V. N.

Sokol'skii

RUSSIAN SOLID-FUEL ROCKETS

TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN

Published for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, U.S.A.

and the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations

 TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

AKADEMIYA NAUK SSSR. INSTITUT ISTORII ESTESTVOZNniyi

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Academy of Sciences of the USSR Institute of the History of Science and Engineerinz

V. N. SOKOL’SKII

RUSSIAN SOLID-FUEL ROCKETS

(Rakety na tverdom toplive v Rossii)

Edited by S. G. Kozlov

Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR

Lloskva 1963

Translated from Russian

Israel Rogram for Scientific Translations

Jerusalem 1967
 NASA TT F-415
TT 66-51152
Published Pursuant to an A g r e e m e n t with
THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
and
THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Copyright 0 1967
Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd.
IPST Car. No. 1707

T r a n s l a t e d and Edited by H. Needler

Rinted in Jerusalem by S. Monson

Available f r o m the
U. S. DEPARTMENT O F COMMERCE
Clearinghouse f o r F e d e r a l Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield, Va. 22151

VI11 14

.. .. . . .. ,, .
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I. PYROTECHNIC ROCKETS IN RUSSIA BEFORE THE

BEGINNINGOFTHE 19TH CENTURY . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 11. THE EARLIEST MILITARY APPLICATION OF ROCKETS

IN RUSSIA . . .
. . . . . .. . . . . . . 22

Chapter 111. ROCKET ARhfAMENT OF THE RUSSIAN ARhlY .. . . 40

Russian military rockets of the 185Q's and
1860's . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 40
hleans for stabilization of rockets . . . . . . . 53
First attempts to lay the theoretical foundations for
rocketry . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 60
Improvement of military rocket production at the
Petersburg Rocket Institute , . . .. .. . . 70
Rocket production a t the Nikolaev Rocket Plant . . . . 77
The withdrawal of rocket weapons . . . . . . . 81

Chapter IV. OTHER TYPES OF ROCKETS IN THE SECOND H A L F OF

THE 19TH CENTURY. . .
. .
. . . . . . . 91
Pyrotechnic and signal rockets . . . . . . . . 91
Resc tie rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Rocket flares . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Chapter V. ATTEXlPTS T O PO\t'ER AIRCRAFT BY SOi.IU PROPELLANT

ROCKETS .
. .
. . . .. .
. . . . . . . 100

Chapter VI. SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS IN RUSSIA AT TlIE TURN

OF THE 20TH CENTURY . . . . . . .
. . . . . 109
Rocket flares at the beginning ot the 2oth century.
Rocket production at the- Nikolaev Plant .
. . . . . 109
Experimental rocket research at the beginning of
the 20th century . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 113
Rocket production at the Shostka Gunpowder
Plant. Use of rockets in the First World War . . 148

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

...
111
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
. . . . . .
1. Description of the fireworks of 1686 . 168
2. . . . . . . . .
Rockets . . . . . . , . 169
3. Description of the manufacture of incendiary and
rebounding rockets of various types, made according to the
dimensions and rules of Kartmazov, member, 5th class,
of the Military Scientific Committee . . . . . . . 170
4. On incendiary and rebounding rockets . . . . .
, . 173
5. Program of experiments with a rocket ballistic pendulum
for the improvement of 2-inch rockets . . . . . . . 178
6 . Tailless signal and military rockets . . . . . . . 182
7. The introduction and use of military rockets in the
Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8. A short note on measures for the improvement of
Russian military rockets . . . .. . . . . . . 186
9. Termination of the manufacture of 2" military rockets . . 190
1 0 , Compressed air rockets with special guides in place
of tails . . . . . . . . . , . . .. . . 193
11, From the report on a mission to the Nikolaev Rocket
Plant to participate in Major-Genera1 Pomortsev's
experiments on the development of a new type of
rocket flare . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . 195
12. Calculation for gas turbines with a gyroscope . . , . . 198
13. Results of tests of rocket flares with guides designed
by Major -General Pomortsev, conducted by the
. .
Nikolaev Rocket Plant during the years 1908 -1909 . 202
14. Gerasimov's gyroscopic rocket . . . . . . . . . 208
15. The rotating rocket design of retired Lieutenant Volovskii . 212
16. Report on the experiments with Major-General
. . .
Sazanov's rockets . . . . . . . . . . 214

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

NAAIE INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Chapter I

PYROTECHNIC ROCKETS IN RUSSIA BEFORE

THE BEGINNING OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The beginnings of Russian r o c k e t r y have not been sufficiently studied,

and t h e r e are s t i l l no a c c u r a t e data on when rockets w e r e f i r s t used in
Russia. A number of recently published works on the history of r o c k e t r y
attempt t o date them t o the 12th1, o r even the 10th' century, but the
evidence is unreliable and r e q u i r e s confirmation. In fact, N. G. Chernyshev,
who was the f i r s t t o mention the u s e of rockets in Russia in the 10th century,
wrote in 1949: "It goes without saying that my dating the f i r s t u s e of
rockets in Russia t o the y e a r 946 is only an initial guess which will r e q u i r e
subsequent confirmation by analysis and documentation, especially by
m a t e r i a l s with which until now nobody has bothered. ' I 3 However, in spite
of the fact that m o r e than 1 0 y e a r s have passed s i n c e the publication of
Chernyshev's work, his guess is still lacking both analytic and documentary
confirmation.
The mention in the Ipat'ev Chronicle of the "living fire" used by the
Cumans in 1184, which is cited by a number of authors, can a l s o hardly
be r e g a r d e d a s proof that rockets w e r e in u s e in R u s s i a by the 12th century:
"The impious and godless and t h r i c e - a c c u r s e d Konchak had come t o Russia
with a l a r g e p a r t y of Polovtsy, intending t o capture the Russian towns and
burn them with fire f o r he had found a c e r t a i n man of Besurmania who shot
living f i r e . Indeed they had taut c r o s s - b o w s which fifty men could s c a r c e l y
bend. 'I4
Aside f r o m the fact that the chronicle mentions the u s e of "living fire"
not by the Russians, but by their a d v e r s a r i e s , one c a n hardly r e g a r d the fact
that "living fire" was shot a s confirmation of the u s e of military o r
incendiary rockets. Most likely what is meant is not rockets, but f l a m e -
throwing devices (fiery a r r o w s o r m i s s i l e s with an incendiary m i x t u r e )
which a t that t i m e w e r e widely used in the E a s t and a r e described in a
number of s o u r c e s . 5
It seems m o r e likely that the f i r s t u s e of rockets in Russia o c c u r r e d
a t a much l a t e r period, and was connected with the appearance of gun-
powder. The history of r o c k e t r y in other countries substantiates this
idea.
Although many works on the history of rocketry imply that rockets w e r e
known long before o u r t i m e , 6 none of t h e i r claims c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s
reliable, the m o r e s o in that none of the authors chooses t o r e v e a l the
s o u r c e s of his information.
A s e r i o u s deficiencyof these works is that they consider the u s e of
rockets as a subject a p a r t f r o m the general history of engineering and
d o not connect i t with the knowledge of explosives a t a given period.

I
 More worthy of attention a r e the works based on the study of p r i m a r y
s o u r c e s , which s e e a connection between the building of rockets and other
pyrotechnic devices and the invention of gunpowder.
In Russia powder was f i r s t used for m i l i t a r y purposes in the second half
of t h e 14th century. T h e r e is a wide and r a t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i a l l i t e r a t u r e on
the date when f i r e a r m s w e r e first used. However, while disagreeing
about the p r e c i s e date, a l m o s t a l l the r e s e a r c h e r s have concluded that
Russian troops became f a m i l i a r with f i r e a r m s in the 1 3 7 0 ' s , and them-
s e l v e s began to use them in the 1380's. Subsequently ( i n the 15th and
16th centuries) the production and use of powder in Russia steadily
increased, as frequent citations of chronicles and other l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s
19
testify.
T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e a b a s i s f o r supposing that pyrotechnic rockets might
have been used i n Russia a s e a r l y a s the 15th and 16th c e n t u r i e s , especially
since they achieved comparatively widespread u s e in western European
countries a t that t i m e , and w e r e described in a number of printed works."
However, no documentary evidence of any kind f o r the production of f i r e -
works in Russia at this period has yet been found. '' Some historians simply
r e m a r k t h a t r o c k e t s w e r e not used at a l l in Russia before the t i m e of P e t e r
the Great. "
This is s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e it is hard to understand why pyrotechnic devices
would not have been built in Russia between the 15th and 17th c e n t u r i e s ,
when a l l the n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e s existed. The r e s t r a i n i n g influence of
religion, and f e a r of causing f i r e s , which were a t e r r i b l e s o u r c e of
catastrophe in R u s s i a before the t i m e of P e t e r the G r e a t , a r e not t o be
excluded. In any c a s e , the u s e of rockets in this period r e m a i n s unclear
and r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r study.
The first r e l i a b l e information on the u s e of rockets in R u s s i a is f r o m
the second half of the 17th century. In 1675 a "firework'' display
held in the town of Ustyuga made a g r e a t i m p r e s s i o n on a l l who witnessed
it. "Several r o c k e t s and f i r e c r a c k e r s w e r e s e t off, and i n addition a
hundred t a r r e d b a r r e l s w e r e s e t on f i r e whole before a vast concourse who
gathered f o r this r a r e spectacle. Even peasants f r o m the neighboring
villages gathered on the r i v e r bank, but they took the r o c k e t s to be a f i e r y
dragon, and fled with fright. " 23
When and by whom t h e s e rockets were made can be learned f r o m the
book describing the e m b a s s y of Klenk in Russia, 24 whose author
Balthasar Koiet was in the a m b a s s a d o r ' s suite.
"On the morning of Thursday, 14 November, " Koiet wrote, "after fully
two weeks had been spent on the preparation of joyous celebrations of His
Highness' birth, in the building where the Russians who had worked on the
rockets and a l r e a d y delivered m o s t of them were keeping the r e m a i n d e r
in r e a d i n e s s , a s p a r k f r o m the f i r e - instead of candles, they used c e r t a i n
t o r c h e s f o r illumination while working - fell into the powder. A tremendous
flame shot forth, and nearly burned the whole building down, injuring five
people, one, who received t h r e e extensive burns on the neck, s e r i o u s l y .
The Russians kept t h i s o c c u r r e n c e s e c r e t ; if the governor had found out
about it, it would have gone badly f o r them. " "
Koietls description c l e a r l y shows that Russian e x p e r t s participated in
the preparation of the fireworks. It may thus be r e g a r d e d a s f i r m l y
established that a t l e a s t by the 70's of the 17th century Russian
technicians knew the s e c r e t of producing pyrotechnic r o c k e t s .

2
 In t h e 1680's a s p e c i a l plant f o r t h e manufacture of pyrotechnic r o c k e t s
was established in Moscow. The exact date of i t s foundation is s t i l l
unknown, and although m o s t w r i t e r s date t h e beginning of its operations
to 1680, 26 t h e r e is s t i l l absolutely no documentary supporting evidence.

FIGURE 1. Photocopy of the description of the fireworks of 1686 (published for the first time).

' .. ......, .. - . . - .. - ... .. . . _-- .. .. __ .... . - ... .._- _... ...- - -. . .. .- ... . ...... . ..- .. . ..... . -
 In J a n u a r y 1686 P e t e r I o r d e r e d a group of explosives e x p e r t s t o a r r a n g e
a f i r e w o r k s display, o r , as it was then called, a "fiery entertainment, "
i n the palace. zI F i g u r e 1 shows the beginning of the d e c r e e , which is
evidently the f i r s t detailed description of a f i r e w o r k s display a r r a n g e d by
Russian pyrotechnic e x p e r t s to have come down t o us.
In August of the s a m e y e a r , G r i g o r i i Prokof'ev, Andrei Onufriev, and
Maksim Klimov, all explosives e x p e r t s , w e r e o r d e r e d to make 2000 eighth-
s i z e d r o c k e t s , a l s o f o r a f i r e w o r k s display. 28
At t h e end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th c e n t u r i e s t h e development
of r o c k e t r y in R u s s i a was f o s t e r e d by P e t e r I, who encouraged f i r e w o r k s
displays and p e r s o n a l l y took p a r t i n the p r e p a r a t i o n of s e v e r a l of t h e m . In
F e b r u a r y , 1690, for example, in the village of Voskresensk on the P r e s n a ,
near ~KOSCOW two
, s u c h displays w e r e held consecutively. G e n e r a l P a t r i c k
Gordon, one of P e t e r ' s c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s , testifies that the T s a r himself
participated in the p r e p a r a t i o n of the second display, which lasted t h r e e
hours and was a g r e a t s u c c e s s . 2 9 According to Gordon, f i r e w o r k s w e r e
held annually n e a r Moscow, over the four y e a r s 1690-1693.30 Other f i r e -
works displays a r e known to have o c c u r r e d in 1696, 1697, and 1699, but the
m o s t famous a r e those of the beginning of the 18th century in honor of
P e t e r l s m i l i t a r y v i c t o r i e s , which a r e described in the "Book of M a r s . 'I3
P e t e r I m3de the g r e a t e s t possible efforts to f a m i l i a r i z e himself with the
latest achievements of s c i e n c e and engineering, and with the s u c c e s s e s
attained in the m o s t advanced w e s t e r n European countries. With this object
he had t r a n s l a t e d into Russian many foreign books, including a number of
works on a r t i l l e r y and pyrotechnics, In 1685, for example, a m a n u s c r i p t
t r a n s l a t i o n w a s made of Joseph-Boilot Langrini's book, "The A r t s of
Pyrotechnic Weapons and Other Military Ordnance, ' I 3 ' which, i n t e r alia,
contained brief descriptions of r o c k e t s .
In 1694 the book "The A r t of F i r e a r m s , o r A r t i s t i c Applications of
Fire, which a l s o contained information about pyrotechnic r o c k e t s , was
t r a n s l a t e d f r o m Dutch.
S e v e r a l other m a n u s c r i p t t r a n s l a t i o n s of non-Russian m i l i t a r y books
which contained quite detailed information about pyrotechnic r o c k e t s
appeared towards the beginning of the 18th century.
One should a l s o r e c a l l the m a n u s c r i p t t r a n s l a t i o n s , kept in P e t e r 1's
p r i v a t e l i b r a r y , of such books a s "A Description of the A r t of A r t i l l e r y ,
Both Military and f o r Entertainment, "The Well -Known Description,
Chosen f r o m the Best Authors o r Designers, of How t o Combine t h e
Various Ingredients f o r F i r e w o r k s Both f o r Military P u r p o s e s and for
P u r p o s e s of Entertainment, 'I3 etc.
Among t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s the m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g is Georg Andrew
B o c k l e r ' s book, "Manual of Military Architecture, 'I3' a m a n u s c r i p t
t r a n s l a t i o n of which was a l s o t o be found in P e t e r 1's p r i v a t e l i b r a r y .
Of c o u r s e the sections of Bockler's book deaIing with the manufacture
and application of r o c k e t s w e r e not original. The author himself noted
t h i s in the introduction t o the second section of the fourth p a r t of his book,
w h e r e he w r o t e : "Although v a r i o u s of the older and modern a r m o r e r s
have written a g r e a t deal about the classification and depiction of r o c k e t
devices, they do not a g r e e , and h e r e t h e i r opinions a r e deliberately by-
p a s s e d and ignored. Whoever is i n t e r e s t e d in them should r e a d Schmidlapp,
B r e c h t e l , Adrian Romon, Wallhausen, Furtenbuch, F r o n s p e r g e r ,

4
 Schreiber. a n d m a n y o t h e r s . H e r e I wish only t o examine, a s described above,
the l a t e s t d i s c o v e r i e s and sound foundation f o r the depiction and classification
of rocket devices given by the highly ingenious and elect Lithuanian Lord
C a s i m i r Siemienowicz (which I have t r a n s l a t e d from Latin into G e r m a n
f o r the delectation of those delighting in such m a t t e r s ) , together with other
ingenious f o r m s of fire. 'I 37
The above m a k e s i t c l e a r that this m a n u s c r i o t translation w a s essentially
the f i r s t Russian version of sections of Siemienowicz's book "The G r e a t
A r t of Artillery. 'I 38
T h i s is of considerable interest, s i n c e until now translations of
Siemienowicz's b o o k w e r e knownonlyin F r e n c h (1651), G e r m a n (1676), Dutch
(1729), and English (1729), 39 and the fact that the contents of the third
section, dealing with a different type of rocket, had been m a d e available
in Russian a t the beginning of the 18th century, w a s unknown. F u r t h e r -
m o r e , familiarity with B6ckler's book shows that Siemienowicz's views
on r o c k e t s w e r e f i r s t m a d e available in G e r m a n not in 1676, as Subotowicz
w r i t e s , but in 1660, o r a t the l a t e s t i n 1672.
In the fourth p a r t of BGckler's book, entitled " F i e r y P r o j e c t i l e s f o r
Entertainment, I t information of g r e a t i n t e r e s t about pyrotechnic rockets
w a s given. I n particular, a description w a s given of multistage rockets
(which in the Russian translation a r e called "rockets emerging from
rockets"), rocket c l u s t e r s , rockets with delta- shaped wings, and a number
of other exceedingly curious pyrotechnic rockets, illustrated in F i g u r e s 2
and 3.
All of the translations mentioned above, as indeed the m a j o r i t y of other
translations of the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries, w e r e
not published and remained a c c e s s i b l e only t o a s m a l l c i r c l e of people close
t o P e t e r I. During the f i r s t decade of the 18th century, however, a number
of t r a n s l a t e d w o r k s on a r t i l l e r y , in which s o m e a s p e c t s of the production
and application of pyrotechnic r o c k e t s w e r e a l s o dealt with, w e r e published.
Among t h e s e a r e E. Brown's book "Modern T h e o r y and P r a c t i c e of A r t i l l e r y ' '
(1709), 40 and J . Z . Buchner's "Artillery Study and P r a c t i c e " (1711). 41
After the beginning of the 18th century the production of pyrctechnic rockets
in R u s s i a grew steadily g r e a t e r . While rocket manufacture continued in
Moscow, the f i r s t s t e p s w e r e taken to begin production in P e t e r s b u r g , too.
A s p e c i a l l a b o r a t o r y f o r the preparation of fireworks, which is
p a r t i c u l a r l y mentioned in his book by the Danish envoy J u s t Jull, w a s
s e t up in P e t e r s b u r g during the f i r s t decade of the 18th century. "But
s h o r t l y thereafter, ' I J u l l w r o t e in 1709, "the laboratory, which w a s
opposite the house of Vice-Admiral Kreits, caught f i r e . They w e r e
working on s o m e f i r e w o r k s to b e s e t off that v e r y evening . . . T h e r e is n o
doubt that i f the fire had lasted a few minutes longer, the laboratory would
have exploded and the wooden house w h e r e accommodation had been s e c u r e d
f o r m e would certainly have burned down.
AS the documents p r e s e r v e d in the H i s t o r i c a l A r t i l l e r y Museum show,
the P e t e r s b u r g l a b o r a t o r y f o r firework manufacture w a s f i r s t located in
Kronverk. but it w a s subsequently decided to build a new "laboratory
building" (pyrotechnic laboratory) in Moskovskaya d i s t r i c t . 44
Construction of the laboratory w a s completed during the f i r s t half of the
1730's. 4 5 As Bogdanov noted, "an A r t i l l e r y Laboratory, w h e r e pyrotechnic
devices and other a r t i l l e r y projectiles a r e made, w a s built in 1734 in
Moskovskaya d i s t r i c t on Liteinaya Street, not far f r o m the a r s e n a l .

I
FIGURE 2- 3. Pyrotechnic rockets described in G. A. Biickler's book "Manual of Military Architecture"

6
 u u

(the illustrations are from C. Siemienowicz's book "The Great Art of Artillery").

' I
 Unfortunately we s t i l l p o s s e s s no sketches or descriptions of the r o c k e t s
m a d e in R u s s i a a t t h e end of the 17th and in the first half of the 18th centuries,
but they can b e a s s u m e d t o have closely r e s e m b l e d those d e s c r i b e d in the
m a n u s c r i p t works in P e t e r 1 ' s private library, as well as in the translations
published in R u s s i a a t the beginning of the 18th century.
T h e first descriptions of r o c k e t s manufactured in Russia which have
c o m e down t o u s belong t o the second half of the 18th century and a r e
given in the books of M. V. Danilov, 47 which w e r e the f i r s t original w o r k s
in R u s s i a t o give information on the production of pyrotechnic and s i g n a l
r o c k e t s (see Appendix 2, pp. 169-170).
T h e r o c k e t s manufactured in Russia during these y e a r s ranged f r o m
1 ounces t o 24 lb and m o r e . 4a The designations of rockets, however,
(1 l/2-ounce, 6-lb, etc.), did not correspond to t h e i r actual weight. For
example, a 1-lb r o c k e t weighed 1 2 ounces without t a i l and 2 l b 2 ounces
with tail. 4 9 A s E . Kh. V e s s e l ' (1799-1853), P r o f e s s o r of A r t i l l e r y a t the
Mikhailovskii A r t i l l e r y College, l a t e r explained, "Our r o c k e t s a r e named
f o r the A r t i l l e r y Weight of the lead balls equal in d i a m e t e r t o t h e i r
c a l i b e r s , s o that a r o c k e t whose c a l i b e r equals the d i a m e t e r of a one-pound
A r t i l l e r y Weight lead b a l l is called a one-pounder [etc.]. '"'
T h e r o c k e t s of this period ( F i g u r e 4) w e r e quite primitive f r o m a n
engineering viewpoint, and t h e i r quality w a s v e r y much dependent on the
experience and s k i l l of t h e i r b u i l d e r s . The so- called high-flying r o c k e t s ,

f
a
b

FIGURE 4. 18th-century pyrotechnic rwkets.

- general view and
c - mold for packing
crashsection of a rccker with missible: b
rocket casings (hollow molding).
-
C

rocket casing with c a p .

designed f o r f i r e w o r k s and to give signals, w e r e the m o s t widespread

type, though "land" and "water1' rockets, as well as "Schwarmer, I'
w e r e a l s o in u s e .
T h e r o c k e t s of the end of the 18th century consisted of thick-walled
p a p e r casings into which the powder w a s stuffed. T h e pyrotechnic e x p e r t s
then working t o improve r o c k e t s devoted special attention to the rocket

8
mixture, since they r e g a r d e d its composition a s t o a g r e a t extent determining
the quality of pyrotechnic rockets. A g r e a t many different formulas f o r
compounding the mixture5' w e r e developed, but basically they all consisted
of sulfur, nitrates, and carbon in varying proportions (Table 1 ) .

TABLE 1. Rocket mixture composition

lend of 18th - beginning of 19th centuries)

Serial number
I Sulfur I Nitrate 1 Carbon I Powder

I Parts & w e i g h t

A c c o r d i n g t o M. D a n i l o v

1
2
3
4
According to A.Demidov

1 16 7
2 '4 11
3 17
5 G
4 7
A c c o r d i n g t o A. Ma rke v i c h

1
2
3
4 1.5
,

1 13
According to F.Cheleev
8
4
1 1.875
5.25 1
I
z 5 10 3.5
2 4.5 9 3
9 3.5 12 3.5
4 2.25 12 3.5
5 0.25 2.25 1.25
G 0.25 3 2.25
7 2 s
8 - 8 3.5
0 - 4 1.875
in 1.5 13.5 5.25

In spite of the many recipes for rocket compound, however, no attempts

w e r e m a d e a t scientific development of the r e s u l t s obtained. All of the
formulas w e r e empirically chosen and w e r e unsupported by theory. The
p r o p e r t i e s of different explosive m i x t u r e s w e r e not even compared, and
w r i t e r s proposing one compound o r another gave no indication of i t s
advantages and deficiencies. Each rocket-builder, therefore, generally
chose his propellant on the b a s i s of his personal experience.
The rocket casings w e r e made of high-quality heavy wrapping paper,
and w e r e equal in length to 7 t i m e s the rocket caliber, while the thickness
of t h e i r walls was 117 of the rocket caliber. A cord was tied tightly around
one end of the casing, leaving a hole f o r the escape of the g a s e s formed by
combustion of the propellant. The rocket casings w e r e then placed
vertically in a specially prepared hollow mold f o r stuffing. Two-thirds of

. I ..I ...,, . . .. . .. . ....

,..-...-..... - . .... ...... -
 the length of the casing were occupied by the propellant intended to provide the
propulsive force. Since the force depended on the uniformity and density of
the compound, the casing was stuffed in s m a l l installments, s o that the number
and force of the packing blows could b e s t r i c t l y regulated in accord with the
caliber of the rocket and the place of the p a r t i c u l a r f i l l in the s e r i e s .
A conical void was left in the propellant a t the same end a s the
exhaust hole, to i n c r e a s e the s u r f a c e of combustion and consequently the
amount of gases formed in the f i r s t moment of combustion. Between the
ignition channel and the pyrotechnic charge was a layer of propellant of
thickness equal to 1 o r 1.5 t i m e s the caliber of the rocket - the so-called
blind propellant, which took practically no p a r t in creation of the propulsive
force and s e r v e d p r i m a r i l y t o obstruct the path of the gases formed by
combustion of the propellant around the ignition channel.
The remaining third of the rocket casing was filled, depending on the
purpose f o r which the rocket was intended, with d r o s s , shot, o r another
pyrotechnic substance. After this the upper p a r t of the casing was tightly
closed by a cord and glued. The t a i l designed to stabilize the rocket in
flight was a wooden pole attached to the lower p a r t of the casing on one side.
T h e r e w e r e two coupling points, one a t the lower end of the casing, and the
other 2 1 3 of the way towards the other end. T h e tail was about 7.5 -8 t i m e s
the circumference of the rocket in length, and i t s maximum thickness ( n e a r
the casing) was 113 of the rocket caliber. T h e finished rocket is shown in
Figure 4a.
During the 18th century pyrotechnic rockets b e c s m e a familiar sight a t
various celebrations and f e ~ t i v i t i e s . ~F’ i r e w o r k s w e r e held in honor of
m i l i t a r y victories, commemorative dates, to celebrate the New Year, e t c .
In addition to the official government fireworks, individuals organized
their own s m a l l private displays.
F i r e w o r k s w e r e produced on a n increasingly g r e a t e r scale, and t h e i r
preparation s o m e t i m e s involved the employment of hundreds of people f o r
a n extended period of time. The rockets launched a t illuminations w e r e
numbered in thousands. At the beginning of the 1730‘s, on Vasil’evskii
Ostrov [Vasil’evskii Island, a d i s t r i c t of Petersburg], opposite the Winter
Palace, a s p e c i a l “fireworks theater, ‘ I 53 which consisted of extensive
scaffolding mounted on 1000 piles, w a s built.
The fireworks of this period w e r e a bright, colorful sight. The various
allegorical representations which w e r e an integral part of m o s t of the big
displays ( F i g u r e s 5 and 6 ) in the days of P e t e r I and his s u c c e s s o r s w e r e
especially striking.
F o r example, the fireworks display held in Moscow to celebrate the New
Y e a r 1710 made a g r e a t i m p r e s s i o n on a l l who witnessed it. T h e English
and Danish ambassadors, C h a r l e s Whitworth and J u s t Jull, w e r e
particularly i m p r e s s e d by an allegory which began with two crowned
columns picked out in blue, green, and pale yellow light, between which
stalked a burning lion, r e p r e s e n t i n g the Swedish a r m y . The lion f i r s t
touched one of the columns (allegorically, Poland), which thereupon broke
from its pedestal and tipped over, then passed to the other column (Russia),
which a l s o shook as if about t o fall. Then out of a burning eagle, which
s e e m e d to s o a r aloft with outstretched wings (the Russian army), shot a
rocket which s t r u c k the lion and s e t i t afire, after which i t flew into pieces
and disappeared. T h e column, which represented the Russian government,
continued to stand unshakeably.

IO
FIGURE 5. Fireworks in honor of the victory over the Swedish fleet near Grantham Island, in 1120.
 T h e f i r e w o r k s display which u s h e r e d in the y e a r 1 7 1 2 i n P e t e r s b u r g
w a s no less interesting, and is d e s c r i b e d i n a printed pamphlet, a copy
of which is p r e s e r v e d in the C e n t r a l Government Archive of Ancient
Deeds. 55

FIGURE 6. Illuminations and fireworks designed by M.V.Lomonosov, held in Moscow in 1754.

T h e f i r e w o r k s appeared against the background of a triple triumphal

a r c h with twisted p i l l a r s decorated with olive b r a n c h e s . F i r s t t h e r e
appeared on the pediment the image of a laurel-crowned w a r r i o r s e a t e d
on a h o r s e . In his right hand he held a sword, and in his left, an olive
b r a n c h . Then two figures, symbolizing the union of Europe and Asia,

12
I

appeared beneath the pediment. At their feet w e r e depicted various

mathematical instruments and c o m m e r c i a l w a r e s , together with a
s e r p e n t coiled around t h r e e crowns.
T o the right of the pediment appeared C e r e s , the goddess of fertility,
with a horn of plenty, while on h e r left w a s a figure symbolizing truth,
with a c r o s s in i t s right hand, and a palm branch in i t s left. Implements
of w a r lay a t i t s feet.
T h e s e s c e n e s then gave way to others. Between s t a r s and a half moon
a d a r k cloud ascended. T h i s was soon revealed t o b e an eagle s o a r i n g
in the sky, and holding in its claws a weapon whose point was aimed a t a
lion beneath it, e t c . T h e fireworks display concluded with an image of
a naval fort (symbolizing Sankt-Petersburg) and a ship coming into p o r t
under full s a i l .
T h i s display was a l s o highly thought of by foreign diplomats and
s o l d i e r s . As R a s m u s Erebo, s e c r e t a r y of the Danish ambassador, noted,
the Swedish generals and officers "as well as the a m b a s s a d o r J u l l had to
admit that i t w a s f a r m o r e splendid and magnificent than the much-touted
splendor of the London fireworks which they had seen, and which had cost
S 7 0 , O O O . I' 56
P e t e r 1's love for magnificent celebrations and entertainments was
inherited by his s u c c e s s o r s , under whom various fireworks and
illuminations w e r e systematically held throughout the second third of
the 18th century. Among these the display of April 1742, in honor of
Elizabeth P e t r o v n a ' s coronation, on which the unusually l a r g e s u m of
19,000 roubles was spent, and the fireworks which greeted the New Year
1756, d e s e r v e special mention.
F i r e w o r k s became even m o r e common in the second half of the
18th century, under Catherine 11, when they took place a l m o s t e v e r y y e a r
and w e r e always m a r k e d by g r e a t splendor. Occasionally the number of
r o c k e t s s e t off during a celebration reached tens of thousands. In
September 1793, f o r example, during the fireworks t o celebrate the
signing of peace with Turkey, no fewer than 30,000 r o c k e t s w e r e launched
simultaneously .57
T h e r e a r e r e c o r d s of fireworks held during this period in other cities,
a s well a s in Sankt-Petersburg and Moscow, e . g., in Yaroslavl' (May 1 7 6 7 ) ,
Kazan' (May 1767), Yamburg (July 1770), and Poltava (June 1 7 7 2 ) . 58
Several e x p e r t s in pyrotechnics r e g a r d their gracefulness of form and
line a s the predominant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the fireworks of this period. In
addition, miniature fireworks, which w e r e held in gardens and parks, and
even indoors, became quite popular towards the end of the 18th century.
The expansion of rocket production necessitated a corresponding
i n c r e a s e in the number of persons f a m i l i a r with the technology of their
manufacture. P e t e r I initiated the establishment of a c o r p s of pyrotechnic
m a s t e r s . The explosives experts who participated in the preparation of
fireworks in the 1680's have a l r e a d y been mentioned. After the end of the
17th century rocket production b e c a m e the concern of the officers of the
company of bombadiers of the Preobrazhenskii Regiment, among whom
the b e s t known w e r e V. D. Korchmin and G. G. Skornyakov-Pisarev. T h e
notes they compiled on rocket production w e r e used by the pyrotechnics
experts of subsequent generations f o r many y e a r s . 59

13
 One might name s e v e r a l o t h e r s involved in the organization of fire-
works i n R u s s i a during the f i r s t third of the 18th century, e. g., G e n e r a l of the
Ordnance Bryus, C o r p o r a l Inekhov, P r o f e s s o r Benkenshtein, Colonel
Garber, etc.
A f t e r the end of the 1730's the programming of fireworks and
illuminations was taken o v e r by Ya. Ya. Shtelin (1709- 1785). In the
1750's M. V. Lomonosov a l s o took p a r t in their development. 6o
One should a l s o r e c a l l M. Danilov, I. Elagin, V. Klement'ev, M. Martynov,
P. Melissino, M. Nemov and many other pyrotechnics e x p e r t s and fire-
works designers, who, although many of them remained obscure, all
contributed in one way or another to the development of pyrotechnics in Russia.61
At the end of the 18th century, curiously enough, the renowned Russian
inventor I. P. Kulibin (1735-1818) took an i n t e r e s t in fireworks and
illuminations, but he devoted m o s t of his attention not to gunpowder rockets,
but to the luminous effects which could be attained by the u s e of mechanical
devices and optical instruments. 6 2
By the beginning of the 19th century Russian pyrotechnicians had
accumulated considerable experience in the production and application of
rockets. Efficient r a t i o s and dimensions f o r the rocket casing and tail
had been developed, the components of the rocket m i x t u r e and density of
f i l l had been determined, and the significance of the dimensions and form
of the ignition channel w e r e understood.
T h i s experience w a s reflected in the works on a r t i l l e r y and pyrotechnics
published in Russia in the f i r s t q u a r t e r of the 19th century. T h e books of
A.Markevich, "A Guide t o the A r t of Artillery" (Rukovodstvo k
artilleriiskomu iskusstvu), 1820, A. P. Demidov "Scaffolding and F i r e w o r k
Casings with a Note on the Arrangement of Firework Divertissements''
(0 stellazhakh, feierverochnykh korpusakh i nechto o raspolozhenii
uveselitel'nykh ognei), 182 0, "The Composition of F i r e w o r k Divertissements"
(0 sostavakh uveselitel'nykh ognei), 1821, "The Origin of F i r e w o r k
Divertissements, the Invention of Powder, and a Schematic Description
of Rocket C l u s t e r s " (0 proiskhozhdenii uveselitel'nykh ognei, izobretenii
porokha i skhematicheskoe opisanie raketnykh pavil'onov), 1820, etc.,
a r e deserving of mention.
F. S. Cheleev's book "Full and Detailed Instructions for C r e a t i n g the
Entertaining Illuminations Known as Fireworks" (Polnoe i podrobnoe
nastavlenie o sostavlenii uveselitel'nykh ognei f e i e r v e r k a m i imenuemykh).
1824, is of the g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t . This work, written by one of the g r e a t e s t
e x p e r t s on the a r t of fireworks a t the turn of the 19th century, was a s o r t
of s u m m a r y of the many y e a r s of experience of the Sankt-Petersburg
Artillery Laboratory in the preparation of fireworks.
Cheleev's book is in five parts, the f i r s t of which d i s c u s s e s the
instruments and m a t e r i a l s used in pyrotechnics, as well as methods for
t h e i r manufacture. T h e second p r e s e n t s the technological p r o c e s s of
producing pyrotechnic rockets and gives a description of various high-
flying rockets, while the third d e s c r i b e s the complicated firework figures
produced by burning on the e a r t h ' s surface. T h e fourth c o n s i d e r s w a t e r
rockets and indoor fireworks, while the fifth briefly d i s c u s s e s m i l i t a r y
pyrotechnics.
Cheleev's work contains a number of interesting ideas which show his
c o r r e c t understanding of the fundamentals of pyrotechnic rocket design.

14
In t h e introduction to the book, for example, he wrote:
"It is supposed that all the g r a c e of high-flying r o c k e t s ( F i g u r e 7a, and b)
depends on the proportion in which the combustible s u b s t a n c e s a r e combined,
without going into the proportion of t h e other p a r t s , which in g e n e r a l make

a b

d e

FIGURE 7. Pyrotechnlc rockets a t the beginning of t h e 19th century.

up t h e rocket, and which include the casing (a r o l l of p a p e r ) , into which

t h e propellant is packed; a channel in the propellant, without which t h e
r o c k e t cannot r i s e ; and a wooden tail (a long four-sided b a r ) , without which
it cannot r i s e along the vertical. These p a r t s a l s o have t h e i r subdivisions,
as follows: t h e casing can be broken down into the length, thickness, and
density of its walls, and the a i r s u r f a c e it occupies in s p a c e ; the channel,
into its length, width, and s u r f a c e which r e c e i v e s i t s f o r m f r o m the s h a p e
of the r a m r o d ; t h e tail, into its length, thickness, and weight. The
quality of t h e r o c k e t depends on t h e proportion of t h e s e p a r t s .

15
 In discussing the composition of the rocket mixture, Cheleev proposed
the following formula, developed f r o m numerous experiments : 75 YO
n i t r a t e s , 1 0 7'0 sulfur, and 15% carbonaceous products. He added that a n
i n c r e a s e in the percentage of n i t r a t e s d e c r e a s e s the power of the propellant,
while it is increased by a n i n c r e a s e in the percentage of sulfur and carbon.%
The book a l s o gives attention t o the density of packing of the rocket
m i x t u r e and the dimensions of the ignition channel. Cheleev wrote that with
i n c r e a s e in the density of packing the power of the propellant is decreased,
and added: "A f u r t h e r observation m u s t be made about the magnitude of the
channel inside the propellant, f o r the longer and l a r g e r i t is, the m o r e the
propellant flames up, and the g r e a t e r the s t r e s s f o r c e s which m u s t be
sustained by the walls of the casing. ' I 65
Cheleev's descriptions of complex and staged rockets a r e a l s o of i n t e r e s t .
In the section on "Rockets with rockets issuing f r o m them, ' I h e wrote:
"After inserting into the r e a r end of the t a i l of a one-pound rocket two
i r o n b r a c k e t s , packed in with d r o s s or shot, one a n a r s h i n [ 2 8 inches] lower
than the other, a 1 l/2-ounce rocket can be installed on them with i t s narrow
p a r t placed on the t a i l of the i a r g e r rocket ( F i g u r e 7c, and d). Then, moving
downwards along the blind propellant a distance equal t o 118 caliber away
f r o m the d r o s s of the pounder rocket, a hole should be drilled through the
thickness of the casing t o the propellant itself. Into this hole is inserted
one end of a s m a l l duct used t o connect the big rocket with the 1 1/2-ounce
rocket, into whose channel i t s other end is inserted. When the pounder
rocket, ignited upon launching, r e a c h e s the appropriate height, i t s blank
propellant will have been consumed a s f a r a s the hole, and will ignite the
1 1/2-ounce rocket, which will then f l y upwards, a s if emerging f r o m the
''
l a r g e r rocket. ' I
This is evidently a n exposition of the working principle of a two-stage
gunpowder rocket.
CheIeev a l s o gives a descriptlon of rocket c l u s t e r s . "A bundle of six or
m o r e rockets can be made by wrapping t h e m round with a double l a y e r of
heavy paper and covering t h e m with a pointed paper cap (Figure 7e). A
wooden t a i l 1 l/4 t i m e s the normal length of a tail f o r a rocket of t h i s
caliber, but s i x t i m e s as heavy, and t h e r e f o r e a s thick, as normal, is
attached in the c e n t e r of the rocket c l u s t e r . The rockets r i s i n g into the air
will then make a flaming p i l l a r . " b7
Cheleev's book testifies, as r e m a r k e d above, t o the g r e a t experience of
Russian pyrotechnics experts, although all of t h e i r s u c c e s s e s w e r e obtained
empirically and based on purely experimental, r a t h e r than theoretical
foundations. By the beginning of the 19th century t h e r e w e r e s t i l l no'theories
either of explosive compounds, or of rocket design and flight.
This is t o be explained t o a g r e a t degree by the fact that i n Russia, as in
other European countries, before the end of the 18th century, r o c k e t s w e r e
used only for fireworks displays or signalling. The demands made upon
r o c k e t s f o r t h e s e p u r p o s e s w e r e not v e r y great. The r e s u l t s obtained
through the numerous experiments of the pyrotechnicians w e r e adequate,
and n o special need was felt f o r the development of theoretical foundations
f o r rocketry.
At the end of the 18th century in India, and e a r l y in the 19th century in
Europe, however, rockets began t o find m i l i t a r y application, and this
resulted in increased attention t o t h e i r quality and presented the e x p e r t s
who built t h e m with new demands.

16 .
NOTES

S h u v a e v , N. A. Istoriko-kriticheskii analiz razvitiya osnov mekhaniki

peremennoi m a s s y (A Historico-Critical Analysis of t h e Development
of t h e Fundamental Mechanics of a Variable M a s s ) . Dissertation, p.12. -
Gorki State University, 1955.
C h e r n y s h e v ,N. G. P r o b l e m a mezhplanetnykh soobshchenii v rabotakh
K. E. Tsiolkovskogo i drugikh otechestvennykh uchenykh (The P r o b l e m
of Space T r a v e l i n the Works of K. E. Tsiolkovskii and Other Russian
Scientists), p. 17. Moskva, 1953; T i k h o n r a v o v , M . K . and
B. V. L y a p u n o v . Raketa (Rockets).- BSE. 2nd edition, Vol. 35, p. 665.
C h e r n y s h e v , N . G . Roll r u s s k o i nauchno-tekhnicheskoi m y s l i v
r a z r a b o t k e osnov reaktivnogo letaniya (The Role of Russian Science
and Engineering i n t h e Development of t h e Fundamentals of Jet Flight),
p. 23. - MVTU. 1949.
Polnoe s o b r a n i e r u s s k i k h l e t o p i s e i (Complete Collection of Russian
Chronicles), Vol. I1 (Ipat'ev Chronicle), p. 128. SPb. 1843.
For m o r e details of f l a m e - t h r o w e r s , s e e F e d o r o v , V.G. K voprosu 0
d a t e poyavleniya a r t i l l e r i i na R u s i (On Dating the Appearance of
A r t i l l e r y in R u s s i a ) , pp. 28 - 66. Moskva, 1949,
R y n i n , N. A. Rakety i dvigateli pryamoi r e a k t s i i ( i s t o r i y a , t e o r i y a i
tekhnika) (Rockets and R a m - J e t Engines (History, T h e o r y , and
Engineering)), p. 10, Leningrad, 1929; P r i m e n k 0 , A. E. Reaktivnye
dvigateli, ikh r a z v i t i e i primenenie (Jet Engines, T h e i r Development
and Application), p. 5, Moskva, 1947; F e o d o s ' e v, V. I. a n d
G. B. S i n y a r e v, Vvedenie v raketnuyu tekhniku (Introduction t o
Rocketry), p. 7. Moskva, 1960.
7-18 A list of t h e works devated t o t h i s question is given in t h e article
of M a v r o d i n , V. V. 0 poyavlenii artillerii na R u s i (The Appearance
of A r t i l l e r y i n R u s s i a ) . - Vestnik Leningradskogo Universiteta, NO. 3,
pp. 66-75, 1946, and in t h e book, F e d o r o v , V. G . K voprosu o
d a t e poyavlenii artillerii na R u s i (On Dating t h e Appearance of A r t i l l e r y
in R u s s i a ) , pp.8 - 12. Moskva, 1949. Among m o r e r e c e n t works t h e
following a r t i c l e s should be mentioned: V i 1i n b a k h o v , V. B. and
A , N. K i r p i c h n i k o v , K voprosu o poyavlenii ognestrel'nogo oruzhiya
n a R u s i (On t h e Appearance of Firearms i n Russia).- In: Sbornik
issledovanii i m a t e r i a l o v Artilleriiskogo i s t o r i c h e s k o g o muzeya, No. 3,
pp. 242-253, Leningrad, 1958; V i l i n b a k h o v , V. B. K i s t o r i i
ognevogo oruzhiya v d r e v n e i R u s i (On t h e E a r l y H i s t o r y of F i r e a r m s
In R u s s i a ) . - In: Sovetskaya Arkheologiya, NO. 1, pp. 284-288, 1960;
K u z a k o v , V. K. K voprosu o poyavlenii ognestrel'nogo oruzhiya n a R u s i
(On t h e Appearance of Firearms in Russia). L e c t u r e delivered at a
s e s s i o n of t h e Department of the H i s t o r y of Mechanical Engineering,
Institute of t h e H i s t o r y of N a t u r a l Science and Engineering, AN SSSR,
i n October 1962.

