 140REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 9 141 Writing to Learn 141 For Discussion and Exploration 141 Recommendations for Further Reading 141 ‘Online Resources 142 4 Developing Meanings for the Operations 143 WIG IDEAS 143 MATHEMATICS CONTENT CONNECTIONS «13 Adon and Subtraction Problem Structures 144 Examples Problems for Pach Structure 144 Reflection on the Four Structures" 145 “Teaching Addition and Subtraction 146 Using Conceal Problems 148 Using Move Based Problems 147 Comparison Models 148 “The Order Property andthe Zero Propersy 48 1B INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 2, Coins, Coupons, and Combinations "151 Problem Structures for Multiplication and Divison 152 Examples of Problems for Bach Struetare 152 Reflections oa the Multiplicative Structures 153 “Teaching Muliplication and Division 154 Using Contextual Problems ° 154 Remainders 154 Using Models-Based Problems 155 Multiplication and Division Activities 155 ‘Useful Multiplication and Division ‘Properties 157 ‘Strategies for Solving Contextual Problems 158 ‘Analyting Contexe Problems 158 “Two-Step Problems 160 “Two Additional Concepts of Multiplication 161 Combinations Problems 161 Productof-Measures Problems 161 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 162 How Many Snails? 162 ‘Mare Than One 182 Each Orange Fiad 8 Ses 162 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 10 163 Wiring to teara 163 sion and Exploration 163 Detaled Contents 1 Recommendations for Further Reading 163 Online Resources 164 44 Helping Children Master the Basic Facts 165 WBIGIDEAS 165 O,MATHEMATICS CONTENT CONNECTIONS 165 Approaches to Fact Mastery 165 Pros and Cons of Each Approach 165 Ghiding Strtegy Development 166 Diillofficent Methods 167 Strategies for Addition Facts 168 ‘One-More-Than and Two-More-Than Facts 168 Facts with Zero. 169 Doubles 168, NearDoubles 170 Make-Ten Facts 170 AGeneticTisk 172 Other Strategies andthe Last Six Facts 172 Strategies for Subtraction Facts 174 Subtraction ss Think-Addition 174 Subtraction Fats with Sums to 10174 “The 36 "Hard Subtraction Pats: Sums Greater Than 10.174 Strategies for Moliplication Facts 177 Doubles 17 Fives Facts 178 Zeros and Ones 178 Nifty Nines "178 Helping Facts 179 Division Facts and “Near Facts” 181 1 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 3, Things That Come jn Groups 182 Effective Drill 183 ‘When and How to Drill 183 ‘What About Timed Tests? 183 Face Remediation with Upper-Grade Seudents 184 Facts: No Barrier to Good Mathematics 185 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 11. 185 Writing to Learn 185 For Discussion and Exploration 185 Recommendations for Further Reading 186 ‘Online Resources 185,X _ Detaled Contents q2 Whole-Number Place-Value Development 187 ‘WBIGIDEAS 187 & MATHEMATICS CONTENT ea CONNECTIONS 187 Pre-Baso-Ten Concepts 188 ‘Children’ Pre-Base-Ten View of Number 188 Quantity Tied to Counts by Ones 188 ‘Ideas of Place Value 188 Integration with Base-Tea Groupings with Counts by Ones 188 “The Role of Counting in Constructing Base-Ten Ideas 189, Integration of Groupings with Words 189 Integration of Groupings with Plae-Value Notation 190 ‘Models for Place Value 191 ‘Base-Ten Models end the Ten-Makes-One Relationship 191 Groupable Models 191 Progrouped or Trading Models 192 Developing Base-Tea Concepts 192 Grouping Activities 193 “The Strangeness of One, Tin, and Hamdreds 195 Grouping Tens ro Make 100 195 B INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 1, Number Games and Story Problems 196 Equivalent Representations 197 Oral and Written Names for Numbers 198 ‘Two-Digit Number Names 198 ‘Three-Digit Number Names 199 Whiten Symbols 199 Patterns and Relationships with Muleidigit Numbers 201 ‘The Hundreds Chart 201 Relationships with Landmark Numbers 204 Number Relationships for Addition and Subtraction 206, Connections to Real-World Teas 209 Helping Children Work with Money 209 Coin Recognition and Values 209 Using Coin Values 210 Making Change 210 Numbers Beyond 1000 211 Extending the Place-Value Syste _211 Concepoualizing Large Numbers 212 Bas LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 213, Meira’ Birthday 213 How t Count Like a Martian 213 ‘The King’s Commissioners 243 A Million Fish ... More or Less 243 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 12. 214 ‘Writing to Learn 214 For Discussion and Exploration 214 Recommendations for Further Reading 214 Online Resources 215, 13 Strategies for Whole-Number Computation 216 WBIGIDEAS 216 f, MATHEMATICS CONTENT MA CONNECTIONS 216 ‘Toward Computational Fluency 217 Direct Modeling 217 Tented Strategies 218 Contests with Traditional Algorithins 248 Benefits of lnvented Strategies 219 ‘Mental Computation 219 “Traditional Algorithins 220 Development of Student-Invented Strategies 220 Tneegrate Computation with Pace Value and Fact Development 221 Use Story Problems Frequently 221 Use the Three-Part Lesson Format 221 Record Students! Progress 221 Invented Strategies for Addition and Subtraction 222 [Adding and Subtracting Single Digits 222 ‘Adding and Suberacting Tens and Hundreds 223 ‘Adding Two-Digit Numbers | 223 Subtracting by Counting Up 223 Take-Away Subtraction 225 Extensions and Challenges 226 “Traditional Algorithms for Addition and Subtraction 225 ‘The Addition Algorithm 226 ‘The Subtraction Algorithm 227 Invented Strategies for Multiplication 228 ‘Useful Representations 229, Multiplication bya Single-Digit Mulipier 220 ‘Using Multiples of 10 and 100 231 “Two-Digit Multipliers 231 M1 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 4, Packages and Groups 233Detaled Contents Xi ‘The Traditional Algorithm for Multiplication 234 One-Digit Multipliers 234 Two-Digit Multipliers 235 Inyeoted Strategies for Division 236 ‘Missing-Factor Strategies 237 Cluster Problems 238 One-Digic Divisors 238 “Twwo-Digit Divisors 239 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 241 Coukies 242 Ira Blue Whale the Biggest Thing There ls? 242 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 13 242 Writing to Learn 242 Fer Discusion and Exploration 243 Recommendations for Further Reading 243, Online Resources 244 14. Computational Estimation with Whole Numbers 245 VBIGIDEAS 245 & MATHEMATICS CONTENT AaCCONNECTIONS 245 Introducing Computational Estimation 245 “Understanding Computational Estimation 245 Choosing a Form of Computation 246 Suggestions for Estimation Instruction 248 Estimation Without Estimates 247 Estimations from Invented Strategies 248 Stop Before the Details 248, Cluster Problems. 289 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 5, Building on Numbers You Know 250 Computational Estimation Strategies 250 Front-End Methods 251 Rounding Methods 251 Using Compatible Numbers 253 Estimation Fxereises 254 Coleulator Activities 254 ‘More Estimation Activities 256 Estimating with Fractions, Decimals, ‘and Percents 256 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 257 ‘The Teclve Circus Rings 257 The 3290b Friend 257 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 14 257 Writing to Learn 257 For Discussion and Exploration 258 Recommendations for Further Reading 258 Online Resources 258 45 Algebraic Thinking: Generalizations, Patterns, and Functions 259 WBIG IDEAS 259 4, MATHEMATICS CONTENT MA CONNECTIONS 259 Algebraie’Thinking 260 Generalization in Number and Operations 260 “The Meaning of the Equal Sign 260 Variables in Equations 262 ‘Making Structure in the Number System Explicit 266 Making Conjectures 256 “Proving” Conjectures 265 ‘Odd and Even Relationships 267 Repeating Patterns 268 Charis and Other Number Patterns 270 Patterns and the Hundeeds Chart 270 Number Patterns 270 Growing Patterns—A First Look at Functions 271 ‘Searching for Relationships 272 ‘General Function Statements from Patterns 273 Graphing the Patterns 274 Function Concepts and Representations 275 Five Representations of Functions 275 @ INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 5, Patterns of Change 276 Connect Different Representations 280 Use'Technology 280 Explorations with Functional Relationships 281 Relationships Found in the Real World 281 Proportional Situations 282 1 CONNECTED MATHEMATICS: Grade 7, Variables ‘and Patterns 283 Functions and Measurement 284 ‘Maximum/Minimam Problems 284 ‘Fonctions from Scatter Plot Data 285 Fan Experiments 286 Generalizations About Functions 287 ‘Analysis of Rate of Change 287 Linear Fonetions 288Detailed Contents ‘Mathematical Modeling 230 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 290 Pattern 290 Anno’ Mysterious Maltipying Jar. 280 ‘Anno’ MagieSeedr 280 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 15. 291 toLean 291 For Discussion and Exploration 291 Recommendatlons for Further Reading 231 Online Resources 292 Developing Fraction Concepts 293 VaIG IDEAS 293 MATHEMATICS CONTENT AIA CONNECTIONS — 253 Sharing and the Concept of Fractional Parts 294 Sharing’Tisks 294 Sharing Tasks and Praction Language 295 Models for Fractions 295 Region or Area Models 295 Length or Measurement Models 295 Set Models 237 From Fractional Parts to Fraction Symbols 237 Fractional Parts and Words 297 ‘Understanding Fraction Symbols 298 Fraction Number Sense 303 enchmarks of Zero, One-Hilf,and One 303 “Thinking About Which Is More? 304 Estimation 306 1 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 4, Different Shapes, Equal Pieces 307 Equivalent-Fraction Concepts 308 ‘Concepts Versus Rules 308 Equivalent-Frection Concepts 309 Developing an Equivaleat-Fraetion Algorithm 311 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS | 313, The Doorbell Rang 313 Garey Pie 313 ‘The Man Whe Cononted: A Collection of Mathematical Adventures 313 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 16 313, ‘writing to Leatn 313, For Discussion and Exploration 314 Recommendations for Further Reading 314 Ontine Resources 315 @7 Computation with Fractions 316 YW BIGIDEAS 316 & MATHEMATICS CONTENT AA/CONNECTIONS 316 ‘Number Sense and Fraction Algorithms 316 ‘The Dangerous Rush to Rules 317 ‘AProblem-Based, Number Sense Approach 317 Addition and Subtraction 317 Informal Exploration 317 ‘The Myth of Common Denominators 319 Developing the Algorithm 318 Estimation and Simple Methods 321 1 CONNECTED MATHEMATICS: Grade 6, Bits and Pieces I Investigation 4 322 ‘Multiplication 322 Informal Exploretion 322 Developing the Algorishm 324 ‘Mental Techniques and Estimation 326 Division 326 Informal Exploration: Partition Concept 326 Informal Exploration: Measurement Concept 328 Developing the Algorithms 329 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 17.331 ‘Welting to Learn 331 For Discussion and Exploration 332 Recommendations for Further Reading 332 Online Resources 332 18 Decimal and Percent Concepts and Decimal Computation 333 YVEIG EAS 333 ‘4, MATHEMATICS CONTENT a" CONNECTIONS 333 Connecting Two Different Representational ‘Systems 333 Base-Ten Fractions 334 Bxcending the PlaceValve System 335 ‘Making the Fricton-Decimal Connection 337 Dereloping Decimal Number Sense 338 ‘Familiar Fractions Connected to Decimals 338 Approximation witha Nice Fraction 340‘Ordering Decimal Numbers 341 ‘Other Fraction-Decimal Equivalents 342 Incroducing Percents 343 AThird Operator System 343 Realistic Percent Problems 344 Computation with Decimals 346 “The Role of Fstimation 346 ‘Addition and Subtraction 347 Multiplicwion 348 Division 348 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 349 The Phantom Tilboots 350 1 CONNECTED MATHEMATICS: Grade 6, Bits and Pieces i: Investigation 6 350 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 18 351 Writing to Learn 351 For Discusion and Exploration 351 Recommendations for Further Reading 351 Online Resources 352 19 Proportional Reasoning 353 ‘YBIGIDEAS 353 4 MATHEMATICS CONTENT Ba CONNECTIONS 353, Ratios, Proportions, and Proportional ‘Reasouing 353 Examples of Ratios in Diffecent Contexts 354 Proportions 354 Proportional Reasoning 355, [Additive Versus Mukiplcadive Sieuaions 355, Informal Activities to Develop Proportional Reasoning | 357 Identifying Mukiplicative Relationships 357 [Equivalent Ratio Selections 358 ‘Comparing Ratios 359 Scaling with Ratio Tables 361 Construction and Measurement Activities 363 1 CONNECTED MATHEMATICS: Grade 7, Comparing and Scaling 366 Solving Proportions 365 Withia and Between Ratios 366 ‘Av Inforinal Approach | 367 ‘The Crose-Product Algorithm 358 Activities That Require Proportions 369 Percent Problems as Proportions 370 Equivalent Fractions as Proportions 370 Detailed Contents __ xiii LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 371 1p Yeu Hopped Like a Frog 371 Counting on Frank 372 The Borrowers 372 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 19 372 ‘writing to Learn 372 For Discussion and Exploration 373 Recommendations for Further Reading 373 Online Resources 373 20 Developing Measurement Concepts 374 BIG IDEAS 374 's MATHEMATICS CONTENT Wa" CONNECTIONS 374 “The Meaning and Process of Measuring 375 Derelopiag Measurement Concepts and Skills 376 ‘AGeneral Plan of Instruction 376 Informal Units and Standerd Units: Reasons for ‘Using Fach 377 “The Role of Estimation in Learning Measurement 378 ‘The Approximate Nature of Measurement 378 Measuring Length 373 Comparison Activities 378 Using Unies of Length 379 “Two Units and Fractional Parts of Units 380 ‘Making and Using Rulers 381 Measuring Area 382 ‘Comparison Activities 382 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 3, From Paces to Feet 363 Using Units of Area 384 Using Grids 336, ‘Avea and Perimeter 385 Measuring Volume and Capacity 387 ‘Compatison Activities 387 Using Units of Volume and Capacity 388 ‘Making and Using Measuring Cups 389 Measuring Weight and Mass 389 ‘Making Comparisons 389 Using Units of Weight or Mass 290 ‘Making and Using a Scale 390 Measuring Time 390 ‘Comparison of Durations 390 Clock Resding 290Xiv Detailed Contents Related Concepts 291 Elapsed Time 292 ‘Measuring Angles 392 Comparing Angles 392 ‘Using Units of Angular Measure 392 ‘Making e Protractor 393 Introducing Standard Units 394 Instructional Goals 394 Important Standard Units and Relationships 396 Estimating Measures 397 “Techniques of Measurement Estimation 397 ‘Tips for Teaching Estimation 398 ‘Measurement Estimation Activities 398 Developing Formulas for Area and Volume 398 Common Difficulties 399 ‘The Ares of Rectangles, Parallelograms, Tiiangles, and ‘Trapezoids 399, Giccle Formulas 402 ‘Volumes of Common Solid Shapes 402 Reviewing the Formulas 404 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 404 How Big ica Foot? aa Fim and the Beanstalk. 