Physics A2 Paper 4 Notes

Last Edited: 13/2/2019

Patapee Lohprasert (pete.lohh@gmail.com)

Mechanical Engineering Department, Imperial College London

 Table of Contents
1 Gravitational Fields and Electric Fields .......................................................................................... 1
2 Magnetic Fields ............................................................................................................................... 2
3 Circular Motion ................................................................................................................................ 4
4 Oscillations ....................................................................................................................................... 5
5 Thermal Physics ............................................................................................................................... 6
6 Transformer .................................................................................................................................... 10
7 Capacitors ...................................................................................................................................... 11
8 Electronics & Communication ..................................................................................................... 12
9 OP-AMPS........................................................................................................................................ 15
10 Quantum Physics ......................................................................................................................... 16
10.1 Nuclear Physics ........................................................................................................................... 16
10.2 Ultrasound .................................................................................................................................. 17
10.3 Photoelectric Effect..................................................................................................................... 18
10.4 Band Theory ................................................................................................................................ 20
10.5 Radioactivity ............................................................................................................................... 21
10.5 X-ray ............................................................................................................................................ 22
1 Gravitational Fields and Electric Fields
1.1 Important Definitions
Field of force: region (of space) where a force is experienced by a particle
Gravitational Field: region of space where a mass experiences a force
Gravitational Field Strength: Force per unit mass
Electric field strength: force per unit positive charge acting on a stationary charge
Gravitational potential: work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point
Electric potential: work done/ energy in moving unit positive charge from infinity to the
point
Newton’s law of gravitation: force proportional to product of the two point masses and
inversely proportional to the square of their separation
Coulomb’s Law: force proportional to product of charges and inversely proportional to
square of separation

1.2 Key Equations

Gravitational Field:
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
1. 𝐹= (Gravitational Force 𝐹 , 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 )
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚
2. 𝜙 = − (Gravitational Potential 𝜙)
𝑟

Electric Field:

𝑞1 𝑞2
1. 𝐹 = (Electrical Force 𝐹, 𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑉
2. 𝐸 = (Electric Field Intensity 𝐸, distance of two charged
𝑑

plates, 𝑑)
𝑄
3. 𝑉 = (Electric Potential 𝑉)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

1.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

State what is meant by a line of force in
• A gravitational field: tangent to line gives direction of force on a small test mass
• An electric field: tangent to line gives direction of force on a small positive test
charge

Similarities and differences between gravitational force field and electric force field
around a charged metal sphere isolated in space.
• Similarities:
 • radial fields
• lines normal to surface
• greater separation of lines with increased distance from sphere
1
• field strength ∝
(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)²
• Differences:
• gravitational force (always) towards sphere
• electric force direction depends on sign of charge on sphere (towards or away
from sphere)

Why gravitational potential is a negative quantity:

• Gravitational potential at infinity is zero
• Gravitational force attractive so work done as object moves from infinity so potential
is negative
• OR, gravitational force is (always) attractive
• work is done is by masses so negative as they come together

Why the electric field strength in metal sphere is zero

• charges in metal do not move
𝐹
• no (resultant) force on charges so no (electric) field (as 𝐸 = )
𝑄

Why points outside an isolated spherical conductor, the charge on the sphere may be
considered to act as a point charge at its centre:
• lines perpendicular to surface OR, lines are radial
• lines appear to come from center

2 Magnetic Fields
2.1 Important Definitions
Tesla: uniform magnetic flux normal to long straight wire carrying a current of 1A creates
force per unit length of 1 Nm^-1
Faraday’s law: Induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
∆𝑁𝛷
linkage. (𝑉 = )
∆𝑡
Lenz’s law: induced e.m.f./current produces effects in a direction that opposes the change
causing it
Quantisation of charge: charge exists in discrete and equal quantities

1.2 Key Equations

1. 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 (Magnetic Force 𝐹, Magnetic Field Strength 𝐵, length 𝐿)
 2. Ф = BA (Magnetic flux Ф, Area 𝐴 perpendicular to 𝐵)
3. Flux linkage = ФN (𝑁 = number of turns)

2.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Magnetic field of Earth is always horizontal unless at the poles.