17
1.9 F o r a m o r e detailed t r e a t m e n t of gunpowder production in R u s s i a in
the 15th and 16th c e n t u r i e s , s e e L u k ' y a n o v , P . M . I s t o r i y a
khimicheskikh promys,lov i khimicheskoi promyshlennosti R o s s i i
d o kontsa XM veka (A History of Chemical P l a n t s and of the Chemical
Industry in R u s s i a Down t o the End of the Nineteenth Century), Vol. V. M.,
pp, 119-127, 1961.
F r o n s p e r g e r , L. Kriegsbuch, Th. 1. Von Kayserlichen Kriegs -
r e c h t e n Malefitz und Schuldhandeln, Ordnung und Regiment. F r a n k f u r t
a m Main, 1571; S c h m i d l a p p , J. Kiinstliche und rechtschaffene
F e u e r w e r k . Niirnberg, 1590.
A number of works on the h i s t o r y of Russian rocket a r t i l l e r y c l a i m that
m i l i t a r y , i f not f l a r e r o c k e t s , w e r e used in Russia as e a r l y as the 15th
and 16th c e n t u r i e s . To substantiate t h e i r c l a i m s , t h e a u t h o r s of t h e s e
works cite the m a n u s c r i p t "A Manual of M a t t e r s Related to War, Guns,
.
etc. I ' (Ustav ratnykh, pushechnykh i drugikh del. . ), compiled by Onisim
Mikhailov in 1607-1621 and printed a t S a n k t - P e t e r s b u r g i n 1777-1781.
They r e g a r d its information on r o c k e t s as testimony to t h e i r u s e in the
period preceding compilation of the manuscript, i. e . , before the
beginning of t h e 17th c e n t u r y . However, one m u s t r e m e m b e r that
Mikhailov's m a n u s c r i p t is not an original work, but, a s t h e heading of
the title page shows, a collection of 663 d e c r e e s or a r t i c l e s s e l e c t e d
f r o m foreign m i l i t a r y books. It t h e r e f o r e cannot s e r v e to confirm the
u s e of r o c k e t s in R u s s i a before the 17th century. F u r t h e r information
about Mikhailov's m a n u s c r i p t w i l l be found in R a i n o v , T. I. Nauka v
R o s s i i XI-XVIII vv. (Science in R u s s i a from the 11th to the 18th Century).
Moskva, 1940.
22 B o g d a n o v ,A. Istoricheskoe, geograficheskoe i topograficheskoe
opisanie S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g a ot nachala zavedeniya ego, s 1703 PO 1751
god (A Historical, Geographical, and Topographical Description of
S a n k t - P e t e r s b u r g f r o m Its Founding in 1703 up t o 1751), p. 510. Sankt-
P e t e r b u r g , 1779.
23 A. M. L. Gollandets Klenk v Moskovii (The Dutchman Klenk in
Muscovy). - In: I s t o r i c h e s k i i Vestnik, Vol. LVII, p. 770, 1894.
24 H i s t o r i s c h Verhael, of Beschriyving van de Voyagie, gedaen onder
de Suite van den H e e r e Koenrad van Klenk, E x t r a o r d i n a r i s Ambassaudeur
van h a e r Hogmog de H e e r e n Staeten Genera, e n s i j n Hoogheyt den H e e r e
P r i n c e van Orange, a a n sijne Majestyt van Moscovjen. A m s t e r d a m ,
1677. The book was t r a n s l a t e d into Russian a t the end of the 19th century.
25 Quoted f r o m the Russian translation. See: Posol'stvoKunraada fan-Klenka
k t s a r y a m Alekseyu Mikhailovichu i Fedoru Alekseevichu (The E m b a s s y
of Koenrad van Klenk t o T s a r s Aleksei Mikhailovich and F e d o r
Alekseevich), pp. 342-343. Sankt-Peterburg, 1900.
26 T s y t o v i c h , P. Opyt ratsional'noi pirotekhniki (Experiment i n
Efficient P y r o t e c h n i c s ) , P a r t 2, p. 659. Sankt-Peterburg, 1894;
P r i m e n k 0 , A . E . op. cit., p.12; S o n k i n , M . E . I z i s t o r i i
r u s s k o i raketnoi a r t i l l e r i i XIX veka (A Contribution to the History of
Russian Rocket A r t i l l e r y in the 19th Century). - Informatsionnyi

18
 Listok, No.24, p . 2 , 1949; S h e s t e r n i k o v a , L . Daty i s t o r i i
otechestvennoi a v i a t s i i i vozdukhoplavaniya (Dates i n the H i s t o r y
of Russian Aviation and Aeronautics), p. 9, Moskva, 1953;
F e o d o s ' e v , V. I. and G.B. S i n y a r e v . Vvedenie v raketnuyu
tekhniku (Introduction t o Rocketry), p, 9. Moskva, 1960.
27 S e e Appendix 1, pp. 168 -169.
State H i s t o r i c a l Museum, Written S o u r c e s Division, store 440, file 378,
s h e e t 1.
29 Tagebuch d e s G e n e r a l s PatrickGordon. Vol.11, p.297. St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1851;
B o g o s 1o v s k i i ,M. M. Petr I. M a t e r i a l y dlya biografii ( P e t e r I.
M a t e r i a l s f o r a Biography), VO. I, p. 99. Leningrad, 1940.
30 Tagebuch.. ., Vol.11, pp.334. 366, 399.
31 Kniga Marsova ili voinskikh d e l (Book of M a r s o r of M i l i t a r y M a t t e r s ) .
Sankt - P e t e r b u r g , 1713.
32 "Khudozhestva ognennyya i roznye voinskiya orudiya, ko vsyakim
gorodovym pristupam i k o oborone prilichnyya, izdatelem Iosifom
Boilotom L a n g r i n i izobretennyya" (The A r t s of Pyrotechnic Weapons
and O t h e r M i l i t a r y Ordnance f o r All Policing Operations and f o r the
Defense of Decency, Invented by t h e P u b l i s h e r Joseph-Boilot Langrini).
Manuscript Division of t h e L i b r a r y of t h e AN SSSR i n Leningrad. Peter I
Gallery, No. 53,
33
Manuscript Division of t h e L i b r a r y of the AN SSSR in Leningrad. P r e s s -
m a r k 17.15. 2.
34 a i d . P r i n c i p a l Collection. P r e s s - m a r k 16. 6. 3 2 .
35 Manuscript Division of t h e L i b r a r y of t h e AN SSSR i n Leningrad.
Peter I Gallery, No. 38.
36 BO c k 1 e r , G. A. Manuale A r c h i t e c k t u r a e M i l i t a r i s oder Hand-buchlein
u b e r die Fortification and Festungsbaukunst, The first edition appeared
in 1645-1647 in t h r e e p a r t s . The fourth p a r t , which contained
information on r o c k e t s , was written in 1660 and probably published in
t h e s a m e y e a r , but the Russian t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s p a r t was made and
published only in 1672. The t r a n s l a t i o n is kept in the Manuscript Division
of the l i b r a r y of t h e AN SSSR in Leningrad, P e t e r I Gallery, NO. 5.
37 Quoted f r o m the Russian translation. See BO c k 1e r ,G. A. Kratkaya
a r k h i t e k t u r a voinskaya. Manuscript Division of the L i b r a r y of the
AN SSSR i n Leningrad. P e t e r I Gallery, No. 5, s h e e t s 189 -189 o b v e r s e .
38 A r t i s Magnae A r t i l l e r i a e , Pars P r i m a ; Studio et Opera C a s i m i r i
Siemienowicz, Equitis Lithuani, olim A r t i l l e r i a e Regni Poloniae
P r o p r a e f e c t i . Amsterdam, 1650.
39 On this see t h e a r t i c l e of S u b o t o w i c z , M. Kazimierz Siemienowicz
i e g o wklad d o nauki o r a k i e t a c h ( C a s i m i r Siemienowicz and H i s
Contribution t o Rocketry). - Kwartalnik h i s t o r i i nauki i techniki,
No. 3, pp.491-492, 511. Warszawa. 1957.

19
40 Noveishee osnovanie i praktika a r t i l l e r i i E r n e s t a Brauna, Kapitana
a r t i l l e r i i vo Gdamske 1682 goda (Modern Theory and P r a c t i c e of
A r t i l l e r y , by E r n e s t Braun, Captain of A r t i l l e r y in Danzig, 1682).
Moskva, 1709 (a second edition, identical to the f i r s t , was published
in 1710).
41 Uchenie i praktika a r t i l l e r i i ili vnyatnoe opisanie v nyneshnem v r e m e n i
upotreblyashchiesya a r t i l l e r i i , kupno s o inymi novymi i vo praktike
osnovannymi m a n i r y , ko vyashchemu izucheniyu v s e predlozhenno
nadobneishikh chertezhei. Izyasneno porutchikom Ioannom Zigmuntom
Bukhnerom (The Theory and P r a c t i c e of Artillery, o r A C l e a r
Description of the A r t i l l e r y P r e s e n t l y in Use, Together with Other New
F o r m s , Established by P r a c t i c a l Use, with Most Useful Drawings f o r
Fullest Study. Explained by Lieutenant Johann Siegmund Buchner).
Moskva, 1711.
42 Notes of J u s t Jul1.- Russkii Arkhiv, No. 5, p, 36, 1892.
43 AIM Archive, A r s e n a l Store, e n t r y 9, f i l e 112, s h e e t 3.
44 Ibid,, s h e e t 4 2 .

45 Ibid., s h e e t 148.

46 B o g d a n o v , A. Istoricheskoe, geograficheskoe . . .) p.71.

47 D a n i 1o v ,M. Nachal'noe znanie t e o r i i i praktiki v a r t i l l e r i i s
priobshcheniem gidrostaticheskikh pravil (Rudiments of A r t i l l e r y Theory
and P r a c t i c e with a n Appendix on the Laws of Hydrostatics), pp. 72-74.
Moskva, 1762; and, by the s a m e author, Dovol'noe i yasnoe pokazanie,
P O kotoromu vsyakii s a m soboi mozhet prigotovlyat' i delat' vsyakie
f e i e r v e r k i i illyuminatsii (A Full and C l e a r Explanation of How t o Make
A l l Kinds of F i r e w o r k s and Artificial Illuminations). Moskva, 1779.
The l a t t e r work was twice reprinted, i n 1783 and 1822.
48 D a n i l o v . Dovol'noe i yasnoe pokazanie.. . , p. 8. Moskva, 1779.
4*
V e s s e 1 ', E. Nachal'nye osnovaniya artilleriiskogo iskusstva
(Fundamentals of the Art of A r t i l l e r y ) , p. 294. Sankt-Peterburg, 1831.
50 Ibid., p. 203.
51 Lieutenant-Colonel F. S. C h e 1 e e v , Commanding Officer of the
Sankt - P e t e m b u r g A r t i l l e r y Laboratory, r e p o r t e d a t the beginning of
the 19th century that he knew over 100 formulas f o r compounding rocket
m i x t u r e (C h e 1e e v , F, Polnoe i podrobnoe nastavlenie o sostavlenii
uveselitel'nykh ognei, f e i e r v e r k a m i imenuemykh (Full and Detailed
Instructions f o r Creating the Entertaining Illuminations Known as Fire -
works), p. VIII. Sankt-Peterburg, 1824).
52 A quite detailed, though insufficiently complete description of f i r e w o r k s
displays and illuminations held between 1675 and 1891 is given in
R o v i n s k i i , D. A. Opisanie feierverkov i illyuminatsii (Description
of Fireworks and Illuminations). Sankt - P e t e r b u r g , 1903. (Rovinskii
erroneously dates the f i r e w o r k s display in Ustyuga t o 1674 instead of
1675, however.) At p r e s e n t the m o s t detailed information on Russian
f i r e w o r k s in the 18th and 19th c e n t u r i e s is t o b e found in L u k ' y a n o v ,
P . M . op. cit., pp.82-114.

20
 Bogdanov,A. op. cit., p.511; R o v i n s k i i , o p . cit., p.206.
Zapiski Yusta Yulya, datskogo poslannika p r i Petre Velikom ( 1 7 0 9 4 7 1 1 )
(Notebooks of Just Jull, Danish Ambassador to t h e C o u r t of P e t e r the
G r e a t f r o m 1709 t o 1711), p.134. Moskva, 1899; Doneseniya c h r e z v y -
chainogo angliiskogo poslannika p r i r u s s k o m dvore C h a r l ' z a Vitvorta
(Dispatches of C h a r l e s Whitworth, E x t r a o r d i n a r y English Ambassador
t o t h e Russian Court). - In: Sbornik Imperatorskogo Russkogo
Istoricheskogo Obshchestva, Vol. 50, p. 299. Sankt-Peterburg, 1886.
55
TsGADA, s t o r e 9, section I, file 55, s h e e t s 13-14 (original pagination).
56 F r o m t h e autobiography of R a s m u s E r e b o , in the book "Zapiski Yusta
Yulya, I ' p. 447.
57 R o v i n s k i i , p.303.
58 Ibid., pp. 286-293.
59
These notes have s o far not been discovered. The information about t h e
work of Korchmin and Skornyakov-Pisarev h a s been taken f r o m
D a n i 1o v , p. 3. See a l s o Russkii biograficheskii s l o v a r ' (Russian
Biographical Dictionary), Vol. 9, p. 295. Sankt-Peterburg, 1903.
8D
F o r m o r e detailed information about Lomonosov's work on pyrotechnics
s e e the a r t i c l e of P a v 1o v a , G. E. Proekty illyuminatsii Lomonosova
(Illuminations of Lomonosov's Design). - In: Lomonosov, Sbornik
s t a t e i i materialov, p a r t IV. pp. 219-237. Moskva-Leningrad, 1960.
61 The list of those who participated i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of f i r e w o r k s h a s
been compiled f r o m examination of t h e above -mentioned books
(Danilov, Rovinskii, Tsytovich, etc.). as well as f r o m p r i n t s which
often indicated t h e s u r n a m e s of those who designed and executed
the fireworks.
62 F o r m o r e detailed information about Kulibin's work in this a r e a , s e e
t h e book "Manuscripts of I. P. Kulibin in the Archive of the AN SSSR"
(Rukopisnye m a t e r i a l y I. P. Kulibina v Arkhive Akademii nauk SSSR),
P a p e r s of the Archive, No. 11, pp. 435-455. Moskva-Leningrad, 1953.
C h e l e e v , p.VI1.
Ibid., p. M. Cheleev's f o r m u l a evidently c o r r e s p o n d s t o that of
Russian m i l i t a r y gunpowder.

65 C h e l e e v , p.X. H e r e , however, Cheleev was in e r r o r . A s l a t e r

experiments showed, i n c r e a s i n g t h e volume of the ignition channel
did not i n c r e a s e , but d e c r e a s e d t h e power of t h e propellant ( s e e
p. 68 below).

66 Ibid., p. 96.
67 Ibid., pp. 97-98.

21
 Chapter I1

THE EARLIEST MILITARY APPLICATION

OF ROCKETS IN RUSSIA

Rockets were apparently first used a s weapons nearly 1000 y e a r s ago in

the countries of the e a s t . A few c a s e s of the m i l i t a r y application of r o c k e t s
w e r e mentioned in the preceding chapter. They were very widely used i n the
13th century, when they w e r e employed a s weapons by the Chinese, Arabs,
Mongols, and other e a s t e r n peoples.
Gradually, however, a s a r t i l l e r y improved, rockets began to l o s e t h e i r
m i l i t a r y value. By the 14th and 15th c e n t u r i e s r o c k e t s were being used f a r
l e s s frequently f o r m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s , and by the 16th and 17th c e n t u r i e s
had almost completely been abandoned in m i l i t a r y actions.
The m i l i t a r y application of r o c k e t s remained a dead l e t t e r until i t s
revival a t the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th c e n t u r i e s , Although,
a s before, r o c k e t s were i n f e r i o r t o a r t i l l e r y in a c c u r a c y and range, t h e i r
en m a s s e application was quite effective.
The first t o have experience of them w e r e the English troops who clashed
with Indian r o c k e t s a t the end of the 18th century. After t h i s , m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s found application in England and elsewhere in Europe.
A g r e a t r o l e i n the development of rocket weapons during the f i r s t
q u a r t e r of the 19th century was played by the English m i l i t a r y engineer
W. Congreve (1772-1826), a f t e r whom m i l i t a r y rockets in a l l the countries
of Europe were named f o r a long t i m e a f t e r w a r d s .
A t first Congreve's m i l i t a r y rocket designs consisted of cylindrical
casings of sheet i r o n , stuffed with rocket propellant. The forward p a r t
of the casing housed a c o r e with a n igniting compound. The r o c k e t s w e r e
stabilized by a l a t e r a l t a i l attached to the main body by a copper ring.
L a t e r (after 1813) Congreve modified his rocket design, replacing the
cylindrical body by a conical one, and the l a t e r a l t a i l by a c e n t r a l one,
attached to the b a s e plate by a s p e c i a l bushing.'
In 1805-1807 English troops f i r s t used m i l i t a r y rockets in the s i e g e
of Boulogne, and with p a r t i c u l a r s u c c e s s , in the s i e g e of Copenhagen.
Subsequently r o c k e t s w e r e used as a r m a m e n t i n Austria, Denmark, P r u s s i a ,
F r a n c e , and other European countries.
The question of using m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s a l s o a r o s e in Russia, where a
Military Study Committee had been considering it f o r a number of y e a r s .
It was a t f i r s t assumed that the s u c c e s s e s of the English w e r e due to the
special qualities of the igniting m i x t u r e used in t h e i r rockets. In the first
y e a r s , t h e r e f o r e , a l l e f f o r t was concentrated on determining the chemical
composition of the igniting substance used in English m i l i t a r y rockets. The
Military Study Committee twice (in 1810 and 1813) performed chemical
analyses of t h e igniting compound of t h e English rockets, but reached the

22
conclusion that "there is nothing s p e c i a l in the propellant and that t h e s e
r o c k e t s do not p o s s e s s any new m e a n s of ignition with s p e c i a l p r o p e r t i e s ,
but only an adaptation of the r o c k e t ' s impulsive f o r c e f o r long-range
application of a conventional ignition compound without having t o employ
heavy a r t i l l e r y for the purpose. 'I2
The Military Study Committee then concentrated its attention on the
development of rocket designs. In its r e p o r t to Main Headquarters the
Committee noted that it had "pursued r e s e a r c h on the mechanical p a r t in
t h e conviction that the impulsive f o r c e of the rocket depends for the m o s t
p a r t on the s t r i c t observance of p e r f e c t a c c u r a c y in the dimensions of
c a s i n g s and t a i l s , in the proportionality of the r a m r o d and the exactness
and finish of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s used in packing the r o c k e t s , in the c o r r e c t n e s s
of mixing and the manufacture of the s u b s t a n c e s in the outlined . . .
proportion and m o s t of all in their e x p e r t and a c c u r a t e packing. ' I 3
After a number of unsuccessful e x p e r i m e n t s Kartmazov, a m e m b e r of the
Military Study Committee, succeeded, in 1814, in building incendiary and
explosive r o c k e t s . During e x p e r i m e n t s held with his r o c k e t s in July 1814,
t h e following r e s u l t s were obtained : high-flying l a r g e -cal ibe r incendiary
r o c k e t s (91.44") attained a maximum r a n g e of 1 2 6 0 sagenes (2690m),
while a s m a l l - c a l i b e r (50.8 m m ) rebounding r o c k e t s with explosive reached
8 0 0 sagenes ( 1 7 1 0 m ) . 4

TABLE 2. Results of experiments with Kartmazov's rockets

High-flying incendiary rockers of :3.5" caliber Rebounding incendiary rockets of 2.5" caliber

No. Angle of c l i m b Range in

[yds given in brackets]

1 35" 1 19" 650 L15171

. I
2 55 1395 [a2553 2 12
3 55 1368 L31921 1 12 700 [E331
4 52 1250 [0917] 4 12 650 [15171
5 s5 1320 [3080]
6 50 lOj0 [24iOl

Rebounding rockets of Rcbuundtng riwkcrh o f Y..?" caliber

3 5" caliber \r itli explorive

Range i n >agenes
N0 A n g l c of c l ~ i n b
[yds given i n brackets]

2
1 15"
15
1050
1150
L24501
[26831
I
2
12'
12
...
550 L12831
1 0 480 Lll201
(From platform)
4 0 480 [11201
(From platform)

Fell into marsh water and therefore not recovered.

...
I.
Fell into water and not recovered.
After striking t h e first reference wall broke its t a i l , after which it went off course and was not
recovered.

23
 These r e s u l t s testified t o the good quality of Kartmazov's r o c k e t s ,
s i n c e the maximum r a n g e of Congreve's rockets did not exceed 3000 y a r d s
(2740m). The t e s t i n g of Kartmazov's r o c k e t s was l a t e r r e p e a t e d , and in
1817 the Russian War Ministry decided t o introduce m i l i t a r y rockets into
the a r m y . Cheleev, the Commander of the Sankt - P e t e r b u r g A r t i l l e r y
Laboratory, was instructed t o have s e v e r a l such r o c k e t s , intended f o r u s e
i n maneuvers, manufactured under Kartmazov's direction. The r e s u l t s of
the experiments c a r r i e d out with Kartmazov's rockets in April 18176 a r e
given in Table 2.
In t h e s e s a m e y e a r s , independently of the Military Study Committee,
one of the outstanding Russian s c i e n t i s t s working on a r t i l l e r y , A . D.
Zasyadko (1779-1837), was a l s o working on the construction of m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s . He began t o experiment with various types of r o c k e t s in 1815,
and rapidly attained s u c c e s s .
"Always r e g a r d i n g i t a s a duty entrusted to m e and my s p e c i a l happiness
t o be as useful a s possible t o the s e r v i c e .... Zasyadko wrote i n 1817,
"I sought t o discover how r o c k e t s might be used f o r incendiary purposes,
and although I never had any opportunity to s e e , much l e s s t o obtain
information a s t o how the English manage s o t o u s e them in w a r , I nonethe-
less thought that what they c l a i m a s such an e x t r a o r d i n a r y and important
discovery is nothing other than a properly adapted conventional rocket. My
experiments have fully justified this opinion, showing that the r o c k e t s used
in w a r f a r e a r e quite conventional. 'I7

TABLE 3. Principal data on rockets designed by A . D. Zasyadko'

4" 2.5" 2"

Length of casing' . . . . . . 711.2 444.6 317.5 355.6 254.0

Thickness of casing walls . . . . 1.27 1.27 1.27 1.27 1.27
Thickness of base plate . . . . . 2.54 2.54 2.54 2.54 2.54
Length of ignition channel . . . . 508 J17.5 222.25 254.0 117.8
Diameter of exhaust orifice . . . . 38.1 25.4 25.4 22.86 22.86
Diameter of ignition channel . . . 15.24 7.62 7.62 7.62 7.62
Thickness of a layer of wrapping
paper . . . . . . . . . 0.6
Length o f c y l i n d e r a t c a p . . . . . 233.68
Length of external side of cone . . . 254
Length of tail . . . . . . . . 5334.0
Maximum thickness of tail (at point
of at t achmenr ) . . . . . . . 50.8 31.75 31.75 25.4 25.4
Minimum thickness of t a i l (at free
end) . . . . . . . . . . 38.1 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4
Weight of t a i l in pounds . . . . . 12- 16.5 3-4.5 - - -

Dimensions given in millimeters throughout.

* * n.a.

" - the thickness of the casing i a l l s , the power of the

By varying
propellant, and the dimensions of the ignition channel, Zasyadko attempted
to obtain the optimum relationship between t h e s e t h r e e quantities, and he
finally achieved positive r e s u l t s (Table 3). At the beginning of 1817
Zasyadko demonstrated the p e r f o r m a n c e of his rockets in P e t e r s b u r g ,

24
I

and between July and December of the s a m e y e a r performed a g r e a t

number of experiments with high-flying and rebounding r o c k e t s manufactured
in a pyrotechnic laboratory built specially f o r the purpose in the town of
Mogilev. Second Lieutenant V. Vnukov, K. Vaulin, A r t i l l e r y NCO, and
A. Vanchinov, a Bombadier, participated in the preparation and performance
of Zasyadko's experiments. T h e r e s u l t s obtained a r e shown in Table 4. lo

TABLE 4. Results of experiments with Zasyadko's

rockets

Angle of c l i m b in Range in sagenes

degrees [yds given in brackets]

4" incendiary rockets

55 760- 1250 [1773- 29171

50 725- 1229 L1692- 29683
45 700- 923 L1633- 21541

35 600- 750 [1400- 17501

30 400- 645 [933- 15051
24- 28 119- 624 [278- 14561
1 8 - 22 117- 275 L273- 6421
12- 15 72- 219 [168- 5111
10 93- 207 [217- 4831

* For t h e most part kept t o correct direction

T h e maximum range attained during these experiments w a s thus

2670m. This time, however, accuracy, a s well a s range, was an objective,
and from this point of view many of the r o c k e t s proved unsatisfactory,
deviating considerably from the given direction. Zasyadko c a m e t o the
conclusion that ' I . . . although a launching elevation of 55" gives the longest
range, it produces g r e a t e r deviations than a t s m a l l e r elevations. . . l1
It is of s o m e i n t e r e s t that although Kartmazov and Zasyadko worked
independently of each other, t h e i r r e s u l t s w e r e a l m o s t the s a m e , their
proposed rocket designs differing only in minor details. Even the
dimensions of the fundamental components w e r e a l m o s t identical (Table 5).
T h i s was probably t o be explained by the fact that Kartmazov and Zasyadko
both began with the assumption that "a m i l i t a r y rocket is a conventional
rocket, I ' and in the c o u r s e of t h e i r r e s e a r c h r e l i e d upon the cumulative
experience of Russian pyrotechnicians. A s a r e s u l t they used the
traditional r a t i o s of caliber and casing length (1 : 7), dimensions of the

25
 ignition channel and rocket tail, and traditional values of a number of
other s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of pyrotechnic rockets.

TABLF 5. Comparative data on Russian military rockers a t the beginning of the 19th century

Kartmazov's rockets Zasyadko's rockers

Uiametei of casing . . . . . . . . . . 4" 4"

Length of casing . . . . . . . . . . . 30" 28"
.
Thicknecr of casing walls . . . . . . . .06- .07" ,942"
. .
Thickness of base plate . . . . . . . .075" ,083"
.
Length of ignition channel . . . . . . . ' 20.5" 20"
-

T h e m i l i t a r y rockets proposed by Kartmazov and Zasyadko w e r e

subdivided into high-flying rockets, which had a high launching elevation
(35- 55") and produced high angle f i r e , and rebounding rockets, which
w e r e launched a l m o s t horizontally, or a t a low elevation (8-12"), and
w e r e used f o r t a r g e t fire.
T h e rocket warhead consisted either of a c a p with a n incendiary
mixture o r of explosive, and the corresponding rockets w e r e t e r m e d
respectively incendiary and explosive (or often simply military).
The basic difference between the m i l i t a r y rockets of the f i r s t q u a r t e r
of the 19th century and firework r o c k e t s lay in the composition of the
payload and in the m a t e r i a l of which the casing was made. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
in f i r e w o r k rockets the rocket and pyrotechnic propellants w e r e included
i n a single casing and from a manufacturing point of view constituted a
whole, whereas in m i l i t a r y rockets the casing and the warhead w e r e quite
distinct, being manufactured separately and joined only when the rocket
was finally assembled.
Military rockets w e r e manufactured by a p r o c e s s only slightly different
f r o m that used in the manufacture of firework rockets. A cylinder (the
casing) equal in length t o 7 -7.5 t i m e s the rocket caliber w a s p r e p a r e d
f r o m 1.3-2 m m s h e e t i r o n soldered with copper. Heavy paper w a s pasted
over the i n t e r i o r of the casing t o protect i t from r u s t . A copper b a s e plate
with a hole in i t s center w a s soldered on t o one end of the casing, and during
the packing of the casing with propellant a r a m r o d was inserted through this
hole t o form the ignition channel (after packing this opening s e r v e d a s an
exhaust orifice f o r the g a s e s formed by combustion of the propellant).
T h e casing was then s e a t e d plumb on the r a m r o d and, a f t e r being fastened
in a n oaken mold, was packed with propellant, which w a s stuffed in
installments following a definite sequence, the s i z e of the installments, and
the number and f o r c e of the blows, being s t r i c t l y regulated in a c c o r d with
the caliber of the rocket. Approximately 7 0 % of the length of the casing w a s
occupied by the ignition channel, and between 14% and 21 %, by a l a y e r of
blind propellant. The r e m a i n d e r was packed with silt, in the middle of which
a s m a l l hole was made t o allow the passage of fire f r o m the propellant t o the
incendiary substance.
After this, depending on the function of the rocket, e i t h e r a s e p a r a t e l y
built head (cap) with incendiary compound, or a n explosive w a s attached t o
the casing ( F i g u r e s 8 and 9).

26
 T h e cap w a s 5 rocket c a l i b e r s in length and consisted of two
approximately equal parts, one cylindrical and the other conical. T h e
i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r of the cylindrical p a r t w a s made equal to the e x t e r n a l
d i a m e t e r of the casing. To e n s u r e a m o r e durable union of cap and casing,
longitudinal s l o t s w e r e made in the cylindrical p a r t of the cap, and a f t e r it
had been tightly fitted o v e r the casing, g l a s s y a r n was wound around o v e r
t h e i r e n t i r e length.

FIGURE 8. High-flying incendiary FIGURE 9. Rebounding rocker with

rocker designed by Zasyadko. explosive, designed by Zasyadko.

T h e explosive, which a l s o w a s situated a t the f o r w a r d end of the rocket,

was attached in a somewhat different fashion. Over it w e r e placed c r o s s -
w i s e two bands of s h e e t iron, 15” long and half an inch wide, which w e r e
then attached t o the r o c k e t like the cap. T h i s method of coupling c a p and
explosive was s i m p l e and f o r the time, quite s e c u r e .
Despite the s u c c e s s of the e x p e r i m e n t s of Kartmazov and Zasyadko in
1817, the problem of m a s s production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in R u s s i a did not
find a p r a c t i c a l solution f o r a long time. E x p e r i m e n t s continued a s b e f o r e
f o r a l m o s t 1 0 y e a r s , and Zasyadko w a s urged t o r e p e a t his t e s t s in 1821. l2

21
 In 1823 Massingbird-Turner, a B r i t i s h subject, was a t t r a c t e d t o the
manufacture of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in Russia. Under h i s direction 2", 3",
and 4" r o c k e t s f o r experimental purposes w e r e built a t the Okhtensk
Gunpowder Works.
The m a j o r difference between the rockets manufactured by Massingbird-
T u r n e r and those designed by Kartmazov and Zasyadko was i n the u s e of a
c e n t r a l , r a t h e r than a l a t e r a l tail. The r e p o r t of the "Committee for
Testingof the Congreve Rockets P r e p a r e d by the Englishman T u r n e r "
r e m a r k e d that his "rocket t a i l s had i r o n s c r e w s a t one end, bywhich they w e r e
s c r e w e d t o the i r o n b a s e plate of the rocket w i t h 5 holes and a t h r e a d in the
center.
In June 1824 T u r n e r ' s r o c k e t s w e r e tested on the Volkova field, with the
following r e s u l t s :
"1) T h r e e 2" rockets (according to our caliber, 1 1/2-pounders) with
grenades of a l m o s t one-pound caliber w e r e launched oEe a f t e r another from
a portable stand through a b r a s s tube 5 feet long, at an elevation of
25 degrees, and a t a distance of 400 sagenes [933 y a r d s ] f r o m the r a m p a r t .
They followed quite a s t r a i g h t c o u r s e and fell about 80 s a g e n e s [I87 y a r d s ]
behind the r a m p a r t .
"2) F o u r t e e n r o c k e t s of the s a m e caliber, a l s o launched s e p a r a t e l y a t
a n elevation of 22.5 degrees, rebounded 120 sagenes [280 y a r d s ] in front of
the r a m p a r t . Most of them flew over it, o t h e r s dropped into the w a t e r
b e f o r e it, and t h r e e landed on the r a m p a r t itself. One took to the left and
another continued on c o u r s e , a f t e r breaking i t s tail.
"3) T o show the e x t r a o r d i n a r y flight of this caliber, one rocket launched
a t an elevation of 45" covered a distance of 7 6 4 sagenes [I783 y a r d s ] .
"4) Two volleys of four rockets w e r e produced by a s p e c i a l stand
modeled on those used by the English f o r this purpose. The advantage of
t a i l s in the center, o r attached to the rocket axis, a s well a s the
convenience of this type of launching (assuming improvement of the firing
mechanism) a r e evident. They w e r e launched a t 20" and made t h r e e
rebounds, a f t e r which the s h e l l s b u r s t , flying a s f a r as the r a m p a r t ,
"5) A 3"-rocket ( i n t e r m s of o u r c a l i b e r s , almost an 8 1/4-pounder)
with a 4 1/2-lb s h e l l or a body c a r r y i n g 8 lb of incendiaries, achieved a range
of 900 s a g e n e s [2100 y a r d s ] , but is capable of even m o r e . . .
"6) A rocket of this type, with body packed with incendiaries, was
attached t o a wooden pole in o r d e r to show how f a s t the incendiary b u r n s
a f t e r the rocket has been completely consumed. The incendiary burned f o r
eight minutes .
"7) The body of a 4" rocket with incendiary ( a 13-pounder) was burned
in the s a m e way in o r d e r t o show how much f i r e it can eject. It burned f o r
11 minutes, emitting through holes in a l l directions an extremely f i e r c e
flame n e a r l y a foot in length, a s well a s s p a r k s . After it had burned f o r
eight minutes, the i r o n around the holes through which the f l a m e s w e r e
forced out began t o melt.
T h e s e experiments gave the Ministry of W a r a b a s i s for r e c o n s i d e r i n g
the adoption of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s a s a form of a r m a m e n t . In August 1824
the chief of the g e n e r a l staff I. I. Dibich proposed the use of m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s in m i l i t a r y actions to A. P. Ermolov, Commander of the Caucasus
Detachment. l5
E r m o l o v supported this idea and expressed himself a s definitely i n favor
of using m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in the Caucasus with the comment that "they can
b e of g r e a t help t o us in the mountains, but even m o r e against e n e m i e s whose

1707 28
cavalry greatly outnumbers ours. 'I l 6 Subsequently he twice requested
the g e n e r a l staff t o speed up the delivery of rockets t o the Caucasus,
but the W a r Ministry did not p o s s e s s a sufficient number of military
rockets. F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e of the a r m y staff commanders s t i l l doubted
the performance of rockets and felt that until repeated experiments had
been performed the question of the troops' using rocket a r m a m e n t s could
not even be r a i s e d . Repeated experiments w e r e made only a y e a r later,
in August 1825. T h i s time the rockets w e r e launched f r o m i r o n tubes, and
f r o m a stand which had eight longitudinal chutes f o r the simultaneous
launching of eight rockets. T h e experiments gave the following r e s u l t s :
Caliber of rockets . . . , . . . 2" 2.5" 3.25"
Range i n sagcnes Lyds given in brackets] 45- ,185 1 7 0 - 800 250- 1000
[105- 8Y6l L3Y7- 18671 [583-3331

Of the 76 rockets launched. 14 kept right on course, and the orhers showed deviations of from 2
to 50 sagenes [S to 117 yards]; a single rocker had a deviation of 7 1 sagenes [180 yards].

T h e reaction t o t h e s e experiments w a s e x t r e m e l y contradictory. The

committee specially c r e a t e d to examine the quality of the rockets
manufactured under T u r n e r ' s direction reached the conclusion that the
r o c k e t s tested did not justify the hopes placed in them.
"In considering the r e s u l t s of these experiments, " r a n the r e p o r t made
to the M a s t e r of the Ordnance in September 1825, "the Committee found
that the range of these rockets i s inadequate and not constant for the s a m e
launching elevation, that their momentum is not g r e a t enough, s o that, a s
f a r a s is known from descriptions, they fail t o achieve the effects a s c r i b e d
t o Congreve rockets. For these r e a s o n s only a few small-caliber rockets,
launched en m a s s e along the ground, without a stand, can be useful against
cavalry, o r can b r e a k i t s r a n k s by frightening the h o r s e s . Elsewhere,
they can be of u s e f o r the defense of fortifications. T h e incendiary used t o
stuff the warheads of the l a r g e - c a l i b e r rockets, however, w a s found
satisfactory ' I.
The M a s t e r of the Ordnance, however, did not a g r e e with this opinion,
and found the r e s u l t s of the experiments entirely satisfactory, noting that
"these projectiles can inflict considerable h a r m a t quite a g r e a t distance,
t h e i r u s e i s entirely safe and can therefore be of g r e a t value, especially
in mountainous regions and against uneducated troops. I ' l9
On the b a s i s of this opinion, and taking into account E r m o l o v ' s
repeated r e q u e s t s f o r the shipment of military rockets t o the Caucasus,
the A r t i l l e r y Department recognized the necessity of getting rocket
production going in Russia and urged the creation of a special "rocket
establishment" f o r this purpose.
A p r a c t i c a l solution of the problem of m a s s producing rockets in R u s s i a
dates f r o m the second half of the 1 8 2 0 ' s . In March 1 8 2 6 it was decided t o
c r e a t e a permanent rocket establishment in Sankt-Petersburg. 2o Its
initial location was in the Okhtensk Gunpowder Works. Lieutenant-General
Kozen w a s named Manager of the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute, and
Massingbird-Turner, Director. In the s a m e year, 1 8 2 6 , one of the
t h r e e companies of the 3 r d Field A r t i l l e r y Brigade w a s detached f o r
"training in the preparation and operation of rockets, I' and in 1827 its name
w a s changed t o the P e r m a n e n t Rocket Company. 22 One of Zasyadko's
closest assistants, Captain Vnukov, headed this company.

29
 The first o r d e r received by the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute was the
manufacture of 3000 r o c k e t s f o r the Caucasus Detachment. The first
installment of 1000 r o c k e t s r e a d y f o r u s e (200 12-pounders with balls,
100 12-pounders with incendiaries, 200 12-pounders with explosives,
200 6-pounders with balls, and 300 6-pounders with explosives), and
1770 empty casings (422 12-pounders and 1348 6-pounders) to b e filled
locally, w a s s e n t off to T i f l i s i n F e b r u a r y 1827. 23
In J u n e of the s a m e y e a r the r o c k e t s delivered f r o m P e t e r s b u r g w e r e
t e s t e d in T i f l i s under the direction of the m i l i t a r y governor Sipyagin.
The r e s u l t s w e r e completely unsatisfactory (most of the rockets b u r s t
before launching), which i n the opinion of those conducting the experiments
showed that the rockets could not be t r a n s p o r t e d g r e a t distances.
The experimental r o c k e t s manufactured locally gave considerably b e t t e r
r e s u l t s . In August 1827 m i l i t a r y rockets w e r e twice used against enemy
troops, and both t i m e s with s u c c e s s : in the battle of Ushagan and against
cavalry n e a r Alagijz. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h r e e rockets w e r e successfully
launched against the Ardebil F o r t r e s s . 24 T h e s e a r e apparently the first
instances of the u s e of m i l i t a r y rockets against a n enemy by Russian troops.
On the b a s i s of the r e s u l t s of tests, a s well a s of the first experience
in the u s e of r o c k e t s during m i l i t a r y actions, General Paskevich, who
succeeded E r m o l o v in the command of the Caucasus Corps, a r r i v e d a t the
following conclusion, which he presented in his dispatch to Main Head-
q u a r t e r s in April 1828:
"1. The r o c k e t s s e n t f r o m Sankt-Petersburg w e r e ruined, while those
a s s e m b l e d h e r e w e r e quite good; however, v e r y calm weather is p r e -
requisite to t h e i r use, otherwise the wind always changes t h e i r direction.
"2. It is highly inconvenient t o t r a n s p o r t them, s i n c e t h i s r e s u l t s in
damage to the rockets. r125
Table 6 gives a n idea of what s o r t of r o c k e t s and i n what n u m b e r s
issued f r o m the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute in the y e a r s 1828-1829,
and t e s t i f i e s t o the l a r g e s c a l e on which the work was done. Actually,
however, only final a s s e m b l y and stuffing of the r o c k e t s was done in the
Rocket Institute itself, manufacture of the individual p a r t s being taken
c a r e of in various plants. For example, the rocket casings w e r e supplied
by the A r m a m e n t s Workshop of the Sankt-Petersburg Arsenal, 2 6 the b a s e
plates, caps, and explosives, by the Aleksandrov plant, 27 and the gun-
powder pulp came f r o m the Okhtensk Gunpowder Works.
During the Russo-Turkish w a r of 1828- 1829 m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e
comparatively widely used by the Russian troops, e. g., in 1828 n e a r
Shumla and in the s i e g e of Varna, and in 1829, a t the s i e g e of S i l i s t r i a .
T h e opinions of scientific h i s t o r i a n s a s t o the influence of t h i s f i r s t
Russian experience in the m a s s u s e of rockets in m i l i t a r y actions a r e
completely contradictory. T h i s is t o b e explained by the two different
i m p r e s s i o n s made by m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s on different m i l i t a r y c i r c l e s .
On the one hand it m u s t b e admitted that this first experience w a s not
particularly successful. The r o c k e t s manufactured in the P e t e r s b u r g
Rocket Institute did not justify the hopes reposed in them: they w e r e of
e x t r e m e l y poor quality, m a r k e d by inaccuracy and unreliability in use,
and often inflicted damage upon the troops using them. T h i s made a
negative i m p r e s s i o n on a considerable p a r t of the a r m y command and led
t o the denial of any s e r i o u s attention t o rocket a r m a m e n t for a l m o s t two
decades.

30
 TABLE 6. Production of military rockets in Russia, 1828- 1829

According to the data for According io the data for According to the data for
12 January 1828. 1 February 182Y * * 21 August 1829t
Number used
Caliber of rockets
Launched ~- Remain-
New Still
in experi- ing from
Produc- menll Roduc- hlanufac- In Against rht l i r s ~ produc- hlanufac- to be
tion in- Balance tion in- tured tion in- tured manufac-
and and ex- the two
tended enemy tended tured
tended reviews periments details

- - 350 242 33 I1 23 9 200 '45 155

- - 1850 1396 36 180 94 1 1300 75 1225
w
- - 1900 1239 184 273 149 - - -
109 891 600 459 39 114 181 1000 84 916

- - 1919 1871 203 289 684

155 845 600 9

6-pounders military 2 68 132 2168 93 6

Total. . . . . . 532 2468 9987 3145 4125

-
* AIM Archive. GAU store, entry 3 / 2 , file 157, sheet 201
** TsGVIA, VUA store, entry 1, file 4790. sheets 33 obverse-34.
t Ibid.. sheet 14.
 On the other hand, the experience of m i l i t a r y actions showed the
potential of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s and i n c r e a s e d the i n t e r e s t of m i l i t a r y
engineering circles in t h i s new f o r m of weapon and in broadening i t s
m i l i t a r y application.
In other words, m i l i t h r y experience showed that r o c k e t s could become
weapons in war, though they had not yet achieved this s t a t u s in the period
under consideration, It w a s c l e a r that without substantial improvement
of rocket a r m a m e n t t h e r e could be no question of i t s f u r t h e r u s e in the
a r m y , and a number of s t e p s w e r e t h e r e f o r e taken t o improve and re-
organize rocket production in Russia.
In 1832 a l l of the existing Russian rocket institutes w e r e combined
into one. T h e refounded P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute, whose assignment
w a s t o "improve the performance of Congreve rockets and the m e a n s f o r
t h e i r production, " thus consisted of:
"a) a rocket laboratory f o r the preparation of m i l i t a r y and incendiary
r o c k e t s and
"b) a rocket b a t t e r y t o b e used in laying siege t o and defending
f o r t r e s s e s , etc. I'
All w o r k on the production of m i l i t a r y rockets in R u s s i a w a s
concentrated in t h i s institute, but until the middle of the 1840's it hardly
fulfilled its goals and contributed little t o the development of r o c k e t r y in
Russia. A s K. I. Konstantinov, one of the g r e a t e s t r o c k e t r y e x p e r t s of
l a t e r y e a r s , pointed out, "It existed only a s a supplement to our technical
institutes. " z 9
In the 1830's a number of suggestions w e r e made of various
possibilities f o r the m i l i t a r y application of rockets. In 1834 the Russian
m i l i t a r y engineer K. A. Shil'der (1785- 1853), while continuing t o improve
his countermine system, suggested using rockets as a m e a n s of destroying
s i e g e engines in the defense of f o r t r e s s e s . For this purpose he recommended
demolition r o c k e t s of s p e c i a l design, with a l a r g e quantity of powder, which
would t r e b l e the range of t h e i r effectiveness against siege engines.
In 1834- 1835, in P e t e r s b u r g (on the Semenovskii parade-ground), in
Krasnoe Selo and in the Novogeorgievskii F o r t r e s s Shil'der performed a
number of experiments which confirmed the c o r r e c t n e s s of his calculations
and demonstrated that r o c k e t s can successfully be used both in the s i e g e
and defense of f o r t r e s s e s . Subsequently he returned s e v e r a l t i m e s t o this
idea, renewing and broadening his program of experiments.
The s u c c e s s of Shil'der's s c h e m e f o r the defense of f o r t r e s s e s depended
t o a g r e a t d e g r e e on the quality of the rockets, their accuracy, and the
power of the charge. His f i r s t experiments, which demonstrated the
destructive power of demolition rockets, a l s o showed that it was desirable
to improve t h e i r accuracy. Of the 1 2 8 rockets launched during the
experiments of 19 July 1835, for example, only 57 hit the target, 67 over-
shot the m a r k and flew through the trenches, and four b u r s t shortly a f t e r
launching. 3o
For s e v e r a l y e a r s , therefore, the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute worked
systematically t o improve the rockets intended for Shil'der's experiments.
Shil'der himself observed that after the experiments of 1835 the Rocket
Institute "devoted a l l of i t s attention to the improvement of rocket flight, 'I
and added that the next experiments "would show, I a m convinced, that
r o c k e t s can hit t h e i r t a r g e t with the s a m e accuracy a s ordnance.

32
 Together with improvement of the quality of military rockets, the
P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute a l s o worked on means of substantially
increasing the weight of the charge. One of the means of doing this and
simultaneously increasing the accuracy of the shot s t i l l drew on the
experience of pyrotechnics and consisted of the u s e of rocket c l u s t e r s .
The a r t i s a n s of the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute successfully resolved
this problem. "After the experiments made l a s t y e a r a t Krasnoe Sclo
and the Novogeorgievskii F o r t r e s s , I ' wrote Shil'der in 1836, "demolition
rockets have been improved to the point where they perform a s accurately
in a e r i a l flight a s along the surface of the earth. The m a j o r r e s u l t of this
improvement is that s e v e r a l rockets of unit caliber have been combined
into a c l u s t e r which moves considerable weights with high accuracy and
speed. It will thus be possible t o give the attack new m e a n s f o r the
elimination of fortifications, f o r the added r e a s o n that, a s experiments
have shown, t h e s e rockets can b e used t o throw 2-, 3-, and 5-pud (i. e.,
72-, 108-, and 180-lb) bombs with high accuracy.

..