408 ‘Counting on Frank 408 Incroorm and a Half 0S 8,000 Stones 405 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 20 405 Writing to Learn 405 For Discussion and Exploration 405 Recommendations for Further Reading 406, Online Resources 406 Geometric Thinking and Geometric Concepts 407 ‘VBIGIDEAS 407 J, MATHEMATICS CONTENT Ba connections 407 Geometry Goals for Students 408 Spatal Sense an Geometic Reasoning 408 Geometric Content 408, ‘The Development of Geometrie‘Thinking 408 ‘The van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thought 409 Characteristic of the van File Levels 412 Implications for Inetrecon 413 “Tsk Selection and Levels of Thought 444 Learning About Shapes and Properties 414 ‘Shapes and Properties for Leve-O Thinkers 414 1 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 1, Quilt Squares and Block Towns 417 Shapes and Properties for Level-1 Thinkers 420 Shapes and Properties for Level-2 Thinkers 427 Learning About Transformations 431 ‘Transformations for Level-0 Thinkers 431 ‘Transformations for Level-1 Thinkers 433 “Transformations for Level-2 Thinkers 435 Learning About Location 427 Location for Level-O Thinkers 437 1B CONNECTED MATHEMATICS: Grade 8, Kaleidoscopes, Hubcaps, and Mirrors 439 Location for Level Thinkers 440 Location for Level-2 Thinkers 442 Learning About Visualization 443 ‘Visualization for Leve-0 Thinkers 443 Visualization for Level-1 Thinkers 445 ‘Visualization for Level2 Thinkers 447 Assessment of Geometric Goals. 429 Clarifying Your Geometry Objectives 489 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 21. 450 Writing to Learn 450 For Discusion and Exploration 450, Recommendations for Further Reading 450 Online Resources 451 22 Concepts of Data Analysis 452 WBIG IDEAS 452 4 MATHEMATICS CONTENT Wa’CONNECTIONS 452 Gathering Data to Answer Questions 453 ‘Ideas for Questions and Data 453 Other Sources of Information 454 Classification and Data Analysis 456 ‘Areibute Materials 454 1 INVESTIGATIONS IN NUMBER, DATA, AND SPACE: Grade 5, Data: Kids, Cats, and Ads 455 Activities with Attribute Materials 455 ‘The Shape of Data 438 Graphical Representations 458 Chester Graphs. 459 Bor Graphs and Tally Charts 459 Stemand-LeafPlots 460 Continuous Data Graphs 461 Gircle Graphs 463Descriptive Statistics 464 ‘Averages 464 ‘Understanding the Mean: "Two Concepts 464 Distribution of Data: Box-and-Whisker Plots 467 Scatter Plots and Relationships 469 Seatter Plots 469 Bese-FitLines 470 ‘Thinking About Functional Relationships 474 ‘Technology or By-Hand Methods 471 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 472 ‘The Phantom Tollbooth 472 ‘The Best Vacation Ever 472 Frog and Toad Are Priends 472 Incredible Comparisons 472 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 22 473, ‘Writing to Learn 473 For Discussion and Exploration 473, Recommendations for Further Reading 473 Online Resources 474 23 Exploring Concepts of Probability 475 VeIG IDEAS 475 4, MATHEMATICS CONTENT i CONNECTIONS = 475, Probability ona Continuum 476 “The Probability Continuum, 473 “Theoretical Versus Faperimental Probability 479 “Theoretis! Probably 480 Experimental Probability 480 “The Law of Large Namabers 481 Implications for Insertion 483 Sample Spaces and Computing Theoretical Probabilities "483 Independent Brents 484 ‘Theoretical Probabilities with an Area Model 485 Dependent Events 485 Simulations 426 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 489 Do You Wanna Bet? Your Chance to Find Out About Probability 489 ‘My Little Sister Ate One Hare 490 Lorteriee: Who Wins, Who Lares 480 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 23 490 writing to Learn 490 For Discussion and Exploration 490 Detailed Contents __XV Recommendations for Further Reading 491 Online Resources 491 24 Developing Concepts of Exponents, Integers, and Real Numbers 492 YRIGIDEAS 492 4, MATHEMATICS CONTENT AA CONNECTIONS 492 Large Numbers, Small Numbers, ‘and Exponents 492 Exponents 492 Cateuators and Notation 493 Very Large Numbers 494 Representation of Large Numbers: Seieniic Notation 494 Negative Exponents 495 1 CONNECTED MATHEMATICS: Grade 8, Growing, Growing, Growing: Exponential Relationships 496 Very Small Numbers 497 Integer Concepts 497 Intuitive Models of Signed Quantities 497 ‘Mathersatical Definition of Negative Numbers 498 Operations with Integers 498 “Tivo Models for Imeger Operations 438 Which Model to Use 499 AProblem-Solving Approach for Integers 499 ‘Addition and Subtraction 489 Multiplication and Division 502 Absolute Value 503 Rational Numbers 504 Fractions as Indicated Division 504 Fractions as Rational Numbers 504 Real Numbers 505 Introducing the Concept of Roots $05 Discussing Real Numbers 506 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 507 ‘The Neonber Devil 507 ‘The Phantom Tolllooth 507 In the Next Three Seconds $07 ‘Math Curse 508 REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 24 508 Writing to Learn 508 For Discussion and Exploration 508 Recommendations for Further Reading 508 Online Resources 509xvi__ Detaled Contents iy BA rrinciples and Standards for School Mathematics: Content Standards and Grade Level Expectations a-1 Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics: Teaching Standards 8-1 € juide to Blackline Masters c-1 REFERENCES R-1 INDEX 1-1Vo Students and instructers from the Author A Learning isnot the result of development; learning is development. It requires invention and sef-organization on the part of the learner. Thus teachers need to allow learners to raise their own questions, generate their own hypotheses and. models as possibilities, and test them for viability. —Fomot (1996, p. 29) PU itescin mathemati ia snl ths Mah nascent! ery child ia i cor her own way can come to believe this simple ruth. More important, every child can come to believe that he or she is capable of making sense of mathematics. Every child should eave school confident in his or her ability to understand and do mathematics. “This isthe goal of Blementary and Middle Scoo! Matbematic-—to help both you and your students come to believe that math makes sense and that you are capable of making sense of yourself. As the quotation from Catherine Fosnot suggest, students will have to develop this understanding themselves. Their understanding and, thus their confidence will row 2s 2 result of being engaged in the doing of mathematics. The subtitle ofthis book, Teaching Developmentaily, efers to engaging students where you find them so that they can ereate or develop new ideas that they can use and wnderstand—so they can see that math makes sense through their own eyes and can believe it because they can doit. Research in mathematics education has consistently found that understanding and skills are best developed when students are allowed to wrestle with new ideas to create and defend solutions to problems, and to participate in a mathematical community of learners. ‘This student-centered, problem-based approach to learning isa central theme of this book. ‘You may be surprised to find that your instructor does not “cover” much more than half of the book. In fat, no course can completely prepare you forall you need to know to help chi ddcen learn mathemati. However, this book has always been more than a textbook. Ieisa guide for your ongoing learning asyou continue your work with children. For each stand ofthe rath- «matics curicalum, you wll in a discussion of how chien develop tha mathematis along ‘vith tasks and activites for helping stadens lear, Integrated with ths diseussion you wll ind a development ofthe mathematics content you need tobe an effective teacher. ‘Learning how best to help children believe that mathematics makes sense and thet they oe of mathematics is an exciting endeavor and a lifelong process. it the knowledge guned from research, the wisdom shared by professional colleagues, tnd the insight ideas that came fom your ow dally experiences wath students. Thope that this book will ssst you on this fancastic journey. Believe in kids! Allow thers to think, to struggle, and to reason with new ideas. together you find the excitement that happens when mathematies makes sense. aoe es xviiXvili__some Special Features of This Text What You Wi Ifyou look atthe table oF contents, you wil sce that che chapters ae separated into two dstinet sections. The ist Section of eight chapters deals with important ides that ‘ross the boundaries of specific areas of content. The soo- ond section of 16 chapters offers teaching suggestions for tevery major topic in the K-8 curriculum, Chapters 3 ond ‘are che most important. There you will learn about a constructivist view of learning, how that is applied to learning mathematics, and what iemeans ro teach through problem solving. Chapter 5 will help you translate these leas of how childven best learn mathematics into the lessons you will be teaching. Here you will find practical perspective on planning effective lessons forall children, fn the value of dill and practice, and other issues. Sam- ple leszon plans are found at the end of this chapter. Chapter 6 explores the integration of esessment with in struction to best ase seudent learning. ‘Surrounding these central ideas ae four chapters offering perspective om the challenging task of helping chil dren learn mathematics Its important to know where mathematics is going and why so that you will know how to play 4 professional role in that endeavor. Its also im= portant to haves fel for the dsspline of mathematics — Find in This Book toknow wharit means to “do mathematics.” The first two chapters address these issues. Tn Chapter 7, you will read about working with chil- ddren whose needs are special, whether they are English fanguage leamers or gifted or have learning disabilities. ‘Chapter 8 provides perspectives on the issues surrounding technology ia the teaching of mathematics. A strong case is made for the use of calculators at all grade levels. Guidance is offered for the selection and use of computer software and suggestions are made to help you find valuable resources on the Internet. ach chapter of Section Il provides a perspective of the mathematical content, how children best learn that content and numerous suggestions for problem-based ae- tivities to engage children in the development of good ‘mathematics. The problem-based tasks for students a tegrated with the text; they are not added on. Reflecting on the activities as you read can help you think about the ‘mathematics from the perspective ofthe child. Read them slong with the text, not as an aside, Like children, become actively engaged in your learning about cildren learning mathematics. Some Special Features of This Text By jus fipping chrough the book you will notice lots of section headings, lors of fig- ‘ures, and various fal as both a textbook and ‘as a resource. Here are a few things to look for. < Big Ideas icons and special features, All are there to make the book mote use~ Mathematics Content Connections Following the Big Ideas lists are brief descriptions of other content areas in mathematics that are related to the content of the current chapter, Itis offered to help you be more aware of the potential interaction of content 4s you plan lessons, diagnose students’ difficulties, and learn more yourself about the mathe- muti you are teaching. ‘Much of the literatare espousing a student-centered approach suggests that teachers plan chet instruction around “big ideas” rether than tiny sills or concepts, Near the star of each chapter in Section Ifyou wil find alist ofthe