Why a Hall probe is made from a thin slice of material

• Hall voltage depends on thickness of slice
• thinner slice, larger Hall voltage

Why is it difficult to detect hall voltage in a thin slice of copper:

• (in metal,) n is very large
• (therefore) hall voltage is small

Value of the Hall Voltage:

• Hall voltage depends on angle between field and plane of probe
• Max when field normal to plane of probe

Explain why the r.m.s value of the current in the solenoid is reduced as a result of inserting
an iron core:
• For same current iron core gives larger rate of change of flux linkage (iron core
increase the magnetic field strength -> increases flux density)
• e.m.f induced in solenoid is greater (for same current)
• induced e.m.f. opposes applied e.m.f. so current smaller/acts to reduce current

As the magnet is being moved into the solenoid, thermal energy is transferred in the
resistor. Use laws of electromagnetic induction to explain this thermal energy:
• moving magnet gives rise to/causes/induces e.m.f./current in solenoid/coil
• (induced current) creates field/flux in solenoid that opposes (motion of) magnet
• work is done/energy is needed to move magnet (into solenoid)
• (induced) current gives heating effect (in resistor) which comes from the work done

Two wires are laid side-by-side and carry equal currents I in opposite directions, explain
why the total magnetic flux density due to the current in the wires is negligible:
• magnetic fields are equal in magnitude/strength/flux density
• magnetic fields are opposite in direction
• fields superpose/add/cancel to give zero/negligible resultant field

Why magnet falling down through Aluminum takes longer to fall than and plastic tube :
• as magnet falls, tube there is a change in magnetic flux
 • (different rate of change of magnetic flux at different part of tube so there is p.d and)
eddy current induced in aluminum tube but current can’t flow in plastic tube
• eddy current causes heating effect
• heat energy derived from KE of falling magnet
• terminal velocity decreases so longer time in aluminum

Reduction in amplitude of oscillation when a metal block cuts a magnetic field:

• metal block cut magnetic flux at different rate so different induced emf at different
part
• give rise to eddy current which causes heating effect
• heat energy derived from energy of oscillation

3 Circular Motion
3.1 Important Definitions
Radian: angle subtended from centre of a circle where arc length is equal to the radius

3.2 Key Equations:

2𝜋
1. 𝜔 = = 2𝜋𝑓 (Angular Frequency 𝜔)
𝑡
2. 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
3. 𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 (Centripetal Force 𝐹)
4. 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟 (Centripetal Acceleration 𝑎)

3.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Path of the electron in the magnetic field is in the arc of a circle
• (magnetic) force (always) normal to velocity/direction of motion
• (magnitude of magnetic) force constant // speed is constant / kinetic energy is
constant
• magnetic force provides/is the centripetal force
• OR :
• Force due to magnetic field is constant
• Speed of particle is constant
• Force always normal to direction of motion
• Magnetic force provides centripetal force

Speed of particle in arc is not affected by magnetic field :

• Magnetic field always perpendicular to direction of motion
• so there is no work done on the particle
Why path of a charged particle in electric field is not an arc of a circle:
• constant speed parallel to plate // accelerated motion/force normal to plate/in
direction field
• so not circular

How a satellite may be in a circular orbit around a planet.

• gravitational force (of attraction between satellite and planet)
• provides / is centripetal force (on satellite about the planet)

Why does an astronaut feel ‘weightless’ when he’s in a satellite orbiting the Earth;
• gravitational force provides the centripetal force
• gravitational force is ‘equal’ to the centripetal force (accept Gm1m2 / x2 = mxω2 or
FC = FG)
• ‘weight’/sensation of weight/contact force/reaction force is difference between FG
and FC which is zero

Geostationary orbit:
• equatorial orbit/orbits (directly) above the equator
• from west to east
• Same period as Earth

7. Polar orbiting satellites vs Geostationary satellites

Advantages Disadvantages

shorter time delay satellite needs to be tracked

greater coverage over a long more satellites for (continuous)

time coverage/communication

4 Oscillations
4.1 Important Definitions
Free Oscillations: (body oscillates) without any loss of energy/no resistive forces/no external
forces applied
Forced Oscillations: continuous energy input (required)/body is made to vibrate by an
(external) periodic force/driving oscillator
Force frequency: frequency at which object is made to vibrate/oscillate
Natural frequency: frequency at which object vibrates when free to do so
Resonance: maximum amplitude of vibration of oscillating body when forced frequency
equals natural frequency (of vibration)

4.2 Key Equations:

1. 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 (Simple Harmonic Motion SHM)
2. 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
3. 𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin(𝜔𝑡) (Use this when 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑡 = 0)
4. 𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos(𝜔𝑡) (Use this when 𝑥 = 𝑥0 when 𝑡 = 0)