:pp > . 5 : ! p
,
-i
I I ...
. . . . . .i

FIGURE 10. Suhiiiarine designed by K.A . Sliil'dcr

In these s a m e y e a r s (1834-1838) Shil'der studied the possibilities of

using military rockets in the navy. He proposed to launch rockets from
a s o r t of submarine (Figure 10) a s well a s from a raft floating on the
w a t e r o r a rocket s t e a m s h i p specially intended f o r this purpose. 33
In 1834 he designed and built a submarine c a r r y i n g rocket launching
equipment. T h e rocket stands consisted of vertical props with horizontal
c r u c i f o r m s l a t s to which the iron tubes in which the rockets w e r e placed
w e r e attached. Each of these stands could be used for the simultaneous
launching of t h r e e rockets. The launching elevation of the stand could be
varied by moving the forward prop. T o protect the rockets f r o m the water,
the f o r w a r d ends of the tubes w e r e stoppered with plugs over which r u b b e r
caps w e r e fitted. When the rockets w e r e ignited by galvanic conductors,
they forced out the plugs and continued on c o u r s e . 34

33
 T h e following p r o g r a m of experiments was envisaged.
"1) Alongside the submarine, " Shil'der wrote, "rockets of v e r y big
caliber will be launched along the s u r f a c e of the water. They should have
a range of 700 sagenes [I633 y a r d s ] or m o r e along the directrix.
" 2 ) Such actions f r o m the submarine will be repeated against distant
objects .
"3) Fougasses ignited between v e s s e l s 70 sagenes [163 y a r d s ] apart,
such a s ships, will probably burn their rigging by ejecting incendiary
substances and
"4) The explosion of underwater mines will probably completely
destroy these v e s s e l s .
"All these destructive projectiles a r e fired from the submarine by
galvanism. At the end of these experiments the submarine s u r f a c e s and
the crew come out on deck.
T h e f i r s t submarine experiments w e r e performed in August 1834. 36
Subsequently Shil'der designed a second, b a r r e l - shaped submarine
distinguished from the f i r s t by a number of technical improvements.
Experimental launching of rockets from s u b m a r i n e s continued until the
beginning of the 1840's, but failed to give positive r e s u l t s .
Independently of S h i l ' d e r ' s experiments the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute
was working on the improvement of m i l i t a r y rockets. In 1837 Lieutenant-
General Kozen, manager of the Institute, proposed to p a r a l l e l Shil'der's
experiments with the testing of "complex rockets, ' I o r rocket c l u s t e r s ,
manufactured by it. T h e c l u s t e r s varied from 5 to 6 s m a l l - c a l i b e r rockets
to 1 2 large-caliber rockets. L a r g e - r a l i b e r rocket c l u s t e r s contained a s m u c h
a s 1.5 pud [541b] of powder and w e r e designed t o throw 13- and 18-pud
[468- and 648-1bl bombs.37
T h e P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute a l s o continued work on the improvement
of conventional m i l i t a r y rockets (2", 2.5", and 3.5"), but no notable
s u c c e s s e s w e r e attained.
Examination of the s t a t e of rocket a r m a m e n t in Russia during the f i r s t
half of the 19th century shows that S h i l ' d e r ' s evaluation of the P R Z rockets
was greatly exaggerated. T h e military rockets of the 1830's and 1840's
had a number of s e r i o u s deficiencies, including comparatively s h o r t range,
inaccuracy, and m o s t important, unreliability.
Experiments on the intensification of f o r t r e s s defense, c a r r i e d out in
1839 in Novogeorgievsk, showed that high-angle firing of rockets gave
satisfactory r e s u l t s only when the t a r g e t was about 1 0 0 m distant. In other
c a s e s the rockets w e r e widely dispersed. According t o the r e p o r t of the
results, "the flight of rockets fired a t a high angle over a longer range of
f r o m 50 t o 450 sagenes [117 to 1050 y a r d s ] was completely untrue, with
the r e s u l t that of rockets with the s a m e direction and launching elevation,
s o m e did not r e a c h the target, o t h e r s overshot it, and s t i l l o t h e r s landed
a s f a r a s 100 sagenes [233 y a r d s ] t o left or right of it.
T h e low quality of the rockets was t o be explained to a l a r g e extent by
imperfect manufacturing techniques. T h i s w a s v e r y well understood by
those concerned with the production of military rockets in Russia. In
November 1839 Lieutenant-General Kozen of P R Z noted that "most of the
work is done by hand and is t h e r e f o r e t o a g r e a t extent inaccurate. A s a
result, flight of the assembled rockets cannot be even approximately
true. He pointed out that in o r d e r to a s c e r t a i n the capabilities of

34
r o c k e t s m o r e attention t o the improvement of manufacturing techniques
would b e required, but added that ''because of the shortcomings of its
machinery P R Z has no m e a n s f o r doing this.
Before the mid 1840's R u s s i a n r o c k e t r y developed e x t r e m e l y slowly.
T h e low quality of the r o c k e t s prohibited their widespread use. Another
negative f a c t o r w a s the fact that m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s received virtually no
p r a c t i c a l u s e throughout the 1830's and e a r l y 1840's. F u r t h e r m o r e , much
of the a r m y command, having the i m p r e s s i o n that r o c k e t s had not achieved
any p a r t i c u l a r s u c c e s s in the Russo-Turkish w a r of 1828- 1829, w e r e
skeptical about t h e i r adoption a s a new f o r m of a r m a m e n t and obstructed
their introduction to m i l i t a r y units. A l l of this brought about a considerable
reduction in the production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s f o r the a r m y .
In the middle 1840's, however, the situation changed fundamentally, and
the demand for m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s r o s e s h a r p l y . T h i s w a s explained by the
wide u s e of r o c k e t s a t that t i m e in m i l i t a r y operations in the Caucasus.
A s e a r l y a s October 1842, 500 1.5" incendiary r o c k e t s w e r e o r d e r e d by the
C a u c a s u s Corps, and they w e r e delivered t o Georgievsk in March 1843. 41
In this mountainous region difficult of a c c e s s the s u p e r i o r i t i e s of
r o c k e t s over artillery, s u c h a s t h e i r lightness and availability f o r m a s s e d
f i r e and f o r firing without heavy ordnance, w e r e c l e a r l y evident.
At the beginning of 1845 M. S. Vorontsov, the Chief in Command of
the Caucasus Corps, t h e r e f o r e requested the War Ministry t o send a l a r g e
shipment of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s to the C a u c a s u s s o that they could be used for
"full b a t t e r y action against the enemy.
Vorontsov first became acquainted with r o c k e t s a s e a r l y as 1813, at the
Battle of Leipzig, w h e r e for s o m e time he s e r v e d in place of the dead
Commander of the English Battery. Subsequently he had s e v e r a l
opportunities t o observe r o c k e t s in action, both in w a r and in peacetime,
a t reviews and e x e r c i s e s .
In 1846 Vorontsov wrote t o the Minister of W a r A . I. Chernyshev, urging
the advisability of using r o c k e t s in the Caucasus, a s follows: 'I. . .when I
saw 3- and 4-pound r o c k e t s used in r e v i e w s and e x e r c i s e s a t Woolwich
itself, I immediately got the i m p r e s s i o n that they could be one of the m o s t
u s e f u l f o r m s of ordnance, especially in mountainous t e r r a i n . Of c o u r s e
s m a l l guns a r e t r u e r and can shoot c a n i s t e r - s h o t for defense, even i f only
over s m a l l distances, but a l l guns involve g u n - c a r r i a g e s and caissons, in
a word, trains. Even our mountain ordnance involves l i m b e r s , wheels,
and pack h o r s e s . Rockets have none of this paraphernalia; w h e r e v e r the
c a v a l r y go, they can c a r r y a s many s m a l l r o c k e t s a s d e s i r e d with them.
E v e r y h o r s e m a n can c a r r y a s m a l l r o c k e t instead of a lance; the s m a l l e s t
s t a n d s a r e required, and i f n e c e s s a r y m a y be altogether dispensed with.
In a word, s m a l l r o c k e t s constitute a f o r m of a r t i l l e r y which, while
obviously not the best, can always be m a d e available, in whatever quantity
d e s i r e d , in p l a c e s where it is difficult, dangerous, or downright impossible
t o provide other f o r m s of artillery, and whose quantity in s o m e m e a s u r e
compensates f o r its qualitative deficiencies. I' 42
In 1845 1000 six-pound ( 2 " ) m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e delivered to the
Caucasus. 43 T h i s shipment w a s evidently successfully used in action,
b e c a u s e in December of the s a m e y e a r Vorontsov r e q u e s t e d another
shipment, this t i m e of 6000 rockets. 44

35
 The P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute, however, w a s not ready t o supply
rockets in such quantity, since it was poorly equipped f o r quality m a s s
production. A s before, m o s t of the work was done by hand and the working
conditions w e r e v e r y difficult and hazardous.
The work was a l s o greatly complicated by the fact that before 1846 P R Z
had no established technique f o r the manufacture of military rockets. T h e
resulting rockets therefore differed greatly both in quality and s i z e . Only
in 1847 did Colonel Kostyrko, m a n a g e r of the Institute, p r e p a r e a s p e c i a l
manual containing p r e c i s e designations of rocket calibers, a description of
rocket designs, and the r a t i o s of fundamental components of the rocket
mixture, a s well a s an explanation of the sequence of technologica1
operations.
In these s a m e y e a r s an effort was made to use rockets f o r the defense
of coastal fortifications. Lieutenant-General Maslov, thc builder of Risbank
F o r t in Kronshtadt considered the installation of special rocket loop-holes
in the c a s e m a t e s planned f o r the fort.
Since the idea of a r m i n g m a r i n e fortifications with rockets w a s new it
was decided t o perform s o m e preliminary experiments in a f o r t which had
a l r e a d y been built in o r d e r to determine the potentialities of rocket f i r e
from c a s e m a t e s and c l e a r up a number of technical questions. T e s t s w e r e
accordingly made in August 1848 i n the " E m p e r o r P e t e r I" fort (Table 7 ) .

1 AB1.t 7. Rcsultr id cxpc.rlniciith or1 t l r ~firing of rockcrr iruni ttk casematt's

01 thc "Empcror PCICII " fori
-
Launching clcvarion In dcgrccs Kangc insagents[yds g i v c n i n brackets]
~

2.5"

u p t o 75 [l?i]
125- 150 L292- 3501
150- 175 [350- 4081
175- 200 [408- 4671
22.5- 250 [5?3- 5891
mer ?iO L.5831

3.5"

9 L'p t o 300 [700]

li, 4,jO- 600 [lO:)O- 14001
11 600- 700 [1400- 16331
-

In the r e p o r t on these t e s t s i t w a s stated that "the flight of the rockets

w a s flat and fully satisfactory, and their deviations from the direction of
firing, indicated by rods s e t up f o r this v e r y purpose, w e r e quite
insignificant. ' I 45
The t e s t s demonstrated the advisability of a r m i n g s h o r e fortifications with
rockets and provided the experimental data required on the design of c a s e -
m a t e s and the s i z e of the e m b r a s u r e s .

36
 At the end of the 1840's the m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s leaving the P e t e r s b u r g
Rocket Institute w e r e to b e numbered in the thousands. Rockets had become
f i r m l y established among the actual f o r m s of a r m a m e n t of the Russian
army.

NOTES

T h e information on Congreve's rockets is taken f r o m W. Ley. Rockets

M i s s i l e s and Space T r a v e l , pp. 68-71. New York, 1958.
F r o m the Report of the Military Study Committee, 1 4 June, 1818.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 188, s h e e t s 74-74 obverse.
Ibid., s h e e t 74 obverse.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 188, file 65, s h e e t 92 obverse.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 3 5 , entry41245, code 188, file 65, s h e e t s 5-7; see
a l s o AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 312, file 35, s h e e t 1.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 188, file 65, s h e e t 12.
Z a s y a d k 0 , A. D. 0 zazhigatel'nykh raketakh (Incendiary Rockets).
Manuscript.- TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 188, file 65,
s h e e t s 48 obverse -49.
T h e table w a s compiled from Zasyadko's autographicalnotes -TsGVIA,
s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 188, s h e e t 65, s h e e t s 24, 42, 43, 46 obverse.
Z a s y a d k o , op. cit., s h e e t s 33-40; see a l s o s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245,
code 195, file 309, s h e e t s 2-3.
lo T h e data a r e taken f r o m notes compiled b y Zasyadko i n the f o r m of a
diary, w h e r e they w e r e e n t e r e d i n chronological o r d e r . In the table
they have been s y s t e m a t i z e d and r e a r r a n g e d according t o range and
launching elevation. TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 4/245, code 188, file 65,
s h e e t s 53-70.
l1 Z a s y a d k o , op. cit., s h e e t 64.
l2 TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 188, file 65, s h e e t 90; a l s o ibid.,
code 194, file 241.
l3 TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 196, file 334, s h e e t 27 obverse.
l4 E x c e r p t f r o m the d i a r y of the experiments. TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y
41245, code 196, file 334, s h e e t s 6-7.
l5 TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 196, file 334, s h e e t 3.
Ibid., s h e e t 9.
Ibid., s h e e t s 27-29;
Ibid., s h e e t s 24 obverse-25.
l9 Ibid.. s h e e t 34 obverse.

31
 2o Resolution of 30 M a r c h 1826. TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245,
code 196, file 334, s h e e t 34.
21 AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 312, file 157, s h e e t 114; see a l s o
Gunpowder Warehouse s t o r e , e n t r y 2413, file 31, s h e e t s 11 obverse-14.
22 F r o m t h e Minister of W a r ' s l e t t e r t o t h e A r t i l l e r y Department. AIM
Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 312, file 149, s h e e t 8.
* TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 196, file 334, s h e e t 49,
24 The information on the m i l i t a r y u s e of r o c k e t s is drawn f r o m t h e notes
s e n t by Paskevich t o Main Headquarters. - TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y
41245, code 196, file 334, s h e e t s 53-57.
25 Note on Congreve Rockets.- TsGVIA, s t o r e 35, e n t r y 41245, code 196,
file 334, s h e e t 57.
26 AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 312, file 157, sheet 69.
'' TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 784, s h e e t 34.
28 AIM Archive, Gunpowder Warehouse s t o r e , e n t r y 2412, f i l e 300,
s h e e t s 75 o b v e r s e -76.
29 K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh (Military Rockets), p. 64.
Sankt-Peterburg, 1884.
30 A detailed description of the performance of demolition r o c k e t s and
other m i s s i l e s during the experiments of 19 July 1835 is given in TsGVIA,
s t o r e 1(1), e n t r y 1, file 9967, s h e e t 11 obverse.
31 TsGVIA, s t o r e 1 (l), e n t r y file 9271, s h e e t s 110 obverse-111.

32 Ibid., s h e e t s 114 obverse-115.

33 Ibid., s h e e t s 95-96, 111 obverse-112,

34
M a z y u k e v i c h , M. Zhizn' i sluzhba general-adl'yutanta K a r l a
Andreevicha S h i l ' d e r a (The Life and S e r v i c e of Adjutant General
Karl Andreevich Shilfder), p. 193. Sankt-Peterburg, 1876.
3s TsGVLA, s t o r e 1 (l), e n t r y 1, file 9271, s h e e t s 30 obverse-31.
36 Ibid., s h e e t 25.
37 Jbid., s h e e t 130.
38 Zapiska o proizvedennykh v i s t e k s h e m l e t e opytakh usileniya oborony
k r e p o s t e i PO sposobu general-ad'yutanta Shil'dera (Report on t h e
Experiments P e r f o r m e d During the P a s t Summer on t h e Intensification
of F o r t r e s s Defense by the Method of Adjutant Genral
Shil'der).- TsGVIA, s t o r e 1(1), e n t r y 1, file 11103, s h e e t s 111
o b v e r s e -112.
39 Report of 1 November 1839. - AIM Archive, Gunpowder Warehouse
s t o r e , e n t r y 2413, f i l e 143, sheet 3 obverse.
40 &id., s h e e t 39 obverse.

38
41 TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 978, s h e e t 46.
42 Quoted from t h e text i n "Morskoi sbornik, 'I No. 10, first section,
subsection IV, p. 272, 1855.
43
TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 978, s h e e t 130.
44
On this see AIM Archive, Gunpowder Warehouse s t o r e , e n t r y 2412,
file 300, s h e e t 21.

45 AIM Archive, ShGF store, e n t r y 12, file 30, s h e e t 45.

39
Chapter 111

R O C K E T A R M A M E N T OF T H E RUSSIAN A R M Y

RUSSIAN MILITARY ROCKETS O F THE

1850's AND 1860's

In Russia, a s in m o s t other European countries, the middle of the

19th century was the period when rocket weapons attained t h e i r g r e a t e s t
popularity. Although m i l i t a r y rockets could not compete with a r t i l l e r y
in a c c u r a c y and range, they w e r e highly successful a s a form of
supplementary a r m a m e n t .
In this period m i l i t a r y rockets w e r e m o s t widely employed in the
Caucasus, w h e r e Russian troops continually saw action, and PRZ a l s o
equipped the troops in the C r i m e a , C e n t r a l Asia, the Baltic region, Finland,
and the U r a l s with rockets. Altogether about 33,000 m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e
manufactured in R u s s i a during the period 1846-1854.l An idea of the
production and destination of the rockets in individual y e a r s 2 can be obtained
f r o m the "Note on the State of O u r Rocket Unit" (Zapiska o sostoyanii u nas
raketnoi chasti), submitted to the Inspectorof Gunpowder Plants in A u g u s t 1854.

1. 2" rockers
1846 shipped to Caucasus . . . . . . . . . . 3.500
1847 *' ** '' . . . . . . . . . . 2000
1848 " " " . . . . . . . . . . 3920
1S4Y " '. " . . . . . . . . . . 4000
18-49 .... Orenburg . . . . . . . . . . 400
18iO " . Caucasus . . . . . . . . . . 4000
1631 " " " . . . . . . . . . . 3700
1852 . . . . . . . . . . 1700
. . . . . .
" " "

18,j;~
. . . . . . . . . . 2000
185:3 " . Kerch . . . . . . . . . . 600
1853 .... Orenburg . . . . . . . . . . 350
1854 " . Caucasus . . . . . . . . . . 2000
1854 " .. Bucaresr . . . . . . . . . . 2000
1854 .... Revel . . . . . . . . . . 200
Ready for shipment :
to Sevastopol. . . . . . . . . . . . 600
.. Helsingfors .
. . . . . . . . . . 480

2. 3.5" demolirion rockers

shipped to Caucasus afrer 1846 . . . . . . . . 60
In 1854 near Silistria . . . . . . . . . . 100
Prepared without projectiles for rhe merchant Nobel . . 100

40
 With the s h a r p i n c r e a s e in the number of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s produced
b y P R Z and used in the Russian army, the question of t h e i r quality, which
f o r m e r l y had left much t o be desired, acquired new significance. Among
the fundamental deficiencies of the Russian m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s of the 1840's
m u s t be included t h e i r comparatively s h o r t range, considerable deviations
f r o m the target, and m o s t importantly, unreliable functioning. Rockets
often b u r s t on the launchers, injuring the troops using them; furthermore,
they did not s u s t a i n extended s t o r a g e and transportation, which resulted
in a distinct impairment of t h e i r quality and a s h a r p i n c r e a s e in the
percentage of malfunctioning rockets.
T h e s e defects w e r e quite serious, and the extent t o which rocket
a r m a m e n t would b e adopted by the a r m y largely depended on whether
they could b e overcome. P R Z therefore could not avoid facing the problem
of increasing the a c c u r a c y and reliability of its rockets.
After the middle of 1840's K. I. Konstantinov (1818- 1871), who did a
great deal f o r the development of Russian r o c k e t r y and w a s one of the
g r e a t e s t exponents of the Russian a r t i l l e r y school of the middle 19th
century, began to work on the improvement of m i l i t a r y rockets. In
March 1850 he w a s appointed to the management of the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket
Institute, which was a l m o s t completely re-equipped in the c o u r s e of s e v e r a l
y e a r s under his direction (for m o r e details see below).
At the end of the 1840's and the beginning of the 1850's Konstantinov
performed a g r e a t many experiments, in which he and his colleagues
attentively studied foreign experience in rocketry, considering the
advantages and deficiencies of the rockets manufactured in various countries,
in a n effort t o make u s e of e v e r y positive feature which found employment in
foreign a r m i e s .
At this time the g r e a t e s t popularity w a s achieved by two rocket s c h e m e s
which differed both in design and in the action of the propulsive force:
r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l and with c e n t r a l tails. T h e f o r m e r w e r e m o s t widely
used in Austria and a s a r e s u l t w e r e often t e r m e d Austrian rockets, while
the l a t t e r w e r e introduced by Congreve during the f i r s t q u a r t e r of the
19th century and w e r e called English rockets. T h i s w a s the type adopted
in Russia by the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute.
Both types had their advantages and drawbacks. T h e main difference
between the two was that in rockets with a l a t e r a l tail the propulsive f o r c e
w a s developed a t the v e r y beginning of flight and acted only f o r a s h o r t
time. T h i s was explained by the fact that rockets with a l a t e r a l tail did
not generally have a b a s e plate, s o that the g a s e s formed by combustion
of the propellant, with nothing to obstruct them, could flow out f r e e l y .
A s a r e s u l t it was possible substantially t o i n c r e a s e the speed of combustion
of the propellant, and consequently, to i n c r e a s e the initial velocity of the
rocket. After burnout the rocket flew like a conventional projectile,
following the laws of ballistics, propelled by i t s accumulated kinetic energy.
T h e position of i t s center of gravity underwent no f u r t h e r change.
Both the i n c r e a s e in initial velocity and the constant position of the c e n t e r
of gravity over a considerable p a r t of the t r a j e c t o r y made possible i n c r e a s e
in accuracy, which was an important factor in the selection of designs f o r
m i l i t a r y rockets.
Konstantinov undertook an attempt t o introduce rockets with l a t e r a l
t a i l s into Russia, but the comparative t e s t s he made in 1848 showed that

41
 I

despite the c l e a r s u p e r i o r i t y of t h e s e r o c k e t s i n aimed f i r e a t s h o r t

distances, which r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i r uniformity and accuracy, it became
less m a r k e d with i n c r e a s e i n range. F u r t h e r m o r e , the r o c k e t s with
l a t e r a l t a i l s had generally s h o r t e r range than those of PRZ. Rockets
with l a t e r a l t a i l s w e r e t h e r e f o r e finally r e j e c t e d in favor of those with
central tails.
L a t e r Konstantinov began t o work on adaptation of the positive f e a t u r e s
of both types, taking a s h i s model the 2" m i l i t a r y rockets ( F i g u r e 11) with
c e n t r a l t a i l attached t o a b a s e plate with five exhaust orifices, produced
by PRZ.
In Konstantinov's opinion the number of exhaust o r i f i c e s was a m a t t e r
of s o m e importance, During the f i r s t half of the 18501s, therefore, PRZ
conducted t e s t s f o r the comparison of rockets with b a s e plates differing
in the number of t h e i r exhaust o r i f i c e s and in t h e i r d i a m e t e r (Table 8).

TABLE 8. Some data on the rockets tested a t the Petenburg Rocket Institute

Ratio of total area of

Number of exhaust Diameter of exhaust exhaust orifices to
Caliber
orifices orifices. in internal cross sec-
tional area of rocket

2" 5 0.376 0.18

5 0.45 0.26
6 0.45 0.33

2.5" 5 0.55 0.25

6 0.55 0.30

3.5" 5 0.8 0.22

6 0.8 0.27

E x p e r i m e n t s showed that the total a r e a of the gas exhaust o r i f i c e s had

a decided influence on the magnitude of the reactive f o r c e . D e c r e a s e in
the total a r e a of the o r i f i c e s improved the range and flatness of t r a j e c t o r y ,
while i t s i n c r e a s e had the opposite effect.
This, however, applied only to the c a s e when the total a r e a was
i n c r e a s e d by i n c r e a s i n g the d i a m e t e r of the orifices, and was no longer
t r u e i f i n c r e a s e in the total a r e a of the exhaust orifices was achieved by
i n c r e a s i n g the number of o r i f i c e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the t e s t s revealed that
2" r o c k e t s with 6 exhaust o r i f i c e s 0.45" in d i a m e t e r had g r e a t e r range and
flatness than the s a m e r o c k e t s with 5 o r i f i c e s of the s a m e d i a m e t e r . 5 A s
Konstantinov pointed out, "the m o s t r e c e n t experiments have proved that
rockets with 6 o r i f i c e s fly t r u e r . I '
It w a s t h e r e f o r e decided to i n c r e a s e the number of exhaust o r i f i c e s
in the b a s e plates of P R Z r o c k e t s t o six. A l a r g e quantity of t h e s e b a s e
plates w e r e accordingly manufactured, but they could not be used, since
the s h o r t grooved t a i l s introduced a t approximately the s a m e t i m e
r e q u i r e d that the number of exhaust o r i f i c e s be equal to the number of
grooves. T h i s could not exceed five, i f weakening of the s u r f a c e s between
the grooves was to be avoided. It was t h e r e f o r e decided to forego the new
b a s e plates, and the old type with five exhaust o r i f i c e s was used throughout
the 1850's.

42
 --

.E)B .’
.- /9

P
W

FIGURE 11. Russian military rocket (1849 model).

 Thanks t o Konstantinov's improvements, the quality of the m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s produced by P R Z r o s e considerably. Range and a c c u r a c y w e r e
improved t o s o m e extent, and the accidents resulting f r o m the bursting
of r o c k e t s on the launchers w e r e a l m o s t entirely eliminated. Of the
12,550 2 " rockets used in actions against the enemy between 1851 and
1854, only one b u r s t prematurely.7
F o r a long t i m e m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in R u s s i a w e r e used a l m o s t exclusively
in the Caucasus, where they w e r e employed in thousands and p e r f o r m e d
v e r y well. Gradually, however, i n t e r e s t in the u s e of r o c k e t s i n c r e a s e d in
other m i l i t a r y zones. After 1851, they began t o b e used i n the T r a n s - I l i
region (Kirghizia), where they became p a r t of the s t a n d a r d equipment of
e v e r y expeditionary force. a After 1856 permanent rocket detachments w e r e
formed in w e s t e r n Siberia, and rockets w e r e successfully used in Armenia
and in the Balkans between 1853 and 1855. An attempt w a s m a d e t o u s e them
during the defense of Sevastopol.
T h e action of Russian r o c k e t e e r s a t the siege and capture of Ak-Mechet
in J u l y 1853 is probably the m o s t i m p r e s s i v e of all. A rocket detachment
under Ensign Johansen actively participated in the m i l i t a r y actions and
contributed a g r e a t deal t o the capture of the f o r t r e s s . During the
operation both high curving rocket fire was used, against the enemy under
cover, and aimed fire, t o clear him out of the breaches. Demolition rockets
w e r e a l s o used, to put the enemy's a r t i l l e r y out of action. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
flying detachments detailed f o r specific missions w e r e a l s o equipped with
rockets.
Military rockets w e r e a l s o successfully used in the s i e g e of S i l i s t r i a
and in the battles of Babadag, Karadag, and Kyuryuk-Dara. l o However,
m o r e widespread u s e of rocket a r m a m e n t in Russia was impeded by the
fact that, in s p i t e of the e v e r increasing demand f o r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s f r o m
the commanders of m i l i t a r y districts, the c e n t r a l w a r administration, a s
before, underestimated r o c k e t s a s a f o r m of a r m a m e n t and did little t o
f u r t h e r t h e i r development. T h e opinion in the W a r Ministry f o r a long
t i m e w a s that "this projectile will annoy the troop commanders, the
demand f o r i t will thus d e c r e a s e , and i t will then die a n a t u r a l death. 'I l 1
T h i s attitude made i t much h a r d e r t o improve rocket weapons. Konstantinov
wrote, "They r e g a r d e d this type of projectile a s having no future chance of
improvement, and therefore found it worthless because of i t s low
accuracy. I' l2
In the middle of the 1 8 5 0 ' s , however, the attitude of the highest
m i l i t a r y c i r c l e s in Russia began to change a little. Major r e a s o n s f o r
this w e r e the experience gained during the w a r of 1853-1856 in the u s e
of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s and the s u c c e s s e s attained in their development i n
other countries.
T h e position taken by government c i r c l e s is indicative of this change.
In September 1854 the W a r Minister V. A. Dolgorukov wrote that Nicholas I
"bearing in mind the considerable s u c c e s s e s in rocket r e s e a r c h in Austria,
England, and even F r a n c e , where t e s t s of rocket flight o v e r v e r y g r e a t
distances w e r e recently made, recognized the necessity of o u r a l s o devoting
the s t r i c t e s t attention t o the g r e a t e s t possible improvement of this type of
projectile, s o a s not t o l a g behind the foreigners.
After t h i s considerably m o r e attention was devoted to rocket a r m a m e n t
in Russia. Military rockets w e r e adopted in a l m o s t a l l m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s ,

44
and a r m i n g of the v e s s e l s of the Russian fleet with them w a s begun. It
was decided t o construct a new improved rocket plant in southern Russia.
T h e introduction of military rockets into the navy was brought up a s
e a r l y a s 1851, when Konstantinov s e n t t o the Admiralty a "Note on the
Introduction and Use of Military Rockets in the Navy" (Zapiska o vvedenii
i upotreblenii boevykh r a k e t na flote). l4 Remarking on the r e s p e c t s in
which rockets w e r e s u p e r i o r and inferior t o a r t i l l e r y , Konstantinov pointed
out the following applications which they would have in the navy:
"1. F o r action f r o m rowing boats against ships and the s h o r e .
"2. For action f r o m s h o r e b a t t e r i e s against ships.
"3. For u s e on land whenever the navy finds it n e c e s s a r y t o undertake
s h o r e offenses with i t s own weapons.
"4. For signalling and illumination.
"5. For throwing ropes. ' I l5
In o r d e r t o investigate in m o r e detail the possibility of using rockets
in the navy, Konstantinov proposed t o conduct experiments with the 2 "
m i l i t a r y rockets produced by PRZ. His proposal was discussed a t a
s e s s i o n of the Naval Study Committee16 and w a s adopted, though its
realization was long delayed.
Only s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r did the question begin t o find a p r a c t i c a l
resolution. In 1854 the Naval Rocket Training Detachment, one of whose
objectives was t o familiarize the Navy with military rockets, was founded.17
In 1855 i t was decided t o ship rockets to the p o r t s of Revel, Vyborg,
Sveaborg, and Kronshtadt to strengthen t h e i r defenses, and in 1856 s o m e
light v e s s e l s of the Russian w a r fleet w e r e equipped with rockets.
T h e Navy Department's demand f o r rockets correspondingly increased.
In F e b r u a r y 1857 the Admiralty requested P R Z t o manufacture 6 9 6 m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s f o r shipment t o the Baltic Fleet, a s follows: 180 2.5" with
explosive; 180 2.5" with case-shot; 288 4" incendiary rockets; and
48 2.5" with parachutes. Several hundred m o r e rockets w e r e o r d e r e d
f o r experimental purposes.
In March 1858 the W a r Ministry decided t o supply the Navy Department
with 50 4" incendiary rockets annually. 2o T h i s decision, however,
evidently a r o s e from the fact that rockets with m o i s t propellant could not
be p r e s e r v e d f o r a protracted period and w e r e of no value, once they
became unfit f o r use.
Throughout these y e a r s experiments on the u s e of rocket a r m a m e n t
in the fleet continued. In 1857 their r e s u l t s formed the b a s i s of the
"Rules f o r the U s e of Military Rockets on Rowing Boats and on Shore"
( P r a v i l a dlya upotrebleniya boevykh r a k e t na grebnykh sudakh i na beregu),
compiled by Lieutenant-Colonel Pestich.
The use of m i l i t a r y rockets in t h e fleet increased steadily throughout the
second half of the 1850's. The Gunpowder and Warehouse files of the
A r t i l l e r y Department contain many r e q u e s t s f r o m the Navy Department
f o r m i l i t a r y rockets f o r the ships of the Black Sea and Caspian flotillas,
f o r experiments, t o a r m ships setting out f o r the Amur estuary, and f o r
other purposes. 21
In J u l y 1859 the Naval Study Committee m e t t o discuss the application
of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in the Navy and t h e i r future development. "That o u r
m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s should b e made well, s a y s the C o m m i t t e e ' s Journal,
"is unquestionably a m a t t e r of the g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t t o the Navy, since

45
with r o c k e t s t h e s m a l l e s t rowboats c a n b e used f o r the d e s t r u c t i v e
bombardment of populated cities. Moreover, this can b e done a t a
r a n g e which m a k e s the rowboats, because they a r e s u c h s m a l l targets,
i n a c c e s s i b l e to any f o r m of ordnance on the s h o r e . Above all, r o c k e t s
a r e invaluable f o r landings, when they can be used to illuminate the s h o r e ,
give signals, and throw r o p e s to sinking ships. T h i s m a k e s i t c l e a r that
the a r m a m e n t of o u r s h i p s with good r o c k e t s to supplement t h e i r
conventional a r t i l l e r y would improve t h e i r m i l i t a r y qualities and heighten
m o r a l e , e s p e c i a l l y on long voyages. I f 22
T h e Naval Study Committee t h e r e f o r e c a m e to the conclusion that
"after n e c e s s a r y improvements r o c k e t s will be m o s t useful in the
Navy, 'I and gave the Navy's annual r e q u i r e m e n t s as 4400 m i l i t a r y
rockets-1100 of l a r g e c a l i b e r (4"), and 3300 of medium c a l i b e r (2.5").
When m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e adopted by the Navy, s p e c i a l attention w a s
devoted to the question of how ships on which comparatively heavy
a r t i l l e r y could not be installed might be equipped with r o c k e t s . "The
P r o p o s a l for Fitting out of Navy V e s s e l s with A r t i l l e r y Launched Objects"
(Polozhenie dlya snabzheniya sudov voennogo flota predmetami,
otpuskaemymi ot Artillerii), compiled in the 1860's, placed s p e c i a l
e m p h a s i s on the following:
"To a r m boats which because of the lightness of their construction
cannot c a r r y ordnance, and equally for action w h e r e needed f r o m the
boats themselves, 2.5" and 4" c a l i b e r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s with the
a p p r o p r i a t e p a r a p h e r n a l i a should be supplied a s follows:

Caliber
I
2.5'' military . . , .
case-shot .
4" incendiary. . . .
" with 1/2 pud
C18 l b l of explosive .
.~ .-

T o t a 1 on e a c h vessel I
N o t e : Military rockets, ar prescribed by the actual situation, should be supplied to the above-
mentioned vessels in t i m e of war. as w e l l as to vessels which are to undertake protracted voyages: in p e a c e -
t i m e , however, military rockets should be supplied annually, but only to training ships, for practical
exercises..

During the 1 8 5 0 ' s the efficient u s e of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w a s widely

d i s c u s s e d in print. 25 Konstantinov and his s u p p o r t e r s had to c a r r y on
a continual battle with those who opposed the u s e of r o c k e t s in the Russian
army.
During the 1850's and 1860's Konstantinov published a g r e a t many
a r t i c l e s on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of the production and application of m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s , and t r i e d to take advantage of e v e r y opportunity to promote the
idea of r o c k e t a r m a m e n t in m i l i t a r y c i r c l e s . AS e a r l y a s 1855 he remarked,
in a l e t t e r to Ya. I. Rostovtsev, Head of Military Schools and Academies,

46
'5
'/

that "the technological and m i l i t a r y a s p e c t s of rocket weapons might now

be made the subject of a s p e c i a l course, and I should be happy t o be
entrusted with the t a s k of instructing the gentleman officers of the s e n i o r
c l a s s in the A r t i l l e r y Academy in the following subjects: g e n e r a l theory
of design of m i l i t a r y rockets, and methods f o r t h e i r construction;
applications and t a c t i c s of rocket weapons; the history of rocket armament,
and in p a r t i c u l a r of the m i l i t a r y and technological a s p e c t s of i t s introduction
and subsequent development in Russia. I' 26
In 1860 Konstantinov delivered t o the officers of the Mikhailovskii
A r t i l l e r y Academy a series of l e c t u r e s based upon the many y e a r s of
r e s e a r c h and production at the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute. T h e subjects
covered included rocket design and manufacture and the importance of
r o c k e t s as a f o r m of armament, t a c t i c s t o b e followed by rocket
detachments, m e a n s f o r m e a s u r i n g the propulsive f o r c e of a rocket, and
description of a rocket ballistic pendulum.
In 1861 Konstantinov's l e c t u r e s on m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e printed in book
f o r m i n Paris, and w e r e p r a i s e d by s c i e n t i s t s and technicians alike. On
10 (new style 2 2 ) July 1861 Konstantinov w a s a guest a t the s e s s i o n of the
P a r i s Academy of Sciences, w h e r e he received a n expression of "thanks
f o r his contribution. 'I
"Under the modest name of lectures, 'I r a n the citation of the F r e n c h
Academy, "General Konstantinov has written a detailed work on the
manufacture and u s e of m i l i t a r y rockets, a type of projectile which, though
t e r r i b l e in action, is s t i l l l i t t l e known. I ' 2 9
Konstantinov's l e c t u r e s w e r e generally p r a i s e d in the world p r e s s , as
the following excerpts from contemporary periodicals show:
" F r o m a scientific point of view the new work is of the g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t
and should a t t r a c t the attention of a l l particularly i n t e r e s t e d in the
manufacture of m i l i t a r y rockets" (Le Nord, F r a n c e ) . 30
"This work gives a full description of r o c k e t s which until now have been
little studied. T h e l e a r n e d g e n e r a l d i s c u s s e s the advantages of rockets a s
m i l i t a r y projectiles, the benefits derived from them, t h e i r manufacture,
the magnitude of t h e i r propulsive force, the improvements made in England,
Austria, F r a n c e , and Russia, a s well a s a completely new method f o r t h e i r
production, and machines and stands of his own invention, constructed in the
renowned F a r c o t workshop. Finally, he mentions the organization of troops
using rockets. We have r e a d this book with the g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t and now
p r e s e n t a s h o r t excerpt from it in o r d e r to acquaint our r e a d e r s with it"
(Cosmos, F r a n c e ) . 31
" F o r the s a k e of science one m u s t hope that this invaluable book will soon
.
be t r a n s l a t e d into G e r m a n . . W e do not know another book p o s s e s s i n g a l l the
f e a t u r e s of General Konstantinov's work. It shows what rapid and powerful
p r o g r e s s R u s s i a is making in the development of h e r a r t s and s c i e n c e s "
(Militar-Zeitung, Austria). 3 2
"The appearance of this work m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as a n important mile-
stone in m i l i t a r y l i t e r a t u r e , since i t p r e s e n t s with scientific thoroughness
and in generally a c c e s s i b l e form a subject about which (excluding f o r m e r
w o r k s of the s a m e author) until now only f r a g m e n t a r y and superficial
information has been made available in print" (Allgemeine Militar-Zeitung,
P r u s s i a ) . 33

41
 "This r e m a r k a b l e work is of r e a l i n t e r e s t not only t o those s o l d i e r s
who m u s t a t l e a s t b e acquainted with the n e c e s s a r y data in o r d e r to
d i s c u s s the question of rocket armament, but even t o a r t i l l e r y technicians
concerned with rocket design and production" (Artilleriiskii Zhurnal,
Russia).
"Military Rockets" was obviously highly r e g a r d e d in a number of
countries as a significant event in the development of rocketry.
At the end of the 1850's and beginning of the 1860's Konstantinov
continued his experiments towards the development of b e t t e r designs
for m i l i t a r y rockets, emphasizing layout, or, a s he t e r m e d it, "the
internal design of rockets. I '
T h e experiments performed by Konstantinov with a rocket ballistic
pendulum showed that the propulsive f o r c e is developed exclusively by
the combustion around the ignition channel and of a p a r t of the blank
propellant equal in thickness t o the l a y e r surrounding the ignition channel.
According to Konstantinov's data the combustion of the r e m a i n d e r of the
blank propellant made a l m o s t no contribution t o the reactive force.
Konstantinov f u r t h e r concluded that the combustion of this p a r t of the
blank propellant, in addition t o having practically no useful effect,
contributed t o untrue rocket flight by constantly changing the m a s s of
the r o c k e t s and thereby shifting t h e i r c e n t e r of gravity.
In a n attempt t o r e m e d y this deficiency, in 1859 Konstantinov suggested
replacing a p a r t of the blank propellant R ( F i g u r e 12a), exceeding in
thickness the l a y e r surrounding the ignition channel, by an incombustible
substance A , consisting of a mixture of clay and white r e s i n . Fire w a s
t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m the rocket propellant t o the incombustible packing through
a tube B , filled with a gunpowder mixture. Improved v e r s i o n s of t h e s e
rockets b e c a m e known a s 1859-ers [rockets of the 1859 design].
Even p r e l i m i n a r y experiments demonstrated the improved quality of
the new rockets, They flew m o r e stably and ( a t l e a s t at f i r s t ) had a s u r e
m e a n s of f i r i n g the explosive c h a r g e of the projectile. However, t h e s e
rockets had one s e r i o u s drawback: a f t e r prolonged s t o r a g e the substance
packed into the blank propellant channel became damp, often turning into
a solid dirty m a s s which obstructed passage of f i r e t o ignite the explosive
charge. T o counter this, Konstantinov suggested using a solid, r a t h e r than
a m o i s t compound f o r the two l a s t fills, and the proposal was adopted.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the d i a m e t e r of the channel in the copper tube T , located in
the incombustible mixture, w a s increased. T h e s e rockets c a m e t o be
known a s 1862-ers [ r o c k e t s of the 1862 design] ( F i g u r e 12b).
More changes in rocket design w e r e made a t the end of 1862.
Experiments had shown the m i x t u r e of clay and r e s i n t o be s o dependable
that the thickness of the l a y e r could b e considerably reduced, which would
correspondingly p e r m i t lengthening of the ignition channel.
Reducing the thickness of the clay layer, however, made the forward
p a r t of the rocket lighter and thereby l e d t o a reduction of flight
accuracy. In o r d e r t o compensate f o r the weight of the blank filling
that had been removed a t first a lead circle was placed above the rocket
propellant, and s o m e t i m e later the incombustible p a r t of the blank
propellant began t o be made entirely of lead.
T h e so-called 1863 r o c k e t s w e r e thus developed (Figure 1 2 ~ ) . Unlike
the 1862 rockets, they had a considerably thinner l a y e r of blank propellant,

48
I

FIGURE 12. Russian 2" [military rockets (1859- 1863).

a- 1859 design, b - 1862 design. c - 1863 design, d- planned design for 1867.

49
and i t s incombustible p a r t w a s made of lead, r a t h e r than clay and r e s i n
soaked in turpentine. T h e length of the ignition channel w a s i n c r e a s e d f r o m
9.75" to 11.5".
At f i r s t the 1863 r o c k e t s w e r e packed, a s before, with m o i s t r o c k e t
propellant, but P R Z did not abandon the idea of t r a n s i t i o n to a d r y
propellant consisting of a m i x t u r e of gunpowder pulp with a carbonaceous
product. In 1862-1863 e x p e r i m e n t s with r o c k e t s packed with both wet
and d r y propellants again showed the s u p e r i o r a c c u r a c y and r a n g e obtained
with the l a t t e r . T h e dry-propellant 1863 r o c k e t s , c o m p a r e d with the 1862
rockets, "had g r e a t e r initial velocity, g r e a t e r velocity throughout flight,
g r e a t e r flatness, g r e a t e r accuracy, and finally, much longer range.
It would s e e m that the m o s t p e r f e c t type of r o c k e t s had been found. In
o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t a final conclusion as to t h e i r quality it w a s decided to
produce 7 7 0 r o c k e t s a t P R Z (385 with wet and 385 with d r y propellant),
including signal r o c k e t s and illuminating f l a r e s a s well as m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s
( s e e Table 9 ) , 3 6 in o r d e r to conduct final t e s t s for purposes of c o m p a r i s o n
a t Nikolaev.

TABLE 9. List of [2"] rockets prepared for tests a t Nikolaev

-
Number of rockets
1862 design 1863 design
(wet propellant) (dry propellant)
- ~- .. ~~ . _ _ -_ _. ._

Two-pounders with explosives for target fire . . . 100 100

Ten-pounders with elongated explosives for high
angle fire . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 50
Five-pounders with elongared explosives for high
angle fire . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 50
Incendiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 20
Long range case-shot rockets carrying 20 spherical
lead rifle bullets, each weighing 7 zolotniki
[about 1.1 021 . . . . . . . . . . . 20 20
Short range case-shot rockets carrying 35 spherical
lead rifle bullets, each weighing I zolotniki
[about 1.1 021 . . . . . . . . . . . 20 20
With 1/2-pud [18-lbl luminous balls . . . . 25 25
With 1'4-pud [Y-lb] luminous balls . . . . . 25 25
With luniinous ball equipped with parachute . . . 50 50
To be cquipped with shot or Schwxriner . . . . 25 25
____- .. ~~ ~- -
Total . . . . . . . . . . . 385 385
. -_
Grand t o t a l . . . . . . . . . 110

Here, however, the insufficient technical equipment of P R Z showed

itself fully s i n c e it m a d e i t impossible to obtain a uniform r o c k e t
propellant. Even in the f i r s t s e r i e s of experiments conducted i n
P e t e r s b u r g , it w a s r e v e a l e d that in a number of c a s e s the r o c k e t
propellant w a s s o powerful as t o r e s u l t in b u r s t i n g of t h e casings. Of
168 r o c k e t s launched, two b u r s t on the stand, while in a third, thc blank
p a r t w a s dislodged inside the r o c k e t casing, though without b u r s t i n g of
the r o c k e t i t s e l f . 37

50
 It w a s n e c e s s a r y t o develop a rocket design which would not p e r m i t
possible changes in the power of the rocket propellant and i t s destructive
f o r c e t o exceed a c e r t a i n predetermined limit, but the impending shut-
down of P R Z made this difficult. It proved possible t o build and test only
t h r e e rockets, a l l of whose specifications w e r e as before, except that the
proportion of sulfur in the propellant w a s i n c r e a s e d considerably. T h e
formula of F r e n c h blasting powder (62 % nitrates, 18 70 sulfur, 20 7 0
carbonaceous product), the weakest of those used f o r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s
with a c e n t r a l tail, w a s used (see p. 65).
Experiments made f o r purposes of comparison showed that with these
rockets the danger of a n explosion w a s reduced, but a t the cost of a
reduction in range (on the average, of about 230 s a g e n e s [537 yards]).
T h i s concluded r e s e a r c h on m i l i t a r y rockets a t the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket
Institute. Subsequently, a t Nikolaev, a number of experiments w e r e
performed a s a b a s i s f o r the choice of designs f o r r o c k e t s which w e r e
then a s s e m b l e d at the Nikolaev Rocket Plant.
T h e p r o g r e s s made in Russian rocket r e s e a r c h up t o the beginning of
the 1860's w a s unquestioned, but a t the s a m e period the f a c t o r s which
would soon r e s u l t in the abandonment of rockets a s m i l i t a r y weapons began
c l e a r l y t o e m e r g e . A s e a r l y a s the 1850's i t b e c a m e c l e a r that rockets
using black smoky powder could not compete with a r t i l l e r y in range and
power. In 1851, in his "Note on the Introduction and U s e of Military
Rockets in the Navy, ' I Konstantinov noted that m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s "must
cede t o a r t i l l e r y pieces both in their inferior striking power and lesser
accuracy in flight. " 3 8 In 1863, in his "Military Rockets in Russia from
the End of 1861 t o the Beginning of 1863" (Boevye rakety v R o s s i i s
kontsa 1861 g. PO nachalo 1863 g.), Konstantinov stated outright: "I a m
f a r from thinking that r o c k e t s can compete with conventional a r t i l l e r y ,
but they s t i l l have an enormous field of application in cases where f o r what-
e v e r r e a s o n s i t is impossible o r inconvenient t o u s e conventional a r t i l l e r y ,
smooth o r rifled, o r t o p e r f o r m actions impossible with a r t i l l e r y pieces.
In spite of the fact that the rockets of the 1860's w e r e considerably b e t t e r
than those of the preceding decade, they w e r e s t i l l essentially inferior to the
rapidly developing a r t i l l e r y projectiles in both range and flight accuracy,
and could s e r v e only a s supplementary weapons when f o r s o m e r e a s o n i t
w a s awkward t o u s e a r t i l l e r y pieces.
T h i s idea was reflected in the r e f e r e n c e book f o r a r t i l l e r y officers which
c a m e out during the f i r s t half of the sixties, in which i t was emphasized that
"rocket weapons, which constitute a powerful auxiliary to artillery, a r e
distinguished by their mobility, adaptability to any s o r t of t e r r a i n , and
application in e v e r y field of w a r . " * O
T h e r e followed a comparison of military rockets and a r t i l l e r y pieces,
with discussion of t h e i r respective advantages and drawbacks. According
to the "Reference Book, I ' "One can l i s t the following advantages of rockets:
"1) Rockets can be taken wherever a single infantryman has access.
2 ) Rocket launching r e q u i r e s negligible space and m a k e s i t possible t o u s e
e v e r y topographic feature f o r cover of both stand and crew. 3 ) E a s e of
movement and action in highly dissected t e r r a i n , with the resulting g r e a t
advantage of s u r p r i s e . 4 ) Rockets can be used in dense woods. 5) E a s e
of t r a n s p o r t a c r o s s r i v e r s on v e r y s m a l l boats, s a f e action being possible
even during the crossing. 6 ) T h e combination of projectile and propulsive

51
 f o r c e in r o c k e t s m a k e s i t possible to u s e them without any stand whatso-
e v e r , launching them from the earth, from the slope of a parapet, from
a n e m b r a s u r e , etc. 7 ) When houses are occupied during a battle, the
windows and balconies of e v e r y storey, a s well a s the roofs, can s e r v e
a s convenient battle positions. 8 ) T h e speed with which r o c k e t s can b e
fired. Since cleaning and frequent aiming of the muzzle a r e dispensed
with, i t i s possible t o fire 4 shots a minute. 9) T h e s m a l l c r e w s required
f o r rocket launching, and the s m a l l number of h o r s e s r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s p o r t
military supplies f o r rocket b a t t e r i e s in the field constitute a n economic and
tactical advantage. 10) When n e c e s s a r y rockets can be destroyed in the
sight of the enemy and t o his detriment. 11) After r o c k e t s a r e used up, no
awkward equipment, w o r t h l e s s in battle, but constituting a load which
impedes movement and r e q u i r e s defense, is left. 1 2 ) T h e fact that the l o s s
of stands is not s e r i o u s , because of the e a s e with which they can be replaced,
m a k e s i t e a s y t o decide on sudden ventures which involve the inevitable
loss of ordnance. 1 3 ) Rockets can be a r m e d with explosive projectiles in
thin-walled m e t a l envelopes, which do not explode during the r o c k e t ' s flight
and penetration into the earth, but because of the low r e s i s t a n c e t o the
explosion, a c t with a l l t h e i r f o r c e against the e a r t h and thereby have a
m o r e powerful effect than hollow cast-iron a r t i l l e r y projectiles.
"The deficiencies of m i l i t a r y rockets include the following: 1) The
low initial velocity of rockets, by comparison with a r t i l l e r y projectiles,
which m a k e s i t impossible t o u s e them for the destruction of heavy objects,
such a s stone pavements, walls, and s i m i l a r constructions. 2 ) As a
consequence of this deficiency, rockets a r e less t r u e in flight than
a r t i l l e r y , especially in t a r g e t fire; an additional r e a s o n f o r this in our
military aimed rockets is that until now we have had only the m o s t inadequate
mechanical r e s o u r c e s f o r the sound manufacture of rockets. 3) T h e un-
fitness of r o c k e t s a f t e r protracted s t o r a g e is a d i r e c t consequence of this
deficiency of mechanical m e a n s f o r their m o r e careful construction. 4) As
f a r a s rocket t r a n s p o r t is concerned, it can b e said that if rockets
constituted a g r e a t e r load and volume than conventional a r t i l l e r y with the
appurtenant m i l i t a r y supplies, intended f o r exactly the s a m e purpose a s the
rockets, the r o c k e t s would have the advantage of a m o r e readily divisible
load. 5 ) The weakness of case-shot f i r e from rockets can be compensated
f o r by the speed of shooting by this projectile.
Although this comparison was made by a keen advocate of rockets, 42
it only showed once again that m i l i t a r y rockets a r e s u p e r i o r t o a r t i l l e r y
pieces only in r a r e instances, and m u s t generally be held much inferior
t o them.
By the end of the 1 8 6 0 1 s the u s e of rocket weapons had been discontinued
in m o s t of the m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s of European Russia, though they continued
t o be used (in greatly diminished numbers) in the Caucasus and in Asiatic
military districts.
A table43 of the a v e r a g e r a n g e s of m i l i t a r y rockets will give an idea of
the r e s u l t s attained by the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute.