key ‘mathematical ides associated with the chapter. ‘Teaches find these Fst help~ ful for quickly getting a picture of the mathematics they are teaching.Activities > “The numerous activities found in every chepter of Section II Jraveakvays been an integral par ofthe book. Most of these are clearly framed in a box witha tile. Other ideas are d seribed directly in the text or in the illustrations. Every ac~ tivity ia problem-based teskas described in Chapter 4. Fach ‘one is designed to engage students in doing mathematics. ‘Some Specat Features of This Text xix wtiily a -< Investigations in Number, Data, and Space and Connected Mathematics Features Jn almost every chapter of Section TI you will find a feature desribing an activity from the standards-based eurriculum Investigations in Nuonber, Data, and Space (en clementary curiculu) ot Connected Mathematics mil- dle schoo! curriculum)."The page in- See cludes a description ofan activity in the program 2s well as the context of the unit in which it is found. The main purpose of this feature is to ac- ‘quaint you with these materials and 10 demonstrate how the spirit of the NCTM Standoris and the construc- sivist theory espoused in this book Ihave been translated into existing commercial exrricala,YX _ Some Special Features of This Text THREE ea Assessment Notes > ‘Assessment should be an integral parc of instruction, Simi- larly, snakes sense to think about what tobe listening for (Gssessing) as you read about different areas of content development. Throughout the content chapters, you will se assesment icons indicating a short de- Seription of things to be looking for as you teach this material, Reading these assessment notes as you read the text can also help you understand how best to help your sradents. ‘nese eet << Literature Connections Most ofthe chapters in Section Icontaina Literature ‘Connections section. In ezch of these sections children literature ttle are suggested with a brief description of how the mathematics ofthe chap ter ean be profitably built on the stories. Thongh certainly nova comprchensive listing of potential literature, these sections will get you started using this exciting vobile foc teaching matheraatics. LiteratureConnections shia eck nd ince sien hp nee: Coen sien ‘ey hn lead nau tcl Ha ~ ‘When appropriate, a technology icon marks section discussing how ‘computers can be used profitably to help with the content just dit- ‘cussed, Descriptions are provided of specific software tithes and interactive applets available on the Internet. You should not think of these sections as « compendium of avaiable software but asa pointer to the most useful types of computer resources that are available. Inclusion, ‘of any tte in these notes should not be seen gs an endorsement. “The technology icon will alsobe found with certain activities to indicate the use of computer technology: Similarly, a ealeulator icon ap- pats with activities that incorporate caleulator vse.Some Special Features of This Text__XXi < Chapter End Matter “There are four hesdings at the end of every chapter. Writing to Learn “Tohelp you focus on the important pedagogical ideas, lst cof focusing questions is found at the end of every chapter under the heading “Reflections on Chapter N: Writing to Learn," These study questions are designed to help you re feeton the main points of the chapter. Actually writing out the answers to these questions in your own words i one of the best ways for you to develop your understanding ofeach, chapter’ main ideas, For Discussion and Exploration “These questions ask you to explore an issue, reflect on ob- servations in a classroom, compare text ideas with those found in traditional carsiculum materials, or pechaps take a position on # controversial isue. There ae no “right” an- ssvers to these questions, butI hope that they will stimulate ‘thought and cause spirited conversations. Recommendations for Further Reading ‘Under this heading you will finda shoreannotated list ofar- ticles and books to augment the information found in the chapter. Usually these are taken from NCTM journals and books, and from other professional resources designed forthe classroom, teacher. (Note that all sources cited within the text proper appear in the References at the end ‘of the book.) ‘A much more complete lsting of books and articles related to each chapter ofthe book ean be found on the Companion Web site at wwwablongman.com/vandewallese. Zraapauparsemecueds & Online Resources Suggested Applets and ‘Web Links. Today there are many mathematics-learning resources available free on the Internet, Most are in the form of interactive applets that allow students to explore a apecific mathematics concept oF sill ‘Aer each chapter in Section T, you will Gnd an annotated lise of some ofthe best of these resources along with their ‘URLs. Exploring these applets will be a learning experience for you as well esa way to learn ofa valaableresoore for sto- stvoaioegmancanvvndenatee. dents. At the end of Chapter 8 is alist of the broader sites where these and other Web-based resources can be found ‘An easy method of accessing these sites is to visit the Companion Web site for this book (Grwwablongman.com/vandewallebe). There cach Web-based resource and applet can be ae- cessed with a simple click of the mouse,xxii Some Special Features of This Text NCTM Standards Appendixes > NCTM’ Principles and Standards for Scho! Matbematics described in depth in Chapter 1, pointed ovt periodically by the NCTM Correlations icon, and reflected in spirit throughout the book. In Appendix A, you will finda copy. ‘ofthe appendix to that document, sting al ofthe content standards and goals for each of the grade bands: pre-K- 3-5, 68, and 9-12. Principles and ‘Appendix B contains the six Standards for Teaching Standards for | Mathematics from Profesional Standerds for Teaching School Mathematics Mathenatic. Content Standards and Grade Level Expectations Number and Operations STANDARD Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics Teaching toda Expanded Lessons > ‘Two detailed lesson plans canbe found atthe end of Chap- ter 5 on planning problem-based lessons. In addition to these two Expanded Lessons, one activity in each content chapter of the text has been converted to a similar Bx- panded Leston that can be found on the Companion Web site (srwivablongman.com/randewallesc) These activities, ‘are marked with an icon for easy identification, The Ex- panded Lessons follow the lesson structure described in Chapter 5 ane include mathematical goals, ‘notes on preparation, specific stadent expec ‘ations, notes for assessment, and Blackline Masters when needed. They provide a ‘model for converting an activity desrip- tioa into areal lesson plan and indicate the {ind of chinking that is required in doing s0. Additional Expanded Lessons can be found inthe Field Experiene Guide,To the Instructor from the Author [tits dicing ptr to te to you thi sith eon of Bony ond Mii Sia ‘Mathematics. With the preparation of each edition Tam amazed at how much new there is toleam abouthelping children make sense of mathermates—learaing fc published research and from my ongoing work with both teachers and children. Each edition has contained few big changes and lots of litle ones as I make every effort to keep the book as up to date as possible. believe that no other book offers your students as much as this one does. Most important, it develops a strong theoretical perspective of children learning mathematics—not a ca- sual overview, That perspective is reflected consistently throughout the book. Second, no ‘ther book of this type develops so clearly the strong position articulated by Hiebert et al. (1996, 1997) thatthe best approach to teaching mathematics is to teach with problem-based tasks, Third, teachers find the book to be a valuable resource that almost all carry into the classroom rather than sel ack tothe bookstore. Ithas become a standard reference for K-8 teachers. Teachers and supervisors continually tell me how readable and valuable they find the book. It's a large book’ Iris not a book to “cover” but a book to use. I would not expect you to teach the content ofthe entire book ina single semester. ’ve come to believe that fewer topics discussed in class bt with time to develop the spit of Chapters 3 and 4is the best approech. As you explore the content topics you do select, allow your class to be a model of the instruction you want forall topics. Teaching with problem-based tasks and classroom dis- couuse isa complete shift fom the experiences of most teachers. By providing your students with the detail and information found inthis book, you send with them into the classroom the specifies you were unable to cover in clas, And you can be assured that the spirit of what you do cover will also be evident in those chapters you skipped. wish you and your teachers much success and excitement 2s you explore good mathematics. Help your teachers to believe in kids, Let them experience what it means to make oe fodoastexxiv Changes in This Elton Changes in This Edition Tike to think of this book as being in a constant state of flux-—morphing, a8 itwere, from one edition to the next. Some changes are more drastic; for others you have to look closely. No chapter was left untouched. ‘Al features from the fifth edition remain, although some have been altered a bitin format. Assessment notes are now shorter, more focused, and found throughout the con- ‘ent chapters rather than in a section atthe end. The technology notes are now indicated only with an icon rather than a full heading to male them more integral tothe text. “The chapter end matter now contains annotated Web re~ sources. But these ate not fundamental changes worthy of ‘new edition, Let me highlight the larger changes you want tobe aware of before you write your syllabus. Reorganization of Chapters “Three major shifts in chapters were made to eep the book. as up-wo-date as possible. Planning for Instruction ‘The planning and asses ‘nent chapters have been reversed in order, Chapter 5, Planning inthe Prblen-Baved Clasroon, now immediately follows the description of teaching from a student- centered, problem-based perspective. “This chapter has several important additions. Firs the leson-plan model is implemented with to complete Tesson plans found tthe end ofthe chapter. One is fll- class lesson, the others for leaning stations ina Kinder- garten or fist grade, Second, greater attention has been fiven tothe itve of planning foc a diverse classroom. A sinction is made between acomedating the learner and ‘modifying a lesson so that al can reach the same goal. F- nally, a completely new section addresses planning in a dlasstoom where there are English language learners Algebraic Thinking Perhaps the most important ‘change in this edition is the treatment of algebraic thinking. Chapter 15, Algerie Thinking: Generlizations, Pat- terns, and Functions, replaces the two chapters previowsly found near the end of the text. The change more appro- priately positions algebra with those chapters dealing with ‘whole numbers. Fr this revision [was guided by the de~ finition of algebra thinking developed by the late James Kaput. His description includes five components: genes- alization, the use of symbolism, the study of structure, patterns and functions, and mathematical modeling. The book Thinking Mathematical (Carpenter, Franke, & Lev, 2003) was another major influence, I believe the issue of algebraic thinking is now addressed with a more complete and developmental perspective than in any other book. Data Analysis and Probability Date analysis and probability are now developed in separate chapters—Chap- ters 72 and 23. With tis separation, the diseussion of probability received the most significa changes. There are nev, ‘more accurate definitions of probability experimental probability, and theoretical probability. More important, there are merous new activites designed especially for younger Srudents to help ther view chance as occuring along a tontinum while avoiding the comparison of outcome ra- tiosin experiments with diferent numbers of tes. Diversity In addition to Chapter 5, Chapter 7, Teaching Machemat- its Equitably to All Chive, also atends to ELL concerns. ‘Here they ae included in a broader discussion of teaching culturally and linguisteally diverse (CLD) students. “The focus, a elected inthe new chapter tis equitable instruetion fr all students. Six suggestion ae listed for teaching second language lessners. Geometry With the ffth edition, geometry content was expanded and reonganized to reflcr the four substrands of geome- tay found in Principles and Standards In this edition, in oF- der to help your students see these strands more clazly, I organized the chapter around those four strands. Now teach ofthe three van Hiele levels is reflected within each strand (shapes and properties, location, eransformations, and visualization). The development ofthe van Hicle the- onyis highlighted by three atvtes from the shapes and properties strand. These