4.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

One situation where resonance is useful + why:
• vibration of quartz/piezoelectric crystal (what is vibrating)
• for accurate timing // maximise amplitude of ultrasound waves (why it is useful)

State one situation where resonance should be avoided and how effects of resonance are
reduced:
• vibrating metal panels (what is vibrating)
• place strengthening struts across the panel // change shape/area of panel (how it is
reduced)

What is meant by SHM:

• Acceleration towards a fixed point
• Acceleration ∝ displacement (because ω is constant)
2

• Acceleration and displacement are always in opposite directions (due to negative

sign)

5 Thermal Physics
5.1 Important Definitions
Internal energy: Sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of molecules/ atoms due to
random motion/ distribution
Specific heat capacity: the (thermal) energy per unit mass to raise the temperature of a
substance by one degree
Specific latent heat: quantity of (thermal) energy required to change the state of unit mass
of a substance without any change of temperature
Avogadro constant: number of atoms/nuclei in 12 g of carbon-12
Mole: amount of substance containing N (or 6.02 × 1023) particles/molecules/atoms //
A

which contains the same number of particles/atoms/molecules as there are atoms in 12g of
carbon-12
Thermal equilibrium: no net energy transfer between the bodies and bodies are at the
same temperature
Ideal gas: obeys the equation pV = constant × T or pV = nRT at all values of p, V and T/fixed
mass/n is constant ; p, V and T explained.
5.2 Key Equations:
1. 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑞 – 𝑤 (Internal energy 𝑈, heat energy supplied 𝑞, work done 𝑤)

2. 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (universal gas constant 𝑅, 𝑇 in kelvins)

1
3. 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚 < 𝑐 2 > (the average of square of the velocities of molecules < 𝑐 2 >)
3
3
4. < 𝐸𝑘 > = 𝑘𝑇 (Boltzmann Constant 𝑘)
2

5.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

0 degree is 273.15 kelvins

Assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases:

• Consist of atoms or molecules that behave as hard, identical spheres
• That are in continuous motion and undergo elastic collisions
• time of collision small compared with the time between collisions
• no intermolecular forces (except during collisions)
• random motion (of molecules)
• large numbers of molecules
• (total) volume of molecules negligible compared to volume of containing vessel
• average/mean separation large compared with size of molecules

Change in internal energy when a lump of ice at 0 °C melts to form liquid water at 0 °C
• bonds (between molecules) broken in the lattice structure forces between molecules
reduced (not molecules separate)
• constant temp so no change in kinetic energy
• potential energy increases
• internal energy increases
• OR, volume decreases (ice to water special case) so work done on the system // small
volume change so work done on system negligible
• thermal energy absorbed to break lattice structure
• internal energy increases
Describe the motion of molecules in a gas, according to the kinetic theory of gases:
• Random
• constant velocity / speed in a straight line between collisions

What is observed when viewing Brownian motion that provides evidence for motion
of molecules of gas:
• (small) specks of light/bright specks/pollen grains/dust particles/smoke particles
• moving randomly/jerky/in a zigzag fashion

Difference in temperatures of 2 objects shows

• not in thermal equilibrium, energy transfer from high temp to low temp object
• The DIRECTION / RATE of transfer of thermal energy

Basic principle by which temperature is measured

• Uses a property of a substance that changes with temperature

Why two thermometers may not give the same temperature reading for an object.
• temperature scale assumes linear change of property with temperature
• physical properties may not vary linearly with temperature
• agrees only at fixed points

Feature Resistance Thermometer Thermocouple

Robustness Very robust robust

range Resistance wire: wide range Can be very wide

Thermistor : low range

sensitivity Thermistor: High sensitivity (narrow Can be sensitive(depends on metal

range) chosen)
Resistance wire: Low

linearity Thermistor: fairly linear (narrow Non-linear, requires calibration

range)
Resistance wire: good linearity

Remote At a distance, long wires. At a distance

operation

Size Higher thermal capacity, larger Lower thermal capacity, smaller

than thermocouple than thermistor.
 Thermometer Advantage Disadvantage

Thermistor Robust Narrow range & non-linear

(only linear at small range)

Fast response & Sensitive (at specific Need power supply

range)

Accurate

Small thermal capacity

Thermocouple Very Robust Non linear

Very fast response Need high resistance voltmeter

Very small thermal capacitance (so it

can measure temperature at the
surface)