52
TABLE 10. Average range of military rockets (1860's)

Launching Average range

Weight of
Type of rocket elevation, in sagenes [yards
projectile'
degrees given in brackets]

Aimed fire

2" military . . . . . . . . . . 12 2 l b 1.2 oz 450-500 [1050-1167]

case-shot . . . . . . . 14 21b 9 oz 200" [467]
2.5" military . . . . . . . . 14 31b 11.10~ 500 -650 [ 1167 - 15161
case-shot . . . . . . . 16 3 l b 12.9 02 300" 17001
4" incendiary . . . . . . . . . 45 1 2 lb 3.6 oz izooo [4666]

High angle fire

2" with 6-lb spherical grenade . . . . 45 6 lb 3.6 oz 450 [lo501

2" with 9-lb grenade . . .
. . . . 45 9 lb 10.902 240 [560]
2.5" with 9-lb grenade. . .
. . . . 45 9 l b 10.9 02 525 112251
2.5" with 18-lb grenade . .
. . . . 45 2 1 lb 225 [525]
4" with 9-lb grenade . . . . . . . 50 9 l b 10.9 oz 1950 145491
4" with 18-lb grenade . . . . . . . 50 2 1 lb 850 [1983]
4" with 36-lh grenade . . . . . . . 50 40 Ib 7.2 0 2 450 [lo501
L -1 I
* [In the Russian text the weights are given in pounds and zolotniki, the latter being equivalent to about
0.15 ounces. For the convenience of the reader these have been changed t o pounds and ounces.]
** For case-shot rockets the figures given are not for range, but for the distance at which the case-shot
grenades cxploded.

MEANS FOR STABILIZATION O F ROCKETS

One of the m o s t important problems confronting those working to
improve m i l i t a r y rockets was that of stability, to e n s u r e which, rockets,
like any other elongated bodies, required s p e c i a l devices t o maintain their
longitudinal axis in a c e r t a i n position during flight,
T h e s i m p l e s t m e a n s of stabilization, which was used for pyrotechnic
r o c k e t s and generally gave fairly satisfactory results, was a longitudinal
b a r (the rocket t a i l ) . This was the form of stabilizer adopted by Kartmazov
and Zasyadko, the f i i s t Russian designers of military rockets.
Subsequently rocket tails became m o r e complicated. Realizing that the
shape of the s t a b i l i z e r has considerable influence on t r u e n e s s of flight,
d e s i g n e r s t r i e d to give the rocket tail a form which would p e r m i t the
c l o s e s t shot grouping. F u r t h e r m o r e , practical considerations, such a s
the weight of the tail, and the e a s e withwhichit couldbe stored, transported,
and attached t o the rocket, w e r e a l s o taken into account.
For a long time PRZ used eight-sided t a i l s in the shape of a truncated
pyramid, but four-sided p r i s m a t i c tails w e r e introduced by Konstantinov
in 1851. 44 T h e s e featured a number of improvements, but w e r e s t i l l
too long, which made them awkward t o s t o r e and t r a n s p o r t .
In 1855, after becoming f a m i l i a r with F r e n c h military rockets brought
f r o m Sevastopol, P R Z conducted experiments with rockets having
shortened tails, of the s a m e d i a m e t e r a s the rocket casings. 46
T h e s h o r t grooved t a i l s w e r e considerably lighter and not much m o r e
than half the length of the previous four-sided ones ( 4 ft, r a t h e r than 7 ft),
which made them much e a s i e r t o t r a n s p o r t and improved t h e i r range some-
what. A s a r e s u l t the new tails w e r e approved, and a l m o s t all the military

53
 r o c k e t s produced by PRZ up t o the beginning of the 1 8 6 0 ' s w e r e fitted with
them. It w a s soon found, however, that the grooved t a i l s w e r e not at a l l
durable: they often b r o k e d u r i n g shipment, and a l m o s t e n t i r e l y excluded
rebounds, s i n c e on the first rebound the tails b r o k e a t the point of their
attachment to the rocket.
At the beginning of the sixties, therefore, P R Z again turned t o the
problem of a design f o r r o c k e t tails, and t e s t e d t h r e e m o d e l s ( F i g u r e 13).
A l l t h r e e w e r e joined to the r o c k e t c a s i n g in exactly the s a m e way: a
p a r t of the r o c k e t tail, shaped like a truncated cone and covered with thin
s h e e t i r o n to p r o t e c t it f r o m scorching, w a s i n s e r t e d into the tailpipe; the
r e m a i n d e r of the tail, of the s a m e d i a m e t e r a s the casing, w a s not covered
with i r o n and took one of the following t h r e e f o r m s :
A - cylindrical with an i n t e r n a l void and an elongated pointed tip;
B - cylindrical with t h r e e longitudinal, p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e e p e r grooves;
C - cylindrical with t r a n s v e r s e rifling a t the end. 46
T e s t s showed that in both a i m e d and high angle f i r e the b e s t r e s u l t s
w e r e obtained with r o c k e t s equipped with B tails, i. e., the conical-
cylindrical type with t h r e e longitudinal grooves in t h e cylindrical section,
becoming p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e e p e r towards the r e a r end of the tail. On a 2"
rocket, this tail w a s 3 feet in length.
B e s i d e s improving accuracy, t h e s e tails permitted the u s e of b a s e plates
with s i x exhaust orifices, whose advantages had been known s i n c e the e a r l y
1 8 5 0 ' s ( s e e p. 42). A s mentioned above, a t that time a l a r g e quantity
of b a s e plates with s i x o r i f i c e s w a s manufactired, but they could not be used
b e c a u s e the s h o r t grooved tails introduced after 1 8 5 5 r e q u i r e d a number of
o r i f i c e s equal to the number of grooves, which could not exceed five except
a t the c o s t of weakening the intervening s u r f a c e s .
T h e B tails w e r e recognized as the b e s t and recommended f o r f u r t h e r
production, but even they did not give fully s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . Rocket
flight w a s still insufficiently true, and the c l o s e n e s s of shot grouping left
a g r e a t deal to be d e s i r e d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , the long r o c k e t tails, which considerably exceeded the
length of the r o c k e t itself, w e r e v e r y awkward to use, t r a n s p o r t , and
s t o r e . It is not s u r p r i s i n g t h e r e f o r e that m o s t countries began to s e e k
another m e a n s of stabilization for r o c k e t s .
In R u s s i a the f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t s in this direction w e r e made in the
Okhtensk Gunpowder P l a n t in the 1 8 4 0 ' s . Signal r o c k e t s w e r e built, with
the long tails replaced e i t h e r by much s h o r t e r stabilizing s u r f a c e s , which
c a m e to be known a s wings, or by t r i a n g u l a r p r i s m s of thin c a r d b o a r d ( s e e
Appendix 6, p. 182).
In a l l probability efforts w e r e made to apply this type of stabilization to
pyrotechnic r o c k e t s a t the s a m e time. In 1 8 5 3 the "Artilleriiiskii Zhurnal"
c a r r i e d an a r t i c l e entitled "Some Improvements in the A r t of F i r e w o r k s "
(0 nekotorykh usovershenstvovaniyakh v feierverochnom iskusstve), 47
whose author r e p o r t e d that s i n c e 1 8 4 8 he had repeatedly and successfully
used r o c k e t s stabilized in flight by t r a p e z i f o r m wings made of doubly folded
c a r d b o a r d . It has not proved possible to identify the author (the a r t i c l e
w a s unsigned), but, to judge by the fact that Russian m e a s u r e s a r e used
throughout (foot, lot, zolotnik, arshin), one can a s s u m e that the a r t i c l e
w a s original and not a translation.

54
 A

__....---
8
.-.------
E

FIGURE 13. Different types of rocket tails.

 T h e inconveniences r e s u l t i n g f r o m the large dimensions of r o c k e t s w e r e
felt especially keenly i n the navy, and i t is t h e r e f o r e not s u r p r i s i n g that the
Navy Department devoted g r e a t attention t o finding s o m e other m e a n s of
stabilization t o r e p l a c e r o c k e t t a i l s . In the 1850's the F r e n c h Navy had
introduced winged s i g n a l r o c k e t s ( F i g u r e 14a), consisting of paper casings
with a c a p filled with shot. A wooden p r i s m supporting t h r e e woodenwings
w a s fastened t o the casing b y w i r e .
During t h e s i x t i e s s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e in Russia, as well, t o
r e p l a c e the rocket t a i l b y stabilizing s u r f a c e s (then called wings). In 1864
Vishnyakov, the f o r e m a n of the Kronshtadt Laboratory, proposed f o r t e s t i n g
a r o c k e t design of his own invention, which featured wings attached t o the
m a i n body by s p e c i a l w i r e s . T h e e x p e r i m e n t s with Vishnyakov's r o c k e t s i n
1864 and 1865, however, did not give positive r e s u l t s , and w e r e soon
discontinued.
In November 1865 the Naval Technical Committee received a new
proposal f o r the t e s t i n g of r o c k e t s with stabilizing s u r f a c e s , this t i m e
submitted by Captain Kalinnikov of the Naval A r t i l l e r y Detachment. 4 9
Kalinnikov's r o c k e t s differed f r o m those of Vishnyakov i n the
m e a n s of attaching the wings t o the rocket body, but even a f t e r
s o m e changes in design winged r o c k e t s failed t o give s a t i s f a c t o r y
results .
In 1866 A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Z h u r n a l published a n a r t i c l e by Staff-Captain
Skripchinskii, entitled "Parachute Rockets and Rockets with Wings''
( P a r a s h y u t - r a k e t y i r a k e t y s kryl'yami), which d e s c r i b e d the a u t h o r ' s
e x p e r i m e n t s on r o c k e t s with stabilizing s u r f a c e s . 5o
As Skripchinskii noted, his rocket wings ( F i g u r e 14c) w e r e made of wood,
and consisted of a r o d u s e d t o attach the wing t o the rockets, and the wing
itself, which had the f o r m of a p a r a l l e l o g r a m . A groove w a s made i n the
edge of the r o d contiguous with the rocket ( s e e c r o s s section along C D ) , and
i t had two e x t e r n a l notches bb, which s e r v e d t o attach the wing t o the rocket.
On both s i d e s the wing had longitudinal grooves in s t a g g e r e d r o w s (see
c r o s s section along A B ) , whose number depended on the s i z e of the wing,
t o lighten it. T h e wings w e r e given a t a p e r e d leading edge t o r e d u c e air
resistance.
Skripchinskii's a r t i c l e a t t r a c t e d the attention of r o c k e t r y experts, and
the November 1867 number of "Artilleriiskii Zhurnal" c a r r i e d a n a r t i c l e
by the D i r e c t o r of the Riga Pyrotechnic Laboratory, signed P. M., which
w a s evidently a reply t o it. T h i s a r t i c l e dealt with exactly the s a m e
subjects51 and pointed out that the Riga Pyrotechnic Laboratory, which
constructed pyrotechnic r o c k e t s f o r s a l e t o private p a r t i e s , had been
experimenting with winged r o c k e t s s i n c e 1862. Wings of various s h a p e s
and m a d e of various m a t e r i a l s had been tested, and t h e b e s t had proved
t o be wooden ones having the f o r m of a p a r a l l e l o g r a m . T h e dimensions of
the wings are given in T a b l e 11.
Despite the f a i l u r e of the f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t s on winged r o c k e t s i n 1864-
1866, e a g e r n e s s t o do away with the c l u m s y r o c k e t t a i l s w a s s o g r e a t that
the Navy Department took the m a t t e r u p again. At the beginning of 1867
experiments f o r the c o m p a r i s o n of Kalinnikov's and Skripchinskii's winged
r o c k e t s w e r e held. They indicated the s u p e r i o r i t y of the f o r m e r , 52 with
the r e s u l t that f u r t h e r t e s t s w e r e decided upon. In 1868 Kalinnikov's winged
r o c k e t s w e r e tested on the a r t i l l e r y training frigate "Sevastopol, ' I but on

56
I

this occasion, too, they failed t o give s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , T h e r e a f t e r ,

experiments with winged r o c k e t s w e r e terminated.

I I C r l I R F 1-1. Winged r<,ckets.

a - ,ignal rocket adc>pted by the French Navy, b - rocket with cardboard w i h g s , described
by (:hicliitiad~e, c - t o c l ~ wt i I h wooden wings, as uaed by Skripchinskii.

Tn considering the various m e a n s of rocket stabilization adopted in

Russia in the 19th century, one is s t r u c k by the a l m o s t total absence of

Lciigthofi*ing. . . . .,.48
Width of w i n g . . . . 3.10
Thickness of wing . . . 0.40
L\.ngthofrm! . . . . 7 .oo

N u t c : The left half of c a c h coluinn refers to Skripchinikll's r x k r t s : the right. t o those built by the
Riga Pyrotechnic I.aboratory.

suggestions to m a k e u s e of the r o c k e t ' s rotation. At f i r s t glance this

s e e m s strange, the m o r e s o since this problem a t t r a c t e d considerable
attention in other countries. In fact, according to Konstantinov, in America,
 as e a r l y a s 1815, e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e m a d e with r o c k e t s made to r o t a t e by
helical exhaust o r i f i c e s .in t h e b a s e plate. 53
In 1824 P a r l b y proposed to the B r i t i s h a r m y in India the u s e of r o c k e t s
made to r o t a t e by s p e c i a l devices placed in the s t r e a m of exhaust g a s e s .
A s i m i l a r m e a n s of stabilization w a s suggested in 1846 by the F r e n c h
a r t i l l e r y officer Goupille, whose r o c k e t s w e r e equipped with a s h o r t
helical band placed in the s t r e a m of exhaust g a s e s . Rotation w a s produced
by the p r e s s u r e of the exhaust g a s e s a g a i n s t the oblique s u r f a c e s of t h e
helix.
In other experiments, m a d e in F r a n c e in 1831, the r o c k e t s w e r e m a d e
t o r o t a t e by s p e c i a l projections i n s e r t e d into s l o t s on the inner s u r f a c e of
the launching tubes. T h e b e s t known r o t a t i n g rockets, however, w e r e those
of Hale, which w e r e made t o r o t a t e by s p i r a l exhaust ducts in the b a s e
plate.
H a l e ' s r o c k e t s w e r e t e s t e d in many countries, including Russia, but
again failed to give positive r e s u l t s .
By the middle of the 19th century, then, r o c k e t d e s i g n e r s seeking
m e a n s of improved stabilization had a l r e a d y suggested the following
methods for making r o c k e t s rotate:
1 ) fitting the o u t e r s u r f a c e of the r o c k e t with projections and launching
i t f r o m a notched tube;
2 ) fitting the r o c k e t body w i t h oblique s u r f a c e s a c t e d upon by a i r c u r r e n t s ;
3) placing such s u r f a c e s in the s t r e a m of exhaust g a s e s ;
4) making s p i r a l exhaust o r i f i c e s in the b a s e plate.
All of t h e s e methods w e r e known in R u s s i a and w e r e repeatedly r e c a l l e d
in Konstantinov's l e c t u r e notes and printed p a p e r s . However, no
proposals f o r the adoption of such m e a n s of stabilization came f r o m R u s s i a n
inventors (with the exception of Lieutenant B e r d y ~ g i n ) and , ~ ~no r e s e a r c h
w a s done on them a t P R Z .
T h e unsuccessful t e s t s of H a l e ' s r o c k e t s , held in P e t e r s b u r g in 1850, w e r e
a likely r e a s o n f o r this. T h e occasion f o r t h e s e t e s t s w a s a l e t t e r f r o m the
B r i t i s h engineer Nottingham, who offered (naturally f o r a p p r o p r i a t e
r e m u n e r a t i o n ) t o acquaint R u s s i a n s with H a l e ' s m i l i t a r y r o c k e t ? . 56
Nottingham r e m a r k e d that H a l e ' s rockets, while in no way i n f e r i o r
to, and in s o m e ways s u r p a s s i n g conventional r o c k e t s w i t h tails, w e r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y distinguished by the lack of a clumsy tail, by g r e a t e r
compactness, and by low c o s t (he claimed that they cost about 3 0 % l e s s
than Congreve r o c k e t s ) .
T h e l e t t e r w a s s e n t to the Naval Study Committee, which duly decided
to test the r o c k e t s in o r d e r to gain a p r a c t i c a l idea of t h e i r quality.
Nottingham t h e r e f o r e c a m e to P e t e r s b u r g , bringing with him s o m e Hale
r o c k e t s manufactured in England. The e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d on
theVolkovafield in August 1850. On t h e 14th, only Hale r o c k e t s w e r e
tested, and on the 17th, they w e r e t e s t e d together with R u s s i a n r o c k e t s
manufactured by P R Z .
T h e r e s u l t s obtained by t h e Hale r o c k e t s w e r e e x t r e m e l y poor, only
one of the 1 3 r o c k e t s launched on the f i r s t day s t r i k i n g a t a r g e t
s c r e e n placed 300 s a g e n e s [ Y O 0 y a r d s ] f r o m the launching point. T h e i r
flight w a s e x t r e m e l y inaccurate, with a range of f r o m 170 to 500 s a g e n e s
[397 to 1167 y a r d s ] for the f i r s t s t r i k e , and l a t e r a l deviations as much a s
48 paces. Even w o r s e r e s u l t s w e r e obtained on the second day, when

58
the Hale rockets proved inferior t o the P R Z rockets in e v e r y respect,
a s shown in Table 1 2 .

TABLE 12. Coinparative data obtained In rests of Hale and PRZ rockets

Range of first Maximum

Number of Number
strike. Sagenes lateral
rockets striking
[yards given in deviation.
I au nc hed
brackets] paces

Hale rockets .
PRZ rockers . 72- 382 [168- 8911
~

The Naval Study Committee concluded from these t e s t s that the rockets
brought by Nottingham w e r e inferior t o those used by the Russian a r m y in
accuracy, and also, taking into account the difference in caliber, in range.
Moreover, Hale's r o c k e t s w e r e costlier, not cheaper, than the P R Z
rockets. I t is t r u e that they w e r e considerably m o r e compact and
convenient t o transport, but a s the Committee journal remarked, "this
is a minor advantage, of significance only in conjunction with s u p e r i o r
flight a c c u r a c y and effectiveness." 57 The Committee therefore decided
t o r e j e c t Nottingham's proposal to import Hale rockets into Russia. 58
How w e r e the low quality of the Hale rockets and their failure in the
t e s t s to be explained? Konstantinov, who in his papers had repeatedly
considered the possibility of replacing rocket tails by other m e a n s of
stabilization, gave considerable attention to these questions. After
analyzing the r e s u l t s of the exoeriments, h e concluded that the m a j o r
deficiency of Hale's rockets was "the difficclty in obtaining fully developed
rotation before the rocket began t o advance, ' I while "for the rotational
motion to i n c r e a s e the a c c u r a c y of the projectile's translational motion, it
m u s t be s e t up about a c e r t a i n axis tangent t o the trajectory, and m u s t be
fully developed before the axis of rotation c e a s e s t o be supported. I t 59
Konstantinov pointed out that communication of additional r o t a r y momentum
to a rocket in flight can change the position of the longitudinal axis and can
thus be "a new s o u r c e of inaccuracy and straying in flight. '6I
F u r t h e r m o r e , all these m e a n s of impartine; rotation to the rocket
d e c r e a s e d the energy of i t s translational motion, which led to a
corresponding d e c r e a s e of range.
"These r e a s o n s alone, " wrote Konstantinov in 1860, 'lare enough to
u r g e abandonment of the idea of using rotational movement to improve
the a c c u r a c y of rocket flight, but to them m u s t be added the necessity of
using a v e r y heavy and complicated launching stand, which would destroy
the principal advantage of these rockets - the e a s e with which they can be
transported.
T h e negative attitude of Russian rocket designers towards stabilization
by rotation is t h e r e f o r e readily understood. Only in the middle of the
sixties did Konstantinov a l t e r his views, and then only t o the extent of
saying that f i r s t p r i o r i t y should be given t o the production of military
r o c k e t s with tails, testing of rotating rockets c l e a r l y being of minor
importance.

59
 FIRST ATTEMPTS T O LAY THE THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS FOR ROCKETRY

Konstantinov's g r e a t s e r v i c e t o the development of rocket engineering

in R u s s i a w a s in making the first attempt at a scientific approach t o rocket
design and production.
In s o m e countries w o r k on a theory of rocket motion had begun as
e a r l y as the f i r s t q u a r t e r of the 19th century. I n t e r e s t in the subject
a r o s e f r o m the widespread u s e of rockets f o r m i l i t a r y purposes in m o s t
of Europe, but this e a r l y work was r a t h e r a b s t r a c t in c h a r a c t e r , full of
e r r o r s and inaccuracies, w a s not applied t o any p r a c t i c a l purpose, and
had absolutely no influence on the contemporary development of
rocketry. 62
The first attempt to c r e a t e a theory of rocket motion w a s made by the
B r i t i s h a r t i l l e r y m a n W. Moore, who examined a number of s p e c i a l
problems, with and without taking into account the r e s i s t a n c e of the
medium.
At f i r s t Moore attempted t o derive the differential equations of motion
of the center of inertia of the rocket along the vertical, to obtain a
formula f o r the velocity of the center of m a s s of a rocket launched a t a n
angle t o the horizon, t o determine the t r a j e c t o r y followed by the center
of m a s s and its velocity a t a n a r b i t r a r y point of the trajectory, and finally,
t o determine the range of a rocket, i f the launching elevation and the t i m e
f o r which the propellant b u r n s a r e given.
However, he oversimplified the problem by completely neglecting the
r e s i s t a n c e of the medium, which is hardly admissible f o r comparatively
high velocities, when i t has a considerable effect on the a c c u r a c y of the
solution.
In m o s t of his work, therefore, Moore attempted t o take into account
a i r resistance, which was then r e g a r d e d as being proportional t o the
s q u a r e of the velocity. However, h e r e Moore limited his investigation
t o the v e r t i c a l motion of r o c k e t s and the question of whether the center
of i n e r t i a of a rocket, moving under the influence of reactive force, gravity,
and air r e s i s t a n c e , can have constant velocity.
The next s t e p in the development of a theory of rocket motion w a s taken
by the F r e n c h a r t i l l e r y m a n Montgdry, who published a paper on m i l i t a r y
rockets in 1825. 64 In i t he attempted the solution of a m o r e general problem,
r e g a r d i n g a rocket launched a t an angle to the horizon a s a m a t e r i a l point
affected by t h r e e f o r c e s : reactive force, gravity, and a i r r e s i s t a n c e . 65
T h e equations obtained by Moore and Montge'ry w e r e quite complicated
and contained a number .of quantities which a t that t i m e defied analytical
evaluation. As a r e s u l t they had n o p r a c t i c a l application.
As a l r e a d y pointed out, a purely e m p i r i c a l approach prevailed in
r o c k e t r y until the middle of the 19th century. T h i s was the period when
those involved in rocket production limited themselves t o the accumulation
of experimental data without making the l e a s t effort a t s e r i o u s scientific
comprehension of the f a c t o r s which determine the quality and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rockets. T h e individuals who sought t o improve
rocket a r m a m e n t by introducing changes in the design of m i l i t a r y rockets
generally w e r e guided not by the r e s u l t s of analytical o r experimental
r e s e a r c h , but by intuition and guesswork.

1107 60
 Such a n approach t o the design of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s made i t exceedingly
difficult to introduce improvements, s i n c e without scientific experimentation .
the b a s i c direction to b e taken in the development of r o c k e t a r m a m e n t could
not be c o r r e c t l y determined. A s Konstantinov pointed out, "the u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
firing a c c u r a c y of r o c k e t s w a s a r e s u l t of the fact that t h e r e w e r e no m e a n s
of attaining a c c u r a c y through uniformity, and no s y s t e m a t i z e d s e a r c h for the
b e s t r o c k e t design. A s a result, the experiments p e r f o r m e d with this object
did not sufficiently make c l e a r the principles which had to s e r v e a s a b a s i s
f o r efficient r o c k e t design. ' I f i 6
Konstantinovwas a w a r e t h a t the c r e a t i o n of scientific principles of r o c k e t
engineering w a s p r e r e q u i s i t e to t h e f u r t h e r development of rocketry, and he
took the f i r s t s t e p s in this direction when he laid the foundation of
e x p e r i m e n t a l r o c k e t dynamics.
T h e choice of a s t a r t i n g point for his r e s e a r c h w a s not accidental. With-
out denying the value of analytic study, and indicating the need to construct
a "mathematical theory of r o c k e t design and shooting, ' I which he felt "would
unquestionably be of g r e a t s e r v i c e in s e e k i n g to improve s u c h projectiles, "67
Konstantinov r e g a r d e d experiment as the b a s i c m e a n s of perfecting rockets.
T h i s w a s to b e explained by the complexity of the p r o c e s s e s taking place
in the rocket. A s a rule, t h e s e could only with difficulty be analyzed
mathematically, and individual factors, s u c h a s the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
g a s e s in the rocket, o r t h e i r p r e s s u r e , taking into account a continuous
exhaust flow, could not be a c c u r a t e l y determined analytically by existing
methods. E x p e r i m e n t was t h e r e f o r e the s i m p l e s t and m o s t n a t u r a l way,
which i s why Konstantinov s e l e c t e d it.
One problem confronting the r e s e a r c h e r s was the complex m a t t e r of
determining the f o r c e which s e t the r o c k e t in motion. "The g a s p r e s s u r e
inside the r o c k e t and its continuous variation while g a s e s a r e being formed, I'
Konstantinov w r o t e in 1856, "have not yet been studied analytically with
s u c h p r e c i s i o n a s to provide a b a s i s f o r improved r o c k e t design, and the
full solution of this problem s e e m s t o p r e s e n t insuperable difficulties. T h e
known r a t e of combustion of the rocket propellant can r e a d i l y b e used to
d e t e r m i n e the volume of propellant consumed, the volume of the g a s e s
formed f r o m it, and t h e i r elasticity a t a known t e m p e r a t u r e , in s u c c e s s i v e
i n t e r v a l s of time; but to d e t e r m i n e the actual gas p r e s s u r e within the rocket,
one would have to know the t e m p e r a t u r e of the gases, which cannot be
p r e c i s e l y determined. Moreover, in making the calculation one would have
to consider the continuous flow of g a s e s out of the rocket, which depends on
t h e i r i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e and on the a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , the s i z e of the gas
exhaust and its reduction due to passage of the solid r e s i d u e of the propellant
combustion, and finally, on the influence of the f o r w a r d motion of the
rocket."68
Since the exact magnitude of the r e a c t i v e f o r c e could not be found
analytically, the r e s e a r c h e r s of s e v e r a l countries t r i e d to solve the
problem experimentally. At the pyrotechnic school in Metz ( F r a n c e ) ,
the propulsive f o r c e w a s m e a s u r e d by the u s e of a Moraine dynamometer.
T h i s consisted of a s p e c i a l s p r i n g composed of s t e e l s t r i p s , which, t o u s e
Konstantinov's expression, r e c a l l e d the elliptical front s p r i n g of a c a r r i a g e .
One of the ends of this s p r i n g r e s t e d on a steady support, while the o t h e r
w a s subjected to the p r e s s u r e of t h e rocket, which w a s placed i n a s p e c i a l
c a r t . T h i s end w a s equipped with an indicator whose r e a d i n g s w e r e plotted
on the cylindrical s u r f a c e of a d r u m r o t a t i n g a t constant speed.

61
 A s e r i o u s deficiency of the F r e n c h dynamometer was the fact that
when the p r e s s u r e on the s p r i n g was d e c r e a s e d , i t s r e t u r n was
accompanied by oscillations which diminished the a c c u r a c y of the readings.
T h i s was unimportant when engines operating f o r a prolonged period, with
insignificant and t h e r e f o r e gradual variation in p r e s s u r e , w e r e being
studied. "But when the propulsive f o r c e a c t s for a s h o r t period,'' w r o t e
Konstantinov, "with rapid p r e s s u r e changes, s u c h a s o c c u r in rockets,
these machines leave a lot to b e d e s i r e d when it comes t o the precision
of the readings, s i n c e the t e s t s a r e then of insufficient duration, while
the changes occur too rapidly, to p e r m i t the deduction of a v e r a g e
results."69
In an effort to avoid the shortcomings of Moraine's dynamometer, the
P r u s s i a n A r t i l l e r y Captain Hartmann proposed m e a s u r i n g the propulsive
force of rockets by a b a l l i s t i c rocket pendulum, s e t in motion by a rocket
placed inside it.
The pendulum, made to oscillate by the r e a c t i v e f o r c e of the rocket,
used a special pin t o t r a c e a curve on a c i r c l e placed p a r a l l e l to the plane
of the pendulum's oscillation, and rotating with a known uniform velocity.
Hartmann's idea was to u s e this c u r v e to determine the propulsive f o r c e
of the rocket, a s well a s its variation during combustion of the rocket
propellant. However, experiments showed that the c u r v e s plotted on the
rotating c i r c l e correspond to differential equations which cannot be
p r e c i s e l y integrated. Hartmann t h e r e f o r e again r e s o r t e d to the u s e of the
Moraine dynamometer in h i s experiments.
After analysis of the various m e a n s f o r m e a s u r i n g the r e a c t i v e f o r c e
developed by combustion of the rocket propellant, Konstantinov concluded
that the b e s t was the rocket b a l l i s t i c pendulum, with the difference that he
Subsituted a t r a n s m i s s i o n belt f o r H a r t m a n n ' s rotating c i r c l e , thereby
obtaining much s i m p l e r equations. P r o f e s s o r V . A . .Ankudovich (1792 - 1856)
played an important p a r t in the derivation of the f o r m u l a s .
Konstantinov was well a w a r e that t e s t s p e r f o r m e d with a ballistic
pendulum gave only an approximation to the p r o c e s s e s actually taking place
inside the moving rocket, but he nonetheless contented himself with such
experiments, s i n c e with existing m e a s u r i n g apparatus it w a s impossible
to determine the gas p r e s s u r e in the casing and the other p a r a m e t e r s of
the moving rocket.
T e s t s made under actual conditions (i. e., rocket launchings), in any c a s e
gave only general r e s u l t s , in which, a s Konstantinov put it, a l l the p a r t i c u l a r
phenomena producing the r e s u l t w e r e absorbed. It was j u s t this - the need
of an analytic r e s e a r c h method t o study one o r s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e p r o c e s s e s
taking place inside the rocket - that led Konstantinov to decide on the rocket
ballistic pendulum ( F i g u r e 15).
Konstantinov built his f i r s t rocket ballistic pendulum in 1846, while a t
the Main Gunpowder School. It consisted of a wooden parallelepiped, in
which a cylinder of s h e e t s t e e l was placed. One end of the cylinder was
closed, while the rocket was i n s e r t e d into the other, in such a way that
i t s axis coincided with that of the cylinder. An adjusting s c r e w was used
to s e t up the cylinder in s u c h a way that i t s axis and that of the rocket
within it passed through the c e n t e r of oscillation of the pendulum.
P a r a l l e l to the plane of oscillation of the pendulum was a
t r a n s m l s s i o n belt s t r e t c h e d over two cylinders, placed above each other

62
between the supports of the pendulum stand. The l o w e r cylinder was
geared to a flywheel, which was itself turned by two men.'O

FIGURE 15. Rocket ballistic pendulum designed by K. I. Konstantinov.

Even with this comparatively s i m p l e machine Konstantinov obtained

positive r e s u l t s . In 1848, after becoming acquainted with Konstantinov's
r o c k e t pendulum, the m e m b e r s of the A r t i l l e r y Division of t h e Military
Study Committee concluded that "such a pendulum r e a l l y can give data
f o r the determination both of the total propulsive f o r c e of the rocket, and
of the laws governing i t s action. ' I n
F u r t h e r on, however, they commented: "In the f o r m in which i t
presently e x i s t s a t the Gunpowder School, the pendulum is not suitable
f o r e x p e r i m e n t s on m i l i t a r y rockets, b e c a u s e of its modus operandi; but
it is highly s a t i s f a c t o r y for r e s e a r c h on signal r o c k e t s and flares, whose
propulsive f o r c e is slight and a c t s over a p r o t r a c t e d period of t i m e . ' t 7 2
In 1849, Konstantinov began to build his second r o c k e t ballistic
pendulum, which w a s a l s o suited f o r e x p e r i m e n t s with m i l i t a r y rockets,
in Kolpino. 75
T h e second pendulum, which weighed 17801b. w a s set on a granite b a s e .
T h e a x i s of the container w a s 127" away f r o m that of the pendant, and the
pendulum's c e n t e r of gravity was 75.4" f r o m the axis of the pendant. T h e
pendulum had a period of 1.73 s e c . 74
Installation and final adjustment of the second r o c k e t pendulum, how-
e v e r , w e r e v e r y protracted, and i t a p p e a r s that the w o r k w a s completed
only at the end of 1854.75
A s e r i o u s defect of both the f i r s t and the second r o c k e t pendulums w a s
the fact that t h e tape on which t h e pendulums' deviations w e r e r e c o r d e d
w a s s e t in motion manually. As a r e s u l t the tape's motion w a s not s t r i c t l y

63
 uniform, and this g r e a t l y reduced the a c c u r a c y of the r e a d i n g s , In an
effort to overcome t h e s e deficiencies, Konstantinov proposed adoption
of a s p e c i a l acoustic device of his own design, l6 which would l i m i t
variations in the s p e e d of t h e tape.
T h i s did to s o m e extent mitigate this shortcoming, though it did not
do away with i t altogether. PRZ a l s o failed t o control the motions of
the tape by s o m e mechanical motor, which would have a s s u r e d i t s
uniformity .
In spite of this, the r o c k e t ballistic pendulum gave a number of valuable
r e s u l t s which w e r e of g r e a t importance for t h e theory and p r a c t i c e of r o c k e t
engineering. In 1 8 6 0 Konstantinov noted, "The r o c k e t pendulum has given us
many clues to the effect of t h e proportionality of the components of t h e
rocket propellant, the i n t e r n a l dimensions of the ignition channel, the
number and dimensions of the orifices, on the c r e a t i o n of the propulsive
f o r c e and the c h a r a c t e r of i t s action; however, t h e r e have s o f a r been too
few e x p e r i m e n t s with the machine t o give a l l the profit that can be expected
f r o m it.
On the b a s i s of his collected e x p e r i m e n t a l data, Konstantinov tried t o
d e t e r m i n e the optimum p a r a m e t e r s of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s . By this time the
m a j o r f a c t o r s affecting the p r o p e r t i e s of r o c k e t s w e r e known to include:
a ) thickness of the casing walls;
b ) composition of the r o c k e t mixture;
c) dimensions of the ignition channel;
d ) s i z e and number of exhaust orifices.
T h e b a s i s for determination of the thickness of casing walls was
usually made the consideration that the casings should be a s light a s
possible, but this conflicted with other demands. While the casing had
to be s t r o n g enough to withstand the r a t h e r high p r e s s u r e of the g a s e s
formed by combustion of the propellant, e x c e s s i v e i n c r e a s e in the thickness
of its walls led t o i n c r e a s e of its weight and r a i s e d the p a s s i v e m a s s of the
rocket. Konstantinov t h e r e f o r e suggested using P i o b e r ' s formula78 t o
d e t e r m i n e the thickness of t h e walls of the r o c k e t casing:

where I is the thickness of the walls in tenths of inches,

p is the maximum gas p r e s s u r e in the casing, in 1001b/in2,
d is the i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r of the r o c k e t in tenths of inches, and
T is the cohesive f o r c e of i r o n in 1001b/in2.
Of the unknowns in this formula, determination of the maximum gas
p r e s s u r e presented the g r e a t e s t difficulty, s i n c e it depended on many
f a c t o r s and, a s shown above, was not, in Konstantinov's day,
mathematically analyzed. T h e gas p r e s s u r e in the r o c k e t depended
first of all on the composition of the gunpowder, whose components w e r e
sulfur, nitrate, and carbon. Pyrotechnic experience had shown that an
i n c r e a s e in the nitrate content i n c r e a s e d the power of the rocket
propellant, while an i n c r e a s e in t h e s u l f u r and c a r b o n content reduced it,
but the b e s t proportion of ingredients w a s still unknown. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
the r e q u i r e m e n t s imposed on propellant f o r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s differed
somewhat f r o m those f o r pyrotechnic r o c k e t s . At PRZ many e x p e r i m e n t s
w e r e performed t o d e t e r m i n e the b e s t propellant f o r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s ,

64
 A s a r e s u l t of these experiments Konstantinov reached the following
conclusions:
"a) N o r m a l powder can b e weakened by the addition of s u l f u r only t o
the point a t which the r a t i o of the weight of sulfur to that of n i t r a t e is 115.
F u r t h e r addition of sulfur, though it weakens the propellant a s f a r a s
range and flatness of t r a j e c t o r y a r e concerned, does not diminish its
explosive p r o p e r t i e s .
"b) Weakening n o r m a l powder by carbon is a completely dependable
method, but not completely desirable, s i n c e addition of the carbon m a k e s
the propellant hygroscopic and m o r e sensitive, and t h e r e f o r e i n f e r i o r a s
f a r a s the s t o r a g e snd t r a n s p o r t of r o c k e t s is concerned.
'IC) In general, to weaken n o r m a l powder to the d e g r e e r e q u i r e d by
m i l i t a r y r o c k e t design, it is b e s t t o do s o by addition of sulfur, proceeding
t o carbon only when the l i m i t of possible sulfur dilution h a s been
reached.
I'd) The m o s t powerful possible rocket propellant c o n s i s t s of: nitrate,
72 Yo; sulfur, 14 yo; carbon, 14 7' 0' . ' I
Subsequently, however, Konstantinov, on the b a s i s of the r e s e a r c h e s of
the F r e n c h chemist Proust, concluded that the m o s t powerful rocket
propellant was not the Austrian ( 7 2 % nitrate, 1470 sulfur, 1 4 % carbon),
but that using the proportions of F r e n c h m i l i t a r y gunpowder (75 % nitrate,
12.5% sulfur, 12.5% carbon), and that the weakest was the F r e n c h rocket
propellant (62 % nitrate, 18 % sulfur, 20 70 carbon), used in long-range
rockets.

TABLE 13. Various rocket propellants (mid-19th century)

Nitrate Sulfur Carbon ~ Nitrate Sulfur Carbon

~

French military gun-

powder . . . . . 75 12.5 75 12.5 12.5
Austrian rocket propellant 72 14 75 14.5 14.5
Russian military gun-
powder . . . . . 75 10 75
75
10 15
Russian rocket propellant. 68 9 10 25
French rocket propellant . 62 18 20 75 21.7 24.2

N o t e : The left half of the table gives the percentage ratio of the components of the rocket mixture;
on the right-hand side, for convenient comparison, all of the propellants are shown in terms of an
identical quantity of one of the components (nitrate), and are given in parts by weight.

Konstantinov compiled a comparative table, which took in all rocket

propellants, f r o m the m o s t powerful to the weakest (Table 13). By u s e of
v e r y weak propellants one could prolong somewhat the action of the
r e a c t i v e force, which in t u r n made possible an i n c r e a s e i n range.
The depth and d i a m e t e r of the ignition channel, a s well a s the dimensions
of the exhaust orifices, greatly affected the p r e s s u r e in the casing, and
consequently a l s o the magnitude of the r e a c t i v e f o r c e . I t had been known
f o r a v e r y long time that the ignition channel had considerable influence
on the magnitude of the rocket's propulsive f o r c e (this w a s first pointed
out at the beginning of the 15th century by Konrad von Kaiser), but the
subject had not been sufficiently studied before the middle of the 19th century.

65

.. .
 At the end of the 1840's Konstantinov projected, 82 and subsequently
c a r r i e d out, 83 a number of experiments to determine t h e influence of the
dimensions of the ignition channel and of the a r e a of the exhaust o r i f i c e s
on the magnitude of the propulsive force.
Initially (in May, 1849), Konstantinov planned t o c a r r y out t h r e e s e r i e s
of experiments:
1) for r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l t a i l s and with an exhaust o r i f i c e of the s a m e
.d i a m e t e r a s the casing;
2) for r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l t a i l s and a b a s e plate with a n exhaust orifice
of variable s i z e ;
3) f o r r o c k e t s with a c e n t r a l tail. 84
In the f i r s t s e r i e s of experiments only the dimensions of the ignition
channel w e r e varied: d i a m e t e r s f r o m 0.6 t o 1.4 inches, a t i n t e r v a l s of
0.2 inches (i.e., 15.24mm, 20.32". 25.4mm, 30.48" and 35.56mm),
and depth (i. e., length) of the channel f r o m 7 to 10 inches, a t i n t e r v a l s
of 1 inch (i. e., 177.8". 203.2mm, 228.6mm, and 254"). T h i s gave
20 different combinations.
During the second s e r i e s of experiments it was n e c e s s a r y t o vary not
only the dimensions of the ignition channel, but those of the exhaust
orifice, whose d i a m e t e r w a s taken equal to 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, and
1.6 inches. To each d i a m e t e r of the exhaust orifice corresponded two
ignition channel d i a m e t e r s , one of 0.6", and the other 0.2" l e s s than the
d i a m e t e r of the exhaust orifice. The depth of the ignition channel was
v a r i e d a s in the f i r s t series of experiments, giving a total of 40 different
combinations.
In the t h i r d s e r i e s the a r e a of the exhaust o r i f i c e s w a s taken a s the
maximum possible for a b a s e plate with c e n t r a l tail. The channel
diameter, which was determined by the d i a m e t e r of the t a i l s c r e w , was
0.6", and only the depth of the channel was varied, f r o m 7" to IO" a t
i n t e r v a l s of one inch.
Subsequently Konstantinov suggested modification of these experiments
t o test the following t h r e e types of rockets:
A - with b a s e plates designed by G e n e r a l Kozen, and total exhaust
orifice a r e a of 0.59 in2 (381.64 m m 2 ) ;
B - with Kozen b a s e plates, but maximum possible exhaust orifice
a r e a of 0.72 in2 (464.8 mm2);
C - with s l a t s instead of b a s e plates, giving the g r e a t e s t possible
exhaust orifice a r e a (1.72 in2, or 1110mm2).
In A and B rockets the d i a m e t e r of the ignition channel depended on that
of the t a i l s c r e w and could not exceed 016". while in C rockets it could b e
v a r i e d a s d e s i r e d . In the f i r s t two types of rockets, therefore, only the
depth of the ignition channel was varied, while in the third type the
d i a m e t e r a l s o varied.
H e r e is Konstantinov's description of the o r d e r and sequence of his
proposed experiments :
"In o r d e r t o c o m p a r e a s f a r a s possible a l l aspects, a l l A , B , and C
rockets should have t a i l s of identical dimensions, and the s a m e weight
of explosives. Rockets with b a s e plates should have a s s t a n d a r d 3.5"
of blank propellant, a substantial length because in these rockets the
blankpropellant s e r v e s t o close off the blind end. In rockets with s l a t s ,
whose blind end is closed by a soldered i r o n ring, 1 ' I of blank propellant

66
suffices. In the t e s t s all t h e s e r o c k e t s should b e target-launched f r o m
a new launcher a t an angle of 20".
"The f i r s t s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s should be conducted with A , B , and C
rockets, varying the depth of the ignition channel while keeping i t s
d i a m e t e r constant a t 0.6", beginning with A r o c k e t s and with a channel
depth of 1 caliber. F o r each channel depth at l e a s t 3 r o c k e t s should b e
launched, and the depth should be i n c r e a s e d no m o r e than 0.25 c a l i b e r
e a c h time.
"These experiments will finally r e a c h the e x t r e m e l i m i t of channel
depth, which we s h a l l c a l l X, and which m u s t b e l e s s than 4.5 c a l i b e r s
(the p r e s e n t channel length).
"Continuing s i m i l a r l y with B rockets, but beginning with depth X,
s o m e limiting depth y will b e obtained.
"Continuing s i m i l a r l y with C rockets, beginning with depth y, we s h a l l
obtain a limiting depth 2 , whose value, to judge f r o m e x p e r i m e n t s a l r e a d y
performed, will b e less than 10".
"The second s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s will have as its object t e s t s with C
r o c k e t s a t different d i a m e t e r s of the ignition channel, which, to limit the
number of experiments, m a y b e taken a t 0.9" and 1.2". With the 0.9"
d i a m e t e r channel t e s t s should b e begun with depth Z. T h i s will give a
limiting value Z', which will s e r v e a s a s t a r t i n g point f o r t e s t s of r o c k e t s
with a 1.2" d i a m e t e r channel, f o r which in t u r n Z" will be obtained.
"The accompanying table shows the t e s t s as finally worked out, for five
different types of r o c k e t s .

Type of rocket A B C

Area of exhaust orifices. in2 . . 0.59 0.72 1.72 1.72

Diameter of ignition channel, in . . 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.9
Depth of ignitionchannel . . . . X Y z

"It r e m a i n s to c o m p a r e t h e s e five types of r o c k e t s with r o c k e t s of

G e n e r a l Kozen's design. Among t h e s e five types t h e r e w i l l be appreciable
differences, e . g., total r a n g e s will d e c r e a s e f r o m A to C rockets, while
initial velocities, and consequently flatness of t r a j e c t o r y for low angles
of elevation and t r u e n e s s of flight w i l l i n c r e a s e f r o m A to C" rockets, while
high angle f i r e with heavy p r o j e c t i l e s will improve f r o m C" to A rockets, etc.,
although only experiment w i l l show u s to what extent t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n s will
occur.
"The choice of a r o c k e t f r o m among the five types mentioned will in
p a r t depend on tactical considerations, though i t is readily apparent that
s e v e r a l of them will b e needed t o respond to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e v a r i o u s
conditions that a r i s e .
"Finally, study of the u s e of v a r i o u s types of projectiles, ranging f r o m
solid light explosive warheads to heavy m i s s i l e s for high angle fire, will
be undertaken. " 8 5
It h a s s o f a r proved impossible to obtain information a s to exactly when
t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e performed, and with what r e s u l t s , but
Konstantinov's repeated r e f e r e n c e s to the r e s u l t i n g dataa6 testify to t h e i r
having taken place.

61
 The r e s u l t s of comparative t e s t s on the throwing of 9-lb and 18-lb
explosives by r o c k e t s of v a r i o u s ignition channel lengths a r e of s p e c i a l
i n t e r e s t (Table 14).81

TABLE 14. Results of experiments on t h e firing of explosives by rockets

Depth inches
of channel,

4.15
5.75
k~
I
Range in sagenes (yards given in parentheses)

Rocket with 9 l b
of explosive

29
58
[68]
[135]
Rocket with 18 lb
of explosive

1
22
[I61
[51]
6.15 89 [208] 42 [98]
1.75 133 [310] 48 [110]
8.15 188 13393 62 [I451
9.15 217 [506] 125 [292]

N o t e : The t a b l e shows t h e average ranges of three launchings. The

rockets w e r e launched at a n angle of 45'.