are now prominently located at the beginning of the chapter. Other Changes Alchough every chapter sew some change, 1 few specific “eens may be worth noting. + Chapter 3 now includes a section on socal construc tivim and the basic concept ofthe zane of proximal de~ elopnent as deseribed by Vygouly. + Chapter 4, Teaching Through Problem Solving, was somewhat rewritten so thatthe teaching agenda for each ofthe bf, during, and after section of lesson are now more clearly articulated and better reflected inthe suggested teaching actions. More attention i given to the development of a mathematical community of learners. + Chapter 12, 1hole-Nember Pace Vatue Development, now hasa significant section indicating how students tnderstanding of place value can profitably be devel- ‘oped atthe same time as an exploration of computation. Exploratory activities that were in the computation chapter are now found here, along with several nev activitiesAcknowledgments _XXxV Acknowledgments Many talented people have contributed ro the success of this books, and I am deeply grateful to all those who have assisted me along the way. Without the sucess ofthe first edition, there would certainly not have been a second, such les sic editions I will always be most sincerely indebted to Warren Crown (Rutgers), John Dossey(linois State University), Bob Gilbert Florida International Uni- versity), and Steven Willoughby (University of Arizona), ‘who gave time and great care in offering detailed com- ‘ments on the original manuseript. Few mathemati eda- cators oftheir statare would take the time and effort that they gave to that endeavor, Jn preparing this sixth edition, I have received thoughfl inpue from the following educators who of fered comments on the filth edition and/or on the man- seripe forthe sith: Cengiz Alacac, Florida International University ‘Shuhua An, California State University-Long Beach June Chang, Lesley University Linda 8. Dasy, Lesley University ‘Dana Pomykal Franz, Mississippi State University Carol H. Gelle, Redford University Stacy Gross, Lesley University Sandra McCune, Stephen P. Austin State University Rita McKinley, Lesley University ‘Marilyn Nash, Indiana Universty-South Bend Barbara D. O’Donel, Southern Iinois University-Fatwardsville Cheistine FG. Perlo, Lesley University Dorothy M. Singleton, Winston-Salem State University Sandra‘Trotman, Nova Southern University Frederick L. Uy, California State University-Los Angeles Each review challenged me to think through importants sues. Many specific suggestions have found their way into this book. These professionals exch have my thanks Special thanks goes to Jennifer Bay-Williams (Kanses State University) and Karen Karp (University of Louisville). In addition to commenting on some new material, these ‘370 collaborated to provide both manuscript and advice in bringing a needed ELL perspective to the planning chap- terand the equity chapter. !am also indebted to the work of Jon Wray of Howard County Publi Schools (Mary- land), who reviewed every tech reference in the fifth edition and found the Web resources now at the end of each content chapter. Asin the past, Thave received superb help and advice from my friends at Aliyn & Bacon. ‘To Sonny Regelman, ry development editor through fire books, special word ofthanks for her friendly prodding, professional insights, sod gn conectons While Li erwin es ion, I will sorely miss her. Thenks go to my editor, ‘Tec Mueler, for bel the ge ding light fo this project. also extend ny sincere appreciation to all ofthe produe~ tion and editing people at Omegatype. A Personal Note As the sole author of this book, I rely heavily on the re~ search and writings of many leading mathematies eduea- tors. Its my hope thatthe book sa fihfal representation ‘of the best and most current thinking in the feld. My wife, Sharon, is not a mathematies educator. She isan el~ ementary school psychologist of whom Iam most proud. Her contribution to this book, however, is as real as the ‘mathematies educators who guide the content. She is my constant support, my closest fiend, She isa part of al that, Ido, Tam truly biessed tobe abe to share my life with her. love you, Sharon, (On June 3, 2003, our third granddaughter was born to our daughter, Bridget. Her smiles and hugs add daily to ‘our joy. Gracie, this one’s for you! oexxvi_A ote from the Pubisheron Supplements A ete from the Publisher on Supplements ‘Qualified college adopters can contact their Allyn & Bacon sales representatives for information on ordering any of the supplements below. Instructor Supplements Instructor's Manual ‘The Instructor's Manual for the sixth edition includes a wealth of resources designed to help instructors teach the course, inchuding chapter notes, activity suggestions, suggested essay test questions, andi structor transparency master. Computerized Test Bank ‘The Computerized ‘Test Bank contains hundreds of challenging questions in fli the-blank, multiple-choice, true/false, and essay formats, along with an ansver key. Instructors can choose from these {questions and write their own to create custom exams. PowerPoint™ Presentation Idcal for instructors to use for lecture presentations or student handouts, the PowerPoint presentation provides dozens of ready-to-use ‘graphic and text images tied to the text Also included are the tcanspatency masters from the Instructor’ Manval Dale Seymour Developing Mathematical Ideas Video Series: "Numbers and Operations,” Part 1 and Part 2 Available upon adoption of the sixth edition to qualified adopters, these professional development videos help preservice and in-service teachers think criti cally and get to the core of how children approach and understand mathematics. Student Supplements Companion Web Site Think of the Companion “Web site (qrwwsablongman.com/vandewalle6e) as an ex- tension ofthe text: For each chapter you will ind a chap- tereverview, an online study guide, practice test questions, ‘an extensive listing of related hooks and article, and links to useful Web sits on the Internet ach ofthe 59 Black- Tine Masters mentioned.n the bookcan be downloaded e= PDF file. For each content chapter you will ls find a detailed lesson plan based on an aetivity in the book. Field Experience Guide This guidebook for both practicum experiences and student teaching at the elementary and middle schoo! levels has been newly written forthe sith edition, The author, Jennifer Bay-Wiliams, hiss developed this guide to dicectly address the new NCATE accreditation requirements Tr contains nuraerous field-based assignments, Fach includes reproducible forms to record your experiences to turnin to your instructor. “The forms can also be downloaded from the Companion, ‘Web site so chat you can fil them in on your computer. “The guide also includes additional activites for stdents, fullsize versions ofall ofthe Blacldine Masters in the tet, and 24 additional Expanded Lesson plans that guide stu- denis from planning to implementing student-centered lessons. MyLabSchool MyLabSchool isa collection ofonline tools designed to help prepare students for success in this course aswell as in their teaching carers. 7 (mylabschoo! feet eens + Video footage of real-life classrooms 4 Hlp with esearch papers sing Research Nevigator + Help with lesson planning and building digital portfolios + Brofessional resources including study guides for li- censure preparationIn this changing world, those who understand '6ed can do mathematics wil have significantly enhanced opporcun- ties and options for shaping their futures, Mathemnétcal competence opens doors to productive futures. A lack of ‘mathematical competence keeps those doors closed... All students sould bave the opportunity and the support nec- sary to learn significant mathematics with depth and understanding. There is no conflict between equity and excellence. NCTM 000, p. 50) ove 000 you il nd youre oo cla of students, or perhaps you ac already teaching, What general ideas will guide the way yor will veach mathemat= cs? This book wil help you become corafortable with the mathematics of the K-8 curriculum. You will aso learn about research-based strategies for helping children come toknow mathematics and be cnfident in theic ability to do ‘mathematics. These two things-—your knowledge of math- cematics and how students learn mathematies—ate the most ‘important tools you can acquire to be an effective teacher of mathematics. However, outside forces will impact the ‘mathematics teaching in your classroom as well. For at leat wo decades, mathematics education has bbeen undergoing slow butsteady changes. The impetus for these changes, in both the content of school mathematics and the way mathematies is best taught, ean be traced to variety of sources, including knowledge guined from research. One significant facor in this change has been the professional leadership of the National Council of Teach- 8 of Mathematies (NCTM), an organization of teachers and mathematies educators. Anather factor isthe sign cant public or political pressure for change in mathemae- ics education due largely to less-than-stellar USS student performance in vasiovs inte@hgtional studies. In reaction, state standards and the No Child‘.eft Behind Act (NCLB) press for higher levels of sclera more testing, and increased teacher accountabilt NCTM and those of the political sector often seemi'to press teachers in different directions. Although high expectations for students are important, testing alone isnot ‘an appropriate answer to improved stadeat learning. NCIM believes that “Learning mathematicsis maximized ‘when teachers focus on mathematical thinking and reasoning” (wwwszieum.org). The views of NCTM are clearly reflected in the ideas you will read sbout in this book. ‘As you prepare to help children learn mathematics, it is important to have some perspective on the forces that influence change in the mathematics classroom. This, chapter addresses the leadership that NCTM provides for | mathematics education and also the major pressures on rmathematies education from outside of NCTM. Ultately ie you, the teacher, who will shape math- cmatis forthe children you teach Your beliefs about what jememns to know and do mathematics and about how children come to make sense of mathemeties wll have a sig nificant impact on how you approach the teaching of mathematics. These beliefs will undoubtedly be afected, directly o indizeetly, by the strong influences on mathe- ‘matics education that you will read about in this chapter. The Leadership of NCTM In April 2000, the National Council of Teachers of Math- ematics (NCTM) released Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, sn update ofits original standards doc= tment released 11 years earlier in 1989, With this most ‘The reform agendas of | E2 CHAPTER Teaching Mather inthe Er ofthe NCTM Stand {important document, the council continues to guide 8 rev- olutionary reform movement in mathematics education, rot jst inthe United Stare and Canada but alo through= ‘out the world ‘The momentum for reform in mathematics education began in the early 1980s, Fdacators were responding toa “back basis" movement. Asa result, problem solving became an important strand in the mathematics cxr~ riculom. ‘The work of Piaget and other developmental paychologsts helped to focus research on how children ‘ean best learn mathematics. This momentum came to a head in 1989, when ‘NCTM published Curvicdun and Boaluaton Standards for ‘School Mathematisand the standards movement or reform ‘1a in mathematics began, It continues today. No other ddocament has ever had such an enormous effect on school mathematics or on any other area of the curriculam. In 1991, NCTM published Profsional Standards for Teaching ‘Matbematic. The Profesional Standards atienlatesa vision of teaching mathematics and builds on the notion found in the Curriculum Standards that good and significant siathematics is 2 vision for all children, not just a few. NCTM completed the package with the Assesment Stan- dards for Scboo] Mathematics in 1995, "The Assesment Stan- dards shows clearly the necessity of integrating assessment ‘with instruction and indicates the key ole that assessment plays in implementing change. From 1989 to 2000, these three documents have guided the reform moverment in mathematics education. Principles and Stender for School Marbenatcs is an update of al three original standards documents. ‘Now that we are well into the twenty-first century, it must be admitted thatthe vision of the 1989 Curriculon Standards has still not been realized although much progress has been made. Change is visible, albeit slow and incremental. The political pressure of accountability are often counterproductive. But despite the slow pace of change in long-held beliefs about school mathernatics, the revolution continues. This is not a pendalum that will swing backward. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics Principles and Stondards for School Mathematics is designed to provide guidance and direction for teachers and other leaders in mathematics education from pre-K to grade 12. Figure 1.1 outlines the general structure of Principles and ‘Standards, While itis important that teachers read and re- fect on the Standards document, the next few pages will provide you some ides of what you will find there. wrunwablongmsn.com/vandewallese Pete ed eee ies FIGURE 1.1 The structure of Principles and Standard for Schoo! Mathematics emphasizes the continuity of mathematics ‘actos all 14 years of school The Six Principles ‘One ofthe most important features of Priniples and Stan- dards for School Mathematics is the articulation of six pri ciples fundamental to high-quality mathematics educati Equity + Learning # Curriculum + Assessment + Teaching + Technology [According to Prinples and Seandards these principles must be “deeply intertwined with school mathematics programs” (NCTM, 2000, p.12). The principles make itclear that excellence in mathematics education involves much more than simply listing content objectives. The Equity Principle Excellence in muthematis education requires egulty—bigh expectations and strong suppor for all stadente. (NCTM, 2000, py “The strong message of the Equity Principle is high expectations for all students, ll students must have the opportunity and adequate support to learn mathematics“regardless of personal characteristics, backgrounds, or physical challenges" (p. 12). The message of high expéc~ {ations forall is intertwined with every other principle and the document as a whole, ‘The Curriculum Principle A carvicalion is more than cleo of activities it ce Be ‘oberent, fed or insportent mathentcs, and well rca laced ners the grade. (NCTM, 2000, p. 14) ‘Coherence speaks to the importance of building instruction around “big ideas” both inthe curriculum and in daily, classroom instraction, Students mist be helped to se that ‘mathematics isan integrated whole, not list of isolated bits and pieces. Mathematical ideas are “important they ace useful in the development of other idess, link ideas one to an- ‘other, o serve co illustrate the discipline of mathematics, ‘ss. human endeavor, The Teaching Principle Effective mathematics teaching regures understanding what ‘students now a necd alarm and then challenging and mp- porting then to learn itwel, (NCTM, 2000, p16) ‘Whot stents learn almost entirely depends on the expe riences that teachers provide every day in the classroom. ‘To provide high-quality mathematics education, teschers must (2) understand deeply the mathematics they are teachings @) understand how children learn mathemati, including & keen awareness of the individual matherati- cal development of their own students; and (3) select instructional tasks and strategies that will enhance learning. ‘Teachers’ actions are what encoutage students to think, question, solve problems, and discuss ther ideas, srate~ ses, and! solutions” (p. 18). The Learning Principle Siudens ast learn mathemati with understanding, atively ‘bulding ee noaledge from experience and pia knoledge. (CEN, 2000, . 20) ‘This principle is based on ewo fundamental ideas. First, learning mathematics with understanding is essential. Mathematics today requires not only computational skills bt also the ability to think and reason mathematically in order to solve the new problems and lear the new ideas that students will face in the farure Second, the principle states quite clearly that students «on learn mathematics with understanding. Learning is enhanced in classrooms where students are required to evaluate their own ideas and those of others, are encour- aged to make mathematical conjectures and test ther, and ‘develop their reasoning skills A Pre-Kto-12 Perspoctive 3 ‘The Assessment Principle Assessment shoud support the learning of important naibe- ‘acs and rush seid informeton ta bath teachers end et dents. (NCTM, 2000, p. 22) In the authors’ words, “Assessment should not mecely be done roscudents, rather, itshould also bedone ir studenss, to guide and enhance their learning” (p. 2). Ongoing 2s sessment conveys to students what mathematics is mpor- ‘ant. Assessment that ineludes ongoing observation and student interaction encourages student to articulate snd, thus, clavfy their ideas. Feedback from daily assessment helps stadens establish goals and become more indepen dent learners Assessment should aso bea major ft in making n- stractional decisions. By continuously gathering informa. tion about student growth and understanding, teachers can beter make the daily decisions that suppore student learning. For assessment tobe effective, teachers must use a yariey of assessment techniques, understand their mathematical goals deeply and have a good ides of how their students may be thang about the mathematics tat is being developed. ‘The Technology Principle ‘Teck is esental in teaching and learning mathemati it influences the mathematics that it taught and enbances ta dons learning. (NCTM, 2060, p29) Cateulacors and computers should be seen as essential tools for doing and learning mathematics in the classroom. “Technology permits students to focus on mathematical ‘ideas, to Te2s0n, and to solve problems in ways that are of- ‘ten impossible without these tools. Technology enhances the earning of mathematics by allowing for increased exploration and enhanced representation of ideas. textends the range of problems that can be accessed. Ie also allows stuclents ith special needs to bypass less important procedures so that important mathematics canbe considered. A Pre-K-to-12 Perspective “The stractre of Prinsifes and Stendards emphasizes the continous grovth of mathematics across all grades, pre- Ko 12. The largest portion of Principles and Standards is, builtaround ten standards: five content standaeds and five process standards. Chapter 3 of the document helps the reader understand each ofthese standards from the per~ spective of the fll pre-K-12 curriculum. This broad perspective is followed by chapters that ake a closer look at ‘ach standard within each of four grade bands: pre-K-2, 3-5,6-8, and 9-12,CHAPTER 1 Teaching Mathematics inthe Era of the NCTM Standards The Five Content Standards Princpler and Standards describes five content standards or strands of mathematics: + Number and Operations + Algebra + Geomeny + Measurement + Data Analysis and Probability Bach content standard includes a small collection of goals that is applicable to all grade bands, Fach grade- band chapter provides specific expectations for what students should know, These grade-band expectations are also concisely listed in che appendix to the Standards and in Appendix A of this book. D parse nnd reflect Pause now and tun to Append A. Spend a few mites with these expectation forte grade bandin which you acest i- terested Ho do these expectations compare ith the mathe tc you expeenced nacho? Although the same five content standards apply across all grades, you should not infer that each strand has equal ‘weight or emphasis in every grade band. Number and Op- ‘erations is the largest strand from pre-K co grade 5 and TABLE 4.1 rgbem Solung standard Irerucoral peas fom peidergaren © fhe Five Process Standards from Prindples and Standards for School Mathematics ‘uruablongman.com/vandewallese continves to be importaot in the middle grades but has a lesser emphesisin grades 9-12. That erophasis is reflected inthis book, with Chapters 9 o I4 and 16 to 19 address- ing content found inthe Number and Operations sindard. “Algebra is clearly intended os strand forall grades “This was almost certainly not the ease when you were in school. Taday, most sates and provinces include algebra ‘Objectives at every grade level In cis book, Chapter 15 addresses this strand ‘Note that Geometry and Measurement are separate serands, suggesting the unique importance ofeach of these ‘avo areas tothe elementary an mide grades cuericalm. The Five Process Standards Following the five content standards, Principles and Stan- dards ses five process standards: + Problem Solving ‘+ Reasoning and Proof + Communication + Connection + Representation “The process standards refer to the mathematical process through which stadents should acquice and use mathematical knowledge. The statement of the five process standards can be found in Table 1.1. + Euld new mathematical kaoledge Uvoush potion sohing 1 Sl prblems that aren atherats ed in other contents ‘rough sade 12 shld enable a students to— Reasoning and Poof Standard isructonl pograns tom pekndematen ‘rough cade 12 should enable a ters to— Commmuetcation Standard Insure! perams rom pekindeaaten ‘ough grade 12 shuld enable al sects to— Connections standard Irstuetonal progam prekidegaten ‘Wroughorde 12 shad enable at students to Repeesentatlon Standad = Irsctonl programs om prekedegaten ough grade 12 should enna stents to— 1 App and adopt vr of epproprate sues to se robles {Monto and relict onthe proces of mathemati rolem king + eacogriz resin on poo! sundamentel apes of msthesats 1 Make ond imesteate mathemati eoectues { bevelop and eve massa arguments and posts 1 Sle ar se vaous pes of eazaning ond athe of poot + orgie and conse thee mathemati hiring though crmmuncaton ria te mathe thinkng cbetendy and lst peers, teachers, and others ‘nalze and evaluate the rthematal thing ard strates of thers 1 Use the languepe of ates to eran thera en recy + Recognise connections aang athenasel ide 1 Undatan hon nathemates Kon inteonret and bud anne another to prede a ccheent whole ‘+ Recognize ard opp athematsin contr ote of maheratis + Crete and ue representations to xg, reco and commuriate mathemati as {Sec ep, ed uandate among maths epsentatiors to save pclems 1 Usetepesenttons to model and itepat phys soe and mathemata penemana Source: Reprinted ith permiton fom Princes ar Standards for Schoo! Mathamats. Copyright {© 2000 by He National Counel of Teachers of Mathematics, Al ight eservesThe Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics _5 ‘These five processes should not be regarded a8 separate content or strands in the mathematies curriculum, Rather, they direet che methods or processes of doing al, mathematics and, therefore, should be seen as integral ‘components ofall mathematics earning and teaching. “Toteach ina way thatreflects these process standards {sone ofthe best definitions of what itmeans to teach “according tothe Standards” Problem Solving ‘The Problem Solving standard says that all students should “build new mathematical knowledge through prob- Jem solving” (NCTM, 2000, p. 52). This statement clearly indicates that problem solving isto be viewed asthe vehi- cle through which children develop mathematical ideas. Learning and doing mathematics as you solve problems is probsbly the most significant difference in what the Stan dards indicate and the way you most likely experienced ‘mathematies, Problem-based learning isa major theme of this book. Reasoning and Proof ‘Tf problem solving is the focus of mathematis, reasoning is the logial thinking thac helps us decide if and why our answers make sense, Students need to develop the habit of providing an argument ora rationale as an integral part of every answer Justifying answers ia process that enhances conceptual understanding: The habit of providing reasons ‘ean begin in kindergarten. However, itis never to late for students to lean the value of defending ideas through log ical argument. Communication “The Communication standard points othe importance of beingableto tale abou, write about, describe, and explain sathematicel ideas. Learning to coramunicate in mathe- satis fosters interaction and exploration of ideas in the classroom as stadents learn in an active, verbal environ- ‘ment. No better way exists for wrestling with an idea than to attempt to articulate it to others. Connections “The Connections standard has two separate thrast. Fist, the standard refers to connections within and among mathematical idess. For example, fractional parts of a ‘whole are connected to concepts of decimals and percents Srudents should be helped to see how mathematical ideas build on one another in a useful network of connected ideas, ‘Second, mathemati should be connected to the real ‘world and to other disciplines, Children should see that mathematics playsa significant role in art, science, and so- ial sradies, ‘This suggests that mathemstics should fre- ‘quently be integrated with other discipline areas and that applications of mathematics in the real world should be explored, Representation Symbols, chars, graphs, and diagrams are powerfil meth~ ods of expressing mathematical ideas and relationships Symbolism in mathematics, slong with visual aids such as, charts and graphs, should be understood by students 2s ‘ways of communicating mathematical idess to other people, Symbols, graphs, and chars, as well as physical ma- nipolatves are also powerfl learning tools. Moving from one representation to another is an important way to add understanding to an idea, ‘<== Throwhatths oo tion ville youto CTA sae een a Prop nd Sse ime -O toe infomaon ou nc edie However hee note ni seb ection ous tread