Wide range (can measure higher temp)

Can measure temperature difference

between 2 points

Liquid-in- Linear
glass

Derive the expression pV = 1⁄3Nm<c²> for pressure in a cube container using the
expression pV = NmCX²:
• molecule has component of velocity in three directions
or C² =CX² +CY² +CZ²
• random motion and averaging, so <CX²> = <CY²> = <CZ²>
• <C²> = 3<CX²>
• so, pV = 1⁄3Nm<C²>
6 Transformer
6.1 Important Definitions
Iron core: Iron core reduces loss of (magnetic) flux linkage / improves flux linkage
Laminated core: reduces (size of eddy) currents in core -> heating of core is reduced
Ideal transformer: no power loss in transformer // input power = output power

6.2 Key Equation

𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
1. = = (𝑁𝑝 number of turns in primary coil, 𝑁𝑠 turns in secondary)
𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝

6.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Why input in transformer is an alternating voltage:
• alternating voltage gives rise to changing magnetic flux in core
• (changing) flux links the secondary coil
• induced e.m.f. (in secondary) only when flux is changing/cut

Why current in primary coil is not in phase with E.M.F. induced in the secondary coil
• flux in core and primary coil is in phase with current in the primary coil
• (induced) e.m.f. in secondary coil proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux
• flux and rate of change of flux are not in phase

Why an alternating current with mean current 0 A, gives rise to a heating effect in a resistor:
• heating effect in a resistor ∝(current)2
• square of value of an alternating current is always positive so heating effect
• OR, current moves in opposite directions in resistor during half-cycles
• heating effect is independent of direction

Energy loss in transformer:

• Losses due to changing magnetic field in core
• heating due to eddy current

In many distribution systems of electrical energy, the energy is transmitted using alternating
current at high voltages:
• Advantage of use of alternating voltage:
o voltage can be (easily) stepped up/down
o transformers only work with a.c.
o generators produce a.c.
o easier to rectify than invert
• Advantage of use of high voltage:
 o for same power, current is smaller
o less heating in cables/wires // thinner cables possible // less voltage loss in
cables

7 Capacitors
7.1 Important Definitions
Capacitance: ratio of charge and potential (difference)/ voltage
Smoothing: (output) p.d. / voltage / current does not fall to zero // range of (output) p.d. /
voltage / current is reduced

7.2 Key Equation

1. 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 (Capacitance 𝐶)
1
2. 𝐸 = 𝐶𝑉 2 (Energy Stored 𝐸)
2

7.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Capacitors in parallel:

𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ 𝐶𝑛

Capacitors in series:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

Uses of capacitors in electrical circuits

• storing energy
• smoothing of direct current
• blocking d.c. ( because capacitor is not connected between plates)
• in timing circuits (because it has decrease voltage over time so it can be use for time
indicator)

Why capacitor stores energy, not charge:

• capacitor has equal magnitudes of (+)ve and (-)ve charge
• total charge on capacitor is zero
• +ve and –ve charges have to be separated
• Work done to achieve this is stored as energy

A capacitor with a large capacitance is connected across the terminals of the a.c supply,
explain why this lead to large current from supply:
• large amount of charge required to charge capacitor
 • capacitor would charge and discharge rapidly/in a very short time
• I = Q/ t, so large current

8 Electronics & Communication

8.1 Important Definitions
Amplitude modulation (AM): amplitude of the carrier wave varies in synchrony with
displacement of the information/audio signal
Modulated carrier wave: high frequency wave where the amplitude or the frequency is
varied in synchrony with the displacement of the information signal.
Digital Signal: (series of) ‘highs’ and ‘lows’/ ‘on’ and ‘off’/ 1’s and 0’s /two discrete values
with no intermediate values
(to distinguish; analogue signal: continuously variable)
Attenuation: (gradual) loss of power/intensity/amplitude
Noise: unwanted power (on signal) that is random
Cross-linking: signal in one wire (pair) is picked up by a neighbouring wire (pair)
Regeneration: noise/distortion is removed (from the signal) and the (original) signal is
reformed/reproduced/recovered/restored
Processing unit : takes signal from sensing device and gives a voltage output
Metal-wire strain gauge : insulation plastic case containing wire in the shape of grid

8.2 Key Equation

𝑃
1. 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) (Measure of Attenuation/Amplification, Initial power 𝑃0 )
𝑃0