The experiments showed that with an ignition channel of constant

diameter, the gas p r e s s u r e in the rocket, and t h e r e f o r e the magnitude
of the r e a c t i v e f w c e , r o s e continuously a s the depth of the channel was
i n c r e a s e d . When the depth w a s held constant, on the other hand, and the
d i a m e t e r increased, the gas p r e s s u r e fell. T h i s was explained by the fact
that although the s u r f a c e of combustion, and t h e r e f o r e the quantity of
g a s e s formed, i n c r e a s e d with an i n c r e a s e in diameter, the volume of
the channel i n c r e a s e d a s the s q u a r e of the d i a m e t e r . The space filled by
the gas thus grew m o r e rapidly than the amount of gas itself.
T h e s t u d i e s of the extent to which the gas p r e s s u r e and propulsive
f o r c e of the rocket depend on the s i z e of the gas exhaust o r i f i c e s w e r e
a l s o of g r e a t i n t e r e s t . T h e experiments showed that both the p r e s s u r e
and the propulsive f o r c e w e r e increased, though to a different degree,
by a d e c r e a s e in the s i z e of the exhaust orifice. Konstantinov noted that
"the experiments have definitely established that the s m a l l e r the gas
exhaust r e l a t i v e to the c r o s s section of the rocket, the g r e a t e r is the
f o r c e of the g a s e s against the casing; a s f a r a s the propulsive f o r c e of
the rocket is concerned, it a l s o i n c r e a s e s a s the exhaust o r i f i c e s a r e made
s m a l l e r , but to what extent has not yet been thoroughly investigated
experimentally. **
In discussing this period, it is well to r e c a l l , however briefly, the
contemporary views of the nature of reactive force. 8 9 In the 18th century
and a t the beginning of the 19th t h e r e w e r e two points of view, each of
which had its adherents and d e t r a c t o r s .
Some s c i e n t i s t s , including Bernoulli, Buffon, and Piober, accepted
the so-called impact view, which held that reactive f o r c e a r o s e f r o m the
separation of p a r t i c l e s of m a t t e r . I t s adherents believed that the
interaction of the parent body and the p a r t i c l e s detached from it o c c u r r e d
only a t the moment of separation.
Others, such as Wolff, Euler, and Lagrange, r e g a r d e d r e a c t i v e f o r c e
as a consequence of continuous f u l l p r e s s u r e on the inner walls of an
envelope.

68
 It-should a l s o b e r e m a r k e d that for a long t i m e the opinion that a r o c k e t
moved by pushing away the surrounding a i r w a s widespread, though i t s
e r r o n e o u s n e s s w a s demonstrated by the f a m i l i a r experiment with a Segner
wheel, which a l s o rotated in a vacuum.
Konstantinov took the second view of the nature of the propulsive f o r c e
of rockets, r e g a r d i n g the p r e s s u r e of the gunpowder g a s e s on the walls of
the combustion c h a m b e r a s the s o u r c e of the r e a c t i v e f o r c e . In h i s paper,
"Military Rockets" (0boevykh raketakh), completed in 1856, he wrote:
"The g a s e s which diffuse within the r o c k e t c r e a t e p r e s s u r e in a l l
directions, with the p r e s s u r e s on the s i d e s of the r o c k e t balancing each
other. T h e p r e s s u r e against that p a r t of the blank propellant, however,
which is d i r e c t l y opposite the exhaust, is not compensated and c r e a t e s a
f o r c e which s e t s the r o c k e t in forward longitudinal motion. " "
While r e g a r d i n g the r e a c t i v e f o r c e a s a consequence of the i n t e r n a l gas
p r e s s u r e developed by the combustion around the ignition channel, however,
Konstantinov a l s o took into account the e m i s s i o n of gas particles. Noting,
as mentioned above, that t h e variation of the r e a c t i v e f o r c e is not
proportional to the g a s p r e s s u r e , and analyzing the r e a s o n s for this,
Konstantinov concluded that the r e a c t i v e f o r c e depended both on the p r e s s u r e
of the g a s e s and t h e i r exhaust velocity. With r e g a r d to the influence of the
dimensions of the exhaust orifice on the propulsive f o r c e of t h e rocket, he
wrote: "In two r o c k e t s distinguished only by the s i z e of their exhaust
orifice, the consumption of propellant p e r unit of t i m e will b e the same,
and s i n c e the previously formed g a s e s m u s t flow out of the r o c k e t a s new
ones a r e formed. the g a s e s m u s t leave the rocket with the s m a l l e r exhaust
orifice f a s t e r than they do the other. T h e momentum p e r unit of time of the
outflowing gases, and hence that i m p a r t e d to t h e rocket, is thus g r e a t e r in
the r o c k e t with t h e s m a l l e r exhaust orifice. " 9 2
T h i s p a s s a g e is of i n t e r e s t not only f o r what it has t o s a y about the
influence of the exhaust velocity on the magnitude of the r e a c t i v e force,
but a l s o b e c a u s e i t equates t h e momentum of the outflowing g a s e s with
that i m p a r t e d to the rocket. T h i s fundamental a s s e r t i o n of r o c k e t dynamics
w a s c l e a r l y recognized and formulated by Konstantinov, who w r o t e in the
paper cited above: "At e v e r y moment of the combustion of the propellant
the momentum i m p a r t e d to the r o c k e t is equal to that of the outflowing
gases.
Although he cited s e v e r a l important fundamental propositions of r o c k e t
dynamics, Konstantinov failed to give them mathematical f o r m and did not,
for the r e a s o n s given above (p. 61), even attempt analytical determination
of the magnitude of the propulsive force. His conclusions a r e nonetheless
of g r e a t i n t e r e s t and show how c l o s e he c a m e to solving the problem of
determining the t h r u s t of solid propellant r o c k e t engines.
T h e r e s u l t s of the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d on a t PRZ during the
1850's show that by then the fundamental relationships governing the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e known in Russia. Although the
i m p e r f e c t c h a r a c t e r of the e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i s and the l a c k of p r e c i s e
m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e to find n u m e r i c a l relationships
and w o r k out optimum c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r m i l i t a r y rockets, the
qualitative r e l a t i o n s of the influence of s u c h f a c t o r s as the chemical
composition of the r o c k e t mixture, the f i l l density, the d i a m e t e r and
depth of t h e ignition channel, and the number and s i z e of t h e exhaust
o r i f i c e s w e r e determined with s o m e precision.

69
'IMPROVEMENT O F MILITARY ROCKET PRODUCTION
AT THE PETERSBURG ROCKET INSTITUTE

By the beginning of the 1850's t h e r e existed a c e r t a i n essentially

standardized technique f o r the manufacture of m i l i t a r y rockets, which
was laid out in Colonel Kostyrko's manual, and comprised the following
production s t a g e s :
1. P r e p a r a t i o n of the propellant (rocket mixture).
2. Manufacture of the casings, b a s e plates, and other m e t a l p a r t s
r e q u i r e d f o r m i l i t a r y rockets.
3. Filling the r o c k e t s with propellant.
4. Drilling a cylindrical channel (the ignition channel) i n the propellant.
5. Equipment of m i l i t a r y rockets with p r o j e c t i l e s .
6 . Fitting the r o c k e t s with s t a b i l i z e r s ( t a i l s ) .
F r o m a technological point of view, however, production was s t i l l a t an
e x t r e m e l y low level. Many operations w e r e s t i l l performed manually, and
in a number of c a s e s even e l e m e n t a r y safety engineering was not achieved.
E v e r y s o r t of mechanical motor was lacking a t PRZ, and the e n t i r e
mechanical plant comprised only s h e a r s f o r cutting sheet i r o n , p r e s s e s
t o f i l l the casings, and a d r i l l f o r the ignition channels. Even this scanty
equipment was outmoded, having been installed in the f i r s t y e a r s of the
Institute's existence, and was no longer equal to the demands made upon it.
The substantial i n c r e a s e in the production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s t h e r e -
f o r e confronted P R Z with e n t i r e l y new manufacturing problems. Semi-
manual production in which hand labor of low productivity predominated
had to be abandoned in favor of machine production, which would p e r m i t
a l m o s t total mechanization of the laborious basic p r o c e s s e s . Only in this
way could a substantial i n c r e a s e in efficiency, uniformity of the finished
products, and a considerable rise in production b e achieved without a
reduction of quality, which in hand labor depended a l m o s t entirely on the
experience and c r a f t s m a n s h i p of each individual w o r k e r .
T h e s e improvements w e r e in fact r e q u i r e d if the quality of rocket
a r m a m e n t was to b e r a i s e d . In o r d e r to make full u s e of the experimental
data gathered a t P R Z and f r o m numerous field observations, a m e a n s for
manufacturing r o c k e t s in no w i s e differing f r o m one another was n e c e s s a r y .
Konstantinov attributed the g r e a t e s t importance to the attainment of
uniformity in m i l i t a r y rocket production, regarding it a s an unfailing
condition f o r the improvement of rocket a r m a m e n t . In one of his p a p e r s
on m i l i t a r y rockets he wrote: "One of t h e chief conditions for the sound
functioning of r o c k e t s is that they should in a l l r e s p e c t s b e a s f a r a s
possible identical. T o this end the following points should be observed i n
filling the rocket with propellant:
"a) the proportion of the propellant components should not be disturbed
during filling;
"b) in a given rocket the density of the propellant should everywhere
b e a s f a r a s possible the s a m e ;
"c) in a l l r o c k e t s of the s a m e kind the density of the propellant should
b e a s f a r a s possible identical. O'
Subsequently he r e t u r n e d to this subject, emphasizing that "the s e c r e t
of m i l i t a r y rocket production lies f i r s t in the possession of a manufacturing
plant which produces perfectly uniform r e s u l t s , not only in the dimensions

70
of the various p a r t s of the rockets, but a l s o in the physical and chemical
p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l s f r o m which they a r e made. ' I s s
Finally PRZ had to face another problem, which although seemingly
s i m p l e r , was still important, the m o r e s o s i n c e the actual m a s s production
of r o c k e t s could not b e considered before it w a s solved. Rocket production
had to b e made safe in o r d e r t o reduce the likelihood of accidents, which
w e r e comparatively frequent b e f o r e the middle of the 19th century.
In an effort t o solve t h e s e problems Konstantinov drew up a number of
m e a s u r e s designed to improve the quality of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s and make
t h e i r production s a f e r :
a ) preparation of the rocket propellant d i r e c t l y f r o m its constituent
p a r t s (sulfur, n i t r a t e s , and carbon) in the Rocket Institute itself;
b) mechanization of the manufacture of rocket casings and b a s e plates;
c ) abolition of riveted joints in favor of s e a m l e s s and soldered casings;
d) improvement of the procedure f o r filling the casings, and
substitution of a d r y f o r a m o i s t rocket propellant.
W e s h a l l consider these proposals s e p a r a t e l y ,
P r e p a r a t i o n of t h e r o c k e t p r o p e l l a n t d i r e c t l y f r o m i t s
c on s t itu e nt pa r t s . T h e s y s t e m adopted by the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket
Institute and described by Colonel Kostyrko in 1847 employed a rocket
propellant of gunpowder, manufactured a t the Okhtensk Gunpowder Works
and modified a t PRZ by an admixture of 1.2 oz carbon p e r pound. 96
Spherical copper pellets placed in b a r r e l s s e t up horizontally w e r e used
to mix the components. The b a r r e l s w e r e made to r o t a t e by men protected
f r o m them by only a light fence.
T h i s method of preparing the propellant w a s highly unsatisfactory and
suffered f r o m a number of deficiencies. The method of pulverizing the
powder by the falling pellets was e x t r e m e l y dangerous to the men in charge
of the b a r r e l s , s i n c e the impact of a pellet could easily cause an explosion.
In an effort to reduce the danger of p r e p a r i n g the rocket mixture a s much
a s possible, Konstantinov a t first proposed situating the men within an a r e a
s e p a r a t e d from the b a r r e l s by an e a r t h wall. Revolution counters w e r e
installed on the b a r r e l s in o r d e r to a s s u r e the m o s t uniform rotation
possible by regulation of the speed. T h i s in t u r n made possible a m o r e
uniform mixture.
T h e s e m e a s u r e s did not r u l e out the danger of accidents, however, a s
was shown by the explosion of 1854, which entirely destroyed the shed
where the b a r r e l s w e r e located (thanks t o Konstantinov's precautions those
in charge of the b a r r e l s escaped injury).
F u r t h e r m o r e , the rocket mixture obtained by the addition of carbon to
gunpowder was of low quality. Konstantinov r e m a r k e d that this propellant
"is inferior, a s f a r a s uniformity of mixing is concerned, to that p r e p a r e d
directly f r o m sulfur, n i t r a t e s , and carbon in the exact proportion r e q u i r e d
for rocket propellant. l'ss
Seeking t o overcome these deficiencies and obtain a uniform rocket
propellant of dependable quality, Konstantinov proposed p r e p a r i n g i t
d i r e c t l y f r o m its components within the Rocket Institute. He suggested
using two types of b a r r e l s : copper ones t o pulverise the ingredients, and
oaken ones with a thick inner lining of l e a t h e r t o mix them.
Another of his proposals was to set the b a r r e l s up with t h e i r longitudinal
a x i s a t an angle to the a x i s of rotation. The m i x t u r e was then ground not by
the impact of the falling pellets, but by t h e i r displacement f r o m one end to

71
 the other. T h i s reduced the danger of explosions and substantially speeded
up the e n t i r e operation. For example, when the older type of b a r r e l s was
used to mix 7 2 lb of gunpowder and 8 lb of carbon, ten hours, during which
the b a r r e l s made 4200 revolutions a t a speed of 7 rpm, w e r e r e q u i r e d ;
with the new b a r r e l s , only 2100 revolutions sufficed, which a t the s a m e
speed took only five hours. 99
Konstantinov's proposal to p r e p a r e the rocket propellant d i r e c t l y f r o m
i t s component p a r t s , however, was never realized. Until the day of i t s
closing PRZ continued to produce rocket propellant by adding carbon t o
p r e p a r e d gunpowder.
M e c h a n i z a t i o n of t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f r o c k e t c a s i n g s
a n d b a s e p l a t e s . Originally (in the 1820's) the metallic p a r t s of
rockets w e r e o r d e r e d f r o m private plants and reached the Rocket Institute,
where only t h e i r a s s e m b l y took place, in finished f o r m . L a t e r the casings
w e r e produced within the Rocket Institute, which a t the period in question
(mid-19th century) could almost entirely m e e t i t s own needs in this a r e a .
The manufacture of rocket casings consisted of the following operations:
cutting the sheat iron, punching holes for r i v e t s , rolling the cut
rectangular s h e e t s on a s t e e l r o l l e r , joining them manually by cold
riveting, and attaching b a s e plates and tailpipes to the casings.
T h i s p r o c e s s , however, was the l e a s t .mechanized, s i n c e a l m o s t a l l
the operations w e r e performed manually and the only mechanical
equipment employed was the s h e a r s used to cut the sheet iron. The
resulting casings w e r e of low quality.
The production of b a s e plates and tailpipes presented considerable
difficulties. Because of i t s poor equipment, which did not even include
a s t e a m h a m m e r and other n e c e s s a r y machines, PRZ could not manufacture
t h e s e m e t a l p a r t s itself and had to o r d e r them f r o m private plants. T h i s
greatly complicated the situation, s i n c e it made P R Z dependent on i t s
suppliers, while c r e a t i n g f u r t h e r technological problems. When the ready-
made b a s e plates w e r e attached to the casings t h e r e w e r e frequent c a s e s
of misalignment which r e s u l t e d in a s y m m e t r i c grouping of the o r i f i c e s
about the c e n t r a l axis.
Konstantinov tackled t h e s e difficulties with a proposal to make o r i f i c e s
of s m a l l e r d i a m e t e r which could b e expanded to the r e q u i r e d dimensions
a f t e r attachment of the b a s e plate to the rocket. L a t e r he concluded that
it would b e b e s t to leave the drilling of the o r i f i c e s altogether until a f t e r
attaching the b a s e plate to the casing.
A change in the e x t e r n a l f o r m of the b a s e plates played an important
r o l e in the simplification of t h e i r manufacture. Until the 1860's b a s e plates
w e r e convex with f l a r e d exhaust orifices. T h i s design was dictated by a
wish t o protect the wooden t a i l f r o m the hot flow of exhaust gases, but it
greatly complicated the manufacture of the b a s e plates. In 1860, therefore,
it was decided to r e p l a c e the b a s e plates with f l a r e d o r i f i c e s by flat plates
"preferable f o r flight accuracy, e a s e of manufacture to the r e q u i r e d
t o l e r a n c e s , simplicity of installation, and cheapness. 'lloo
In a n effort to r a i s e efficiency and i n c r e a s e quality, Konstantinov
devoted a g r e a t d e a l of attention to the improvement of casing manufacturing
p r o c e s s e s . He introduced machines to punch holes f o r r i v e t s , improved
s h e a r s t o cut sheet metal, and a machine to manufacture the r i v e t s .

12
 He a l s o attempted t o mechanize such operations a s rolling the r o c k e t
c a s i n g s and riveting the joint, but was prevented f r o m doing s o
by inadequate m e a n s . PRZ continued t o p e r f o r m m o s t of t h e s e operations
manually until the day i t closed. F u r t h e r m o r e , the lack of a mechanical
m o t o r m e a n t that manpower was also required to d r i v e the above-mentioned
machinery.
A b o l i t i o n of r i v e t e d j o i n t s i n f a v o r of s e a m l e s s a n d
s o 1d e r e d c a s i n g s . A t PRZ r o c k e t casings w e r e manufactured by
rolling r e c t a n g u l a r i r o n s h e e t s on a s t e e l roller and cold-riveting them
manually. T h e thickness of the riveted s e a m was then double that of the
casing walls, which led to a displacement of the c a s i n g ' s c e n t e r of
gravity. T h i s w a s aggravated by the weight of the r i v e t s themselves.
T h i s effect w a s slight in r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l tails, s i n c e the displacement
of the c e n t e r of g r a v i t y w a s partially compensated by the weight of the r o c k e t
tail attached to the s i d e opposite the r i v e t e d s e a m . In r o c k e t s with a c e n t r a l
tail, however, the ballistic qualities of the r o c k e t w e r e s e r i o u s l y affected.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the protruding heads of the r i v e t s complicated the filling of
the c a s i n g s and c r e a t e d the danger of an explosion. Finally, t h e hand
manufacture of casings w a s laborious, inefficient, and costly.
Realizing this, Konstantinov sought to change the p r o c e s s and mechanize
this operation, too. He wrote, "The manufacture of casings f o r m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s f r o m s h e e t i r o n by hand r e q u i r e s a g r e a t deal of time and is costly.
It would be d e s i r a b l e for the industry to find m e a n s of simplifying i t and
producing i r o n pipe mechanically, with no visible joint and walls of uniform
thickness on their e n t i r e c i r c u m f e r e n c e . 'I lol
A s e a r l y a s 1848 Konstantinov had proposed the adoption, in place of
riveted r o c k e t casings, of s e a m l e s s casings manufactured in the
S e s t v o r e t s k plant by the method of Talbot and Brown. lo2
He repeated this proposal in 1850, as p a r t of his s c h e m e to prevent
accidents a t PRZ, but at that t i m e i n d u s t r i a l production of s e a m l e s s
casings in R u s s i a proved impossible, and Konstantinov had t o be content
with s o m e minor changes in the production of riveted casings, T h e s e
consisted of strengthening t h e r i v e t heads t o s o m e extent and introducing
flush r i v e t s f o r which a conical opening for the r i v e t heads was drilled
in the inner s u r f a c e of the casing.
Subsequently (in the mid-fifties) Konstantinov made another effort to
obtain a c a s i n g w i t h walls of equal thickness around its e n t i r e
c i r c u m f e r e n c e . In 1855- 1856 PRZ performed a number of e x p e r i m e n t s
of r o c k e t s with s o l d e r e d casings. T h e s e experiments, which r a n
concurrently with t e s t s of the conventional r o c k e t s produced by PRZ,
showed the r o c k e t s with a smooth s u r f a c e to be greatly s u p e r i o r in firing
precision.
In this instance also, however, the manufacturing p r o c e s s could not be
a l t e r e d . The P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute went on producing r i v e t e d
c a s i n g s until it c e a s e d operation.
I m p r o v e m e n t of t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r f i l l i n g t h e c a s i n g s ,
a n d s u b s t i t u t i o n of a d r y f o r a m o i s t r o c k e t p r o p e l l a n t .
The filling of the r o c k e t casings with propellant w a s one of the m o s t
complicated, dangerous, and laborious p r o c e s s e s . T h e p r a c t i c e adopted
a t PRZ to facilitate this p r o c e s s and a s s u r e the formation of a solid dense
m a s s (which would in turn provide even combustion) w a s to moisten the

73
 propellant with wine or alcohol before filling. The procedure drawn up
by Kostyrko in 1847 advocated a r a t i o of 0.61 to 0.91 oz d a r k wine p e r
pound of gunpowder (depending on the c a l i b e r of the rocket). lo6Konstantinov
adopted an alternative of moistening with 4 % t o 7 70w a t e r or alcohol, lM
The practice of moistening the propellant a r o s e f r o m the l a c k of
sufficiently heavy p r e s s e s . According to Konstantinov, the p r e s s u r e
needed to f i l l rockets with d r y propellant was a t l e a s t 54,0001b/in2
(3808. 5 kg/cm2), lo8while the existing p r e s s e s of PRZ could produce
a maximum of only 2880 l b / i n 2 (203. 12 kg/cm2).log F u r t h e r m o r e , the
practice of filling the casings with m o i s t rocket propellant g r e a t l y reduced
the danger of an explosion.
However, despite t h e s e advantages, the moistening of the propellant
reduced the quality of the rockets. After termination of the filling
p r o c e s s the propellant did not d r y uniformly, with a resulting change,
especially a f t e r p r o t r a c t e d storage, in i t s s t r u c t u r e . T h i s had a
considerable effect on the flight of the rockets. Moreover, the m o i s t u r e
in the rocket propellant had a harmful effect on the metallic p a r t s of the
rocket, which it tended to c o r r o d e .
A s e a r l y a s the end of the 1840's Konstantinov voiced the idea of
substituting a d r y propell.ant for the m o i s t one, since he felt that d r y
propellant rockets would be s u p e r i o r in s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . T h i s was
convincingly demonstrated by comparative t e s t s performed a t Tiflis in
1851. 'lo In March 1852 a s p e c i a l disposition (No. 965)l" introduced the
u s e of d r y propellant to f i l l rockets a t PRZ, but the d r y propellant rockets
w e r e soon found to be unreliable ( t h e r e being s e v e r a l instances of p r e m a t u r e
bursting), and in December of the s a m e y e a r the disposition was revoked. na
The chief r e a s o n why PRZ could not f i l l its rockets with d r y propellant
in the 1850's was i t s lack of sufficiently heavy p r e s s e s . A s noted above,
the p r e s s u r e developed by the Institute's p r e s s e s , which had been installed
in the 18301s, was much lower than that required f o r filling, and
Konstantinov was t h e r e f o r e t e m p o r a r i l y forced to relinquish h i s p r o g r e s s i v e
ideas. Subsequently he designed a hydraulic p r e s s ( F i g u r e 16) which could
provide much g r e a t e r f i l l p r e s s u r e , to a maximum of 40 tons. The design
was based on extensive r e s e a r c h and p r e l i m i n a r y study of the various types
of p r e s s e s in u s e in Austria, F r a n c e , and Russia. His design, a s a result,
incorporated the d e s i r a b l e qualities of t h r e e different types. In 1860 t h r e e
of the p r e s s e s w e r e manufactured a t the F a r c o t plant in F r a n c e and w e r e
highly r a t e d by e x p e r t s (in p a r t i c u l a r , the Spanish government, when
ordering equipment for its newly founded rocket institute in Granada,
specifically mentioned the desirability of manufacturing Konstantinov
presses).
The p r e s s e s built to Konstantinov's designs w e r e delivered to Russia in
1861, but could only be used a t the beginning of the 1870's in the newly
founded Nikolaev Rocket Institute.
In examining Konstantinov's projects for the improvement of Russian
rocket production, one i s s t r u c k by the disproportion between his many
proposals and those of them which w e r e realized. Konstantinov was one
of the g r e a t e s t of rocket engineers, w a s thoroughly f a m i l i a r with the
history of rocketry, and attentively followed the l a t e s t developments in
the field seeking to utilize e v e r y positive feature of rocket engineering
anywhere in the world, He did not stop a t the study and m a s t e r y of foreign

74
experience, but made and developed a number of proposals which found
approval and became standard f e a t u r e s of rocket engineering. He
developed a n original design f o r a rocket ballistic pendulum, designed
and subsequently built from his sketches hydraulic p r e s s e s to f i l l rocket
casings, proposed a number of improvements in rocket production
techniques, and introduced improvements in the design of Russian
m i l i t a r y rockets.

. .. ,
, '' ., *
$
'FUE DU .,?,.NL'R>.L f~L:.-;SjrNT'\: t'7

FIGURE 16. Hydraulic press designed by K.I. Konstantinov.

75
 The production methods he advocated w e r e a s a r u l e the m o s t
progressive, and took into account both Russian and foreign experience
in rocket engineering. N e v e r stopping a t what had already been done,
never satisfied with such resultE a s had a l r e a d y been obtained,
Konstantinov c e a s e l e s s l y sought new, m o r e perfect solutions.
In seeking t o r e a l i z e his intended m e a s u r e s , however, Konstantinov
w a s impeded by g r e a t obstacles, f o r the m o s t p a r t of a m a t e r i a l
c h a r a c t e r . In spite of the steadily i n c r e a s i n g demand for m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s f r o m a r m y commanders, the c e n t r a l w a r administration, a s
before, underestimated their value and did l i t t l e t o further their
development.
A l l of Konstantinov's o v e r t u r e s f o r installation in the Rocket Institute
of a mechanical motor, construction of new, m o r e perfect p r e s s e s ,
broadening of the Institute and introduction of n e c e s s a r y improvements
in rocket production techniques, in a word, a l l his proposals aimed a t
expansion of m i l i t a r y rocket production, w e r e continually pushed aside,
o r t h e i r realization was postponed.
T h i s considerably slowed the reorganization of P R Z . T o r e a l i z e his
projects Konstantinov had to work with the comparatively s m a l l budget
of 4000 s i l v e r r u b l e s annually, allocated to P R Z by the Staff Regulation
of 1850. T h i s amount was a l s o intended t o cover maintenance of the
Institute and performance of various experiments,
As Konstantinov noted in one of his articles, "after 1 8 4 6 a l l of the
Institute's m e a n s w e r e absorbed by the preparation of urgent o r d e r s
needed f o r war, and only with difficulty, utilizing the time left when o r d e r s
w e r e filled ahead of time, w a s i t possible to do s o m e r e s e a r c h towards
establishment of a general theory of rocket design and improvement of
rocket construction. I ' 113
The reorganization of P R Z had been largely completed by the end of the
1 8 5 0 ' s , and such possibilities f o r improving the qualities of m i l i t a r y
rockets as existed within the Institute had been a l m o s t entirely exploited.
"During m y 10-year administration, I ' s a i d Konstantinov, a d d r e s s i n g
the officers of the Mikhailovskii A r t i l l e r y College, "all of the Institute's
machines, excluding the p r e s s e s , w e r e s e t up on special principles
devised by me, which constituted a compromise between manual and
automatic mechanical operation. T h i s was necessitated by the lack of a
mechanical motor, a s well a s by the generally limited r e s o u r c e s . "114
Yet, in spite of a l l the improvements introduced during the preceding
decade, the level of P R Z ' s engineering equipment remained low.
Konstantinov's m a j o r problem - elimination of manual labor and i t s
replacement by machine production -- could not be solved a t the Rocket
Institute, w h e r e many operations w e r e s t i l l performed by hand. A s
before, t h e r e was no mechanical m o t o r and what machines t h e r e w e r e had
t o be driven by s h e e r m u s c u l a r strength, which required the efforts of
m o s t of the personnel. T h e rockets w e r e still filled by mechanical
p r e s s e s of obsolete design, which w e r e insufficiently powerful t o f i l l a t
the r e q u i r e d p r e s s u r e s . The lack of a s t e a m h a m m e r and tools f o r
a c c u r a t e m e t a l w o r k meant that base plates with tailpipes w e r e s t i l l
o r d e r e d f r o m private machine shops. T h i s continued t o be a s o u r c e of
nonuniformity in rocket production.

76
 F u r t h e r improvement of the quality of m i l i t a r y rockets was impossible
without radical changes in manufacturing techniques, A transition from
semi-manual production, which consisted p r i m a r i l y of hand labor, t o
machine production, in which a l l m a j o r p r o c e s s e s would be mechanized,
was necessary.
Konstantinov went even f u r t h e r with the idea that the principal
operations of rocket manufacture should be not m e r e l y mechanized,
but automated. He wrote, "In pyrotechnics, if the manufacturing
methods a r e to produce identical results, i t is n e c e s s a r y not only t o
have proper machine production, but f o r this t o be largely automatic,
s o that the machines will, a s much a s possible, replace not only the
strength and craftsmanship of the workmen, but a l s o their attention,
s i n c e a s l i p in this a r e a can lead to delay and failure. 'I '15 T h e question
therefore a r o s e of building a new Rocket Institute, t o be equipped with
a l l the machinery needed for the manufacture of high quality rockets,
"incorporating a l l m e a n s f o r rocket production with a l l possible
.
improvements 'I 116

ROCKET PRODUCTION AT THE NIKOLAEV

ROCKET PLANT

T h e question of founding a new rocket institute in south Russia a r o s e

in the middle 1850's, when the Artillery Department, in connection with
the elaboration of plans for the development of rocket a r m a m e n t in Russia,
urged presentation of the m e a s u r e s t o be taken f o r this end.
It was originally decided t o build the new institute n e a r Kiev, on the
left bank of the Dnieper. 11' T h e mild climate and ready availability of
cheap water power spoke in favor of this proposal.
One of the r e a l deficiencies of the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute was
i t s great dependence on climatic conditions, which extended t o enforced
cessation of operation f o r a prolonged period during the winter. It w a s
therefore natural t o want t o t r a n s f e r the Institute t o the south where the
w a r m e r climate would make it possible t o manufacture and t e s t rockets
the y e a r round.
T h e choice of a power s o u r c e f o r the machinery was of g r e a t importance.
Monetary considerations w e r e a l s o important. T h e budget drawn up in 1856
s e t the total cost of construction a t 616,000 rubles,l18 while a s u m of
108,000 rubles was required to build and operate the s t e a m engines.
Originally, therefore, i t was decided f o r the s a k e of economy t o abandon
the idea of s t e a m engines in favor of using a r i v e r a s power source, but
subsequently s t e a m engines w e r e chosen nonetheless.
As e a r l y a s 1856 Konstantinov had worked out a plan for the new rocket
institute, but he considered i t essential, before building w a s begun, t o
familiarize himself with the l a t e s t advances in rocket production in
F r a n c e and other European countries which w e r e devoting g r e a t attention
t o the perfecting of rocket a r m a m e n t . With this object, he w a s s e n t
abroad in 1857, and remained away about two y e a r s . During this t i m e he
collected a g r e a t deal of m a t e r i a l on rocket production in F r a n c e and,
t o s o m e extent, in P r u s s i a , refined his plan f o r the new rocket institute
on the b a s i s of his knowledge of the foreign rocket institutes, and drafted

77
 a contract with t h e F a r c o t works, n e a r P a r i s , f r o m which it w a s decided
to o r d e r the equipment r e q u i r e d f o r the new institute. l Z o During
1859-1861 Konstantinov m a d e s e v e r a l m o r e visits to F r a n c e to o r d e r
machinery and o b s e r v e its manufacture. Throughout this period a m o r e
s u i t a b l e location f o r the new r o c k e t institute w a s being sought, T h e
environs of Chuguev, Baturin, Voznesensk, Nikolaev, and other cities
of s o u t h e r n R u s s i a w e r e being considered. lZ1The choice finally made
w a s Nikolaev, as t h e a r e a m o s t suitable, in the opinion of the A r t i l l e r y
Department, f o r construction of a r o c k e t institute and t e s t i n g ground.
T h e machines f o r the new institute, built in P a r i s f r o m Konstantinov's
designs, w e r e delivered t o Nikolaev. in November 1861. lZ2 T h e i r a s s e m b l y
could have been proceeded with had not new doubts then a r i s e n in the W a r
Department as t o t h e need f o r continuing development of r o c k e t
armament. T h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of building a new r o c k e t institute again
became a s u b j e c t of d i s c u s s i o n f o r c o m m i s s i o n s and conferences. Only
a y e a r l a t e r , in November 1862, was i t finally decided to proceed with
construction of the Nikolaev Rocket Institute "with the provision to pay
the amount r e q u i r e d f o r this purpose o v e r a 4 - y e a r period. '"
While the decision t o build a new r o c k e t institute in s o u t h e r n R u s s i a
w a s being made, t h e fate of P R Z f o r a long time remained uncertain.
It had t o supply t h e A r m y and Navy with r o c k e t s until construction of
the Nikolaev Rocket Institute w a s finished, but t h e r e w e r e divergent views
a s t o what should b e done with i t t h e r e a f t e r .
Some, including Konstantinov, thought that PRZ should continue to
function even a f t e r completion of the Nikolaev plant, a s a s o u r c e of supply
in P e t e r s b u r g itself for the r o c k e t s needed for the t e s t s performed in the
capital. O t h e r s felt it u n n e c e s s a r y t o maintain two c e n t e r s of r o c k e t
production, and thought i t would be b e s t to shut down PRZ.
T h e pace of development of m i l i t a r y engineering, however, i n t e r f e r e d
with t h e s e plans and led to the closing of P R Z even before construction
of the Nikolaev plant had been completed. T h e rapid improvement of
a r t i l l e r y p i e c e s r e s u l t e d i n a s h a r p decline of i n t e r e s t in m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s .
Beginning with t h e 1860's, m o s t European countries c e a s e d to employ
r o c k e t a r m a m e n t , and it w a s d i s m i s s e d in many m i l i t a r y regions of R u s s i a .
T h e r e s u l t of this w a s that, in spite of the decision to build the Nikolaev
Rocket Institute, the withdrawal of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in Russia actually
made the situation w o r s e , not better. Although suitable conditions for
r o c k e t production did not y e t exist in the south, and the plant buildings had
not even been e r e c t e d , P R Z w a s dissolved in the s u m m e r of 1864, and i t s
machines and equipment w e r e s e n t to Nikolaev. l Z 5
T h e only actually e x i s t i n g c e n t e r f o r production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in
R u s s i a had been eliminated. Meanwhile construction of the Nikolaev
plant dragged on. Although it w a s originally scheduled f o r completion by the
autumn of 1867, the date w a s repeatedly put off, and as a r e s u l t production
of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in R u s s i a w a s at a total standstill f r o m 1864 to 1870.
It w a s revived only with the opening of the Nikolaev Rocket Institute
at the beginning of the 1870's. T h e first 90 rockets, which w e r e designated
f o r experimental purposes, w e r e produced in J u l y 1871. T h e number of
r o c k e t s produced in August w a s 190 (of which 90 w e r e intended f o r
experiments, and 100 f o r m i l i t a r y purposes), while the September production

78
i

r o s e to 580 (including 500 f o r m i l i t a r y use).lz6 A total of 1500 two-inch

m i l i t a r y rockets, which w e r e s e n t to Omsk, Orenburg, Krasnovodsk and
Tashkent, w e r e produced in 1871. In 1872 m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s from Nikolaev
w e r e displayed a t the Moscow Polytechnic Exhibition, and by 1873 all the
detachments s e n t to Khiva w e r e equipped with r o c k e t s made a t Nikolaev.
After t h e r e v i v a l of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t production the d i r e c t o r s of the
Nikolaev Rocket Institute had to c o n s i d e r what f o r m r o c k e t a r m a m e n t
should take in the n e a r future. Konstantinov u r g e d continuation of the 2"
rockets, suggesting only a few s u p e r f i c i a l changes:
1. Substitution of a s u l f u r compound for the clayeyblank incombustible
propellant .
2. Replacement of the pointed p r o j e c t i l e s and grooved tails by
cylindrical explosive c h a r g e s with h e m i s p h e r i c a l heads and cylindrical
t a i l s with conical tips, respectively.
3 . Substitution for the m o i s t propellant consisting of gunpowder pulp
with added carbon, of a d r y propellant p r e p a r e d d i r e c t l y f r o m its
component p a r t s .
New e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e a l s o p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e the b e s t composition
f o r the r o c k e t mixture. P r e v i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s had led to the adoption of
t h r e e ,different m i x t u r e s :

Nitrates Sulfur Carbon

Parts by weight

No. 1 15 10 25
No. 2 72 14 18
No.3 72 14 16

The e x p e r i m e n t s of J u n e and J u l y 1871 showed No. 1 to be too weak,

while No. 3 was too s t r o n g (of 30 r o c k e t s launched, in five the b a s e plate
was blown out, while one r o c k e t b u r s t in leaving the stand). It w a s t h e r e -
f o r e decided to continue the e x p e r i m e n t s only with propellant No. 2, but
f u r t h e r experiments, in August and September of the s a m e y e a r , showed
that in a number of c a s e s No. 2 w a s a l s o too s t r o n g and that i t had to be
modified by the addition of two p a r t s of carbon. T h e formula finally adopted,
t h e r e f o r e (propellant No. 4), had 7 2 p a r t s of nitrate, 1 4 of sulfur, and 2 0 of
carbon. lz9
The g r e a t e s t difference in the r o c k e t s produced by the Nikolaev Rocket
Institute a r o s e f r o m its s u p e r i o r manufacturing techniques. It p o s s e s s e d
the n e c e s s a r y l a t h e s and equipment to cut the s h e e t s , plane their edges,
punch holes for rivets, r o l l casings, manufacture rivets, d r i l l gas
exhaust orifices, d r i l l and t h r e a d the c e n t r a l orifice, and p e r f o r m o t h e r
operations. 130 F u r t h e r m o r e , a l m o s t a l l the improvements proposed by
Konstantinov in the fifties and sixties w e r e envisaged, i. e., hydraulic
p r e s s e s to f i l l the c a s i n g s with r o c k e t propellant, a s t e a m h a m m e r to
s t a m p b a s e plates, and a number of other machines actuated by a
mechanical motor.
T h e comparatively high l e v e l of mechanization of the plant should have
made possible a g r e a t i n c r e a s e in production. Konstantinov thought the
Nikolaev Rocket Institute would produce 6000 r o c k e t s annually, with t h e
possibility of i n c r e a s i n g t h e output to 18,000 p e r y e a r . In practice,

19
 however, g r e a t difficulties w e r e encountered. F o r a long t i m e the
s t e a m engine was lacking, and a s a r e s u l t the machines had, a s before, t o
b e driven manually. F u r t h e r m o r e , the hydraulic p r e s s e s , which had been
built a s e a r l y a s 1861, w e r e found to be inefficient and to have a v a r i e t y of
defects, generally falling s h o r t of the demands made upon them, 132
In the f i r s t few y e a r s , t h e r e f o r e , the rockets had to be built much a s
they had been a t PRZ, and the maximum annual production did not exceed
4000. T h e s t e a m engine was installed only in 1876, when it was a l s o
decided to r e p l a c e the hydraulic p r e s s e s by new ones.
By t h i s time, however, the existence of the Nikolaev Rocket Institute
had again been brought into question, again a s a r e s u l t of the g e n e r a l
reduction of i n t e r e s t in m i l i t a r y rockets. In 1875, the War Council, a f t e r
a s s e r t i n g that m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e r e q u i r e d only in e x t r e m e l y limited
quantities, and then only in Asiatic m i l i t a r y regions, and emphasizing that the
demand f o r them was falling e v e r y y e a r with the constantly r i s i n g level of
a r t i l l e r y engineering, proposed that the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration consider
whether it was even worthwhile to maintain a special rocket institute which might
be b e t t e r employed f o r the production of v a r i o u s types of a r t i l l e r y p i e c e s . 133
During the s e v e r a l months that the m a t t e r was being considered,
proposals w e r e h e a r d t o t u r n the Nikolaev Rocket Institute into a gunpowder
or c a r t r i d g e factory, to make it over into an a r s e n a l and a r m o r e r s ' work-
shops, o r even t o r e n t it out or s e l l i t t o private p a r t i e s . 134
It is h a r d to s a y how the fate of the Nikolaev Rocket Institute would have
been resolved, had it not undertaken in those y e a r s , together with the
production of m i l i t a r y rockets, that of r e s c u e rockets, f l a r e s , and other
types, which soon became i t s principal products.
Production of r e s c u e r o c k e t s and f l a r e s a t Nikolaev was discussed
immediately after the plant opened. In 1873, a t the r e q u e s t of the
Admiralty, the Institute began experiments on the u s e of r o c k e t s to throw
r e s c u e lines, 135 and i n 1874 the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration e x p r e s s e d
itself in favor of conducting e x p e r i m e n t s on the u s e of rockets to
illuminate a locality during s i e g e s or attacks on f o r t r e s s e s . 136
By 1876 the e x p e r i m e n t s had been successfully completed, and the
Nikolaev Plant ( a s it w a s then often t e r m e d ) began the manufacture of
r e s c u e r o c k e t s and f l a r e s f o r the A r m y and Navy. At the s a m e time, on
the initiative of Major-General Nechaev, Head of the Nikolaev Rocket
Institute, experiments with fougasse r o c k e t s a r m e d with such powerful
explosives a s pyroxylin w e r e begun. L a t e r Nechaev r e m a r k e d that "in
the Rocket P l a n t the idea of applying r o c k e t s t o throw powerful explosives
had existed f o r m o r e than 20 y e a r s , but because of the imperfect n a t u r e
of t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s i t w a s not thought opportune to attempt it, A s the
explosives w e r e improved, however, the proposal acquired m o r e r e a l i t y .
In 1876, after e x p e r i m e n t s p e r f o r m e d by Navy mining officers had convinced
him of the power of gun-cotton, Nechaev advocated the manufacture of
pyroxylin rockets, which he held could b e used f o r the s u c c e s s f u l
bombardment, not only of buildings, a r t i l l e r y b a t t e r i e s , and troop
battalions, but even of enemy iron-clads.
Beginning in 1877, the Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t began to produce t h r e e
types of 3" pyroxylin r o c k e t s :
a) c a r r y i n g a 15-lb warhead; range of 400 s a g e n e s [ 9 3 3 y a r d s ] a t a
launching angle of 45";

80

..
. __ . . .I ,-1 ... ... .
.
I .. I., I,,. I I
 b ) c a r r y i n g a 10-lb warhead; r a n g e of 600 s a g e n e s [1400y a r d s ]
( s a m e angle);
c ) c a r r y i n g an 8-lb warhead; range of 700 s a g e n e s [1633 y a r d s ]
( s a m e angle). 138
T h e r o c k e t s w e r e s e n t off to the A r m y in the Field, where, though
admittedly in insignificant quantities and m o r e as a kind of experiment,
they w e r e used against the enemy. In 1877 a total of 386 pyroxylin r o c k e t s
w e r e s e n t to the Army in the Field. 139 Some of t h e s e w e r e used a t the
b a t t l e s of Plevna, Rushchuk, and Sulin, though with no p a r t i c u l a r
s u c c e s s . 140
T h e first experience in the u s e of pyroxylin r o c k e t s w a s nonetheless felt
t o b e positive, and in 1878 the Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t r e c e i v e d a new o r d e r ,
t h i s time f o r 800 pyroxylin r o c k e t s . 141
Altogether, in the y e a r s 1877- 1879, t h e Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t produced
22,930 rockets, 142 distributed a s follows:

2" military . . . . . . . . . - 12,100

3" flares . . . . . . . . .- 8,600
3" pyroxylin . . . . . . . .- 1,280
4" incendiary . . . . . . . . - 450
2" incendiary . . . . . . . . - 400
3" rescue . . . . . . . . - 100

Once the Rocket Institute began to produce r o c k e t flares, which w e r e

in v e r y g r e a t demand, the question of whether it was advisable to maintain
a s p e c i a l r o c k e t plant was dropped, and its existence w a s no longer in
jeopardy. T h e Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t l a s t e d until 1910, when rocket
production w a s taken over by the Shostensk Gunpowder Plant.

THE WITHDRAWAL O F ROCKET WEAPONS

In spite of the fact that m o s t European c o u n t r i e s discontinued the u s e

of r o c k e t weapQns in the 18601s, they w e r e produced in R u s s i a for a
considerable period t h e r e a f t e r .
During the s e v e n t i e s the Nikolaev Rocket Institute s e n t m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s
t o the C a u c a s u s and the U r a l s , a s well a s to C e n t r a l Asia and S i b e r i a .
Rocketweapons a l s o figured in a number of b a t t l e s of the R u s s o - T u r k i s h w a r of
1877-1878, though to a v e r y slight extent.
By the l a s t q u a r t e r of the 19th century a well-established type of 2 "
m i l i t a r y r o c k e t had been developed ( F i g u r e 17), and the Nikolaev Rocket
Institute tooled for i t s production. However, as before, t h e troops w e r e
unfamiliar with s u c h weapons, permanent r o c k e t detachments no longer
existed, and t h e r o c k e t c o r p s w e r e p a r t l y composed of m e n ill-informed
as t o the s t r u c t u r e and application of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s .
In 1876 the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration, observing that the
information on m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s given in the " A r t i l l e r y O f f i c e r s ' Manual" 143
w a s inadequate, suggested that the NikolaevRocket P l a n t p r e p a r e ' a "Collection
of Information on the Construction and Application of Military Rockets"

81
 (Sbornik svedenii ob u s t r o i s t v e i upotreblenii boevykh raket). lQ1 How-
e v e r , the beginning of the R u s s o - T u r k i s h W a r in 1877 delayed execution
of the p r o j e c t until the beginning of the 1880's, when two v e r s i o n s of the
manual r e a c h e d the A r t i l l e r y Committee a l m o s t simultaneously. T h e
f i r s t w a s compiled by Captain Stepanov, Head of the Workshop i n the
Nikolaev Rocket Plant, and the second, by Lieutenant P o d r u z s k i i of the
E a s t Siberian A r t i l l e r y Brigade. Stepanov's work, the "Description
of 2 " Military Rockets" (Opisanie 2-kh dyuimovykh boevykh raket), 145
c o m p r i s e d the following s e c t i o n s : 1) r o c k e t design, with a brief
explanation of t h e i r fabrication; 2 ) packing of rockets; 3) t r a n s p o r t of
rockets; 4) r e c e i p t and shipment of rockets; 5 ) s t o r a g e of r o c k e t s ;
6) s i g n s of d e t e r i o r a t i o n in r o c k e t s ; 7 ) m e a n s f o r the d e s t r u c t i o n of
u s e l e s s rockets; 9) r o c k e t launching.

FIGURE 11. Two-inch military rocket of the 1810's.