shut otbeasubeeues or wading fe St dards, Members of NCTM have access online to the com- te StntrtsSocoment wells Se previo Ses standards documents. For nonmembers, quite a bit of in- fen Sa rele on the NOTA Wed ce reac cat predare dain ofech ot seer arsdionacel came areatot ie sen daniedr cay he canton br ext ater tend nthe Apne tba) The Wee a Costas mnerofapl ers eas freee ing about mathematical concepts. The applets are referred coesccumpien” Ths a aaa exyone snd eee hanpocihencl Teniae lated information, see “Suggested Applets and Web Links" at the end of cach chapter of this book. The Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics Although Principles and Standards incorporates principles of teaching and assessment, the emphasis ison carzicaum. In contrast, the Prafsinal Stender for Teaching Mathematics focuses on teaching and isasimportant today as when it was, released in 1991. The Profesional Standards asserts that teachers must shift from a teacher-centered to a child- centered approach in their instruction. Through extended ‘iets of real teachers the document articulates the eare- fal reflective work that must go into teaching. Five Shifts in Classroom Environment ‘The introduction to the Proféssiomal Standans lists five major shifsin the environment of the mathematies classroom6 CHAPTER 1 Teaching Mathematics in the Era of the NCTM Standards that are necessary to allow students to develop mathe- satical power. Teachers need to shift + ‘Toywaed classrooms as mathematics communities and away from classrooms as simply « collection of individuals + Toward logic and mathematical evidence as verifica- sion and away from the teacher asthe sole authority for right answers + Toward mathematical seasoning and away from mere memorizing procedutes + ‘Toward conjecturing inventing, and problem solving and avay from an emphasis on the mechanistic find= ing of answers + Toward connecting mathematics, its ideas, and its ap plications and away from treating mathematics as a body of isolated concepts and procedures The Teaching Standards ‘The Profesional Standards for Teching Mathematics contains chapters on teaching, the evaluation of teaching, professional development, and necesary suppor for teaching. “The teaching section is extraordinarily useful, It offers six standards for the teaching of mathematics. These standards tale about the selection of tasks for learning and the nature of an interactive classroom atmosphere in which students are engaged in the process of making sense of mathematics. This mathernatical environment, in which students work asa community of learners on mathematical tasks, is an integral component of the approach to ‘teaching mathematics deseribed inthis book. Reading the Teaching Standards is an excellent way to help you undes- stand what this mathematieal atmosphere is ike WD parscand reflect The ching nd a ted gpd oi teak hkesmencanon ts bakone satya tng Se imioneor woot he sadacs ate per sr Saas naesbayeeyon a aye torneyate alo foto The Assessment Standards for School Mathematics “The Asesrment Standards fr School Mathematics was published in 1995, rounding out the tio of NCTM standards, docoments. The Asesonent Standardsis nota how-to guide buca statement of philosophy and purpose, 2 book to provide guidance without prescription, It consists of six stan- swvee.ablongman.com/vandewallese dards for assessment and describes in some detail four purposes of assessment: to monitor the progress of sti dents, to help make instructional decisions, to evaluate students’ achievement, and to evaluate programs. ‘The inescapable message of the Asessment Standards 4s that assessment and instruction are not separate activities but are intimately interewined in iproving the learn ing of mathematics. Chapter 6 of this book describes the six assessment standards and discusses the four purposes. “There you will find suggestions for making assessment an integral component of instruction, an absolutely essential fuevor in being a Suandardsoriented teacher. Influences and Pressures on Reform NCTM has provided the major leadership and vision for reform in mathematics education. Fowever, no single factor controls the direction of change. National and inter~ national comparisons of student performances continue to ‘make headlines, provoke public opinion, and pressure leg- islarutes to call for tougher standards backed by testing. ‘The pressures of testing policies exerted on schools and ultimately on teachers often have an impact on instruction thavis different than the vision of the NCTM Sandan In addition to these pressures, there is also the strong influence of the textbook or curriculum materials that are provided to teachers, which are often not wel aligned with state standards National and International Studies Large studies that tell the American public how the nation children are doing in mathematics receive lot of attention. They influence political decisions as well as ‘provide useful data for mathematics education researchers ‘The National Assessment of Educational Progress Since 1969, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a congressionally mandated program, has been assessing what stadents know and ean do in various eurriculum areas. Assessments are based on samples cofstudents9, 13, and 17 years of age orn grades 4 8, and 12,’The results are often published as “The Nation's Re- port Card.” NAEP isa criterion-referenced study, telling us what percentages of American students know various rathesmaties concepts and skills. Much of the testis designed to reflect current curriculum. At this writing, the zmost recent data come from the 2003 test. ‘On a small core of items that has been wsed consistently since 1973 to produce trend data, U.S. students do things somewhat better now than in 1973 (Kloesteranan &Lester, 2008). There are those who contend thet cuzent imatheinaties reform produces stadents who don'e know “good old basic mathematics” Since the trend test items focus on traditional computation, the consistently improving scores on the core tes cleacly negate that view. Scores on the broader main NABP tests show much areater gains from 1990 to 2003 than on the core test ‘mentioned carlier, However, that performance remains Jess than stellar. In 2003, only 32 pereent of fourth-grade students and 29 percent of eighth-grade students per formed ator above the proficient level (NCTM, 2009), In contrast, the No Child Left Behind legislation expects that ll scudents willbe stor above the proficient level by 2014, NAEP data suggest that goa s likely unattainable. “Tiventy-thre percent of fourth-grade students and 32 per- «ent of eighth-grade students remain below the basiclevel ‘The Thitd International Mathematics and Science Study In 1995 and 1996, 41 nations pacteipated in the Thitd In- temational Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the largest study of mathematics and science education ever conducted, Data were gathered in grades 8, and 12 from 500,000 students and from teachers. In 1999, a repeat stacy (TIMSS-B) was done atthe cighth grade. The most widely reported results are that U.S. fourth-grade students are above the average ofthe TIMSS countries, be- Jow the international average at the eighth grade, and significantly below average at the twelfth grade (U.S. De- partment of Education, 19972). ren though the rank ordering for fourth grade places the United States above the average for 26 countries, seven countries (Singapore, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Nether- Jnds, Crech Republic, and Austria) had significantly higher sores. Only 9 percent of U.S fourth graders would fallin the top 10 pereent ofall students in the IMSS study. Thisis in stark contrast with Japan (32 percent) nd Singapore (9 percent) (U.S. Department of Education, 1997¢). ‘A major finding of the ‘TIMSS curriculum analysis is that USS. curriculum is unfocused, contains many more topics then most countries, and involves much more rep- ‘tion than is found in most counties. We attempt to do ‘everything and as a consequence rarely do it in depth, ‘making reteaching all too common (Schmid, MeKaight, & Raizen, 1996). ‘Many who advocate a return to “basics” point to the disappointing performance of American students. How ever, curriculum and instructional approaches in the United States are “less in line with cross-national com ‘monalties than are the demanding curricula and classroom practices found in many high-echieving countries” (Bab- cock, 1998, p. 6). Furthermore, TIMSS does not support number of other popular “basics demands: more home- Influences and Pressures on Reform 7 work (US. students do more than students in most coun~ teies) less TV watching (Japanese students watch as much), and more time spent on mathematics (U.S. students have more hours of mathematics instruction than students in Japan or Germany). Tracking prior to high school, common in the United States, isnot practiced in most TIMSS nations. One of the most interesting components of the “TIMSS.R isthe eighth-grade video study that was conducted in the United States, Australia, and five of the highest-achieving countries. ‘The results indicate that teaching isa cultural activity; itis quite different in almost ‘every country although there are also many similarities. In all countries problems or tasks are often used to begin a lesson. However, once a lesson progresses, the way these problems are handled inthe United Stats isin stark con ‘rast to the high achieving countries. In the Czech Re- public, Hong Kong, and Japan lessons that began sith a conceptial problem-solving sprit continoed in thet spirit fom 46 to 52 percent ofthe time. In the United Staes, nearly all such lessons (more than 99.5 percent) revert to the teacher showing students how to solve the problem, (Ciebert etal, 2003), Atleast in U.S, eighth-grade classrooms, itis safe to say that the focus ison having students follow directions and rules. In high-achieving countries, there isa much greater focus on conceptual understanding and true problem solving. Teaching in high-schicving countries more closely resembles the recommendations of the NCTM Standards than does the teaching in the United States State Standards ‘The term standards was popularized by NCTM in 1989. ‘Today it is used by nearly every state i the nation to refer toa grade-by-grade listing of very specific mathematics ‘objectives, These state standards or objectives vary con- siderably from state to state, Even the grade level at which basic facts for each of the operations are expected to be mastered varies by as auch as three grade levels. Although. the NCTM Standards document lists goals for each of four grade bands, itis not 2 nstional curriculum. The United States and Canada are the only industrialized countries in the world without a national euriculan, Associated with every set of state standards is some form of testing program. Publicly reported test scores place pressure on superintendents, then on principals, and ultimately on teachers, Teachers feel enormous pressure to raise test scores at all costs (Schmide etal, 1996). For a teacher who has little or no experience with the spizit of the Standard itis very difficult to adopt the student-centered approach to mathematics and the teaching of math- ‘matics espoused by reformers. Unfortunately for children, this often results in excessive drill review, and practice tests,8 _ CHAPTER 1 Teaching Mathematisin the Era ofthe NCTM Stondaras [Are state standards incompatible with reform? In gen- cril, the answer is no. Reform is about helping children ‘understand mathematics and become confident in theirabil- ities to do mathematics andsolve problems. There ate many ‘wonderful examples of teaching in the spirit of reform, Children in these classrooms achieve quite well, cen a the ost traditional of standardized tests. These stories need berccr publicity and teachers need much more support than Curriculum Tin most classrooms, the textbook is the single most influ- ential factor in determining what actually gets taught and how. What is becoming incressingly complicated is how teachers and school systems attempt to blend the textbook or other curriculum materials with the mandated state standards. As textbook companies attempt to create books that address the needs of all 50 states, the result is an inordinate amount of repetition and the inclusion of fat more topics per grade level than are found in other countries. “Though possibly an oversimplification, mathematics curriculum materials that are used in K-8 classrooms can be categorized as ether traditional or standards-ased-~ meaning reflecting the spirit of the NCTM Standards. “Traditional texts ate usualy developed by large commer cial publishers, Seandards-based programs have been developed with’ fonding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and other outside sources by teams of teachers, educational researchers, and mathernaticians. Traditional Curricula ‘The publishers of traditional textbooks employ author teams that always include excellent