8.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Why an analogue signal cannot be regenerated?
• noise is superposed on the (displacement of the) signal/cannot be distinguished //
analogue/signal is continuous (so cannot be regenerated) // analogue/signal is not
discrete (so cannot be regenerated)
• noise is amplified with the signal

Advantages of modulated carrier wave instead of sending signal directly:

• shorter aerial required (higher f)
• less attenuation
• less interference
• allows more than one station in a region
• less distortion
Why attenuation is frequently measured in decibels (dB):
• dB is a log scale
• either large (range of) numbers are easier to handle (on a log scale) or compounding
attenuations/amplifications is easier

Sensing device for the detection of pressure changes in a sound wave:

• quartz crystal/ piezoelectric crystal or transducer/ microphone

Function of ADC:
• sample the (analogue) signal
• at regular intervals and converts the analogue signal to a digital signal

How to increase the level of detail in the transmitted signal (from ADC then to DAC):
• increase sampling frequency/rate -> so that step width/depth is reduced
• increase number of bits (in each number)
• greater number of voltage/ signal levels
• smaller step heights in reproduced signal
• smaller voltage/ signal changes can be seen

Function of parallel-to-serial converter:

• take all bits of a number at one time and transmit down the bits one after another in
a single line

Advantages of the transmission of data in digital form rather than in analogue form:
• noise can be eliminated (not “there is no noise”)
o because pulses can be regenerated
• much greater data handling/carrying capacity
o because many messages can be carried at the same time/greater bandwidth
• more secure
o because it can be encrypted
• error checking
o because extra information/parity bit can be added
• more reliable circuits
• cheaper circuits

How is noise removed from digital signal:

• only the ‘high’ and the ‘low’ are necessary
• variation between ‘highs’ and ‘lows’ caused by noise not required so signal wave
regenerated
Applications for the transmission of signals using:
• wire pair:
o linking a (land) telephone to the (local) exchange
o landline for phone
o a.f. amplifier to loudspeaker
• coaxial cable:
o connecting an aerial to a television
o Loudspeaker
o microphone
• microwave link:
o linking a ground station to a satellite
o satellite communication
o mobile phones
o line of sight communication

Advantages of optic fibre compared to coaxial cables for long-range communication:

• lower attenuation/fewer repeaters
• more secure
• less prone to noise/interference
• physically smaller/less weight
• lower cost
• greater bandwidth

Functions of the copper braid in coaxial cable:

1. acts as ‘return’ (conductor) for signal
2. shielding from noise/crosstalk/interference

Disadvantages of wire pair

1. small bandwidth
2. there is noise/interference/crosstalk
3. large attenuation/energy loss
4. reflections due to poor impedance matching

A geostationary satellite is known to operate on the 6/4 GHz band, why two different
frequencies are necessary:
• signal from Earth to satellite is attenuated greatly // downlink must be amplified
greatly before transmission
• frequency is changed to prevent swamping of uplink signal by down-link
Why frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range are used in satellite communication:
• no/little ionospheric reflection
• large information carrying capacity

Comment on the time delays experienced by the two people when communicating either
using geostationary satellites or using optic fibres.
• speed of signal is same order of magnitude in both systems
• optic fibre link (much) shorter than via satellite
• time delay using optic fibre is less

9 OP-AMPS
9.1 Important Definitions
Ideal OP-AMP
• Infinite slew rate: no time delay between change in input and change in output //
changes in VOUT M1 occur immediately when VIN changes
• Infinite input impedance: Current cannot flow through the input
• Zero output impedance: All output voltage gives to external R
• Infinite open loop gain: A small signal difference in inputs is amplified to infinity
(op- amp will be saturated even with small input and give supply voltage)
• Infinite bandwidth: Work/amplify the same amount/factor for all frequency
• Zero noise contribution: Op-amp does not produce noise by itself (but it will
amplify noise existing in input)

9.2 Key Equation

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
1. 𝐺 = (Gain, 𝐺 = Output Voltage / Input Voltage)
𝑉𝑖𝑛

(Each type of Op-amp will have different equations and derivation for the Gain but all of them are derived from
. The specific types are not given in this summary)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛

9.3 Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Virtual Earth:
• op-amp has infinite/(very) large gain
• op-amp saturates if V+ ≠ V–
• difference between V+ and V- must be very small
• V+ is at earth potential so P (or V– ) must be at earth ( 0v )