After examining this document, the A r t i l l e r y Committee in principle

endorsed i t with the observation that "Captain Stepanov's 'Opisanie
2-dyuimovykh boevykh r a k e t , written with thorough knowledge and
experience of the subject, has been found to be c o r r e c t , s y s t e m a t i c and
comprehensible by examination and comparison with design sketches. " 146
P o d r u z s k i i ' s "Summary of Information on Military Rockets" (Svod svedenii o
boevykh raketakh) r e c e i v e d a much m o r e modest evaluation. T h e A r t i l l e r y
Committee J o u r n a l r e m a r k e d , "The information p r e s e n t e d on r o c k e t
design i s neither s o complete nor s o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d a s in
Captain Stepanov's work; but among those i t e m s of information given in
Lieutenant P o d r u z s k i i ' s work and lacking in that of Captain Stepanov a r e
a s c h e m e of regulations f o r the u s e of r o c k e t s and a l i s t of h i s t o r i c a l facts
which confirm the m i l i t a r y value of r o c k e t s . "14' As a r e s u l t i t w a s
decided to adopt Stepanov's "Description, 'I and, a f t e r supplementing i t with
s o m e of the information lacking, to send it t o the a p p r o p r i a t e m i l i t a r y
q u a r t e r s . By this time, however, i t w a s perfectly c l e a r that t h e r e w a s
absolutely no future f o r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s using black smoky powder. They
not only failed to compete with a r t i l l e r y , but w e r e even inadequate a s an
a u x i l i a r y to it. T h e low e n e r g y of s m o k y powder s e v e r e l y limited the
r a n g e attainable by reaction-powered projectiles, and a s a s a t i s f a c t o r y
m e a n s for stabilization of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s had not yet been found, they
underwent considerable deviation in flight.
T h e s a m e y e a r s saw considerable p r o g r e s s in the development of
artillery, due to attainments made in metallurgy, chemistry, and
ballistics. After the 1860's rifled breech-loading ordnance b e c a m e v e r y
common in Russia.
As a result, the m i l i t a r y i m p o r t a n c e of r o c k e t s gradually declined,
and by the beginning of the eighties it w a s being asked if continued
production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w a s worthwhile. In November 1884 troop

82
 commanders in s e v e r a l regions w e r e c i r c u l a r i z e d a s follows: "Owing to the
unsatisfactory performance of m i l i t a r y rockets, which cannot be compared
with e i t h e r field o r mountain ordnance of modern design, the Artillery
Committee has s e e n f i t to question the utility of t h e i r continued manufacture
and use, and f e e l s that perhaps cessation of the production and u s e of
m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s is indicated. T h e commanders w e r e invited to submit
t h e i r opinions t o the W a r Department.
T h e commanders of the Caucasus, Turkestan, O m s k and Irkutsk
regions, noting the poor quality of the m i l i t a r y rockets with which t h e i r troops
w e r e equipped, urged t h e i r discontinuation, with the r e s e r v a t i o n that a few
a l r e a d y a s s e m b l e d rockets be kept a t hand i n the event of w a r with the
disorganized troops of the enemy.
The commander of the Amur region, however, while admitting the
poor quality of the rockets and emphasizing t h e i r inferiority t o a r t i l l e r y ,
felt that they w e r e nonetheless of use, and wished t o r e t a i n them among
the m i l i t a r y equipment of h i s troops.
On the b a s i s of t h e s e r e p l i e s and the fact that a l l European countries
had a l r e a d y discontinued the u s e of m i l i t a r y rockets, the A r t i l l e r y
Committee decided, in J a n u a r y 1886, to discontinue the production of
m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s in Russia149 ( s e e Appendix 9, pp. 1 9 0 -1 93).
It was proposed t o place the 5650 m i l i t a r y rockets then located in the
Nikolaev Rocket Plant a t the disposition of the commander of the A m u r
troops, and t o p r e s e r v e the r o c k e t s included in the s t o r e s of the other
Asiatic m i l i t a r y regions in c a s e they should be required in battle. 150
The termination of m i l i t a r y rocket production did not mean the end of a l l
rocket production. The Nikolaev Rocket Institute continued to produce
signal and r e s c u e rockets and f l a r e s , and the discontinuation of m i l i t a r y
rockets turned out to be only one s t a g e i n the development of Russian
rocketry. C h a r a c t e r i z e d by the rise and comparatively wide dissemination,
followed by the sudden decline of rocket weapons, and lasting m o r e than
60 y e a r s , this s t a g e left i t s m a r k in the h i s t o r y of Russian m i l i t a r y
engineering.
It was a l s o of g r e a t importance in the development of Russian rocket
theory and rocket engineering. T h i s was the period in which the
foundations of rocket design w e r e laid, and the f i r s t efforts w e r e made
t o c r e a t e the new science of experimental rocket dynamics. The s a m e
y e a r s saw the proposal of s e v e r a l ideas which would determine the c o u r s e
of r o c k e t r y r e s e a r c h f o r many y e a r s , although they w e r e not r e a l i z e d
until long afterwards.
The f u r t h e r development of solid propellant rockets was involved with
the appearance of new, greatly improved f o r m s of powder, and belongs
t o the second q u a r t e r of the 20th century.

NOTES

AIM Archive, Gunpowder Warehouse s t o r e , e n t r y 2413, file 438, s h e e t 12.

AIM Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 154, s h e e t s 125-126.

83
 The r e a s o n f o r the p r e m a t u r e b u r s t i n g of r o c k e t s w a s c l a r i f i e d only much
l a t e r . In t h e 20th c e n t u r y it was found that smoky powder is a b l e t o
burn in p a r a l l e l l a y e r s only after being c o m p r e s s e d at v e r y high
p r e s s u r e s . A small f i s s u r e i n t h e c h a r g e , which could r e s u l t f r o m
manufacturing defects or f r o m jolting or shaking in t r a n s p o r t , etc.,
was sufficient to i n t e r f e r e with n o r m a l combustion: t h e c h a r g e cracked
and t h e g a s e s e n t e r e d t h e f i s s u r e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e combustion s u r f a c e .
The p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e d s h a r p l y , and t h i s i n t u r n a c c e l e r a t e d t h e p r o c e s s
of gas formation, which l e d t o a n explosion. L a n g e m a k , G . E . and
V. P. G 1 u s h k 0 . Rakety, ikh u s t r o i s t v o i primenenie ( T h e Design and
Application of Rockets), p. 44. Moskva-Leningrad, 1935.
AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 506, s h e e t 66. The experiments
a r e a l s o mentioned in "Report on t h e Activity of t h e S a n k t - P e t e r s b u r g
Rocket Institute" (Otchet o deistviyakh S. -Peterburgskogo raketnogo
zavedeniya v 1852 godu), 1852. -TsGVIA, store 503, e n t r y 4 , file 166,
s h e e t 23.
AJM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 506, s h e e t 29.
K o n s t a n t i n o v , K . op. cit., p . 8 .
' AIM Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 154, s h e e t 128.
a V r o c h e n s k i i Neskol'ko s l o v o boevykh raketakh (A Note on M i l i t a r y
~

Rockets). - A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, NO. 8, s e c t i o n 111, p. 164, 1864.

Svedeniya ob upotreblenii boevykh r a k e t p r i vzyatii Ak-Mecheti (The
Use of Military Rockets in t h e C a p t u r e of Ak-Mechet). Sankt-Peterburg,
1854.
lo These battles a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e a r t i c l e s : Ob upotreblenii boevykh
r a k e t pod Silistrieyu i p r i gorode Babadage (The Use of M i l i t a r y
Rockets at S i l i s t r i a and t h e Town of Babadag). - A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal,
No. 2, s e c t i o n I, pp. 129-139, 1855; and P o l i v a n o v , N. S r a z h e n i e pri
Kyuryuk-Dara (The Battle of Kyuryuk-Dara). - R u s s k i i Arkhiv, book 3,
p. 287, 1904.
l1 K o n s t a n t i n o v , op. cit., p.67.
l2 Ibid., p. 66.
l3 AI&: Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 154, s h e e t 148.
l4 TsGAVMF, s t o r e 162, e n t r y 1, file 285, s h e e t s 1 - 2 .
l5 Ibid., s h e e t 1 o b v e r s e .
l6 J o u r n a l of t h e Naval Study Committee, No. 109, 3 F e b r u a r y , 1851.
TsGAVMF, s t o r e 162, e n t r y 1, file 285, s h e e t s 4-6. ~

l' On t h e activities of the Naval Rocket Training Detachment see TsGAVNIF,

s t o r e 165, e n t r y 1, file 1988.
la Ibid., s h e e t s 136, 148 obverse.
l9 TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 1434, s h e e t s 1-3.
2o Ibid., file 1448, s h e e t s 2-4.
21 TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, f i l e s 1435, 1455, 1467, 1468, 1471, et al.

84
22 J o u r n a l of the Naval Study Committee, No. 671, 10 July, 1859. TsGVIA,
s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 1114, s h e e t 190,
23 Ibid., s h e e t 195 o b v e r s e .
24 TsGAVMF, s t o r e 165, e n t r y 1, file 2341, s h e e t 13 obverse.
25 Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 5, s e c t i o n 11, pp. 20-59, 1856; No. 3,
s e c t i o n 11, pp. 177-210, 1857; No.4, s e c t i o n 11, pp. 307-341, 1857;
No. 1, s e c t i o n 11, pp. 129-142, 1858; No. 3, section 11, pp. 97-121, 1858;
No. 1, s e c t i o n 11, pp. 21-29, 1859; No. 6, section IV, pp. 92-97, 1859.
26
TsGAVMF, s t o r e 165, e n t r y 1, file 1988, s h e e t 179.
27 C o n s t a n t i n o f f . L e c t u r e s s u r l e s f u s k e s de g u e r r e . Paris, 1861.
Published in R u s s i a n at P e t e r s b u r g in 1864.
28 AIM Archive, s t o r e 5, e n t r y 4, file 660, s h e e t 18 o b v e r s e .
Ibid., s h e e t 19 o b v e r s e .
30 Quoted f r o m the R u s s i a n translation. AIM Archive, s t o r e 5, e n t r y 4,
file 660, s h e e t 18,
31 Ibid., s h e e t s 20 obverse-21.
Quoted f r o m t h e Russian t r a n s l a t i o n . - Russkii invalid, 9 May, 1862.
33 Quoted f r o m the Russian translation. - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 3,
section I n , p. 149, 1863.
34 Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 8, section 111, pp. 161 -162, 1884.
95 K o n s t a n t i n o v , K . Boevye r a k e t y v R o s s i i v 1867 godu (Military
Rockets in R u s s i a in 1867). - A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, NO.5, p. 849, 1867
36 A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, No. 5, p. 855, 1867.
'' Ibid., pp. 856-858.
38 TsGAVMF, s t o r e 12, e n t r y 1, file 285, s h e e t 1.
39 Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 6, p. 543, 1863.
40 Karmannaya spravochnaya knizhka dlya artilleriiskikh ofitserov
(Rocket Reference Book f o r A r t i l l e r y Officers), p a r t 11, p. 289,
Sankt - P e t e r b u r g , 1863.
41 Ibid., pp. 289-290.
42 The author of the section "Military Rockets" (0 boevykh raketakh)
was N. Vrochenskii, who s h a r e d Konstantinov's views on the r o l e of
rocket armament.
43 Karmannaya spravochnaya knizhka.. . I' p. 294.
44 AIM Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 109. s h e e t 12.
45 Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, NO. 5, s e c t i o n I, pp. 22-23, 1857.
46 AIM Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 4, f i l e 715, s h e e t 5; s e e a l s o
K o n s t a n t i n o v . B o e v y e r a k e t y v R o s s i i s kontsa 1861 g o d a p o
nachalo 1863 g., pp. 27-29.

85
47 A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, No. 6, s e c t i o n I, p. 449, 1853.
48 TsGAVM, s t o r e 421, e n t r y 2, file 39, s h e e t 9 o b v e r s e .
49 Ibid., s h e e t 1.
Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, NO. 12, pp. 617-621, 1866.
P. M. P a r a s h y u t - r a k e t y i rakety s k r y l ' y a m i . - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal,
NO. 11, pp. 2031-2037, 1867.
TsGAVMF, s t o r e 421, e n t r y 2, file 39, s h e e t 1 o b v e r s e .
53 H e r e and subsequently information on foreign p r o p o s a l s f o r m e a n s of
i m p a r t i n g rotation t o r o c k e t s a r e drawn f r o m Konstantinov's r e p o r t t o
t h e Inspector of Gunpowder Plants, of 6 September 1855. AIM Archive,
ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 252, s h e e t s 5-6.
54 Journal des a r m e s spkciales. No. 6, 1845.
In 1855 Berdyugin suggested stabilizing the r o c k e t by making it r o t a t e
about i t s longitudinal axis. The rotation was t o be c r e a t e d by making
t h e gas flow out through a s p i r a l tube wound about t h e tail, and
connected by thin tubes t o the exhaust orifices in the b a s e plate (AIM
Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 252, s h e e t 4 o b v e r s e ) . The project
was a d v e r s e l y c r i t i c i z e d by Konstantinov, however, and put a s i d e .
56 Z h u r n a l Morskogo Uchenogo Komiteta, No. 78, 2 6 August 1850.
AIM Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 37, s h e e t 12.
AIM Archive, ShGF s t o r e , e n t r y 12, file 37, s h e e t 78 obverse.
58 Ibid., s h e e t 79.
58 .
K o n s t a n t i n o v Sposoby dlya zameny raketnykh khvostov k r y l ' y a m i ili
vrashchatel'nym dvizheniem (Means for Replacing Rocket T a i l s by Wings
o r Rotational Motion). - In: " 0 boevykh raketakh, ' I p. 269.
6o .
K o n s t a n t i n o v P r i m e n e n i e vrashchatel'nogo dvizheniya k naprav-
leniyu r a k e t (Application of Rotational Motion to Keeping Rockets on
C o u r s e ) . - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 6, section I, pp. 109-156, 1866.
61 K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, pp.273-274.
The p a p e r s published on the theory of r o c k e t motion in the f i r s t q u a r t e r
of the 19th century w e r e f i r s t analyzed by the Leningrad s c i e n c e
h i s t o r i a n A. P. Mandryk, who presented the r e s u l t s of his r e s e a r c h at
a combined s e s s i o n of the aviation and physics and mathematics
sections of the Soviet National Union of Science and Engineering
Historians, in Moscow, in May 1961.
M o o r e , W. On t h e Motion of Rockets both in Nonresisting and
Resisting Mediums. - J o u r n a l of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and
t h e A r t s , Vol. XXVII, pp. 276-285, November 1810; Vol. XXVIII,
pp. 161-169, M a r c h 1811; Vol. XXM, pp. 241 -254, August 1811;
Vol. XXX, pp. 93 -94, March 1812.
64 M o n t g e'r y . T r a i t 6 des fuskes de g u e r r e , nommkes a u t r e f o i s
r o c h e t t e s et maintenant k la Congreve. P a r i s , 1825.
65 The r e s e a r c h of Moore and Montge'ry is given m o r e detailed attention
in the a r t i c l e of M a n d r y k ,A. P, Issledovaniya pervoi c h e t v e r t i
X M veka PO t e o r i i dvizheniya r a k e t ( R e s e a r c h on the Tneory of Rocket
Motion during the First Q u a r t e r of the 19th Century) ( p r e p a r e d f o r
publication in the p a p e r s of the Institute of the History of N a t u r a l
Science and Engineering of the AN SSSR).
Konstantinov. Oboevykh raketakh, pp. 65-66. Sankt-Peterburg,
1864.
Ibid., p.93.
68 K o n s t a n t i n o v . Boevye r a k e t y (Military Rockets ). - In the book:
"Artilleriya. Prodolzhenie k u r s a , nachatogo g e n e r a l -leitenantom
Vesselem" p a r t 11, p. 259. Sankt-Peterburg, 1857.
* F o r a description of t h e Moraine dynamometer and a n a l y s i s of i t s
operation s e e K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, pp. 180-181.
70 F o r details of the design of Konstantinov's first r o c k e t pendulum,
s e e : Zhurnal Artilleriiskogo Otdeleniya Voenno-uchenogo Komiteta,
No. 47, 28 Feb. 1848. AIM Archive, W K s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 113,
s h e e t s 86 obverse-88 obverse.
71 Ibid., s h e e t s 91 obverse-92.
72 Ibid., s h e e t 9 2 .
73 AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, f i l e 113, s h e e t 290.
74 AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 506, sheet 15.
75 On this s e e TsGAVMF, s t o r e 165, e n t r y 1, file 1988, s h e e t 160 obverse.
76 Described in K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, pp. 171-172.
77 Ibid., p. 189.
78 On this s e e AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 113, sheet 177.
F. Cheleev. Polnoe i podrobnoe n a s t a v l e n i e . . , , ch. 1x.
AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t s 247-248.
K o n s t a n t i n o v , K. I. Boevye rakety. In t h e book, "Artilleriya. . ., 'I

pp. 250-251.
82 AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t s 28-34.
Details of t h e s e experiments a r e given by Konstantinov in the book
"Artilleriya. . . , " pp. 260- 261.
84 P r o g r a m m a izyskanii raketnym ballisticheskim mayatnikom dlya
usovershenstvovaniya 2-dyuimovykh r a k e t (A P r o g r a m of R e s e a r c h
Using a Rocket Ballistic Pendulum f o r t h e Improvement Of Two-Inch
Rockets), delivered by Konstantinov on 15 May 1849, to the
A r t i l l e r y Section of the Military Study Committee. - AIM Archive,
VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 113, s h e e t s 231-237.
85 AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t s 32-34.

87
 a6 "Artilleriya. . .., 'I p . 260.
87 Ibid., p. 261.
88 Rid.
89 A m o r e detailed a n a l y s i s of t h e development of t h e m a j o r scientific
views in t h e t h e o r y of r o c k e t motion c a n b e found i n t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n
of T y u l i n a , I. A,, Razvitie mekhaniki dvizheniya tel peremennogo s o s t a v a
(Development of t h e Mechanics of Motion of Bodies of Variable
Composition), pp. 272-290. 1951.
T h i s paper should not b e confused with Konstantinov's book of t h e same
name, which w a s published i n 1864. It is t h e s e c t i o n on "Military
.
Rockets, I ' p r e p a r e d f o r t h e book "Artilleriya. . , 'I pp. 241-280. It
was finished in 1856 and published s e p a r a t e l y i n t h e same y e a r , b e f o r e
t h e book appeared. See K o n s t a n t i n o v , K. 0 boevykh raketakh.
S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1856.
91 "Artilleriya. . ., It p. 258.
92 Ibid., p. 261.
93 Ibid.
94 K o n s t a n t i n o v . Boevye r a k e t y (Military Rockets).- In t h e book:
"Artilleriya. .. , 'I p . 256.
95 Konstantinov. 0 boevykh raketakh, pp. 70-71. Sankt-Peterburg,
1864.
96 AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t 243.
97 See K o n s t a n t i n o v , 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 102. Sankt - P e t e r b u r g ,
1864.
K o n s t a n t i n o v . Boevye rakety. - In t h e book: A r t i l l e r i y a . . . , "p. 252.
99 K o n st a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 103. Sankt - P e t e r b u r g , 1864.
loo TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 1186, sheet 1.
lo' Konstantinov. 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 113. S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1864.
lo' AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, f i l e 113, s h e e t 185.
lo3 Ibid., VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t s 9 obverse-10.
lo4 TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 161, s h e e t 40 obverse.
AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 311, s h e e t s 22-24 o b v e r s e .
See a l s o A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, No. 5, section I, pp. 22 -33, 1957.
l o 6AIM Archive, VUK s t o r e , e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t 243.
lo7 K onstantinov, 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 127. Sankt-Peterburg, 1864.
Ibid., p. 120.
log Ibid., p. 121.
110 AIM Archive, VUK store, e n t r y 40, file 131, s h e e t s 150 obverse--151.

88

.. ... ~.. ... __

1
'11 Ibid., s h e e t 244 o b v e r s e ,
11' Ibid., s h e e t s 245-245 obverse.
'13 K o n s t a n t i n o v . Boevye r a k e t y . - A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, NO. 3 ,
section 11, p. 205, 1857.
'14 K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 78. S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1864.
1 1 5 K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 71. S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1864.
'16 Ibid., p. 67.
11' TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 1114, s h e e t 1.
11* Ibid., s h e e t 3 ,
See Konstantinov's r e p o r t of 9 November 1856. TsGAVMF, s t o r e 165,
file 1988, s h e e t 1 2 o b v e r s e .
120 Information on Konstantinov's activity while abroad is given in his
r e p o r t of 17 December, 1858. TsGVIA, s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 1114,
s h e e t s 95-130.
''' Ibid., s h e e t s 185-188, 490-504.
12' K o n s t a n t i n o v . Boevye r a k e t y v R o s s i i s kontsa 1861 goda PO nachalo
1863, p. 5. S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1863.
l Z 3 Report of the W a r Department No. 9079, 15 November 1861. TsGVIA
s t o r e 503, e n t r y 4, file 1114, s h e e t s 746-747.
lZ4 K r a t k i i obzor preobrazovanii PO a r t i l l e r i i s 1856 PO 1863 gg. (Brief
Survey of the T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of A r t i l l e r y between 1856 and 1863),
p. 57. S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1863.
l Z 5 AIM Archive, Gunpowder Warehouse s t o r e , e n t r y 2 4 / 3 , f i l e 459,
s h e e t s 1-121.
AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 6 / 1 , file 145, s h e e t s 3-8.
lZ7 Ibid., file 146, s h e e t s 56 obverse-57.
lZ8 AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 6 / 1 , file 123, s h e e t 113.
lZ9The r e s u l t s of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e given in t h e A r t i l l e r y Committee
J o u r n a l , N o . 193, f o r 16 December 1871. AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y
Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/10--1, file 489, s h e e t s 1-7.
130 AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 8 / 5 , file 16, s h e e t 42.
AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 6 / 1 , file 123, s h e e t 52 o b v e r s e .
w2 b i d . , file 246, s h e e t s 2-3, 17.
133 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1346, s h e e t 2.
134 b i d . , s h e e t s 14-17.
135 b i d . , s h e e t 11 o b v e r s e .
136 Ibid., s h e e t 12.
13' TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1348, s h e e t 15.

89
138 Ibid., sheet 1 6 .
Bid., sheet 17.
140 A description of the battles involving pyroxylin r o c k e t s does not fall
within the scope of the p r e s e n t work.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1348, sheet 9.
142 Bid., file 1350, s h e e t s 6 obverse-7.
Spravochnaya knizhka dlya a r t i l l e r i i s k i k h ofitserov (Artillery Officers '
Manual), p a r t 11, pp. 289-303. Sankt-Peterburg, 1863.
144 AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 6 / 1 , file 261, sheet 1.
145 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 246,
s h e e t s 18-32.
146 A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l , NO. 409, 22 November 1883. AIM Archive,
GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 6 / 1 , file 261, s h e e t 13 o b v e r s e .
14' Ibid., s h e e t 1 6 o b v e r s e .
14* AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 246, s h e e t 68.
149 A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l , NO. 1 2 , 1 6 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 6 . TsGVIA,
s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1354, s h e e t s 4-10.
150 At the t i m e s o m e 20,000 m i l i t a r y rockets w e r e t o b e found in various
s t o r e h o u s e s : 6057 a t Omsk, 3425 in the Caucasus, 2812 in Turkestan,
1 0 6 1 in Amur region, 400 a t Kiev, and 5650 i n the Nikolaev Rocket
Plant (AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 246,
s h e e t 93).
Chapter IV

OTHER TYPES OF ROCKETS IN THE SECOND

HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

PYROTECHNIC AND SIGNAL ROCKETS

A s r e m a r k e d above, the termination of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t production in

R u s s i a did not imply termination of a l l rocket production. At the end of
the 19th century f l a r e s , as w e l l as rescue, signal, and pyrotechnic rockets
w e r e still being produced.
T h e 19th century witnessed considerable p r o g r e s s i n pyrotechnics, but
the m a i n line of f i r e w o r k s development w a s manifested in improvement of
the pyrotechnic devices and i n c r e a s e d complexity
of the f i g u r e s produced. F r o m a technical point of
view 19th century f i r e w o r k rockets hardly differed
from those of the preceding century.
T h i s w a s equally t r u e of signal rockets, in whose
design no e s s e n t i a l changes w e r e made. A t the end
of the 19th century signal rockets ( F i g u r e 18) con-
s i s t e d of a cylindrical thick-walled paper casing a,
beneath which w a s a n a r r o w orifice 0; the internal
p a r t of the rocket above the orifice was densely
packed with a f o r c e compound e , in which,
immediately above the orifice, w a s a channel of
conical section d . T h i s w a s closed off above by a
solid (or blind) l a y e r of the s a m e compound e , and
above this l a y e r the c a s i n g was filled with powder /,
overwhich the w a l l s w e r e drawn together and
corded. A wooden b a r g (the rocket tail) w a s
attached to t h e outside of the rocket casing.
T h e weight of the rocket without t a i l w a s 1 pound
32 zolotniki (536 g), and with the t a i l attached,
2 pounds 24 zolotniki (918 g). T h e signal r o c k e t s
reached a maximum altitude of 400-500 s a g e n e s
[933--1167 yd]. and took 4 seconds t o r e a c h it,
FIGURE 18. Signal rocket while the t i m e of t h e i r descent t o e a r t h w a s
of the 1 8 1 0 ' s . 1 2 seconds.2

RESCUE ROCKETS

During the second half of the 19th century the s p h e r e of application

of gunpowder r o c k e t s in R u s s i a widened greatly. A f t e r the
middle of the century r o c k e t s w e r e u s e d f o r r e s c u e operations on sinking

91
 ships, nocturnal illumination, and even (though in t h i s area only a few
attempts w e r e m a d e ) applied t o the problem of human flight.
Rockets w e r e f i r s t used t o throw r o p e s t o sinking ships at the beginning
of the 19th century, when the English Captain Trowgrouse suggested using
m i l i t a r y Congreve rockets, r a t h e r than m o r t a r s , f o r this purpose. The
first successful t r i a l s w e r e repeated by Dennet in England and Stiller i n
P r u s s i a , and r e s c u e rockets soon found application in other countries as
well.
In Russia, Konstantinov, in 1851 ( s e e p.45), was the f i r s t to propose
u s e of rockets t o threw a line, but the m a t t e r remained undecided through-
out the fifties.
About the end of the 1850's Konstantinov began to i n t e r e s t himself in the
ballistics of r e s c u e rockets, He a r r i v e d a t the conclusion that r o c k e t s
intended t o throw r e s c u e lines m u s t have different ballistic p r o p e r t i e s f r o m
those designed t o shoot projectiles. The l a t t e r required maximum velocity
developed a t the moment of leaving the aiming stand and b r i e f e s t possible
action of the propulsive force, while r e s c u e rockets had t o s a t i s f y exactly
opposite r e q u i r e m e n t s , s i n c e long range was desired and breakage of the
line had to be prevented. They had t o have a low initial velocity, which
would then i n c r e a s e gradually t o a c e r t a i n limit, in the opinion of the F r e n c h
inventor Tremblay, who worked on r e s c u e rockets, about 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 m / s e c ;
f u r t h e r m o r e , the action of the propulsive f o r c e during flight had to be quite
protracted.
Analysis of the m e a n s then known f o r reduction of a r o c k e t ' s initial
velocity (decrease in the depth of the ignition channel, i n c r e a s e in i t s
diameter, u s e of a weaker rocket propellant, i n c r e a s e in the s i z e of the
g a s exhaust o r i f i c e s ) led Konstantinov t o the conclusion that none of them
would be s a t i s f a c t o r y in r e s c u e rocket design, since, in addition t o
reducing the r o c k e t ' s initial velocity, they a l s o r e d u c e i t s work potential,
which in t u r n r e s u l t s in shortened range.
Konstantinov's efforts t o r e s o l v e this contradiction resulted, in 1858,
in a n original rocket design with two channels5 (Figure 19), the f i r s t of
which ( u b ) r e s e m b l e d a conventional ignition channel, while the second (cd)
was inside the blind propellant, which was simply a continuation of the
Ax-opellantsurrounding the f i r s t channel. The s p a c e between the two
channels had t o be a t l e a s t as g r e a t a s the thickness of the propellant
surrounding the f i r s t channel.
This design made i t possible to d e c r e a s e the r o c k e t ' s initial velocity
and prolong t h e action of the propulsive f o r c e without reducing the r o c k e t ' s
work potential.
During the first half of the 1860's P R Z conducted a number of
comparative experiments on the shooting of r e s c u e rockets, and after
1863 the new r o c k e t s of Konstantinov's design w e r e in u s e a t Russian
r e s c u e stations in the Baltic Sea.
However, this did not r e p r e s e n t termination of the s e a r c h f o r the b e s t
r e s c u e rocket design, and the Admiralty continued, until the beginning of
the seventies, t o o r d e r l a r g e numbers of r e s c u e r o c k e t s f r o m England.
One compelling r e a s o n f o r t h i s was the s h a r p reduction that o c c u r r e d in
Russian rocket production towards the middle of the sixties. As a l r e a d y
noted, the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute closed i t s doors in 1864, and the
s m a l l pyrotechnic l a b o r a t o r i e s located in various Russian cities confined
t h e i r activity t o the manufacture of firework and signal rockets, a s the
s i m p l e s t designs which did not r e q u i r e complicated machinery.

1707 92
 /
D

FIGURE 19. Rescue rocket deshgned by K . I . Konsranrinov.

 Production of r e s c u e r o c k e t s could be r e s u m e d only a f t e r the Nikolaev
Rocket Plant w a s opened. Experiments on r o c k e t s designed t o throw
lines w e r e p e r f o r m e d f r o m 1873 t o 1875, and in 1876 t h e Nikolaev Rocket
Plant filled a Navy Department o r d e r f o r fifty 3" r e s c u e rockets.' The
number o r d e r e d in 1880 was f o u r t i m e s as great, while t h e 1881 o r d e r s
w e r e for 400 r o c k e t s . '
By t h e beginning of the eighties the Russian r e s c u e stations of t h e
Society f o r Rescues at Sea w e r e equipped exclusively with Russian r o c k e t s ,
whose s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e foreign products w a s felt by t h e d i r e c t o r s of
t h e Society to have been established by many y e a r s of experience in t h e i r
use.

ROCKET FLARES

During the last q u a r t e r of t h e 19th century the principal product of t h e

Nikolaev Rocket Plant was r o c k e t f l a r e s , The idea of using r o c k e t s with
a s p e c i a l luminous compound to illuminate a given locality actuallywent back
t o about 1830.
In 1831 the c h e m i s t Vlasov submitted an application f o r "approval of
c e r t a i n experiments which he wished t o p e r f o r m on a s p e c i a l f o r m of
f i r e , of his invention, t o be thrown f r o m r o c k e t s f o r exposure of enemy
movements, which he feels t o be incomparably better, f o r this purpose,
than the luminous balls shot f r o m ordnance, now in use, whose effect is
insignificant. I t lo Vlasov was granted m e a n s f o r conducting his e x p e r i m e n t s ,
but t h e i r r e s u l t s r e m a i n unknown.
The question of using r o c k e t s f o r illumination a r o s e again in the fifties,
s i n c e the f i r i n g of luminous p r o j e c t i l e s f r o m a r t i l l e r y pieces p r e s e n t e d
g r e a t difficulties, while r o c k e t s w e r e a highly convenient m e a n s f o r
shooting s u c h p r o j e c t i l e s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e was then only one m e a n s f o r illuminating a n a r e a
on the s u r f a c e of t h e s e a (with t h e object of preventing t h e enemy f r o m
r e f o r m i n g his ships by night under cover of d a r k n e s s ) : luminous balls
with p a r a c h u t e s , which could be launched only by r o c k e t s . Rockets for
this purpose w e r e t e s t e d in 1855 at Revel, with v e r y good r e s u l t s : f o u r
o r five r o c k e t s , launched simultaneously, proved adequate t o illuminate
the e n t i r e line of c o a s t a l defences and a good p a r t of the r o a d s t e a d .
On t h e b a s i s of t h e s e and other experiments conducted in 1855, the
a r t i l l e r y section of the Military Study Committee concluded that t h e following
s t e p s w e r e n e c e s s a r y f o r improvement of the m e a n s of illumination used by
the Russian a r m y :
"a) In o u r f o r t r e s s e s , luminous balls should no longer be f i r e d f r o m
ordnance, but only by m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s ;
"b) of t h e luminous b a l l s p r e s e n t l y a t hand i n t h e f o r t s , t h e 1-pud
[36-punders] should b e thrown by 2.5" and 2" r o c k e t s , and t h e 0.5-pud
[18-pounders], by 2 " rockets;
'IC., d ) r o c k e t s with luminous shot and parachute r o c k e t s should be
f u r t h e r tested in s e v e r a l f o r t s and in t h e Caucasus.
In 1858 parachute r o c k e t s and r o c k e t s with shot w e r e t e s t e d at t h e
s a p p e r s ' camp n e a r Peterhof, l3 and t h e s e tests also yielded positive
results.

94
 At the end of 1858 and beginning of 1859 at Warsaw, and in the s u m m e r
of 1859 during the annual c a m p of the Field A r t i l l e r y Brigades, quite
extensive e x p e r i m e n t s on the u s e of r o c k e t s f o r illumination of l ~ c a l i t i e s ' ~
w e r e performed, and revealed a number of their deficiencies.
T h e r e s e a r c h done in the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute established that
"the b e s t f o r m for luminous projectiles, intended to be thrown by rockets,
c o n s i s t s of an i s o s c e l e s cylinder of s t r o n g s h e e t iron, covered with a lid
of s h e e t iron, like a c a r t r i d g e case, and filled with white Bengal fire,
packed under p r e s s u r e . T h e flame e m e r g e s through s i x c i r c u l a r orifices.
two in the c e n t e r s of the bottom and top, respectively, and four in the
cylindrical s u r f a c e . T h e s e p r o j e c t i l e s w e r e launched a t a high angle,
gave r e l a t i v e l y good results, and w e r e accepted a s a form of f o r t r e s s
a r t i l l e r y . T h e P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute a l s o developed designs for
luminous b a l l s with parachutes, which closely r e s e m b l e d the p r o j e c t i l e s
d e s c r i b e d above, except for t h e i r s m a l l e r size. T h e luminous ball with
the folded parachute w a s i n s e r t e d into a s h e e t i r o n casing located in the
upper p a r t of the rocket. T o d e c r e a s e a i r r e s i s t a n c e the casing was
covered above by a c a r d b o a r d cone, in which the g r e a t e r p a r t of the
parachute w a s a l s o placed. After the r o c k e t r o s e the luminous ball w a s
thrown out of its casing by a s p e c i a l "dislodging charge, and the
parachute, made to open by the a i r r e s i s t a n c e , b r a k e d the fall of the
luminous projectile. l 6
However, t h e s e r o c k e t flares, b e c a u s e of their imperfections, did not
find widespread u s e in the fifties and sixties. F o r a long time i t remained
an open question, repeatedly discussed in journals, which was the b e s t f o r m
of illumination - a r t i l l e r y projectiles with a luminous compound, electrical,
or r o c k e t f l a r e s ? Most e x p e r t s thought s e a r c h l i g h t s the s u r e s t means, but,
b e s i d e s their prohibitive cost, e l e c t r i c a l devices could not b e successfully
used in e v e r y situation.
"We have therefore, I t r a n the W a r Department r e p o r t for 1876, "turned
o u r attention t o rocket f l a r e s with shot, which have the m o s t important
advantage of c a r r y i n g the illumination upwards, so that t h e i r s u c c e s s does
not depend on the c h a r a c t e r of the locality. E x p e r i m e n t s in the manufacture
of rocket f l a r e s a t the Nikolaev Rocket Institute have given s u c c e s s f u l
r e s u l t s , and the 3" f l a r e produced by this plant provides excellent
illumination of t e r r a i n over distances of up to 450 sagenes [I050 yd].
s e v e r a l r o c k e t s launched one a f t e r another making it possible not only to
s u r v e y the e n e m y ' s works, but even to t r a i n our ordnance on the
illuminated objects. T h e s e r e s u l t s have led to a decision to provide
"''
f o r t r e s s e s with 3" rocket f l a r e s , a s well a s s e a r c h l i g h t s .
Production of rocket f l a r e s r o s e s h a r p l y after their acceptance for
f o r t r e s s defense. Over the c o u r s e of five y e a r s the output r o s e by a f a c t o r
of m o r e than 40, f r o m 200 in 1876 to 8850 ir. 1881.
T h e r o c k e t f l a r e s of this period ( F i g u r e 2 0 ) consisted of an i r o n casing,
a m e t a l c a p with shot, and a wooden r o c k e t tail.
T h e design of the c a s i n g and technique of i t s manufacture, methods of
attaching the b a s e plate, filling of the c a s i n g with rocket propellant, drilling
of the ignition channel, etc.. w e r e exactly like the corresponding operations
in m i l i t a r y rocket manufacture. T h e s a m e applies to the r o c k e t tail, which
was a l m o s t identical t o the s t a b i l i z e r s of m i l i t a r y rockets.

95
 I ' I

FIGURE 20. Rocker flare, end of the 19th century

96

r'
 The chief difference between f l a r e s and military rockets was in the
design of the head, which in f l a r e s had, instead of a projectile, a
cylindrical c a p with shot, 6" in diameter and 9.5" in length. T h e cap
contained a total of 86 pellets of Bengal f i r e , consisting of 7 0 % nitrate,
2 0 % sulfur and 1 0 % antimony, a r r a n g e d around the c i r c u m f e r e n c e in
two rows. T h e weight of the rocket with shot was 15 kg.
Rocket f l a r e s w e r e fired a t a n angle of 45" to the horizon, and required
a s p e c i a l launching stand. T h e i r range was a s high a s 900m. The period
of combustion of the rocket propellant was s o calculated that when the
rocket reached the apex of i t s trajectory, the container of pellets was fired,
and the ignited pellets formed a luminous hail which continued to burn f o r
15 seconds. The diameter of the s u r f a c e thus illuminated was 500 m.
F r o m the end of the seventies onward the u s e of rocket f l a r e s became
increasingly widespread. In 1879 the production of f l a r e s began to exceed
that of m i l i t a r y rockets, and in the f i r s t half of the eighties constituted
roughly 8570 of the e n t i r e output of the Nikolaev Rocket Plant. T h i s
resulted not only from the increased production of flares, but a l s o from
the d e c r e a s e d production of military rockets. For comparison production
data f o r the seventies and eighties a r e given in Table 1 5 . l 9

TABLE 15. Production of military rockers and rorket flares at the Nikolaev Rocker Plant. 1871 -1888

Rockers Rockers
Year Year
hlilirary Flares hl ilir a ry Flares

1871 1500 - 1880 2000 3040

1872 :3500 - 1881 1000 8850
1873 4000 - 1882 1000 5000
1874 4000 - 1883 500 3000
1875 1000 - 1884 500 3000
1876 1500 200 1885 500 3000
1877 5000 850 1886 - 3000
1878 3000 1500 1881 - 3000
1879 4500 5510 1888 - 4000
~

Considerable attention was devoted to the improvement of rocket f l a r e s

and creation of a sufficiently l a r g e body of e x p e r t s familiar with them. In
the y e a r s 1880- 1882 Artilleriiskii Zhurnal c a r r i e d a s e r i e s of a r t i c l e s
discussing the manufacture and use of rocket f l a r e s . 2o F u r t h e r m o r e ,
while 3" rockets w e r e being produced, 4" rockets w e r e being tested,
though the r e s u l t s obtained w e r e unsatisfactory.
Notwithstanding the fact that thousands of rockets w e r e expended in
training and experiments, the total number of rockets in u s e for f o r t r e s s
a r m a m e n t grew steadily and stood a t 27,701 on 1 J a n u a r y 1889. In the
opinion of experts, however, this w a s s t i l l not sufficient t o m e e t the
growing needs of the f o r t r e s s e s for m e a n s of illumination.
According t o the Artillery Committee, the total number of rockets in
a l l the f o r t r e s s e s and siege-trains of Russia should have been 65,800.
I t was therefore decided to i n c r e a s e s h a r p l y the output of rocket flares,
which until the Nikolaev Rocket Plant closed down continued t o be i t s
chief product.

91
NOTES
' A c l e a r account of the development of pyrotechnics in t h e 19th c e n t u r y
c a n b e found in t h e following books: N a t , E . P r a k t i k a dlya pirotekhnikov
ili rukovodstvo k pravil'nomu proizvedeniyu r a b o t , neobkhodimykh p r i
f e i e r v e r k a k h (Pyrotechnician's Handbook, o r a Manual for t h e P r o p e r
Execution of the N e c e s s a r y P r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e Production of F i r e w o r k s ) ,
S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1845; R u m y a n t s e v , P. Teoreticheskaya i p r a k t i -
cheskaya pirotekhnika ili iskusstvo delat' f e i e r v e r k i (Theoretical and
P r a c t i c a l Pyrotechnics, or the A r t of Making F i r e w o r k s ) , Moskva, 1852;
M a t y u k e v i c h , F. Sobranie f o r m u l i r e t s e p t o v sostavov poteshnoi
pirotekhniki (Collection of F o r m u l a s and Mixture Recipes f o r P y r o -
technic Entertainments), S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1861; S t e p a n o v , F. V.
Pirotekhniya ( k u r s feierverochnogo i s s k u s t v a ) (Pyrotechnics (A C o u r s e
in the A r t of F i r e w o r k s ) ) , Sankt-Peterburg, 1894; T s y t o v i c h , P.
Opyt ratsional'noi pirotekhniki (rukovodstvo dlya izucheniya t e o r i i i
p r a k t i k i feierverochnogo iskus s t v a ) (Experience in Efficient Pyrotechnics
(A Manual of Instruction in the Theory and P r a c t i c e of the A r t of F i r e -
works)), Sankt-Peterburg, 1894.
The data on signal r o c k e t s a r e drawn p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e book, "Brief
A r t i l l e r y S e r v i c e Manual f o r 1877 Model Field P i e c e s (Kratkoe rukovod-
s t v o a r t i l l e r i i s k o i sluzhby s polevymi orudiyami o b r a z t s a 1877 goda),
Section 111, pp. 124-134. S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g , 1878.
L e y , W . Rockets, M i s s i l e s and Space T r a v e l , p. 76. New York, 1958.
Konstantinov's r e s e a r c h on r e s c u e r o c k e t ballistics is described in his
a r t i c l e , "Boevye rakety v R o s s i i s kontsa 1861 g. PO nachalo 1863,
Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 5, section 111, pp. 352 - 413, and No. 6 ,
section 111, pp.484-543, 1863. A r e p r i n t of the a r t i c l e was made l a t e r
in t h e s a m e y e a r . Konstantinov considered the applications of r e s c u e
r o c k e t s in g r e a t e r detail in his "Application d e s fusees au jet d e s a m a r e s
de sauvetage, I ' St. P e t e r s b o u r g , 1863.
Konstantinov's r e p o r t No. 57, 25 December 1858. - In: Konstantinov.
Boevye rakety v R o s s i i s kontsa 1861 PO 1863, p. 91. Sankt-Peterburg,
1863.
Some non-Russian works on the h i s t o r y of r o c k e t r y r e p o r t that
Konstantinov's design f o r a bi-channeled r e s c u e rocket was preceded by
that of the B r i t i s h Colonel Boxer (1855). See for example L e y , W.
Rockets, M i s s i l e s and Space T r a v e l , pp. 76- 77. New York, 1958.
' AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 8 / 5 , file 16, sheet 219.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1352, sheet 1.
Ibid., file 486, s h e e t 1.
lo AIM Archive, GAU s t o r e , e n t r y 3 / 2 , file 166, s h e e t 1 .
Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 4, section 11, p. 316, 1857.
l2 Rezul'taty proizvedennykh A r t i l l e r i i s k i m otdeleniem opytov nad
brosaniem v nochnoe v r e m y a svetyashchikh y a d e r pomoshch'yu
boevykh r a k e t (Results of the E x p e r i m e n t s on Throwing B a l l s by
Military Rockets a t Night, Conducted by the A r t i l l e r y Section). -
Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 1, section I, p. 69, 1856.

98
l3 Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 1, section 11, pp. 21-22, 1859.
l4 F o r further details of these experiments see R e i n t a 1 I , R. "Throwing
Luminous P r o j e c t i l e s by Means of Military Rockets" (Metanie
svetyashchikh snaryadov posredstvom boevykh raket). - Artilleriiskii
Zhurnal, No. 7, section 11, pp. 493-532, 1860.
l5 K o n s t a n t i n o v . 0 boevykh raketakh, p. 210. Sankt-Peterburg, 1864.
l6 Ibid., pp. 212-213.
Vsepoddaneishii otchet o deistviyakh voennogo ministerstva z a 1876 god.
(Most Thorough Report on the Activities of the War Department f o r 1876),
pp. 46-48. Sankt-Peterburg, 1878.
'* The information on rocket f l a r e s is based on "Description of 3" Rocket
Flares" (Opisanie svetyashchikh 3-dm. raket). - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal,
No. 5, pp. 277-292, 1881, and that on the radius of the illuminated
s u r f a c e and the length of combustion of the pellets is borrowed f r o m
"Officers' and Civil Servants I Manual" (Spravochnaya kniga dlya ofitserov
i chinovnikov), pp. 593-596, Moskva, 1879.
lo T h e s e data are drawn f r o m the official r e p o r t s of t h e Chief A r t i l l e r y
Administration f o r the y e a r s in question.
2o P r a v i l a upotrebleniya 3 -dm. r a k e t p r i proizvodstve s t r e l l b y iz oruzhiya
(Rules f o r the Use of 3" Rockets in F i r i n g from a Gun).- Artilleriiskii
Zhurnal, No. 12, pp, 1260-1273; Obuchenie nizhnikh chinov p r i
svetyashchikh raketakh (Instruction on Luminous Rockets f o r the Lower
Ranks). - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, N o . 2, pp. 12 - 14, 1881;
Opisanie svetyashchikh 3-dm. r a k e t (Description of Luminous 3"
Rockets). - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, N o . 5, pp. 277 -292, 1881 ; Prichiny i
sposoby ustraneniya prezhdevremennogo r a z r y v a svetyashchikh r a k e t
(Causes and Methods of Eliminating P r e m a t u r e
Explosions of Luminous Rockets). - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, N o . 5,
pp. 64-66, 1882; a l s o No. 10, pp. 204-207.
21 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, entry 8, file 1876, sheet 56 obverse.