mathematics researchers and educators as wells teachers and supervisors. “The tendeney is to produce very large textbooks so that they can attend to the wide variety of tate and professional agendas (Schmidt etal, 1996). Often publisher statements of compliance with NCTM standards are misleading. NCTM does not approve or sanction any commercial products, so publishers are free to make whatever cl they feel they can support. You should remember that by its very nature, the publishing industry is market driv “The market—the individuals who make the decisions concerning which progeams to purchase for the school systems—is composed largely of experienced teachers. “Teachers are enormously pressured by state tests, Most of | these decision makers have only a cursory understanding of the NCTM Standard. The result s that the marker re- {quires publishers to stick fairly lose to the show-and-explain approach to teaching. Traditional books currently account for well over 80 percent of the textbooks used in schools ‘wrablongman com/vandewalese Standards-Based Curricula ‘At present, there are three elementary and five middle school programs commonly recognized as standards-based curricula® Originally developed with NSF fands, each i ‘now commercially available. A hallmark ofthese standards- based or alternative programsis student engagement, Chil- dren are challenged to make sense of new mathematical ideas through explorations and projects ofen in real contexts. Written and oral communication is strongly encour- aged. Teacher training is generally seen os important if not essential for distrcewide implementation, a factthae adds to the already high cost of most standards-based programs. Data conceraing the effectiveness of standards-based ‘curricula as measured by traditional testing progratns continue to be gathered. It is safe to say that students in standards-based programs perform muck better on prob- Jem-solving measures and at least as well on traditional skills as students in traditional programs (ARC Center, 2002; Bel, 1998; Bouler, 1998; Fuson, Carroll, & Drueck, 2000; Hichere, 2003; Reys, Robinson, Sconiers, & Mark, 1999; Riordin & Noyee, 2001; Stein, Grover, & Hen- ningsen, 1996; Stein & Lane, 1996; Wood & Sellers, 1996, 1997), ‘Comparing any ofthese with a corresponding tcadi- tional textbook wool be an effective way to understand ‘what reform or standards-based mathematics is all about. In each chapter of Section 2 you will ind features describing activities from lnvestigntions in Number, Date, ard Space o Connected Mathematics, These features arc in~ cluded to offer you some insight into these nontraditional ‘progrants a well as to offer good ideas for instruction. An Invitation to Learn and Grow ‘The mathematics education described in the Standards is almost certainly not the same as the mathematics and the mathematies teaching you experienced in grades K through 8. Along the way, you may have had some excel- Tent teachers who really did reflect the current reform spirit, Examples of good standards-based curriculum have been around since the early 1990s, and you may have ben- efited from one of those, But for the most part, with the reform movement nearing the end ofits second decade, its goals have yet to be realized in the large majority of school districts in North America. ‘Asa practicing or prospective teacher facing the challenge of the Standardr, this book may require you to con front some of your personal beliefs—about what it means “A listing ofthe eight tanderd-based curricala—zhe developers publishers and Tnteret eaetacss—can be found atthe end ofthis chapterReflections on Chapter |_9 to do mathematic, how one goes about learning mathemat- fg, how to teach mathematis through prolen solving, and ‘what it means to assess matbematis ineegeated with instruction. The next five chapters ofthis book help you develop these foundational ideas for teaching. Chapters 7 and 8 diseuss other topics that influence mathematics teaching across al strands and grade levels: the equitable teaching of all children in mathernatics and the role of technology. Writing to Learn Ar the end ofeach chapter ofthis book; you wil find a series of (questions under this ame heading. The questions ae designed to help you reflect on the most important ideas ofthe chopeet. Whit- ing (or tlking aloud witha pes) i an excellent way to explore new ideas and incorporate them into your own knowledge base, “The writing (or discussion) wl helprmake the ideas your own, AE tec yothave writen your responses in your own words return to ‘the book to coxapare what you have writen with the book. Make changes, if necessary, or dco differences with your instructor. 1. Gives brief desetiption of each ofthe sx principles in Prin- plesand Standards Equity, Cusiculum, Teaching, Learing, Assessment, and Technology). Exphin the importance of ‘exch principle tothe teaching and learning of mathematics. 2. What are the fre content strands (tandards) defined by Principles end Standards? 3. Whats mean bya gros as referred to in the Prieples and Standands proces sandards? Give bref description ofeach ofthe fve process standards 4 Ampang the ideas inthe Prfsinal Standards ae Five shifts in the classroom environment, from traditional approaches toa Suaderd-otiented approach. Examine thes ie shifts, and describe in afew sentences what aspects of each shift Seem most significant to you, 5, Describe two results derived from NAEP dats, What are the implications? (6, Describe two results derived fom TIMSS data, What are the implications? 7. Deserbe the influences of state-level standards an classroom rathematies education, 8, Discuss the difference between traditional textbooks and sandards-bored corrcul, For Discussion and Exploration 1. In recent years, the outery for “basics” was again being heard fom leu and very political minority. The debate over reform ox the basics is both important and interesting. For an engaging disenssion ofthe reform moversent in light ofthe “back to bases” ovtery, read one oF more of the fist five Section 2 of the book examines the teaching and learning of specific topicsin mathematics. The chaptersin the second section are designed not only as text msterial but also as a source of instructional tasks for your future for current teaching. ‘Teaching mathematics can be an exciting adventure, Perhaps the most exciting part is that you will grow and learn along with your students. Enjoy the journey! axticlesin the February 1999 edition of the Phi Dete Kappan. ‘Where do you stand on the sue ofeform versus the basi? 2. Fuamine a taultional textbook st any grade level of your choice. If possible, use a teacher’ edition. Page through sty chapter and look for sigas ofthe ive process standards. To what extent are children who ate being tanght from this boo likely tobe doing andleeraing mathematcein ways de- teribed by thore procesces? What would you have to do to change the general approach to this tex? 3, Examine @ unit from any one of the eight nontraditional corriculam programe and see how it elects the NCTM vision ofreform, especially the five process standards. How do these curriculuin programs differ from traditional textbook programs? Recommendations for Further Reading Fersini-Mundy, J. 2000), The standaeds movement in mathe ‘matics edusston: Reflections and hopes. InM,J.Barke Ed), Learning matiematia fer 8 cw centr (pp. 37-50). Reston, ‘VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ‘Joan Ferrini-Mundy chaced the writing group of Priniler ‘and Standan In tis article, writen before che Standoraswas released, she shares her unique and very well-informed view ofthis important publication, how ieame to be, the impact ofthe eal doctmen, the political climate in which the Standards was released, and the intentions thatthe cone! had for the document. OF particular interest the digestion cof tensions between opposing yet reasoned viewpoints that the authors ofthe Sumdards had vo wrestle with, Thisarile will provide an understanding of the Standards cat isi possible to get from the document iself ‘Hishert, J 2003). What research says ebout the NCTM standards In J Kilpatick, W. G. Martin, & D. Schifter Eas), A research companion o Principles and Standards for Sch ‘Mathemavs (pp. 5-23). Reston, VA: National Councit of fachers of Mathematics. “The weitings of James Hiebert are always enlightening and inecesting, Hiebert is probably the researcher who most |influences the broad perspectives found in this book. Al- though this chapters Found ina book of esearch paper provides one of the best perspectives on what we have learned since the Standards was released, fe also offers some perspective inte rypical US, clsssrooms and offers contrasts ‘between traditional mathematics programs and those calles "scandards based." [National Research Council. (1985) Boer cous A report to the nation on the fare of athena eduation. Washington, DC: National Acadewy Pres. “This litle booklet, readable ina single evening, cemains & “nus read” more than 15 years since its publication, Iepeo- vides 2 compeling ratinele for reform in both the mathe- ‘matics we tic and how itis taght. Here you wil find the ‘description of mathematics “the science of patern andl ar- ‘det used throughout this book. Myths eancerning the nature of mathematics, hov i s learned, and by whom are challenged fom an angle cat is dificult to dispute. {National Research Counel- (2001). Aiding it p: Helping cilren ‘earn mathematic. Kilpatrick, J. Swafford, & B. Findell (Eds). Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center for Eilucation, Division of Behavioral and Socal Sciences and Euucation, Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Pethaps the most important book since Pyinpes and Ston- dards this work is the effort of a select committee repre- senting mathematics educators, mathematicians, schoo! sudministrators, and industry. ‘Tae authors representa bal- fanced view of mathematis education inthe United Sates, ‘The book careully describes the sate of mathematics ed- ‘cation and makes very specific recommendations about how. to improve it. A hellnark ofthis book isthe formulation of five strands of "mathematical proficiency”: conceptual un derstanding, procedural enc, strategic comperence,alap~ tive reasoning, and productive disposition. Educators and policy makers wil cite this book for many yeas to come. “Teppo, A. R. (4). (1999). Reflecing om prac in elementery ‘el matbomatice Readings fom NCTM choa-baed enna ‘and othr publican. Reston, VA: National Council of Teach= cers of Mathematics. Frequently, NCTM publishes hooks of selected readings from its jonrmals In this instance, the more than 60 articles provide perspecrive on che eform movement both in general fd organized according to major areas ofthe curciculum. For 2 teacher wanting to establish a beginning resource of short, easly read articles on a wide variety of topics, this i. ‘an exellent book with which to begin. } Standards-Based Cul Elementary Programs Information about the elementary programs can be obtained feom the ARC Center: Ena: arccenter@nailcomap.com URL: wavwarccentercomap.com UCSMP Elementary: Beeray Mathematic:(K-6) Developer: University of Chicago School Mathematics Project Publisher: veryday Learning ula 10 CHAPTER 1 Teaching Mathematics in the Fra of the NCTM Standards ynvablongman.comvandavillese smi sisses@midway.uchicago.edn ‘URL: hnpe//everydaymath.ichieago edt Lnvetgations in Nionber, Data and Space KS) Developer: TERC Publisher: Scott Foresman URL hap//investgationsserceda Math Tribiecers: A Mathematical Journey Using Stone ad Lan- guage Ars (KS) Developer Insteate for Math and Science Education, Univer- sity of lin, Chicago ublisher: Kendali/Hone “URL: waesnath ui edu/IMSE Middle School Programs ‘Information about the middle school programs can be obvained from the Show-Me Center: "E-msil:Center@showme.missour.edu URL: wneshowmecentermissouriedy Connected Mathematics (CME) (6-8) Developer: Michigan State University ‘Publisher: Prentice Hall, URI wwwmath.msued/emp Marbemnate in Contes (10) 5-8) Developer: University of Wisconsin-—Madison ‘Publisher: Encyetopuedia Britannica ‘URL: mie.britanicaccm MaehScape (6-8) Developer: Educational Development Center Publisher: Creative Publications URL: wineedccorg/iathseape Mile Sebel Mathematics Torough Applcstons Pict (MAP) 8 Developer: Institute foe Research on Learning Publisher Wesel URL: hetp//anmap vested org Middle Grades Math Themeris (STEM) (6-8) Developer: University of Montana Publisher: MeDoagal/Litell, URL: wwanlmathcom Online Resources Suggested Applets and Web Links Hluminations srwnilluminations.nctm.org, "A companion Web sive to NCTM sponsored by NCTA and Marcopola, Provides lesson, interactive applet, and Tinks to Web sits for lesraing and teaching mathematics. Key Iesues in Math swrowmathforum.org/sociaVindexchtol ‘Patt of the Mach Forum at Drexel Universsy, this page lis ‘numerous questions concerning issues in mathemati ed ‘cation with answers supplied by expert in short articles or