Derive in terms of RF and RIN for the gain of the inverting amplifier:
• input impedance is infinite
 • (so) current in RIN = current in RF
• (VIN – 0) / RIN = (0 – VOUT) / RF (or other way around)

• (gain =) VOUT / VIN = – RF / RIN

Advantages of negative feedback:

• Less distortion (output is exactly same as input)
• Increase bandwidth (wider range of working frequency)
• Output impedance is low while input impedance is high

State the function of a comparator circuit incorporating an operational amplifier (op-amp):

• compares the potentials/voltages at the (inverting and non-inverting) inputs
• output (potential) dependent on which input is the larger
• When V+ > V– , then VOUT is positive
• When V+ < V– , then VOUT is negative

Use for comparator: re-shaping (digital) signals/regenerator (amplifier)

(Note: Graph for Comparator Vout vs time is a Square wave)

Why is a relay used in op-amp to operate another circuit:

• main circuit eg lamp needs large current, op amp only needs small voltage to control
relay
• remote switching

10 Quantum Physics

10.1 Nuclear Physics

Important Definitions
Nucleus : core of an atom
Nucleon : proton or neutron, particles contained within a nucleus
Isotopes: nuclei having same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
Avogadro constant: the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12
Binding energy: energy required to separate the nucleons in a nucleus to infinity
Nuclear fusion: two (light) nuclei combine to form a more massive nucleus

Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Why the emitted β- particles from radioactive isotope have a range of energies:
• energy is shared with another particle
• mention of antineutrino
In α-particle scattering experiment, the beam of α-particles is incident on a very thin gold
foil:
• so that single interactions between nucleus and α-particle can be studied //
so that multiple deflections with nucleus do not occur

Explain why the mass of an α-particle is less than the total mass of two individual protons
and two individual neutrons:
• energy is given out / released on formation of the α-particle (or reverse argument)
• E = mc² so mass is less

Suggest why there must be some other force (nuclear force) other than gravitational and
electrostatic force between the protons in the nucleus:
• force of repulsion (electrostatic force) much greater than force of attraction
(gravitational force)
• must be some other force of attraction
• to hold nucleus together

Suggest why nuclear force must have short range:

• outside nucleus there is repulsion between protons
• attractive force must act only in nucleus // if not short range, all nuclei would stick
together

The temperature in the core of the Sun is approximately 1.6 x10^7 K. Suggest why such a
high temperature is necessary for fusion of Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-1 to take place:
• high temperature means high speeds / kinetic energy of nuclei
• speed/kinetic energy of Hydrogen-1 and Hydrogen-2 must be very large
• so that the nuclei can overcome electrostatic repulsion

10.2 Ultrasound
Important Definitions and Equations
Specific acoustic impedance, Z: product of speed of ultrasound in medium and density (of
medium)
(𝑍1 – 𝑍2) 2
Reflected Coefficient, 𝑅 =
(𝑍1 + 𝑍2)2

Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Reflected Coefficient, 𝑅
• Difference in Z is called impedance mismatch
• The greater the impedance mismatch the greater percentage of energy reflected
 • intensity reflection coefficient = (Z – Z ) / (Z + Z )
1 2
2
1 2
2

• if (Z – Z ) is small, mostly transmission

1 2

• if (Z – Z ) is large, mostly reflection

1 2

Why the ultrasound from transducer is pulsed:

• transducer/transmitter can be also be used as the receiver
• receives reflected pulses between the emitted pulses
• (needs to be pulsed) in order to measure/determine depth
• (needs to be pulsed) to determine nature of boundaries

Suggest and explain one advantage of the use of high-frequency ultrasound compared to
lower-frequency ultrasound:
• smaller structures can be distinguished
• because better resolution at shorter wavelength / higher frequency

Principles behind the generation of ultrasound:

• piezo-electric crystal
• p.d applied across the crystal to change shape
• alternating p.d applied across crystal
• when applied frequency (frequency of alternating current) is natural frequency, crystal
resonates
• crystal cut so that its natural frequency is in the ultrasound range

Principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information about internal
body structures:
• pulse (of ultrasound)
• produced by quartz crystal/piezoelectric crystal
• gel/coupling medium (on skin) used to reduce reflection at skin reflected from
boundaries (between media)
• reflected pulse/wave detected by (ultrasound) transmitter
• reflected wave processed and displayed
• intensity of reflected pulse/wave gives information about boundary
• time delay gives information about depth of boundary

10.3 Photoelectric Effect

Important Definitions and Equations
Photon: discrete/packet/quantum of energy of electromagnetic/EM radiation,
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Photoelectric effect: electromagnetic radiation incident on metal surface causing emission
of electrons
Threshold frequency: minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation/ photon
for electron(s) to be emitted (from surface)
De Broglie wavelength: wavelength associated with a particle that is moving.

Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Evidence for the wave nature of a particle:
• Electron diffraction
• Concentric circles are evidence of diffraction
• Diffraction is a wave property

Evidence for the particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation:

• Photoelectric effect

The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen consists of a number of discrete wavelengths.

Explain how there are discrete electron energy levels in atoms:
• each line in the spectrum represents specific frequency and photon energy; energy
= Planck constant × frequency
• photon energy emit when electrons de excites from high energy level to low energy
level
• Photon energy is specific so there are discrete electrons energy level

Spectrum of the light emerging from the cloud of cool gas is viewed using a diffraction
grating, explain why this spectrum contains a number of dark lines:
• electrons (in gas atoms/molecules) interact with photons
• photon energy causes electron to move to higher energy level/to be excited
• photon energy = difference in energy of (electron) energy levels
• electron de-excites emitting photon (of same energy) in all direction so dark lines

Why electrons may assist with an understanding of crystal structure:

• When the wavelength is about separation of atoms (we can change the velocity of e-
to change the De Broglie wavelength)
• electron diffraction pattern will be greatest (concentric rings)

Phenomena associated with the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained using wave
theory of light:
• threshold frequency required for electron emissions
• maximum energy of electron depends on frequency
• maximum energy of electrons does not depend on intensity
• rate of emission is proportional to intensity
• instantaneous emission of electrons
Why, for any particular wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, most of the electrons are
emitted with kinetic energies less than the maximum value EKMax
• maximum kinetic energy when electron emitted from surface
• some photon interaction with electron below surface
• energy is required to bring an electron to the surface

The wavelength is reduced. The intensity of the light is kept constant. State and explain the
effect on the photoelectric current:
• higher frequency so each photon has higher energy
• for the same power, fewer photon per unit time
• fewer electrons emitted per unit time so lower current

10.4 Band Theory

Exam Style Questions and Key Points
Suggest why, in a solid, there are energy bands, rather than discrete energy levels.
• In a solid electrons in neighbouring atoms are close together and interact with each
other
• This changes their electron energy levels
• (many atoms in lattice) cause a spread of energy levels into a band
• Energy band rather than discrete energy level in solid

Use band theory to explain why the resistance of a sample of a metal at room temperature
changes with increasing temperature.
• in metal, conduction band overlaps valence band/no forbidden band/no band
gap
• as temperature rises, no increase in number of free electrons/charge carriers
• as temperature rises, lattice vibrations increase
• (lattice) vibrations restrict movement of electrons/charge carriers
• (current decreases) so resistance increases

Use band theory to explain why, unlike copper wire, the resistance of an intrinsic
semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature:
• electrons need energy to enter conduction band (from valence band)
• (positively-charged) holes are left in valence band
• moving charge carriers /holes /electrons are current
• (increase of temperature leads to) more (positive and negative) charge carriers /more
holes /more electrons so more current
• more charge carriers / holes /electrons gives rise to less resistance
 • (increase of temperature causes) greater (amplitude of) vibrations of atoms /ions
/lattice
• effect of more charge carriers/holes/electrons is greater than effect of greater
vibrations (and so resistance decreases)

Use band theory to explain the dependence on light intensity of the resistance of the LDR
(LDR consists of an intrinsic semiconductor):
• photons of light give energy to electrons in valence band
• electrons move into the conduction band
• leaving holes in the valence band
• these electrons and holes are charge carriers
• lattice vibration increased
• increased number/increased current, hence reduced resistance

In semiconducting materials, holes or electrons are mainly responsible for conduction.