99
 Chapter V

A T T E M P T S T O P O W E R A I R C R A F T BY
SOLID P R O P E L L A N T ROCKETS

F r o m the middle of the 19th century onwards repeated proposals w e r e

made in Russia t o u s e the energy of solid propellant rockets f o r propulsion
of a e r o s t a t s and other a i r c r a f t both lighter and heavier than a i r .
The idea of building a i r c r a f t operating on a reaction principle is s e v e r a l
centuries old. As e a r l y a s the turn of the 15th century Giovanni Fontana,
Rector of the University of Padua, suggested using reaction engines - gun-
powder rockets - t o move a r t i f i c i a l b i r d s through the a i r . Several
historians a s s e r t that a t about the s a m e period "flying crows and dragons",
a l s o propelled by gunpowder rockets, w e r e being built in e a s t e r n countries.'
P r o p o s a l s t o apply the reaction principle to manned flight became
increasingly frequent a f t e r the t u r n of the 19th century. By this time,
the problem of r a i s i n g man into the a i r in lighter-than-air craft, i. e.,
a e r o s t a t s , had already been resolved, but no m e a n s of flight control had
yet been found.
In 1784 the two F r e n c h inventors Miolan and Jannine devised a m e a n s f o r
control of a e r o s t a t s through the reaction of the a i r flowing out through a n
opening in the s h e l l of the a e r o s t a t . F o r experimental purposes they built
a l a r g e balloon, but they did not succeed in flight-testing i t because i t b u r s t
and burned while being filled with warm. a i r .
In 1831 an unknown Italian a l s o developed a plan f o r a lighter-than-air
reaction c r a f t - a balloon propelled by a rocket cluster.
Other s c h e m e s f o r reaction aircraft, involving the m o s t various
s o u r c e s of energy (compressed a i r , s t e a m o r alcohol vapor, liquid hydro-
carbons, nitroglycerine, e t c . ) w e r e put forward, but the present work,
which is devoted to the history of solid propellant rockets, w i l l be concerned
only with those designs using a s their s o u r c e of energy g a s e s formed by the
combustion of gunpowder compounds.
In 1849 the Russian m i l i t a r y engineer I. I. T r e t e s k i i (1821 - 1895)
developed designs f o r t h r e e a i r c r a f t , one of which was intended t o run on
power developed by the reaction of gunpowder gases. After commenting
on the failure of previous attempts t o control the flight of a e r o s t a t s by
m e a n s "analogous to the flight of b i r d s and the swimming of fish, I'
.
T r e t e s k i i wrote, " . , as a b a s i s for the control of a e r o s t a t s i t is f a r m o r e
convenient t o take the natural law which c a u s e s the r e c o i l of a r t i l l e r y
pieces and the movement of a rocket, respectively, when they a r e fired.
This effect is t o be explained by the gas p r e s s u r e against the s u r f a c e s
respectively opposite the mouth of the gun and the rocket exhaust orifice,
since this p r e s s u r e is not balanced by an opposite p r e s s u r e , which is

I 00
 eliminated by the unimpeded outflow of t h e g a s e s through the mouth o r
exhaust orifice, ' I 3 In his unpublished paper "Means for t h e Control of
A e r o s t a t s " (0 sposobakh upravlyat' a e r o s t a t a m i ) , which he presented
in May 1849 to M. S. Vorontsov, Commander-in-Chief of t h e Independent
Caucasus C o r p s , 4 he wrote, "If, on t h e b a s i s of this law, one w e r e t o
build a v e s s e l in which s o m e elastic fluid, such as s t e a m , gas, o r
c o m p r e s s e d a i r , were constantly being formed, s o that the p r e s s u r e Of t h e
fluid would give r i s e t o a f o r c e against t h e corresponding p a r t of the v e s s e l
wall, upon its outflow through the opening of the v e s s e l , t h e v e s s e l would
evidently be propelled forward like a r o c k e t , drawing behind it a ship with
balloon, provided this f o r c e P overcomes the r e s i s t a n c e R" of t h e ship and
balloon when they have a given velocity V , and a s long as the s u m of t h e s e
r e s i s t a n c e s a c t s s y m m e t r i c a l l y with r e s p e c t to t h e point of application of
the propulsive f o r c e , so that t h e motion of balloon and s h i p is uniform and
does not deviate f r o m the given directing f o r c e . 'I5
T r e t e s k i i ' s idea w a s d i s m i s s e d by the A r t i l l e r y Section of the M i l i t a r y
Study Committee as practically unfeasible, but i t nonetheless m e r i t s
attention as t h e first scientific Russian attempt t o apply t h e principle Of jet
propulsion to a solution of the problems of aeronautics.
The s a m e principle was the b a s i s of N . M. Sokovnin's a i r c r a f t design.
Sokovnin (1811-1894), while convinced that ''an a i r c r a f t m u s t fly by s o m e
such principle as that of r o c k e t flight, suggested using c o m p r e s s e d a i r ,
r a t h e r than gunpowder g a s e s , a s the propulsive f o r c e .
Konstantinov, who a l s o took a n i n t e r e s t in possible aeronautical
applications of r o c k e t s , wrote in 1856, "A rocket is a device including
within itself a propulsive force, which not only propels it through the air,
but a l s o makes it capable of r a i s i n g a c e r t a i n weight with it, a s a r e s u l t
of which it may a t f i r s t glance appear an a d m i r a b l e m e a n s for t h e propulsion
of a e r o s t a t s ; but c l o s e r examination shows the opposite t o be t r u e , and
r o c k e t s to be l e s s suitable f o r s u c h a purpose than manpower. '''
Konstantinov was brought t o this conclusion by his experiments with a
ballistic pendulum. After observing that "the r e s u l t s given by this
i n s t r u m e n t constitute a thorough b a s i s f o r evaluation of the r e l a t i v e
applicability of r o c k e t s and manpower to the propulsion of a e r o s t a t s ,
he adduced the following f i g u r e s : "A 4" rocket, which weighs, without t a i l
o r projectile, about 1 pud ( 3 6 lb), and whose r a n g e , under c e r t a i n conditions,
r e a c h e s 4 v e r s t s [4665 yd], i n c o r p o r a t e s a propulsive f o r c e of 52.92 pud-
feet I1905 ft-lb], developed over a period of 2.7 s e c o n d s . . . Four r o c k e t s
will then offer a work potential of 211.68 pud-feet [7620 ft-lb], developed
over a period of 10.8 seconds, assuming the r o c k e t s a r e ignited
consecutively. The well-known f o r m u l a s determining the mechanical
work which can be done by a m a n show that this amount of work c a n be
done by one m a n in 146 seconds. ' I Q
On t h e b a s i s of the foregoing Konstantinov wrote: "This shows that,
by comparison with r o c k e t s , m a n is a f a r m o r e efficient machine f o r t h e
p r o t r a c t e d translation over a considerable distance of l a r g e m a s s e s which
m u s t a l s o b e a r the f o r c e s moving them. Human f o r c e is t h e r e f o r e m o r e
efficient than r o c k e t s f o r the propulsion of a e r o s t a t s . On the other hand
it h a s been shown impossible f o r t h e f l i e r borne aloft by an a e r o s t a t
to furnish its propulsive f o r c e , and r o c k e t s coupled t o the gondola o r
a e r o s t a t a r e t h e r e f o r e that much m o r e inapplicable for t h i s purpose. ' I lo

101
 In s p i t e of Konstantino-.r's conclusion, efforts t o solve the problems
of aeronautics by m e a n s of reaction engines continued. In 1870 T r e t e s k i i
r e v i s e d h i s s c h e m e f o r control of a e r o s t a t s by means of such engines. A s
before, he proposed using the r e a c t i o n of g a s e s formed by the combustion
of powder a s propulsive f o r c e . T r e t e s k i i ' s design was considered by a
Special C o m m i s s i m e x p r e s s l y formed f o r the purpose, but t h i s t i m e , too,
he was refused support. l1
The heavier-than-air j e t a i r c r a f t design of N, I, Kibal'chich (1853 -18811,
one of t h e m o s t active m e m b e r s of the Russian Revolutionary movement, is
of g r e a t i n t e r e s t .
Kibal'chich, a m e m b e r of "Narodnaya Volya, I ' was executed in 1881
f o r a n attempt on the life of Alexander 11, and he drew up his a i r c r a f t
design while i n prison. A s a r e s u l t he had no t i m e t o give details of t h e
project o r work out i t s mathematical foundations, and was forced t o l i m i t
himself t o m e r e exposition of the idea. After h i s execution Kibal'chich's
design was p r e s e r v e d in the Police Department Archives, and it was
published only a f t e r the 1917 revolution. l2
One of the m o s t important questions confronting those working on t h e
construction of a i r c r a f t was the choice of the most suitable energy s o u r c e .
After a n analysis of known attempts t o solve the problems of aeronautics
by m e a n s of s t e a m engines, e l e c t r o m o t o r s , or the s h e e r physical effort
of the a v i a t o r s themselves, Kibal'chich concluded that a l l of t h e s e efforts
w e r e doomed t o f a i l u r e , and that the b e s t energy s o u r c e was t o be found
in slowly burning explosive substances.
"In f a c t , I' he wrote, "during the combustion of explosive substances a
l a r g e quantity of g a s e s which p o s s e s s enormous energy a t the moment of
t h e i r formation is formed m o r e o r l e s s rapidly. I do not r e c a l l exactly the
amount of work, in k i l o g r a m - m e t e r s , done by the combustion of one pound
of gun-powder, but u n l e s s I a m mistaken, a single pound of gunpowder,
exploded in the e a r t h , will throw out a clod weighing 40 puds [14401b]. In
s h o r t , t h e r e a r e no other n a t u r a l substances capable of developing a s g r e a t
an amount of energy i n a s h o r t t i m e i n t e r v a l a s explosives. I f l3
The choice of this s o u r c e of energy was by no means casual, but a r o s e
f r o m Kibal'chich's s e v e r a l y e a r s a s head of the Laboratory of the Executive
Committee of the "Narodnaya Volya" party. A s p a r t of his preparation f o r
revolution, Kibal'chich studied the p r o p e r t i e s of explosives with f e v e r i s h
energy, reading an enormous number of books on the subject in Russian,
German, English, and F r e n c h .
"But how, ' I he continued, "can the energy of the g a s e s formed in the
combustion of the explosives be continuously utilized? This is possible
only i f the enormous energy r e l e a s e d is not formed a l l at once, but over a
m o r e o r less p r o t r a c t e d t i m e interval.
"If we take a pound of g r a n u l a r powder, which takes f i r e momentarily
after ignition, and c o m p r e s s it under g r e a t p r e s s u r e into a cylinder, then
ignite one end of the cylinder, we find that the e n t i r e cylinder does not
flame immediately, but that the burning s p r e a d s quite slowly f r o m one end
of it t o the other, with a definite speed. The r a t e of s p r e a d of combustion in
c o m p r e s s e d powder has been determined f r o m numerous experiments and
is 0.4"/sec.
"The design of m i l i t a r y rockets is based upon this property of c o m p r e s s e d
powder. The e s s e n c e of this design is a s follows. A cylinder of c o m p r e s s e d

102
gunpowder, with an axial ignition channel drilled through it, is tightly
i n s e r t e d into a tin cylinder, closed a t one end and open at the other. The
combustion of the powder begins on the s u r f a c e of t h e channel and s p r e a d s
outward, over a c e r t a i n period of t i m e , t o the e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e of the
powder cylinder. The g a s e s formed by combustion of the powder then e x e r t
p r e s s u r e on a l l sides, but the l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s respectively balance one
another. The p r e s s u r e on the tin shell enclosing the powder, however,
which is not balanced by an opposite p r e s s u r e (since on that s i d e t h e g a s e s
have an unimpeded exit), pushes t h e rocket forward in the direction in
which it w a s placed on the stand p r i o r t o ignition. In flight t h e r o c k e t
follows a parabolic t r a j e c t o r y like that of cannon balls shot f r o m a gun.
"Let us now suppose that we have a s h e e t i r o n cylinder of known
dimensions, closed h e r m e t i c a l l y on all sides, and having only one opening
of known s i z e in its lower end. Let a cylinder of c o m p r e s s e d powder be
placed along the a x i s of this cylinder, and let i t b e ignited at one of its
ends. l4 When combustion takes place the g a s e s liberated w i l l e x e r t
p r e s s u r e against the e n t i r e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e of the m e t a l cylinder, but the
r e s p e c t i v e l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s , will balance each other, and only t h e p r e s s u r e
against t h e closed end of the cylinder will not be balanced by the opposite
p r e s s u r e , because on that end t h e g a s e s have an unimpeded exit through the
opening in the bottom. If the cylinder is placed with its closed end upwards,
at a known gas p r e s s u r e , which depends partly on the internal volume of the
cylinder and partly on the thickness of the cylinder of c o m p r e s s e d powder,
the cylinder w i l l r i s e .
"I do not have at hand f i g u r e s which would allow even an approximate
determination of how much c o m p r e s s e d powder m u s t be burned in a unit
of t i m e , f o r a cylinder of given s i z e and gravity, in o r d e r for t h e g a s e s
l i b e r a t e d to e x e r t on the bottom of the cylinder a p r e s s u r e balancing the
c y l i n d e r ' s gravity. I think, however, that in p r a c t i c e this effect is
c e r t a i n l y attainable, and r o c k e t s provide actual confirmation of this.
Rockets a r e now being built which can b e a r upwards explosive p r o j e c t i l e s
weighing a s much a s 5 pud [1801b]. It is t r u e that the example of rockets
is not e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e , because r o c k e t s have an enormous velocity
unthinkable f o r an aeronautic c r a f t , but this high velocity i s due to the v e r y
l a r g e quantity of c o m p r e s s e d powder used in r o c k e t s , which provides a
correspondingly g r e a t s u r f a c e of combustion. If a much lower v e r t i c a l
flight velocity were r e q u i r e d , the amount of powder required to be burned
p e r unit of t i m e would be v e r y much s m a l l e r . ''I5
In addition, Kibal'chich gave a description of his flying machine
( F i g u r e 21a), which was to be propelled by a reaction gunpowder engine A,
placed vertically, and connected by the r o d s N N to the platform P , on which
the a v i a t o r s w e r e accommodated.
The engine A w a s a sheet iron cylinder h e r m e t i c a l l y sealed on a l l s i d e s ,
with an exhaust orifice C in its lower end. Small cylinders of c o m p r e s s e d
gunpowder K w e r e to be fed into the c y l i n d e r ' s combustion c h a m b e r , and
the gas formed by t h e i r combustion was the working medium of the engine.
Kibal'chich proposed a s p e c i a l automatic control, operated by a clock
mechanism, for ignition and continuous displacement of fuel into the
c h a m b e r . He d i d not d e s c r i b e the design of this control, but r e m a r k e d
that "all this can e a s i l y be done by modern engineering techniques. I'

103
 F o r f u e l Kibal'chich suggested slowly burning powder c o m p r e s s e d into
cylindrical charges, but he a l s o observed that t h e r e a r e many other slowly
burning explosive s u b s t a n c e s , a l s o containing n i t r a t e s , sulfur, and carbon,
though in different proportion, o r with admixtures of other substances, and
that one of t h e s e other substances might turn out t o be m o r e efficient than
gunpowder.

a b

FIGURE 21. Schematic diagram of N. I. Kibal'chich's flying machine.

The ascent and descent of the machine w e r e to be accomplished by

changes in the volume of the powder cylinders fed into the combustion
c h a m b e r . This variation in the amount of fuel entering the chamber made
it possible to v a r y the lifting f o r c e a s well. Horizontal motion in a given
direction would be achieved e i t h e r by inclination and conical rotation of
the engine cylinder (which would give r i s e to a horizontal component of the
r e s u l t a n t of t h e r e a c t i v e f o r c e s , Figure Zlb), o r by a second engine, like
the f i r s t , but placed perpendicular to it and rotating in the horizontal plane.
Kibal'chich himself gave h i s p r e f e r e n c e to the second method, which he
thought would give the a i r c r a f t m o r e flight stability.
The fundamental difference between Kibal'chich's reaction a i r c r a f t
s c h e m e and a l l o t h e r s previously put forward was that his "aeronautic
machine" d i d not r e q u i r e the atmosphere a s a supporting medium and
could theoretically move a l s o in a i r l e s s space.
F r o m a modern point of view Kibal'chich's design unquestionably s u f f e r s
f r o m many deficiencies and even f r o m s o m e fundamentally unsound solutions.
Indeed, detailed analysis shows that the a i r c r a f t , a s it is described by
Kibal'chich, could not even have been built.
However, one cannot fail t o a d m i r e the courage of t h e man who developed
t h i s design, r e m a r k a b l e f o r i t s day, in the death chamber, only a few days
b e f o r e his execution, and one m u s t acknowledge the talent of the inventor
who foresaw such technical problems as a s s u r a n c e of flight stability, u s e
of multi-chamber machines, regulated combustion, jacketing of gunpowder,
etc. N. I. Kibal'chich is t h e r e f o r e rightly regarded a s one of the
p i o n e e r s of rocketry.
The e f f o r t s of inventors working in the field of jet flight were c e r t a i n l y
hindered by the f a c t that the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of R u s s i a ' s scientific and
technical institutes had a negative attitude to the v e r y idea of applying a

104
 r e a c t i o n prineiple t o t h e p r o b l e m of manned flight. In 1883, f o r example,
t h e Chief Engineering Board e x p r e s s e d itself a s follows:
"With r e g a r d to the suppositions, m o s t r e c e n t l y voiced, that f r e e flight
c a n be communicated t o bodies by the continuous explosion of various
explosive substances, it may be s a i d that all explosive substances p o s s e s s
m o r e c r u s h i n g than projectile f o r c e , and if even black powder, which has
t h e g r e a t e s t p r o j e c t i l e f o r c e and relatively slight c r u s h i n g f o r c e , r e q u i r e s
modification t o r e d u c e the l a t t e r if it is to be u s a b l e in r o c k e t s , it is the
m o r e unlikely that explosive substances can find application t o a e r i a l flight,
whether operating d i r e c t l y by t h e reaction of t h e i r p r e s s u r e upon explosion,
as is the c a s e , f o r example, in r o c k e t s , or in machines, for the purpose
of propelling them; for any explosive, especially if it contains n i t r o -
glycerine, will sooner s h a t t e r the e n c l o s u r e within which the explosion
o c c u r s than communicate to it, or to its movable wall, s o m e gradual
motion. 'I1
R e s e a r c h on j e t flight in R u s s i a continued notwithstanding. In the
middle eighties the e n g i n e e r s A. V. Eval'd, in St. P e t e r s b u r g . and
F. Geshvend, in Kiev, w e r e working on designs f o r r e a c t i o n a i r c r a f t . In
1886 Eval'd conducted a number of experiments with a jet a i r p l a n e model. ''
A s engine he used solid propellant r o c k e t s placed in a s p e c i a l s h e e t m e t a l
groove. After a s e r i e s of unsuccessful attempts he finally succeeded in
obtaining s o m e positive r e s u l t s , but due to l a c k of funds could not continue
his e x p e r i m e n t s .
Geshvend's 1887 design f o r a r e a c t i o n a i r c r a f t ( s t e a m - p l a n e ) is e x t r a -
o r d i n a r i l y interesting, but i s given no detailed consideration in the p r e s e n t
work because its energy s o u r c e was a jet of s t e a m , r a t h e r than gunpowder
gases.
The above-mentioned n a m e s exhaust the list of those working on the
possibility of applying the r e a c t i o n of the g a s e s formed f r o m the combustion
of densely c o m p r e s s e d gunpowder propellants f o r t h e purposes of aviation
and a e r o n a u t i c s , down a l m o s t t o t h e p r e s e n t day. The rough notes of
S. S. Nezhdanovskii, which show that this talented s c i e n t i s t and inventor
was studying the p r o b l e m of r e a l i z i n g flight by m e a n s of j e t engines as
e a r l y a s t h e 1880's, w e r e found, however, in the 1 9 5 0 ' ~ . ' ~
Nezhdanovskii first thought about the possibility of building a jet a i r -
c r a f t in July 1880. His d i a r y b e a r s the e n t r y : "A flying machine is
p o s s i b l e with the u s e of an explosive s u b s t a n c e ; the products of its
combustion to be ejected through something like an injector. 'I1
At the end of 1880 Nezhdanovskii made s e v e r a l calculations r e l a t i n g
t o a r o c k e t a i r c r a f t propelled by the reaction of gunpowder g a s e s . H e r e
they a r e p r e s e n t e d as in his notebook:20

P - pressure of gunpowder gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 a t m

V - their exhaust velocity (V = 612 m) . . . . . . . . . . . 928 m/sec
G - weight of t h e rocket charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 kg
p - density of the gunpowder gases a t a pressure of 200 a t m . . . . . . . 0.1
W - volume of 4 pud [144 l b l of gunpowder gases at 200 a t m
pressure and density 0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 dm3
T - work inherent in 4 pud gunpowder a t 2OOatm pressure (T = -)2
m Vz
. . . . .
285 l0'kg-m

S - duration of flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300sec

 Making calculations f o r two v e r s i o n s of the engine (with gas p r e s s u r e s ,
respectively, of 150 and 200 a t m ) , Nezhdanovskii concluded: "I think it
entirely possible t o build a flying machine which can c a r r y a m s n through
t h e a i r f o r at l e a s t 5 minutes. A funnel emitting a i r with the m o s t efficient
velocity will c o n s e r v e fuel and i n c r e a s e flight duration. 'I
In the f u t u r e Nezhdanovskii continued t o study the problems of j e t flight,
but unlike m o s t of t h e inventors working in this field, a l m o s t entirely
neglected a i r c r a f t design, concentrating instead on the construction of the
j e t engine and the b e s t fuel f o r it.
In his s e a r c h f o r the m o s t efficient type of engine, Nezhdanovskii
produced a number of original ideas. In p a r t i c u l a r , in 1882 he proposed
t o build a jet engine ''on the principle of 2- o r 3 - b a r r e l e d magazine o r
machine guns, f o r the additional purpose of making it possible t o control
the f o r c e and flight duration. r ' 2 2
Another idea of approximately the s a m e period was t o u s e special
nozzles, S O that when the s t r e a m of gunpowder g a s e s passed through
them, it would d r a w a f t e r it atmospheric a i r , thus, according t o
Nezhdanovskii, g r e a t l y i n c r e a s i n g the j e t effect, *
Nezhdanovskii devoted a g r e a t deal of attention t o the choice of a working
medium, considering a s energy s o u r c e nitroglycerine, c o m p r e s s e d a i r ,
s t e a m , carbon dioxide, and various explosive m i x t u r e s . Of solid fuels
Nezhdanovskii considered two types - powder-cotton and conventional black
(smoky) powder, calculating the exhaust velocity of the g a s e s f r o m a
pipe f i l l e d with gunpowder pulp, the m a s s of fuel used p e r second, and the
work obtained. He concluded that the cotton powder incorporated t h r e e
t i m e s a s much energy a s the smoky black powder.
A f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s of work, Nezhdanovskii a t the end of the 1 8 8 0 ' s
again considered the u s e of r o c k e t s f o r flight. In 1889 he noted in his
d i a r y : "Can one not build a flying inclined plane with a rocket to i m p a r t
horizontal velocity t o i t ? Which is m o r e efficient, a s i m p l e rocket o r a
rocket with inclined p l a n e ? Is not the s i m p l e s t f o r m of flying machine
simply a rocket with a n inclined plane
It is apparent that t h e authors of m o s t of the above-mentioned s c h e m e s
limited themselves t o exposition of t h e working principle of the engine,
without presenting s t r u c t u r a l details o r a p r e c i s e calculation of the amount
of energy r e q u i r e d t o r e a l i z e j e t flight. They cannot t h e r e f o r e be r e g a r d e d
as engineering p r o j e c t s , but w e r e r a t h e r demands f o r inventions. Not one
of t h e s e proposed a i r c r a f t s c h e m e s reached the stage of construction during
the 19th century.

NOTES

H e r e and subsequently the information given on a i r c r a f t designs

developed outside R u s s i a is based on non-Russian s o u r c e s .
More details of the r e a c t i o n a i r c r a f t designs proposed i n Russia a r e
given i n a l e c t u r e delivered by the author i n A p r i l 1961 at a s e s s i o n
of the Aviation Section of the Soviet National Union of Historians of
Natural Science and Engineering. This l e c t u r e is now being p r e p a r e d
f o r publication.

106
 Memorandum of Captain T r e t e s k i i , Field-Engineers I Corps, t o the
Commander -in-Chief of the Independent Caucasus Corps, 13 March
1849. T s G U , s t o r e 1 ( I ) , e n t r y 1, file 17464, s h e e t 31.
.
T r e t e s k i i 0 sposobakh upravlyat' a e r o s t a t a m i . Tiflis, 1849
(Manuscript). TsGVIA, s t o r e 1 (l), e n t r y 1, file 17464, s h e e t s 35-140.
Ibid., s h e e t s 59 obverse-60.
S o k o v n i n , N. Vozdus hnyi korabl' (Aircraft). - p. 35. Sankt Peterburg,
1866.
' Morskoi sbornik, No. 8, p a r t 111, p. 99, 1856.
' Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 99-100.
lo Ibid., p.101.
l1 T r e t e s k i i ' s project and t h e conclusions of the Special Commission have
not yet come t o light. Only T r e t e s k i i ' s reactions t o the Commission's
observations have been p r e s e r v e d . See TsGVIA, s t o r e 802, e n t r y 3,
file 79, s h e e t s 336-338.
l2 K i b a 1 ' c h i c h , N. I. Proekt vozdukhoplavatel'nogo p r i b o r a (Design f o r
a n Aeronautical Craft).- Byloe, Nos. 10-11, pp, 115-121, 1918.
Kibal'chich's plan is p r e s e n t l y kept in the C e n t r a l Government Archive
of the October Revolution. - TsGAOR, D. P. section 111, 1881,
file 79, p a r t I supp., s h e e t s 1-5.
l3 TsGAOR, D. P. s t o r e , section 111, 1881, file79, p a r t I supp.. s h e e t 2.
l4 I am not c e r t a i n i f maintenance of the r e q u i r e d slowness and r e g u l a r i t y
of combustion r e q u i r e s that the c o m p r e s s e d powder be enclosed in a tight-
fitting jacket; but even if it is n e c e s s a r y , it would not obstruct the u s e
of c o m p r e s s e d powder f o r t h e experiment (Kibal'chich's note).
l5 TsGAOR, D. P, s t o r e , section 111. 1861, file79, p a r t I supp., s h e e t s 2
obverse-3 o b v e r s e .
l6 Report of the Chief Engineering Board No. 4663, 14 April, 1883. -
TsGVYl, s t o r e 401, 1883, e n t r y 4/928, file 34, s h e e t s 1 0 obverse-11
obverse.
l7 E v a l ' d , A . Letatel'nye mashiny. Opyty i nablyudeniya (Flying
Machines. Experiments and Observations), pp. 36-38. Sankt-Peterburg,
1897.
Designs and calculations related t o j e t a i r c r a f t w e r e kept i n
Nezhdanovskii's daybooks, which a r e now p r e s e r v e d i n N. E.
Zhukovskii's Scientific M e m o r i a l Museum i n Moscow. The f i r s t
r e p o r t s on Nezhdanovskii's r e s e a r c h i n the area of jet propulsion
w e r e given by A. I. Yakovlev, of t h e Moscow Aviation Institute, a t a
conference organized by t h e Department of the History of Aeronautical
Engineering of MA1 (9 J a n u a r y 1957), and a t a meeting of the Aviation
Section of the Soviet National Union of Historians of Natural Science
and Engineering ( 2 M a r c h 1959).

I07
la Scientific Archive of N. E. Zhukovskii's Scientific M e m o r i a l Museum,
No. 1079, s h e e t 66.
2o Ibid., s h e e t 82.
Ibid., s h e e t s 81-82.
22 Scientific Archive of Zhukovskii's Museum, NO. 29011, p. 1 3 1 .
23 However, this idea was first e x p r e s s e d in p r i n t by Geshvend in 1887
in his p a p e r "General B a s i s f o r t h e Construction of a n Aeronautic
Steamship (Steam-Plane)" (Obshchee osnovanie u s t r o i s t v a vozdukho-
plavatel'nogo parokhoda (parolet)), where he d e s c r i b e d a jet engine with
s i m i l a r nozzles. Subsequently t h e s e nozzles Ggured in many designs
and w e r e known in scientific l i t e r a t u r e f o r a long t i m e as "Melo Nozzles. I'

24 Scientific Archive of Zhukovskii's Museum, NO. 299012, p. 38.

25 Ibid., p. 41.

108

.~ _. . ....
Chapter VI

SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS IN RUSSIA

AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH CENTURY

ROCKET FLARES AT THE BEGINNING O F THE 20TH CENTURY

ROCKET PRODUCTION AT THE NIKOLAEV PLANT

In the development of solid propellant rockets the t u r n of the 20th

century w a s the period of l e a s t apparent p r o g r e s s . Although t h e s e w e r e
the y e a r s in which K. E . Tsiolkovskii and I. V. Meshcherskii w e r e laying
the foundations of the mechanics of bodies of variable m a s s and working
out the fundamental formulas of rocket motion, t h e i r work s t i l l s e e m e d
i r r e l e v a n t t o those seeking to improve solid propellant rockets, and
consequently had no r e a l influence on their development.
By the end of the 19th century m i l i t a r y rockets w e r e greatly inferior
to rifled a r t i l l e r y in a l l r e s p e c t s , and w e r e no longer in u s e by any of the
world's a r m i e s . It is t r u e that a few inventors (Andreev, Unge e t al.)
attempted t o improve m i l i t a r y rockets and revive them a s a s o r t of
ordnance, but they obtained no p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s and until the end of the
F i r s t World W a r none o f t h e w o r k in this a r e a e m e r g e d f r o m the experimental
stage.
A number of countries, however, w e r e using solid propellant rockets f o r
illumination and signalling a t the t u r n of the 20th century. Efforts w e r e
even made t o u s e r o c k e t s t o affect natural phenomena (hail-dispersion
r o c k e t s ) and to c a r r y c a m e r a s (photo-rockets).
In Russia, during these y e a r s , firework and signal rockets, a s well a s
r e s c u e rockets, though in v e r y s m a l l numbers, continued t o be produced,
but the output of the Nikolaev Rocket Plant consisted p r i m a r i l y of rocket
flares, the demand f o r which increased steadily. F r o m 1891 onward the
annual output of f l a r e s was 8000 to 9000. Table 16, compiled f r o m the
r e p o r t s of the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration, gives figures on rocket
production a t the end of the 19th century.
As a r e s u l t of the considerable i n c r e a s e in rocket production a t the
Nikolaev Rocket Plant, military demands f o r rocket f l a r e s w e r e fully
satisfied by the end of 1898, and thereafter production w a s envisaged
only in quantities sufficient t o cover the annual expenses f o r experiments,
r e s e a r c h , and other routine a r t i l l e r y r e q u i r e m e n t s . As a result, from
1899 until the closing of the Nikolaev Plant, excepting the period of the
Russo-Japanese W a r (1904- 1905), its annual production of rocket f l a r e s
did not exceed 4000.
At this period attempts t o improve signal r o c k e t s w e r e a l s o being made
in Russia. In 1902 Lieutenant-Colonel Ivanov, Commander of one of the

109
b a t t e r i e s of the 2 1 s t A r m y Corps, proposed replacing the r o c k e t t a i l by
t h r e e b a r s a r r a n g e d like the faces of a right trihedron with the rocket a t
its vertex.
T h i s m e a n s of rocket stabilization p o s s e s s e d a number of t a c t i c a l
advantages. F u r t h e r m o r e , experiments showed that rockets equipped
with Ivanov's t h r e e b a r s , even in high, gusty winds, suffered a l m o s t no
deviation f r o m the direction of launching and r o s e m o r e rapidly and
higher than the s a m e r o c k e t s fitted with conventional long wooden t a i l s .

TABLE 16. Production of 3" rocket flares at the Nikolaev Racket Plant (1890's)
~- ___ -_
Year 7-
Manufactured Used
-
Number remaining at
end of year

1889 5000 3431 29,210

1890 5000 4121 30,149
1891 8000 4043 34,106
1892 8000 4043 38,063
1893 8000 4479 41.584
1894 9000 3916 46.668
1895 9000 3113 51,995
1896 9000 3913 57,082
1897 9000 5932 60.150
1898 9000 4667 64,483
1899 4000 4250 64,233
1900 4000 5392 62.841
__-_

After due consideration of Ivanov's proposal, the A r t i l l e r y Committee

commented that "although the aforementioned s u p e r i o r i t i e s of r o c k e t s
equipped with t h r e e b a r s instead of a t a i l commend t h e i r adoption, the
A r t i l l e r y Committee nonetheless considers, in view of the fact that the
withdrawal of signal r o c k e t s a s one of the accepted m e a n s of signalling is
now under discussion, that t h i s proposed alteration in t h e i r design be
d e f e r r e d until it is known whether o r not they a r e to be r e t i r e d . ' l a
The idea of discontinuing the use of rockets for signalling a r o s e f r o m
t h e i r low quality, which resulted from the fact that they w e r e often made
in primitive l a b o r a t o r i e s without adequate control over the observance of
all requirements.
In an effort to improve the quality of signal rockets, the A r t i l l e r y
Committee found i t n e c e s s a r y to concentrate t h e i r production in the
Nikolaev Rocket Plant, with the s t r i c t e s t adherence to the accepted design
sketches and descriptions.
At the beginning of the 20th century Russian signal r o c k e t s consisted
of a thick cylindrical paper casing, force-filled with propellant, in the
middle of which was a n axial conical channel, covered above with a blind
l a y e r of the s a m e propellant. Above this l a y e r the casing w a s filled with
powder used for slag. Attached to the lower end of the c a s i n g w a s a thin
s h e e t m e t a l pipe t o the outside of which was s o l d e r e d a right-angled socket
of s h e e t m e t a l into which the upper end of the rocket t a i l fitted,
F o r launching the rocket was suspended vertically with the t a i l end down.
Ignition was by a f i r i n g squib.

110
 In calm weather, free of atmospheric disturbances, the rocket r o s e f o r
approximately 5 seconds t o a n altitude of up t o 200 s a g e n e s [467 yd]. leaving
behind it a long s t r e a m of s p a r k s - a "ribbon1' visible f o r a considerable
distance in the darkness. After combustion of the blind propellant, the
powder used a s s l a g took fire, and the rocket burst.
The principle data on Russian one-pound signal rockets, 1904 model,
a r e given below:5

.
External diameter of casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.75"
.
Internal diameter of casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15"
Length of casing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.58
.
Length of ignition channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.66"
.
Length of blind propellant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.95"
Length of tail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5'
.
Weight of rocket with tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25pounds

The m e a s u r e s taken t o regulate production of signal r o c k e t s only

succeeded in delaying somewhat t h e i r discontinuation by the Army. T h e i r
quality continued t o be low, a s before, and in 1908 they w e r e c r o s s e d off
the inventories of a r t i l l e r y b a t t e r i e s and s t o r e h o u s e s . '
Despite the Artillery Committee's decision to concentrate the production
of signal rockets a t the Nikolaev Rocket Plant from 1904 onward, rocket
f l a r e s continued to constitute the m a j o r p a r t of the plant's production. In
1904 a new "Collection of Data on Thrce-Inch Luminous Rockets" (Sbornik
svedenii o trekhdyuimovykh svetyashchikh raketakh), incorporating a l l the
changes made in the design of rocket flares, was published.'
T h e Russo-Japanese W a r of 1904- 1905 greatly affected the subsequent
development of rocket f l a r e s .
A l l the known m e a n s f o r illuminating a given a r e a w e r e tested in
conditions of war, and the performance of rocket f l a r e s w a s on the whole
found satisfactory. The r e p o r t s on the p r o g r e s s of the w a r and dispatches
s e n t in by the commanders of the various units contained such comments
as: "During the siege of P o r t Arthur in 1904 standard model luminous
rockets found the widest and m o s t helpful application"; "at the request
of the s a i l o r s , rockets w e r e even distributed to the patrol-vessels, where
they w e r e of service"; "the advantages of rockets a r e even m o r e apparent
when one considers their application on land during the second p a r t of the
w a r . '"
Table 17, which gives figures f o r the total numbers of rockets to be found
in f o r t s and siege t r a i n s between 1900 and 1915, shows c l e a r l y the
distribution of rocket f l a r e s among the various m i l i t a r y regions of Russia.
It is apparent that rocket f l a r e s w e r e widely used in Russia, and
constituted an integral p a r t of the Russian a r m y ' s illuminating equipment.
During the period 1900-1915 the supply of f l a r e s i n c r e a s e d greatly in
practically a l l of R u s s i a ' s military regions (excepting Kiev and Odessa).
T h i s was m o s t evident in the Amur region, where the number of rockets
increased by a factor of m o r e than four - from about 3000 in 1900- 1901
t o between 12,000 and 14,000 in the y e a r s 1906-1914. The g r e a t e s t number
of f l a r e s (as high a s 31,000) w a s found in the Warsaw region, which
contained such s t r o n g f o r t r e s s e s a s Warsaw, Novogeorgievsk, B r e s t Litovsk,
and Ivangorod [now Deblin].
TABLE 17. Numbers of rocket flares in the military regions of Russia

Petersburg region
Vilno region .
Warsaw region. .
.
.
.
.
.
- 3754
6 122 68fi4 6786
- 3320
8665
25 183 23!16!1 1 2 5 5 5 22274
4471
10314
l48li
51171
I I 279
17592
__
4 886
11 I172
5 5(14
5 8(10
29 :324
5246
5212
28684
1992
4712
-
5233
8787
5507
in511
29060 28083
I 5047
11 283
31 197
-
-
4711
Kiev region , . . 1794 1 634 I f 1 9 1539 1659 16'2'1 1571 1 0,111 920 - 840 840 478 -
Odessa region . . . 7 505 8462 8 4113 8209 8'288 8371 8 1120 7 XI0 7013 , 10581 ' 8079 I 4930 4396 51 z
Caucasus region . . 6711 8 Ill9 7x27 7 216 7 (BO 8 908 8 830 8 777 8927 ' - ~ 8782 7872 7657 7 827
Turkestan region . . 1280 1350 1750 167U 8120 2100 2 nnn 1070 2010 2 0 7 0 ; 2232 2118 1998 2 003
Amur region . . . 3064 3277 6 131 6421
'-1
8XI6 12 590 13 129 14 276 14878 , 13987 14378 13803 I 12958
Kvantun district govern-
ment . , . . 2858 2838, 3078 7098 -
- ~ -_
Total . . . .154517160212/58149/ 9 2 3 1 2 ' 59019 156065 167634 I 49517 65318 ! 74160
I
, 72890 1 33282 1 77391 I 73673
I
~ 74954 '19663
 Military actions, however, revealed the deficiencies a s well a s the
advantages of rocket f l a r e s . P r i m a r y among the f o r m e r w e r e low altitude
and s h o r t range. T h e 3'' f l a r e s with wooden t a i l s used by the a r m y had a
maximum altitude of only about 1 km, and a s Major-General P o m o r t s e v
r e m a r k e d in one of his l e c t u r e notes, s e r v e d "more t o illuminate the
m a r k s m a n himself than his target. I' lo
The p r i m a r y problem confronting the inventors and d e s i g n e r s seeking
t o improve rocket f l a r e s was therefore t o i n c r e a s e their range and the
r a d i u s of the illuminated surface. Those working to improve rocket f l a r e s
during these y e a r s included Pomortsev, Sazonov, Ennatskii, e t al. T h e i r
r e s e a r c h is discussed in the following sections.

EXPERIMENTAL ROCKET RESEARCH AT THE

BEGINNING O F THE 20TH CENTURY

F o r a long t i m e a point of view widely encountered in Soviet works on

the history of science was that a f t e r the discontinuation of m i l i t a r y rockets
in the 1880's, r e s e a r c h on solid propellant rockets was actually abandoned,
t o be r e s u m e d only in the y e a r s immediately preceding the F i r s t World W a r .
T h i s point of view has a l s o been reflectcd in many popular scientific
works on the history of r o c k e t r y in Russia" and until v e r y recently has not
even been subjected to doubt.
But the detailed study of the archives made by Soviet r e s e a r c h e r s in
r e c e n t y e a r s has made it c l e a r that the closing y e a r s of the 19th century,
and m o r e particularly, the f i r s t y e a r s of the ZOth, despite the r e t i r e m e n t
of m i l i t a r y rockets, saw intensive work on the perfection of solid propellant
rockets.12 T h i s w a s to be explained both by the widespread u s e of rocket
f l a r e s and by the z e a l of individual inventors who d e s i r e d t o build m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s able t o compete with other types of a r m a m e n t .
An effort t o c r e a t e s o m e such form of a r m a m e n t through improvement
of existing solid propellant designs was being made a t the end of the
eighties, about t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r the A r t i l l e r y Committee's decision to
discontinue u s e of m i l i t a r y rockets and t e r m i n a t e their production. In 1889
J u n i o r A r t i l l e r y Captain Andreev of the Kars- Alexandropol F o r t r e s s
submitted a memorandum with a description of h i s design for a military
r o c k e t with tubular tail13 ( F i g u r e 22), intended f o r use in 211 c a s e s when
the u s e of a r t i l l e r y pieces presented difficulty.
After analyzing the r e a s o n s f o r the r e t i r e m e n t of m i l i t a r y rockets,
Andreev concluded that their chief drawbacks w e r e inadequate a c c u r a c y
and comparatively s h o r t range. In his memorandum he noted that the f i r s t
of these deficiencies resulted f r o m imperfect production techniques, and in
particular, f r o m the divergence, inevitable in m a s s production, of such
p a r a m e t e r s a s the weight and volume of rocket tails, c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a
of the g a s exhaust orifices, distance of the a x e s of t h e s e orifices f r o m the
r o c k e t axis, angles of inclination of these axes t o the rocket axis, etc.
T h e s e divergences, which w e r e aggravated s t i l l m o r e by the uneven
combustion of the propellant, led t o a substantial difference in the
magnitude, direction, and distribution of the points of application of the
f o r c e s acting on r o c k e t s of the s a m e type, and w e r e a c a u s e of the
considerable deviation of m i l i t a r y rockets of e a r l i e r design.

I I3
' _
i .
, -.

. ..
FIGURE 22. Andreev's design for a military rocket with tubular tail.
 In his memorandum Andreev attempted t o give a schematic representation
of the f o r c e s acting on a rocket in flight (Figure 22, sketch 2). "At any
given moment, I' he wrote, "let A B be the resultant of the propulsive f o r c e
and force of friction, Kg, the f o r c e due t o gravity, and LC, the a i r
resistance. T h e i r transposition t o the point K produces one f o r c e KR'and
the couple L C - KC", which can be resolved into two f o r c e couples: one,
lying with the axis of the rocket in the v e r t i c a l plane, and another, whose
plane is perpendicular t o the v e r t i c a l and a l s o p a s s e s through the rocket
axis. T h e f i r s t couple will tend t o make the rocket a x i s coincide with the
tangent t o the trajectory, while the second will make the rocket deviate
f r o m the v e r t i c a l plane (plane of shot), while the center of gravity of the
rocket will be shifted in the s a m e direction away from the plane of the shot
by the force KR'. Since the magnitude and direction of the f o r c e KR'and of
the couple LC-KC" f o r rockets a r e different because the magnitude,
direction, and point of application of t h e i r components a r e different,
rockets will behave extremely differently one from another in flight.
T h e second deficiency of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s - their comparatively s h o r t
range - was, in Andreev's opinion, purely the r e s u l t of imperfect design
in the old type of rockets, and a r o s e specifically from the s m a l l total a r e a
of the gas exhaust orifices and insufficiently long casings. Andreev thought
range to be dependent on the power of the propellant and the length of the
casing, and insisted on increasing these a s much a s possible, with the
r e s e r v a t i o n that existing rocket designs did not permit a propellant f o r c e
(and therefore a gas p r e s s u r e ) exceeding a c e r t a i n value dependent on the
strength of the casing.
T h e s e considerations led Andreev to the conclusion that any improvement
of military rockets depended, in the f i r s t place, on elimination of the
c a u s e s of the above-mentioned shortcomings.
"Thus, ' I r a n his memorandum, "to i n c r e a s e the accuracy and range of a
rocket i t s design m u s t be s o modified a s 1 ) t o reduce the influence of
production e r r o r s , 2 ) make possible the adoption of a m o r e powerful
propellant for filling, without having to strengthen the casing walls, and
3 ) i n c r e a s e the length of the casing, without unnecessarily increasing the
weight of the rocket in s o doing.
Seeking to satisfy these requirements, Andreev proposed replacing the
solid wooden tail by a hollow tube of sheet s t e e l whose axis would be an
extension of the axis of the casing, claiming that by the methods then known
f o r the production of iron tubes and casings the tail could thus be given v e r y
nearly cylindrical form.
The tubular tail was t o be s c r e w e d onto the rocket casing in place of a
sleeve designed to keep out dampness immediately before launching. T h e
internal d i a m e t e r of the tail depended on the power of the propellant, and
i t s length, on the moment of the force couple which tended to make the
rocket deviate from i t s p r o p e r direction.
Andreev s u m m a r i z e d the s u p e r i o r features of the tubular tail, a s
opposed t o the solid one, a$_follows:
"1) The tubular tail can make the rocket fly t r u e r because i t s e r r o r s
will be s m a l l e r than those of a c e n t r a l tail;
"2) i t m a k e s it possible t o u s e a m o r e powerful propellant since the
g a s exhaust a r e a can be made equal t o the a r e a of the casing and
"3) i t i n c r e a s e s the range of the rocket independently of the power of
the propellant. ' I l6

115

I
 Andreev's m i l i t a r y rocket with tubular t a i l ( s e e F i g u r e 22, sketch 1)
consisted of a s h e e t i r o n casing B C , to which was attached a t a i l CD, i n
the form of a hollow tube, a l s o of s h e e t iron. The forward p a r t of the
rocket c a r r i e d a n explosive head A B o r a quantity of s h r a p n e l with the
tube A .
Andreev expected his innovations to i n c r e a s e the range of 2" r o c k e t s
to a s much a s 1 0 0 0 or 1200 f t / s e c , a s well a s to improve t h e i r a c c u r a c y
substantially to the point of making i t comparable with that of the mountain
ordnance of 1867.
Andreev a l s o pointed out that the s a m e changes could b e made in rocket
f l a r e s , i n c r e a s i n g the r a d i u s illuminated to 800 s a g e n e s 11867 yd], or a
distance equal t o that a t which the objects illuminated could be examined.
The design received a l m o s t no f u r t h e r development, however. In the
concluding p a r t of his explanatory memorandum, Andreev wrote: "This
s h o r t description gives only the ideas and the advantages which will derive
f r o m t h e i r adoption. It gives no information about the projectile o r the
r e l a t i v e position of the c e n t e r s of gravity and the figure, because the
manuals used do not give the information required f o r t h i s purpose. I ' ''
F u r t h e r m o r e , Andreev w a s not sufficiently c l e a r on the s o u r c e of the
r e a c t i v e force. For example, he took the view that the "rocket moves
only because the g a s e s l i b e r a t e d s e e k to e j e c t from the c a s i n g the
previously l i b e r a t e d and l o s t p a r t of the kinetic energy, a s a r e s u l t of
which the g r e a t e r this m a s s of gases, against which the newly l i b e r a t e d
g a s e s act, the g r e a t e r will b e their efficiency, and in consequence, the
range of the rocket. ''
At the s a m e time he c o r r e c t l y noted that "the efficiency of the g a s e s
w i l l be a maximum when the length of the casing is such that the p r e s s u r e
of the outflowing g a s e s is equal to one atmosphere, though this would
r e s u l t in an exceedingly long casing. " l9
In November 1891 Andreev's design was discussed a t a s e s s i o n of the
A r t i l l e r y Committee, with the following r e s u l t : "In view of the l a c k of
details in J u n i o r Captain Andreev's memorandum, and taking into account
the fact that m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s a r e no longer in use, the A r t i l l e r y Committee
does not see i t s way c l e a r to support f u r t h e r development of h i s idea; the
m o r e s o since the Committee's opinion is that a rocket p o s s e s s i n g a tubular
i r o n t a i l of the s a m e length a s a wooden tail w i l l be e x t r e m e l y heavy, and
that reduction of this weight by shortening the tail will only r e s u l t in
diminished flight accuracy. For these r e a s o n s the A r t i l l e r y Committee has
decided to r e j e c t the proposal of J u n i o r Captain Andreev.
No other information a s to the fate of this design has been found, and
it was evidently destined simply to lie gathering dust in the f i l e s of the
A r t i l l e r y Committee. N o r is it known i f persons l a t e r engaged in rocket
r e s e a r c h had a c c e s s to these files and acquired any knowledge of Andreev's
design. Whatever the case, in a number of s c h e m e s dating f r o m the
beginning of the 20th century Andreev's idea of replacing the wooden t a i l
by a hollow m e t a l tube is repeated in one form or another, though without
any r e f e r e n c e t o his work.
Our information on the experimental solid propellant rocket r e s e a r c h
conducted in the 1890's is a l s o v e r y slight. It is t r u e that the A r t i l l e r y
Committee f i l e s contain r e f e r e n c e s t o the fact that "Section V of the
Committee, working on winged rockets, succeeded a s e a r l y a s 1892 i n

116
 replacing the wing by t h r e e boards a r r a n g e d like the edges of a right
trihedron, but the passage leaves it unclear whether military rockets,
signal rockets, o r f l a r e s a r e being discussed, and what r e s u l t s w e r e
attained, N o other r e f e r e n c e s t o the experiments of this period have s o
f a r been discovered.
T h e next information on the experiments on rocket f l a r e s and military
rockets conducted in Russia pertains t o the beginning of the 20th century.
During the y e a r s 1902 - 1917 the Russian engineers and inventors working
on solid propellant rockets included Volovskii, Gerasimov, Demenkov,
Karabchevskii, Linevich, Makhonin, Pomortsev, Sazanov, Sytenko, Ennatskii,
and others. The r e s e a r c h e s of M. M. Pomortsev, N. V. Gerasimov, and I. V.
Volovskii a r e of particular interest.
P o m o r t s e v wished t o build a special "reaction glider, 'I propelled by a 3"
rocket flare, attached t o a tubular rod bound by thin s t e e l w i r e s t o the
tubular axis of the glider, and forming with i t a parallelogram. z2 He
intended the lift of the glider t o keep the illuminating compound ( o r other
projectile) aloft, and i t s a e r i a l stability would compensate f o r the lack of
a rocket tail. T h e preliminary calculations made by P o m o r t s e v in 1902
showed that a glider with lifting s u r f a c e a r e a of 1 mz, using standard 3"
rockets, could attain a range of 3 v e r s t s [ 3 5 0 0 yd], and that this could be
greatly increased by using rockets with slower burning propellant.
At f i r s t glance P o m o r t s e v ' s experiments s e e m like those of Eval'd
( s e e p. 105) but t h e i r purposes w e r e completely different. While Eval'd
sought t o u s e the propulsive force of rockets to power his a i r c r a f t ,
P o m o r t s e v ' s p r i m a r y intention was t o improve the a c c u r a c y of rockets
c a r r y i n g explosives and illuminating compounds over g r e a t distances by
the u s e of lifting s u r f a c e s . The f i r s t s e r i e s of h i s experiments involved
signal rockets and f r o m the f i r s t had a m o r e pronouncedly aerodynamic
c h a r a c t e r . "The object of the rocket experiments described below, I'
P o m o r t s e v wrote in 1903, "was t o study the motion of various types of
s u r f a c e s propelled in a i r with considerable velocities and t o t e s t the
conclusions a r r i v e d a t by myself and other r e s e a r c h e r s in studying motion
a t relatively low velocities, in o r d e r t o apply the r e s u l t s obtained t o
i n c r e a s i n g the flight accuracy of the rockets themselves.
The experiments consisted of attaching t o signal rockets lifting s u r f a c e s
of various s h a p e s ( F i g u r e 23, 1 -8), consisting of s t e e l f r a m e s wound
about with s h e e t s of aluminum or s o m e m o r e durable m a t e r i a l . T h e
s u r f a c e s being studied w e r e f i r s t tested in a i r without rockets, using
rubber propellers, and w e r e then attached t o the rockets, e i t h e r directly
( F i g u r e 23, 1-4), o r t o a rod from which the rocket was suspended
( F i g u r e 23, 5, 6 ) .
The r e s u l t s w e r e quite negative: no sooner was a rocket with the
attached supporting s u r f a c e s fired, than the e n t i r e system, moving forward,
l o s t its stability and began t o rotate about i t s longitudinal or t r a n s v e r s e axis.
A number of t e s t s with supporting s u r f a c e s of the f o r m described brought
P o m o r t s e v t o the conclusion that "the flight of rockets cannot be made t r u e
by the u s e of s u r f a c e s whose direction coincides with the axis of the rocket,
s i n c e the l e a s t angle between this plane and the a x i s gives r i s e t o a
torque couple which throws the rocket off c o u r s e .
T h e next series of experiments w a s conducted with tubular stabilizing
surfaces, e i t h e r cylindrical or slightly conical in formz5 ( F i g u r e 24, 9 - 1 2 ) .
FIGURE 23. Rockets with Stabilizing surfaces of M . M . Pomortsev's design.