excerpts.NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress, “The Nation's Report Card”) htpuinces.ed gov/oationsreporteard/mathematics! ase and current data and reports relared to NAEP. ‘National Council of Teachers of Mathematics ‘werwinetm.org “Here you an find all about NGTM, ite belie statements, 1nd postions on important topies. Also find an overview of Priniples and Standards and feee access to interactive applets Gee Stendards—Flectronc), membership and con- ference information, publications catalog, links to related Chapter) 11. sites nd ch more, Members hae ees fo even more intron "IMSS (hid Intros MatematsandSience Stuy) | ipdngenedsgvimss | cess uke and da im IMSS \ ‘an adsitonal Ist of books and articles related to the ideas in tis chapter can be found on the Companion Web ste at ‘wenwablongman.comivandewallese. | |Asa practical matter; mat and order: Is domain js‘aot molecules or cell, but mune- ders, chance, form, algorithms, and change. As a science of _abstvact objects mathematics relies on loge rather than 04 observation as its standard of truth, yet employs observa tion, simulation, and even experimentation as means of discovering truth, “Mathematical Sciences Education Board (1989, p. 31) Bigger enttpoa ese whatyou areding when you lare doing mathemati? Stop for a moment and write «few sentences about what itmeans to know and do math= S] ematics, based on your own experiences. Then pat your paper aside until you have finished this chapter. “The description of doing mathematics you will read about here may not match your personal experiences. “That okay! Ts okay to come to this point wth whatever beliefs were developed in your previous mathematics experiences. However, isnot okay to accept outdated ideas about mathematics and expect to bea quality teacher. Your bligstion and your challenge as you reed this chapter and this hook are to reconeeptuslize your own understanding ‘of what it means to know and do mathematics so that che SE} children with whom you work wil have an exciting and ae- ‘curate vision of mathematics. Contrasting Perceptions | of School Mathematics ‘Much change has taken place since 1989 when NCTM set 4 vision for change in mathematics classrooms. More teachers are beginning to use whet might be called a “Stan- dards approach": more cooperative learning, more em~ phasis om concepts and problem solving, and a greater 2 tolerance for and use of calculators. Often these chenges are supesicial and are nor really changing the nature of ‘what hildren do and how they think in the mathematics _elassrooin, Furthermore, as noted in Chapter 4, the pres- ‘ures of state test scores have a tendency to bring out *drill-and-kill” approaches even though such methods have consistently proved ineffective. Fortunately, won erful exceptions are to be found everywhere Traditional Views of Mathematics ‘Most adults will acknowledge that mathemati isan important subject, bt few understand what the discipline about. For many, mathematics isa collection of rales to be mastered, aighmetic computations, mysterious algebraic equations, and geometric proof. ‘This perception is in stark contrast toa view of mathematics that involves making sense of mathematical objects such as data, form, change, or pattems. A substantial nomber of adulis are al- __iost proud to proclaim, "T was never any good at mathe matics.” How has this debilitating perspective of mathematics as collection ofareane procedures and rules become so prevaleat in our society? The best answer can be found in the traditional approaches to teaching math- ceiatics. Traditional teaching, still the predominant instructional pater, typically begins with an explanation of| ‘whatever idea ison the eurrent page ofthe text followed by showing children how to do the assigned exercises. Even with « hands-on activity, the traditional teacher is guiding students telling them exactly how to use the materials ina prescribed manner. The focus of the lesson is primarily on getting answers. Students rely on the teacher to determine iftheir answers are correct. Children emerge from these experiences with «view that mathematics is @ series of arbitrary rues, handed down by the teacher, who fn tum gor them fom some very smart source,‘This follow-the-rules,computation-domineted, answer- oriented view of mathematics isa gross distortion of what mathematics is really about. It cannot be very exciting. A few children are good at learning rules and thrive on the ensuing good grades. But these are not necestarily the best thinkers in the room. The traditional system rewards the learning of rules but offers little opportunity actually to do mathematics. Mathematics as a Science of Pattern and Order ‘Mathematics is the scence of pattern ana orden This wonder~ fully simple description of mathematics is found in the thought-provoking publication Bverybody Counts (MSEB, 1989; see also Schoenfeld, 1992). This definition chal. lenges the popular social view of mathematis asa dis pline dominated by computation and rules without reasons. Science isa process of figuring things out or mak ing sense of things. It begins with problem-based situ tions. Akhough you may never have thought of in quite this way mathematisisa scence of things that have a pat- tem of regularity and logical order. Finding and exploring this regularity or order and then making sense of iis what doing mathematics i all about. Even the youngest schoolchildren can and should be involved in the science of pattera and order. Have you ever noticed that 6 + 7 is the same as 5 + 8 and 4 + 92 What isthe pattern? Whatare the relationships? When two.odd ‘numnbers are multiplied, the result is also odd, but if che same numbers are added or subtracted, the results even, ‘There isa logic behind simple results such as these, an or- dee, a pater, Consider the stady oflgebra. One can learn to graph the equation ofa parabola by simply following rules and plotting points. Now ealeulators are readily available to do that with a speed and precision we could never hope to achieve, But understanding why certain forms of equations always produce parabolic graphs involves a search for pat= ters inthe way numbers behave. Discovering what types of real-world relationships are represented by parabolie graphs (for example, a penciohum swing related to the Tength of the pendatum) is even more interesting and scieatiio—and infinitely more valuable—than the ability to plot the curve when someone else provides the equation. ‘And pattern is not justia numbers and equations but also in everything around us. The world is ful of pareern and onder: in nature in at, in buildings, in music. Pattern and order are found in commerce, science, medicine, an ufactaring, and sociology. Mathematics discovers this order, makes sense of it, and uses it in 2 multitude of fascinating ways, improving our lives and expanding our knowledge. School must begin to help children with this. process of discovery \What Does It Mesn to Do Mathematics? 13 What Does It Mean to De Mathematics? Engaging in the science of pattern and order—in doing aathematies—is efforfal and often takes time, There are lots of ideas to learn. Often these ideas show up on lists of “basic skills.” For example, children should be able to ‘count accurately, know their basie facts for addition and smultplication, have efficient methods of computing whale numbers, fractions, and decimals, know measurement facts such as the number of inches in a foot or quarts in a gal- Jon, kmow the names of geometric shapes, and so on, But to master chese bits and pieces is no more doing mathe- ‘matics than playing scales on the piano is making susie. “TG The Prinpe and Standards document mast NCTM ery clear that theresa time anda place for dil sccm bat that dil should ever come before understanding. Repttiv dil ofthe bits and pieces is aot doing mathematics and wil never result ia understanding. Dill may prodaceshor-term results on traditional tests, but the long-term effets have produced a nation ofc zens happy to admit they can do mathenatis The Verbs of Doing Mathematics Envision for a moment an elementary mathemati class where students are doing mathematics. What verbs would ‘you use to describe the activity in this classroom? Stop for ‘a moment and make a short list before reading further. Childcen in traditional mathematics classes often describe mathematics as “work” or “getting answers.” They talk about “plossing” and “doing times” (multiplication) In contrast, the following collection of verbs can be found in most of the literature describing the reform in math- fematics education, and all are used in. Principles and Standards explore represent explain investigate formulate predict conjecture discover develop solve construct describe justly verify use ‘These are science verbs indicating the process of “making sense” and “figuring out.” When children are engaged in the kinds of activities suggested by this lis, iis vieually impossible for them to be passive observers. ‘They wil necessarily be actively thinking shout the mathematical ideas that are involved ‘In classrooms where doing mathematics this way 6a dhily occurrence, the students are getting an erapowering message: “You are capable of making sense of this—you are capable of doing mathemati?”14 _GHAPTER 2 Explering What Means to Do Mathematics What Is Basic in Mathematics? In a climate where “basics” are once again « matter of public diseussion and there isn unrelenting pressure on teachers to raise test scores, itis useful to asl "Whatis ba- sicin mathematics?” The position ofthis text sas follows: ‘The most basic idea in mathematics is that mathe- ‘matics makes sense! tm Every day studants must experience that math: ‘omaties makes sense, 1 Students must come to belleve that they are capable of making sense of mathematics. 1B Teachers must stop teaching by telling and start Ietting students make sense of the mathematics ‘they ate learning. 1W To this end, teachers must believe in thelr students-—all of them! Byery idea introduced in the mathematics classroom ‘can and should be completely understood by every chil. ‘There are no exception! ‘There is absolutely no excuse for children learning any aspect of mathematics without completely understanding it. ll children are capable of learn ing all of the mathematics we want them to Jearn, and they can learn it in a meaningful manner in a way that makes sense to therm, An Environment for Doing Mathematics “Lookcagoin at the vecbs of doing mathematic, They are action verbs, They require reaching out, tng risks, plac ing ideas out where others can see. Contast these withthe verbs that igh reflect the traditional mathernatics classroom: fen, cpy, memorize, dil. These are passive activities, They involve no risks and little initiative. Doing mathematics takes effort and initiative. “Though thinking, reasoning, and sense making canbe fan, i can nevertheless be a bit frightening to stick ou yout neck when no one tells you exactly what wo do, The ‘dassroom most be an environment where doing mathematics is not threatening and where every student is respected for his or her ideas. Students should feel com- fortable taking risks, knowing thet they will not be ridiculed if they are wrong, “The teacher role is to ereate this sprit of inquiry, tres, and expectation, Within tha environment, tudents are invited to do mathemates. Problems are posed stu- deats wrestle toward solutions. Te forusis on students 2c- tively figuring things out, esting ideos and making conjectures, developing reasons and offering explanations, Students work in groups, in pairs, or individally, but they tlongnsn,com/venewallese are always sharing and discussing. Reasoning ip celebrated asstudents defend their methods and justify their solutions. An Invitation to Do Mathematics If you ate to create a dassroom environment where children are traly doing mathematics, itis important that you hhavea perconal fe! for doing mathematies in this manne. Is likely that your experiences in mathematics classes have been quite different. The purpose ofthis portion of the chapter is to provide you with opportunites to engage in the science of pattern and order—-to do some mathe- ‘matics. Ahough the tasks or problems are appropriate for students in the intermediate and middle grades, you should not be at all concerned now with how children might approach these problems, Rather, get personally involved inthe problems asan adult and discover as much 2s you can in the process, If possible, find one oF two ‘Eiends to work with you, Get some paper to scribble ideas ‘on. Try not to be shy about your ides, Respect and listen to the ideas of your friends, You can and should challenge their ideas, but don't belitde them. ‘The book will provide hin and suggestions in a poor substination for the interaction of teacher. Don't ead too much atonce. Stop and dos much as you can until you and ‘your group are stuck—really stuck; then read a bit more. Let's Do Some Mathematics! ‘We will explore four diferent problems. Each is indepen-
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