Explain the difference that conduction by electrons or by holes will have Hall voltage.
• magnetic field would deflect holes and electrons in same direction (as hole and
electrons move in the opposite direction + have opposite charge)
• (because) electrons are (–)ve, holes are (+)ve
• so VH has opposite polarity/opposite sign

10.5 Radioactivity
Important Definitions
Decay constant: probability of decay per unit time
Half-life: time for number of atoms / nuclei/ activity (of the isotope) to be reduced to one
half (of its initial value)
Radioactive decay : nucleus randomly emits α-particles, β-particles, γ-ray photons
Gamma radiation : electromagnetic radiation emitted from nuclei

Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Decay is spontaneous–not affected by external factors such as temperature or pressure,
hence half-life is always constant

Reasons why activity and count rate of a sample may differ:

• emission from radioactive daughter products
• self-absorption in sample
• attenuation in air/detector window
• detector not sensitive to all radiations // radiation emitted in all directions
• window of detector may absorb some radiation
 • dead-time of counter
• background radiation
• multiple possible counts from each decay
• random nature of decay

Energy of product:
• kinetic energy of nuclei/particles/products/fragments
• γ–ray photon energy

10.5 X-ray
Important Definitions
Sharpness: how well the edges (of structures) are defined
contrast: difference in degree of blackening between structures
Hardness of an X-ray beam: measure of penetration of beam -> greater hardness means
greater penetration/shorter wavelength/higher frequency/higher photon energy

Exam Style Questions and Key Points

Causes of loss of sharpness of an X-ray image
• scattering of photons in tissue/no use of a collimator/no use of lead grid
• large penumbra on shadow/large area anode/wide beam
• large pixel size

Explain how the hardness of an X-ray beam is controlled by the accelerating voltage in the X-
ray tube:
• changing voltage changes energy / speed of electrons
• electrons striking anode have changed speed so acceleration of collision changes so
X rays have different frequency
• changing electron energy changes maximum X-ray photon energy

I=I e
0
-µx

Explain why the expression above applies for only parallel beams:
• intensity changes when beam not parallel
• decreases when beam is divergent

How and why are longer wavelength photos are filtered out of the X-ray beam in X-ray
imaging of body structure:
How: aluminium sheet/filter/foil (placed in beam from tube)
Why: long-wavelength radiation more likely to be absorbed in the body
Explain why an aluminium filter may be placed in the X-ray beam wiehn producing an X-ray
image of a patient:
• X-ray beam contains many wavelengths
• aluminium filter absorbs long wavelength X-ray radiation
• that would be absorbed by the body and not contribute to the image

Explain why the radiation received by a patient is different for a CT scan from that for a
simple X-ray image:
• CT scan consists of (many) X-ray images of a slice
• and there are many slices
• X-ray image is a single exposure
• (so much) greater exposure with CT scan

High-energy e- collide with a metal target, producing X-ray photons

Why there is a continuous distribution of wavelength:

• (X–ray) photon produced when electron/charged particle is stopped/accelerated
(suddenly)
• electrons hitting target have distribution of accelerations
• hence distribution of wavelengths

Why there is a sharp cut-off at short wavelength:

• minimum wavelength for maximum energy
• electron gives all its energy to one photon
• electron stopped in single collision

Why there is a series of peaks superimposed on the continuous distribution of wavelengths:

• de-excitation of (orbital) electrons in target/anode/metal

Principles of CT scanning:
• X-ray images taken from different angles of one slice
• All images in the same plane is processed by using computer to create 2D image of
slice
• Repeat the process for successive slices
• Slices are combined by using computer to form a 3D image
 • 3D image can be rotated and viewed at different angle for better analysis

CT scan compared to X-ray scan

Advantages Disadvantages

image gives depth greater exposure

image is 3D more risk to health

final image can be viewed from any angle more expensive

person must remain stationary

Principles of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI):

• strong uniform magnetic field throughout body
• nuclei precess/rotate about direction of magnetic field
• radio-frequency pulse applied throughout the body
• R.F. or pulse is at Larmor frequency
• nuclei absorbs energy from radio frequency and resonate
• on relaxation/de-excitation, nuclei emit r.f./pulse in all direction
• (emitted) r.f./pulse detected and processed
• non-uniform magnetic field applied
• Larmor frequency/r.f. frequency emitted/detected depends on magnitude of
magnetic field
• location of spinning nuclei determined from different frequencies
• changing field enables position of detection (slice) to be changed

Explain the function of the non-uniform magnetic field that is superimposed on a large
uniform magnetic field in diagnosis using NMRI:
• nuclei emitting r.f. (pulse)
• Larmor frequency/r.f. frequency emitted/detected depends on magnitude of
magnetic field
• nuclei can be located (within a slice)
• changing field enables position of detection (slice) to be changed