FIGURE 24. Rockets with tubular stabilizing surfaces of Pomortsev's design.

1 I8
They w e r e made of aluminum s h e e t o r of thin s t e e l s t r i p s , and w e r e
attached t o the end of the r o c k e t casing, like an extension of it. T h i s
c l e a r l y w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a v a r i a n t of Andreev's idea ( s e e pp. 115 - 116).
T h e e x p e r i m e n t s conducted with t h e s e tubular s u r f a c e s r e s u l t e d in
flight of s a t i s f a c t o r y stability, but g r e a t l y reduced range, due, in
P o m o r t s e v ' s opinion, t o reduced gas exhaust velocity b e c a u s e of
considerable friction against the walls of the tubes.
On the b a s i s of t h e s e results, P o m o r t s e v greatly i n c r e a s e d the d i a m e t e r
of the tube and obtained a cylinder open a t both ends, which was attached t o
t h e r e a r end of the r o c k e t casing and w a s coaxial with it ( F i g u r e 24, 13).
T h e r e s u l t s exceeded a l l expectation. Rockets equipped with r i n g
s t a b i l i z e r s of this type suffered hardly any deviations f r o m c o u r s e in flight
tests, even with a relatively high s i d e wind.
F u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e made with r o c k e t flares, u s i n g the s u r f a c e s
d e s c r i b e d above, with the object of determining the m o s t favorable
dimensions for all parts. T h e r o c k e t s t e s t e d w e r e launched f r o m a stand
( F i g u r e 25), to the forward end of whose housing four b a r s of thick T-shaped
i r o n w e r e s e c u r e l y attached.
The r i n g s t a b i l i z e r s ( F i g u r e 26) w e r e made of thin but wide s t r i p s of
steel, o r of aluminum s h e e t s mounted on s t e e l bands. T h e i r length and
d i a m e t e r v a r i e d between wide limits. A s the e x p e r i m e n t s p e r f o r m e d by
P o m o r t s e v a t Kronstadt in 1 9 0 3 showed, the length of the r i n g s t a b i l i z e r s
was not significant, w h e r e a s their d i a m e t e r g r e a t l y affected the stability
of the r o c k e t s .
"An explanation for this l a s t fact, I t w r o t e Pomortsev. "is to be sought
in the fact that in rapid motion of the r i n g s the air r e s i s t a n c e acts, for the
m o s t part, upon a p a r t of the r i n g v e r y n e a r t o its leading edge, and
consequently, beyond known l i m i t s the r e a r s u r f a c e of the r i n g does not
participate in the a i r r e s i s t a n c e component, s e r v i n g only to i n c r e a s e the
friction of the a i r particles.
"When t h e r e is s o m e l a t e r a l deviation of the r o c k e t a x i s f r o m the
d i r e c t i o n of motion, the annular s u r f a c e , which a l s o f o r m s s o m e angle
with the motion, will immediately give r i s e to a couple of f o r c e s which
r e s t o r e s the disturbed equilibrium, and the stability of the r o c k e t becomes
g r e a t e r , the g r e a t e r the moment of the f o r c e s thus c r e a t e d about the a x i s
of the casing, i. e., the g r e a t e r the d i a m e t e r of the ring. ' I z 6
The above m a k e s it apparent that in h i s r e s e a r c h P o m o r t s e v devoted a
g r e a t d e a l of attention t o the a n a l y s i s of r o c k e t flight dynamics. In his
efforts to attain flight stability, he concluded that the e s s e n t i a l thing in
stabilizing a rocket is the mutual position of the c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e (or, a s
P o m o r t s e v t e r m e d i t , the c e n t e r of air r e s i s t a n c e ) and the c e n t e r of gravity.
"However well a r o c k e t i s made, 'I P o m o r t s e v wrote in 1903, "when i t
is in motion i t is always possible for the a x i s of the r o c k e t to make s o m e
angle with the direction of motion. At s m a l l angles of inclination and high
velocities the c e n t e r of a i r r e s i s t a n c e is c e r t a i n l y v e r y c l o s e to t h e head
of the rocket, to a l a r g e extent b e c a u s e of the considerable r e s i s t a n c e to
the l a t t e r . A s a r e s u l t the c e n t e r of gravity of the r o c k e t (located 53 cm
f r o m the f o r w a r d end in a luminous r o c k e t ) will p a s s behind the c e n t e r of
a i r r e s i s t a n c e , and the r o c k e t in motion w i l l be in a s t a t e of unstable
equilibrium. T h e equilibrium will continue to be disturbed until t h e a x i s
of the r o c k e t m a k e s such an angle with the direction of motion that the
c e n t e r of air r e s i s t a n c e moves back r e l a t i v e to the c e n t e r of gravity. When
this happens t h e resulting p r e s s u r e on the r e a r of the r o c k e t will move the

119
 FIGURE 2.j. Ruckct launching Itand designsd by Poiriorrsev.

FIGURE 2 6 . Rocker flares with ring stabilizers designed by Pomortsev.

I20
rocket axis by inertia in the direction opposite t o the preceding, etc.
"The r e s u l t of a l l this is an oscillatory motion of the rocket, always
observable in rockets with t a i l s and reaching 10" and m o r e in luminous
rockets, w h i c h , absorbing the enormous propulsive energy of the rocket,
r e d u c e s i t s range and i n c r e a s e s i t s inaccuracy. ' I
" F r o m the above, ' I P o m o r t s e v continued, ''we can conclude that the
motion of modern rockets is v e r y like that of a projectile shot from a
cannon, while the restoration of a r o c k e t ' s equilibrium is accomplished
by an oscillatory motion about i t s longitudinal axis, " 2 D

FIGURE 21. Rocket with cruciform guide.

L a t e r on, continuing his s e a r c h f o r improved m e a n s of rocket

stabilization, P o m o r t s e v suggested replacing rocket t a i l s by a s p e c i a l
vane consisting of four s t e e l bands. A s t e e l sleeve A w a s fitted directly
onto the r e a r end of the rocket (Figure 27), t o which w e r e riveted four
half-rings a , made of s t e e l bands 1 m m thick and 50" wide. T h e
tangent ends of the bands w e r e riveted together in pairs, forming a spider.
P o m o r t s e v designed a special stand f o r launching rockets with this type
of s t a b i l i z e r ( F i g u r e 28). Its upper end, consisting of four guide b a r s B of
s h e e t iron, fastened a t one end t o the iron binding C, was attached to a
s m a l l tripod and could be s e t up a t any angle t o the horizon. The total
weight of the stand was about 1 6 kg, which made i t e a s y t o transport.
P o m o r t s e v ' s two y e a r s of experimentation on solid propellant rockets
yielded a number of positive r e s u l t s . In his r e p o r t of April 1905 t o the
Artillery Committee he wrote: "I now r e g a r d my experiments on 3" rocket
casings of c u r r e n t type, propelled by gunpowder gases, which I began two
y e a r s ago with the support of the Artillery Committee, as concluded, and
I present t h e i r r e s u l t s in this r e p o r t .
"My f i r s t purpose in these experiments, which consisted of the
attainment of long range, high velocity and accuracy of rockets, in o r d e r t o
u s e them f o r conveyance of explosive projectiles, may be r e g a r d e d a s
achieved. Rocket casings with the s t a b i l i z e r s I fitted to them attain ranges
of 2-3 v e r s t s 12335-3500 yd] before descent, and d e s c r i b e c o r r e c t
t r a j e c t o r i e s like those of s p h e r i c a l projectiles shot f r o m m o r t a r s . I ' 29

121
 u i

. i

I .
I
. . > , , I , -
" ,

FIGURE 28. Stand for launching rockets with cruciform guides.

 L a t e r P o m o r t s e v achieved even b e t t e r r e s u l t s . In December 1905 he
noted that standard 3” rockets, in which, however, the boxes of illuminating
compound had been replaced by heavy cones, andthewooden tails by s t e e l
guides attached t o the end of the casing, could attain ranges “of a s much as
3-4 v e r s t s 13500--4700 yd] with considerable t r u e n e s s in flight.
“A like result, ” continued Pomortsev, ‘‘may be obtained with luminous
rockets, i f the d i a m e t e r of the box with the luminous compound is decreased.
T h i s can b e done, without decreasing the number and s i z e of the pellets, by
a corresponding i n c r e a s e in the length of the box. T h e p r e s s u r e of the
g a s e s formed by combustion of the propellant m u s t be i n c r e a s e d as well;
this condition r e q u i r e s an i n c r e a s e in the strength of the m e t a l casing.
On the b a s i s of these data, the A r t i l l e r y Committee decided to continue
with the p r o g r a m of experiments on rocket f l a r e s outlined by Pomortsev.
It w a s decided t o o r d e r 500 s t e e l casings f r o m the Sociktd Mktallurgique
de Montbard in P a r i s , in o r d e r t o determine the minimum s i z e of gas
exhaust orifices which would not lead t o bursting of the casings. In
addition, the Nikolaev Rocket Plant w a s instructed t o collaborate with
P o m o r t s e v on the development of a new packing f o r luminous c h a r g e s which
would entail a box no m o r e than four inches in diameter.
P o m o r t s e v ’ s positive r e s u l t s with illuminating r o c k e t s gave the Artillery
Committee a b a s i s f o r returning t o the idea of improved designs f o r
m i l i t a r y rockets. P o m o r t s e v in fact proposed t o develop two types of
m i l i t a r y rockets: incendiary ( i f t h e r m i t e could be used in them) and high
explosive rockets. T h e Artillery Committee rejected the idea of case-shot
rockets with the comment that “the velocity of the rocket a t the moment
when the s h e l l containing the bullet b u r s t s will be too low t o give the bullets
adequate velocity f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y performance.
T h e proposed experiments, however, could be begun only in the second
half of 1907. 33 Pomortsev, Head of the Gunpowder Workshop of the
Nikolaev Rocket Plant, Lieutenant-Colonel Karabchevskii, the chief plant
mechanic, the engineer Demenkov, and Captain Ennatskii, representing
the A r t i l l e r y Committee, participated.
T h e first series of experiments aimed a t determination of the gap
p r e s s u r e in the casing in o r d e r t o c l a r i f y the dependence of this p r e s s u r e
on the a r e a of the exhaust orifices, the dimensions of the ignition channel,
the method of propellant filling used, and other factors.
During the experiments the rockets w e r e placed in c a s t iron c a s e s of
approximately the s a m e length a s the rocket itself. In the center of the
c a s e bottom was drilled a hole into which was inserted the r e c e i v e r of a
Richard dynamometer. The rocket being tested was fitted into forks inside
the c a s e specially a r r a n g e d s o that the axis of the rocket passed through the
center of the r e c e i v e r piston. When the r o c k e t ’ s forward end touched the
piston, i t s other end with the gas exhaust orifices projected beyond the end
of the c a s e and the g a s e s could flow out into the a i r unobstructed. T h e
c a s e w a s placed on the bottom of a pit dug in the ground and the r e c o r d e r of
the dynamometer, connected with the receiving piston by a copper tube, was
located inside a building next t o the pit.
In this way a l l the t e s t s could be safely conducted inside the rocket plant.
T h e v e r y first experiments showed that the conical p a r t s of the s e a m l e s s
casings delivered from France, drawn into the form of sleeves, w e r e not
s t r o n g enough. They often failed to withstand the gas p r e s s u r e , showing

I23
TABLE 18. Results of stand tests of rockets a t the Nikolaev Plant (second half of 1907)

Casings of three-inch rockets with six gas exhaust orifices

I
1 2.70 0.7.5 15 40 100 2.0
Y 2.70 0.75 1.5 40 193 1.5
_ _ -
3 1.84 0.75 15 20 200 1.0
10 1.84 0.7.; 1i 20 200 1.25
11 1.84 0.73 13 20 200 1.5
12 1.84 0.7: 1.j 20 180 1.5
._
i! 1.84 0.7.3 1.5 40 140 1.0
6 1.84 0.75 1.5 40 143 ?
7 1.a4 0.75 1.5 40 220 1.75
8 1.84 0.75 15 40 220 1.75
21 1.84 0.75 15 40 180 1.5
22 1.84 0.75 13 40 190 1.7.5
2:3 1.84 0.75 15 40 1Y5 1.75
26 1.84 0.75 15 40 200 ? (Casing burned
through)
27 1.84 0.75 15 40 200 1.0

28 1.84 0.5 15 40 180 2.25

29 1.84 0.5 15 40 110 2.5

Three-inch seamless casings with one central orifice

1.0 15 40 150 1.75

1.0 15 40 140 1.5
-~
1.0 1.5 40 185 1.5
1.0 15 40 Over200 1.75
1.0 15 40 240 1.75
1.0 15 40 155 1.2
1.o 15 40 250 1.75

24 0.78 0.7:i 1.5 40 Over 2.50 1.33

25 0.78 0.7.5 1i 40 " 250 1.5
18 0.78 0.5 15 40 *' 270 2.0
19 0.78 0.5 17 40 .* 700 2.0
20 0.78 0 ..5 19 40 '* 300 1.5
-~
1.0 1s 40 Over 300 ? (Casing burst)

1.n 15 40 '- 900 1.0

AIM Archive, Artillery Commitrec store, entry 39/3, file 585. sheets 50- 67.
I* Numbers of the tests as given in the journal of the experiments: sorif is the area of the central gas
exhaust orifice: dchan is the diameter of the ignition channel: lchan is the length Of the ignition
channel: Q is the pressure a t which the rocket was pressed; P is the maximum dynamometer pressure;
and 1 is the t i m e required for combustion of the rockei propellant.

1707 124

. .
 c r a c k s and even burnout of the metal. It was t h e r e f o r e decided t o cut off
the lower p a r t s of the casings and r e p l a c e them by specially machined
s l e e v e s of the s a m e shape, manufactured in the workshops of the Nikolaev
Rocket Plant. T h e s e s l e e v e s w e r e fastened t o the casings by the cold
method of squeezing the casings a t the b a s e plate and rolling t h e i r edges
onto the l i p of the b a s e plate.
Table 18 gives the r e s u l t s of m e a s u r e m e n t s of the p r e s s u r e developed
by the g a s e s in the rockets. It turned out that combustion of the blank
propellant in the rockets o c c u r r e d entirely without accompanying p r e s s u r e .
The rise and fall of the p r e s s u r e , however, o c c u r r e d v e r y rapidly, s o that
a l l the c u r v e s showed m o r e o r less m a r k e d jumps a t a p r e s s u r e of about
100 kg on t h e i r ascending a r m s , while the descending a r m s w e r e
completely smooth.
Because of the l a c k of p r e c i s e information a s to the maximum possible
p r e s s u r e in the rocket casing, P o m o r t s e v erroneously s e t i t s upper l i m i t
a t 200 kg and o r d e r e d a dynamometer calibrated only to this maximum.
T h e gas p r e s s u r e in t h e rockets of his design with one c e n t r a l exhaust
orifice often r o s e t o 300 kg and m o r e . In these c a s e s a n approximate
visual e s t i m a t e of the upper limit was made, and r e q u i r e d refinement.
A notable point is the substantial divergence in maximum p r e s s u r e
values for rockets of the s a m e type. In P o m o r t s e v ' s opinion, this was
to be explained both by deficiencies in the recording mechanism and by
differences in the construction of tile rockets themselves. He therefore
compiled mean indices f o r a l l the figures given in the tables (Table 19).

TABLE 19. Mean indices for stand tests of 1907

s orif
(ss in)

7 .o 1 15 40 145 1.75
1.48 1 15 40 195 1.75
0.78 1 15 40 215 1.5
0.78 0.75 15 40 Over 250 1.33
0.78 0.5 15- 19 40 'I 300 2.0
0.44 1 15 40 250 Burst

2.7 0.75 15 40 145 1.75

1.84 0.75 15 20 195 1.25
1.84 0.75 15 40 185 1.5
1.84 0.4 15 40 145 2.25

N o re . Letter designations as i n T a b l e 18.

By analysis of t h i s table P o m o r t s e v was able t o a s c e r t a i n a number of

g e n e r a l laws f o r a l l rockets of the type examined. It was first noticed
that a substantial change in the a r e a of the gas exhaust o r i f i c e s h,aS no
g r e a t effect on the maximum p r e s s u r e and the time f o r which t h e rocket
propellant burns. They w e r e considerably m o r e affected by t h e d i a m e t e r

125

I
 and length of the ignition channel. P o m o r t s e v concluded, however, that in
the c a s e of the 3" r o c k e t s being t e s t e d i t was dangerous t o m a k e the exhaust
orifice too s m a l l (less than 0.5 in2), s i n c e with a n orifice of this c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l a r e a the p r e s s u r e in the c a s i n g would r i s e S O high a s t o c r e a t e the
danger of its bursting.
After t e r m i n a t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t s to m e a s u r e t h e p r e s s u r e developed
in the casings, the second p a r t of the t e s t s was begun. T h i s consisted of
launching r o c k e t s with new types of s t a b i l i z e r s devised by P o m o r t s e v
(annular and c r u c i f o r m guides, attached t o a s e p a r a t e sleeve, and s c r e w e d
onto the threaded p a r t of the c a s i n g only immediately before launching).
T o launch t h e s e r o c k e t s P o m o r t s e v designed s p e c i a l stands, two of
which w e r e built in P e t e r s b u r g , and a third, in the workshops of the rocket
plant. T e s t launchings, whose r e s u l t s a r e given in T a b l e s 20 and 21, w e r e
c a r r i e d out a t Nikolaev and Ochakov in September and October 1907.
T h e s e tables show that the range of the r o c k e t s equipped with annular
and c r u c i f o r m guides g r e a t l y exceeded that of those with a wooden tail,
while t h e g r e a t e s t r a n g e w a s attained by the r o c k e t s found in previous
e x p e r i m e n t s t o develop the maximum gas p r e s s u r e , i. e., those whose
ignition channel had the highest l e n g t h l d i a m e t e r ratio, and whose exhaust
orifices w e r e s m a l l e s t ( s e e Table 20, October, Nos. 12, 13, 21, 2 2 ) .
When the r e s u l t s a r e considered f r o m the point of view of flight
a c c u r a c y the s u p e r i o r i t y of r o c k e t s with c i r c u l a r (annular) guides is
evident (8370 of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s with such guides followed the directrix,
as opposed to 6 5 7 0 of those with c r u c i f o r m guides; f o r rocket f l a r e s
the f i g u r e s a r e 757'0 and 7070. respectively).
On the b a s i s of a l l these e x p e r i m e n t s P o m o r t s e v c a m e to the following
conclusions, laid out in h i s r e p o r t of December 1907 to the A r t i l l e r y Committee:
"1) T h e kinetic energy o r power of the rocket i n c r e a s e s with d e c r e a s e of the
d i a m e t e r of the ignition channel and, in particular, with i n c r e a s e of its length.
" D e c r e a s e of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the gas exhaust o r i f i c e s h a s
the s a m e effect, though t o a much l e s s e r d e g r e e .
"Combustion of the blank propellant has practically no influence upon
the p r e s s u r e .
"2) F u l l combustion of the channel, which r a i s e s the p r e s s u r e , is
accomplished in a v e r y s h o r t period of time, f r o m one to two secohds,
and this period is d e c r e a s e d with i n c r e a s e of the gas p r e s s u r e inside
the rocket.
"Increasing the c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e of the rocket propellant beyond the
established l i m i t s (about 150pud [5400 Ib] p e r s q in) has v e r y slight effect
on the combustion t i m e of the propellant and the gas p r e s s u r e .
"3) Rockets with one c e n t r a l g a s exhaust orifice, a l l o t h e r things being
equal, give g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e and power than r o c k e t s with a s e r i e s of
s m a l l e r l a t e r a l orifices. T h e f o r m e r also a r e much m o r e a c c u r a t e in
flight than the l a t t e r .
"4) Rockets with s t e e l guides fastened to t h e i r r e a r end give
considerably longer range, higher velocity, and g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y than
r o c k e t s of the old type w i t h wooden tails.
"5) Military r o c k e t s of the new type have a range of 5 to 7 v e r s t s
[ 5 8 5 0 to 8200 yd], but with m o r e c a r e f u l development (by m e a n s of
e x p e r i m e n t s ) and manufacture of t h e i r p a r t s and improvement of the
launching stand, t h e r e is good hope of i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e d i s t a n c e s even
m o r e without a l t e r i n g the d i a m e t e r of the rocket itself.

I26
 Numbers Cross-sec - Diameter of Length of of Weight of Launching
Month of assigned tional area ignition ignition guides, rocket with angleof Range of
testing in test of orifice. channel, channel, missile, stand. rocket, Notes
in
diary sq in in in kg degrees

September ' 2
11
0.18
0.78
1.0
1.0
8.0 23 1 40 I Over 6 , Along directrix
9.0 22.33 35 " 6
12 15 8.5 26.5 35 6
October 11 15 8.0 28.5 40 '' 3 To left bf stand
7 0.78 1.0 15 8.0 28.33 40 Upto4 Along directrix
September 13 0.78 1.0 15 8.0 25.33 35 Over 6
Cruciform guide
0.44 ~ 0.75
0.75
15
15
8.0
8.0
26.25
26.25 I 33
33
I
'
Upto7 1 Along directrix

" 1 21 I 0.44 0.75 15 '

~

8.0 26.25 35 Over 6 I To left of stand

12 0.18 1.0 8.0 28.5 1 37 7 Along directrix

1
"

" ~ 13 0.78 1.0 8.0 26.0 35 ., i

1.0 8.0 25.0 35 5- 6
1.0 15.5 8.0 j 25.15 35 U p to 5
September 0.18 1.0 15.0 8.0 22.33 40 4-5
0.78 1.0 15.0 8.75 22.0 , 35 4 - 5 . To right of stand
9 0.78 1.0 15.0 8.15 22.0 35 Over 6 To left
1J 0.78 1.0 15.0 10.5 25.0 35 " 6 To right
October 3 1.0 1.0 17.0 a .o 28.5 37 5 - 6 Along directrix
8 1.0 1.0 15.5 8.0 28 .o 37 3 - 4 To right of stand
September 18 1.84 1.0 15.0 12.25 25.0 45 Up to 3 Along directrix
W i t h wooden t a i l s

October 1 ; 1.0 1.0 ' 11 ' Cruciform 28 33 -

-
Inlaunchingfmm new
2 1.0 1.0 11 28 37 stand. ricochetted due
to lengthening
23 0.44 0.75 15 26 35 - Missiles tom out of
28 0.44 0.75 15 26 35 - casings during flight
 Numben Cross-sec- Diameter Length of of Weight of Launching
Month of assigned rional area of ignition ignition rocket with angle of Range Of
rocket. Notes
testing intest of orifice. channel. channel, guider' missile. stand.
in
diary sq in in in kg degrees vents

October 14 0.18
September
October
Over 2.5

25 0.4 0.75 15.0 10 35.15 46 Upto2.O To left of stand

26 0.4 0.15 15.0 10 36.33 46 'I 2.0
16 0.18 1.0 11.0 10 35.5 48 '' 2.25 Along directrix
15 0.78 1.0 11.0 10 36.0 48 '* 2.0 To right of stand
24 0.18 0.15 15.0 10 35.0 45 I' 2.25 Along directrix
20 0.18 1.0 15.5 10 35.5 46 .. 2.0
19 0.18 1.0 15.5 10 35.5 48 '* 2.25
5 1.0 1 11.0 10 36.0 45 " 2
10 1.0 1 15.5 10 34.5 48
September 20 1.84 1 15.0 14.5 35.5 48
5 1.84 1 15.0 14.0 35.0 48
6
7
1 1.84
1.84
1
1
15.0
15.0
15.5
8.5
36.5
35.5
48
48
21 1.84 1 15.0 11.5 35.5 45
I 22 1 1.84 1 15.0 11.0 36.5 45

15 39.0 > Tail broken by exces-

sive wobbie
15 Upto2 Along directrix

3 1.84 1 15 Circular 35.5 - Base plate burned out.

fell near launching
point
October 6 1.00 1 15 Cruciform 35.5 - Defective cmss piece
dcochetted
29 0.44 0.75 15 36.0 - Annulus with cap
30 0.44 0.75 15 36.0 - thrown out while

II I ascending

AIM Archive, A nillery Committee store, entry 39/3. file 586. sheets 50-69.
 A t this point experimentation on m i l i t a r y rockets and rocket f l a r e s had
to be broken off, since the Nikolaev plant's lack of heated workshops did
not p e r m i t i t s continuation during the winter. Not wishing to lose time,
however, Karabchevskii and Demenkov decided t o t e s t P o m o r t s e v ' s
s t a b i l i z e r s on signal rockets, of which t h e r e w a s always a good supply
a t hand.
At this t i m e Russian signal rockets consisted of a paper casing to
which a wooden t a i l was attached by m e a n s of an i r o n c h a r g e r . The
casing was 16" long and 1.75" i n diameter, with a weight, when filled,
of 1 lb 40 zolotniki [1.421b].35
In J a n u a r y 1908 comparative t e s t s of signal rockets with various
types of s t a b i l i z e r s w e r e held on the rocket plant's testing ground.
Conventional wooden t a i l s 5 f t in length, shortened t a i l s measuring 1 f t 8 in,
annular and cruciform guides of P o m o r t s e v ' s design, and s e v e r a l other
types of guides w e r e used. 36 T h e rockets w e r e launched vertically, and
the altitude attained was made a p r i m a r y c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e i r evaluation.
However, since the Nikolaev Rocket Plant possessed no instruments f o r
p r e c i s e measurement of the altitude, it had t o be estimated by the naked eye.
The experiments showed that the signal rockets of accepted design (with
a single wooden tail) w e r e no match to the o t h e r s i n altitude and flight
precision. The b e s t r e s u l t s w e r e obtained with rockets equipped with
P o m o r t s e v guides, which while reaching an altitude 2.5 to 3 t i m e s that
obtainable with conventional rockets, a l s o flew accurately and stably.
At the time these experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out, two signal rockets
with guides designed by Berezhen, an official of the Nikolaev Rocket
Plant, w e r e a l s o launched, both t i m e s with v e r y good r e s u l t s .
Karabchevskii's r e p o r t noted that these rockets "flew s t r a i g h t upward
and stably, and attained no l e s s altitude than those equipped with Major-
General P o m o r t s e v ' s guides. 'I3'
About a month l a t e r the experiments with signal rockets w e r e
repeated, but this time, since it was d e s i r e d t o determine the ranges
of these rockets with different stabilizers, they w e r e launched not vertically,
but a t various angles to the horizon, and from a specially designed stand
(Figure 29). The r e s u l t s a r e given in Table 22.

TABLE 22. Results of Rocker Tests with various types of stabilizers

Launching angle
Type of stabilizer

I
'-
~~

45= 30'

One wooden tail . . 200/39* 241/4 297/19 Burst

Two shortened tails . 288/11 303/4 312/41 350/12
Cruciform guide . . Not found Nearby 290/34 383/3.5
Annular guide . . . 327/33 363/19 310/0 395/33

* The numerator denotes the range of the rocket. and the denominator, its lateral deviation from the
assigned direction. All measurements are given in sagenes [I sagene - 7 ft].

It is readily apparent that in this c a s e the rockets equipped with

annular s t a b i l i z e r s performed best.

I29
 Concurrently with his r e s e a r c h for the improvement of solid propellant
rockets, P o m o r t s e v was looking for other energy s o u r c e s f o r u s e in rocket
projectiles .

FIGURE 29. Stand for launching of signal rockets.

A s e a r l y a s 1903 he presented to the Artillery Committee a program

of experiments in which he expressed the view that one a r e a in which
projectiles working on a reaction principle could be improved was "in
the development of a new type of rocket, operating not by the combustion
of a solid propellant, but by compressed a i r inside the rocket casing. 1 1 3 9
"The Mannesmann tubes now used in Germany, England, and F r a n c e
t o transport compressed hydrogen for aeronautical purposes, ' I he wrote,
"weigh about 70 kg, while each such tube delivers a s much a s 30 m3 of
hydrogen, compressed t o 200 atmospheres. It takes 1 5 minutes t o empty
such tubes by means of special valves.
On the b a s i s of these figures, Pomortsev concluded that s i m i l a r tubes
o r casings weighing about 10 t o 20 kg and delivering a i r compressed to
150-200 atmospheres could be built. These tubes could be evacuated in
2 to 5 minutes.

130
 "If such casings, ' I P o m o r t s e v continued, "were t o be fitted with heavy
head pieces, they would r e s e m b l e a e r i a l t o r p e d o e s which, p o s s e s s i n g a n
30. Scheme Ofpneumatic
rocket designed by Pomortsev.
s u p e r i o r i t y t o solid propellant rockets, in which a l l t h e e n e r g y developed
by the g a s e s w a s dissipated in t h e first 2 or 3 seconds, a f t e r which the
r o c k e t moved by i n e r t i a , like a b a l l i s t i c projectile.
e n o r m o u s e n e r g y r e s e r v e , would be able t o
c o v e r considerable d i s t a n c e s through the a i r . " *I
In October 1905 P o m o r t s e v put f o r w a r d a
detailed design f o r a c o m p r e s s e d a i r rocket
( F i g u r e 30). 4 2 A s t e e l tube A , able t o with-
s t a n d p r e s s u r e s of above 200 atm. s e r v e d a s
r e s e r v o i r f o r the c o m p r e s s e d a i r . A s t e e l
s l e e v e B , within which w e r e f o u r channels g
each 2.5" in d i a m e t e r , w a s s c r e w e d into a n
opening i n t h e pipe A. T h e exhaust openings
of t h e s e channels w e r e a r r a n g e d i n p e r f e c t
s y m m e t r y about the c e n t r a l axis, arid inclined
slightly outwards t o give freer p a s s a g e t o the
c o m p r e s s e d a i r and reduce its f r i c t i o n against
the t h r e a d e d w a l l s of the tube A . Inside the
s l e e v e B a l l f o u r channels g w e r e joined in a
l a r g e r channel f . leading into the r e s e r v o i r A.
T h e channel f w a s c l o s e d off by a s m a l l b r a s s
c o v e r m and an ebonite d i s k E, which w a s tightly
p r e s s e d against the flanges within the channel f
by m e a n s of a s c r e w D. T h i s s c r e w contained
a p e r c u s s i o n cap, which upon i t s ignition by
m e a n s of an e l e c t r i c a l s p a r k , f o r c e d an
opening in the d i s k E , letting t h e c o m p r e s s e d
a i r into t h e channels g .
P o m o r t s e v thought that t h i s design would
promote flight stability, s i n c e the point of
application of the r e a c t i v e f o r c e w a s i n f r o n t
of the r o c k e t ' s c e n t e r of gravity. T o i n c r e a s e
stability, the r o c k e t w a s equipped with
s t a b i l i z e r s of the type developed by P o m o r t s e v
f o r r o c k e t f l a r e s . T h e f o r w a r d p a r t of the
rocket (C) would hold explosives o r s o m e other
payload.
P o m o r t s e v a l s o c a r r i e d out s o m e approximate
calculations f o r t h i s pneumatic rocket. 43 I t s
weight w a s 1 6 - 1 7 kg, no m o r e than that of a
conventional 3 ' ' rocket f l a r e . A s c o m p r e s s e d - a i r
r e s e r v o i r h e u s e d a s t e e l tube 100 m m in
d i a m e t e r and 1 m long, manufactured by t h e
Montbard plant in F r a n c e . T h i s had a capacity
of 1 . 5 m 3 of a i r c o m p r e s s e d t o 200 a t m .
P o m o r t s e v ' s f i g u r e s indicated that t h e r e a c t i v e
f o r c e would r e a c h 40 kg a t the commencement
of motion, a f t e r which, while gradually
declining, i t would continue t o a c t f o r
25 seconds, or a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e duration of
flight. T h i s f e a t u r e m e a n t considerable
131
 The pneumatic rocket design was approved by the Artillery Committee, ''
and in the s p r i n g of 1906 Pomortsev was able t o begin preparing f o r the
experiments he desired t o c a r r y out.
By May 1907 a l l the equipment required for experiments on compressed-
a i r rockets was concentrated in the chemical laboratory of the Mikhailov
Artillery School. However, Pomortsev, before proceeding t o the planned
experiments, wished to complete his experiments on solid propellant
rockets, s o a s t o make u s e of t h e i r results.
Curiously enough, Pomortsev a l s o pondered such factors a s the
temperature inside the rocket casing. Noting that cooling would result,
together with a rapid fall of p r e s s u r e inside the casing, a s the compressed
a i r flowed out, he concluded that it might be b e t t e r t o u s e compressed a i r
in combination with gunpowder gases, which develop high t e m p e r a t u r e s
during combustion. 45
In April 1908 the Artillery Committee considered the r e s u l t s of t e s t s
of P o m o r t s e v ' s rockets, and expressed a completely favorable opinion of
them, with the comment that t h e i r significance was greatly increased by
the fact that no s e r i o u s r e s e a r c h on solid propellant rockets had been done
for the forty y e a r s preceding.
Recalling that even in the middle of the 19th century Konstantinov had
persistently adhered to his notion of the importance of scientific r e s e a r c h
for the further development of rocketry, the Committee emphasized that
such development acquired particular value in the period under consideration,
because of the perfection of modern a r t i l l e r y pieces. "Therefore, r a n the
Committee Journal, "the fact that the experiments of 1907 a t the Nikolaev
Rocket Plant m a r k the beginning of laboratory r e s e a r c h on rockets is of
great importance. 46
While admitting that in range Pomortsev's rockets were greatly
s u p e r i o r to those of the e a r l i e r design (the range of 3" rocket f l a r e s
with missile-bearing cap, weighing about 18 lb, was 2-3 v e r s t s
[2300-3500 yd], and that of 3" military rockets with missile, weighing
8--101b, was 5-6 v e r s t s [5800-7000yd] and more, while the signal
rockets r o s e to an altitude 2.5 t o 3 times that achieved by rockets with
wooden tails), the Committee did not agree with his a s s e r t i o n that his
stabilizers a s s u r e d t r u e rocket flight, since this had not yet been
established by the experiments.
The Artillery Committee a l s o noted that deficiencies in the launching
stand used by Pomortsev were apparent from the very beginning. This
stand was so s h o r t that the rockets moving on it could not acquire
sufficient initial velocity, and a s a result frequently deviated sharply from
the direction of aiming. Furthermore, the r e s u l t s of the experiments did
not lead to development of the best rocket mixture, and the i n c o r r e c t
choice of a dynamometer made it impossible t o determine exactly the
maximum gas p r e s s u r e in the casing, a s well a s the b e s t dimensions for the
gas exhaust orifice and the ignition channel.
"The preceding shows, the Committee Journal continued, "that the
experiments performed l a s t year, on rockets fitted with guides, have not
y e t given conclusive solutions t o the problems s e t for the f i r s t phase of
rocket r e s e a r c h . However, the failures which occurred have resulted in
improvements in instruments and rocket casings, S O that there is good
hope of a satisfactory solution of these problems through continuation of
the experiments.

I32
 In conclusion, a f t e r o b s e r v i n g that t h e t e s t s which had been performed,
being the f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t s of t h e i r kind, could not solve a n u m b e r of t h e
p r o b l e m s confronting the r e s e a r c h e r s , t h e Committee noted that they
nonetheless provided m a t e r i a l f o r f u r t h e r experiments, and e x p r e s s e d
itself in favor of t h e i r continuation.
In s e t t i n g up the p r o g r a m of future r e s e a r c h , a g r e a t deal of attention
w a s given t o the subject of which t y p e s of r o c k e t s should b e t e s t e d first.
In the previous y e a r s , a s mentioned above, the t e s t s w e r e e x t r e m e l y
varied, taking in r o c k e t s differing both in function (military, signal, and
f l a r e s ) and in e n e r g y s o u r c e (gunpowder gases, c o m p r e s s e d a i r ) .
In 1908, however, the A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e decided against tackling
too many different things a t once, and that effort should be concentrated
on t h e testing of r o c k e t f l a r e s , propelled by gunpowder g a s e s , as the type
then thought t o b e of the g r e a t e s t p r a c t i c a l importance. At the s a m e t i m e
the fifth s e c t i o n of the Committee w a s a s s i g n e d t h e t a s k of reviewing
P o m o r t s e v ' s pneumatic r o c k e t s and e x p r e s s i n g i t s views on the advisability
of f u t u r e e x p e r i m e n t s on them.
C e r t a i n specific r e s e a r c h goals w e r e a l s o proposed, "The e x p e r i m e n t s
m u s t b e begun, r a n the committee J o u r n a l , "with study of combustion on
a dynamometer, in o r d e r to determine: a ) the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e rocket
propellant and b ) the i m p o r t a n c e of i t s uniformity and density of
c o m p r e s s i o n . Then, with r e g a r d to the design of c a s i n g s and the
p r o j e c t i l e s fitted with them, the objects of study should be: a ) the influence
of the dimensions of the exhaust o r i f i c e and b ) that of t h e s i z e of the ignition
channel. Study of t h e s e f a c t o r s will r e q u i r e launching of r o c k e t s with guides
of Major-General P o m o r t s e v ' s design on t h e Ochakov proving ground, with
p r o p e r determination of the places w h e r e the r o c k e t s fall a f t e r shooting.. .1148
A p r o g r a m of e x p e r i m e n t s w a s thus developed and t h e t e s t s t h e m s e l v e s could
b e begun; but b e c a u s e of s o m e confusion, which a r o s e mainly through
financial m a t t e r s , P o m o r t s e v w a s actually d i s m i s s e d f r o m the t e s t s of the
r o c k e t s which he had designed, and they w e r e conducted a t the Nikolaev
Rocket P l a n t without h i s participation.
During the second half of 1908 Karabchevskii and Demenkov intended t o
p e r f o r m a new s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s , with the object, a s before, of
determining the optimum p a r a m e t e r s f o r solid propellant r o c k e t s of t h e
type being studied. A g r e a t many e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d to d e t e r m i n e
the g a s p r e s s u r e in the r o c k e t f o r different combinations of ignition channel
dimensions, and number and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of gas exhaust o r i f i c e s .
T h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d by Karabchevskii in
a table, 49 analysis of which brought him t o the following conclusion:
"a) A single c e n t r a l gas exhaust orifice is m o s t e f f i c i e n t . . .
"b) It is m o r e efficient f o r the g a s e s t o flow out through s i x holes and
a c e n t r a l orifice, having a total a r e a of 2 . 7 2 6 8 s q in, than only through s i x
holes, having a total a r e a of 1.8408 s q i n . . .
"c) T h e m o s t efficient combination is a c e n t r a l exhaust o r i f i c e 1.5" i n
d i a m e t e r (for which the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l exhaust a r e a of 1 . 7 6 8 s q in is
c l o s e t o that of t h e s i x holes of the 3" luminous r o c k e t now in u s e ) and a n
ignition channel 0.5" in d i a m e t e r . I f m
In 1908 no e x p e r i m e n t a l r o c k e t launchings w e r e held, and they w e r e
r e s u m e d only i n April, 1909, when 38 r o c k e t s with v a r i o u s types of
guides w e r e t e s t e d a t Ochakov. T h e f o r m e r relatively s h o r t s t a n d s w e r e

I33
 replaced by a long c a s t i r o n tube, and in a number of rockets the form of
the cap with illuminating compound was altered ( i t s length being increased,
with a corresponding d e c r e a s e in diameter). Karabchevskii drew the
following conclusions from these t e s t s :
"1) Rockets with caps of the old type have s h o r t e r range than those
with lengthened caps of s m a l l e r diameter, in spite of the fact that the
total weight of the old type of cap with projectile is m o r e than twenty
pounds l e s s than that of the new cap; this is a consequence of the lower
wind r e s i s t a n c e of the l a t t e r .
"2) Some rockets with guides instead of a tail w e r e t r u e in flight,
s o m e underwent considerable deviations from the directrix, and 7 rockets,
in leaving the stand, dived into the earth, a s i f into water.
" 3 ) The range was the s a m e a s in the f i r s t two launchings a t Ochakov,
i. e., up to 2.5 v e r s t s [2900 yd].
"4) The stand consisting of a c a s t i r o n tube, while b e t t e r than e a r l i e r
types, r e q u i r e s that 4 incisions be made in the tube along its length in
o r d e r t o fit on the c i r c u l a r guide (the edge from the external r i n g to the
thick ring by which the guide is fitted onto the rocket casing). These p a r t s
of the tube a r e therefore highly unstable and e v e r y l e a s t jolt they receive
is transmitted to the rocket a s i t leaves the stand, i. e., a t the most
important moment for acquisition of a c o r r e c t initial direction. ' I 5 '
The r e s u l t s of the 1907-1909 experiments on P o m o r t s e v rockets
disappointed the representatives of the Artillery Committee, who expected
r e s u l t s "that would resolve the problems of the new rockets to the extent
that t h e i r m a s s production could be begun. ' l e a
A s a result, a t the beginning of 1910 i t was decided to terminate the
t e s t s of P o m o r t s e v rockets. "The Artillery Committee, r a n the Committee
J o u r n a l for 27 J a n u a r y 1910, "having been convinced by the numerous
experiments conducted at the rocket plant that the guides proposed to r e -
place tails, while increasing the range of luminous rockets, make them
l e s s t r u e in flight, would consider it timely to b r i n g an end to such
experiments. I ' 53
Not a l l rocketry e x p e r t s s h a r e d this opinion, however. Karabchevskii
took quite a different view of the experiments, and wrote, in the r e p o r t
which he submitted to the Artillery Committee in 1909:
"The development of the rockets designed by Major-General Pomortsev
has s o far not led to satisfactory r e s u l t s , and in spite of those s u c c e s s e s
which have been attained, justify many skeptics who look upon P o m o r t s e v ' s
idea doubtfully; but I make s o bold a s to a s s e r t that this doubt should be
directed towards the not altogether satisfactory conditions under which the
experiments w e r e conducted, r a t h e r than towards the idea itself.
' I . . . It is my personal opinion, ' I he continued, "that P o m o r t s e v ' s
rockets do have a future. T h i s y e a r we s h a l l t r y to perform a few m o r e
launching t e s t s a f t e r overcoming the above-mentioned deficiencies, and
shall a l s o u s e a star-shaped guide of s t e e l band, since it will be f a r e a s i e r
t o design a s t r o n g e r and m o s t important, stable, launching stand f o r
rockets with such a guide.
Karabchevskii's plans w e r e not destined to be fulfilled, however. In
1910 the Nikolaev Rocket Plant was shut down, and the Artillery Committee
conducted no f u r t h e r experiments with P o m o r t s e v ' s rockets.

134
 I

In 1912, in his a r t i c l e "Old Experiments and the Modern Data of

Aviation" (Starye opyty i sovremennye dannye aviatsii), published in the
journal "Tekhnika vozdukhoplavaniya, 'I P o m o r t s e v gave some details of
his rocket experiments, pointing out that rockets equipped with s t a b i l i z e r s
of his design, and having an overall weight of 1 0 - 12 kg, had attained
ranges of 8 - 9 km. 55
For some time subsequently P o m o r t s e v conducted rocket experiments
a t the Kuchino Aerodynamic Institute, founded with the funds of D. P.
Ryabushinskii, who published their r e s u l t s in 1920, in the 6th number of the
papers of the Kuchino Institute. 56
In the y e a r s immediately before the First World War (1909-1912)
s e v e r a l attempts w e r e made in Russia t o build a new type of military rocket
f o r battle with an er)emy airforce. T h e p r o g r e s s that had been made in
aviation and aeronautics by that time gave a sound b a s i s for the belief that
the a i r f o r c e would have a considerable r o l e in future military actions. The
designers and inventors of a l l countries w e r e thus faced with the problem of
finding a weapon that would be effective against t h e airplanes and a e r o s t a t s
of an enemy.
In Russia the first experimental firings of rockets against a i r c r a f t took
place in 1909 a t Sestroretsk, with completely unsatisfactory r e s u l t s . As
the Artillery Committee J o u r n a l noted, "the bombardment of balloons by
rockets had to be utterly rejected, since the experiments revealed the utter
a i m l e s s n e s s of such bombardment: the slowness of the rockets and low
accuracy with which they w e r e thrown meant that a rocket could not come
anywhere n e a r an aerostat, i f the l a t t e r was in motion. 1 t 9 1
L a t e r on, N.V.Gerasimov (in 1909-1912), N.A.Sytenko (in 1909-1910).
I. V.Volovskii (in 1912) and others worked on a n t i - a i r c r a f t rockets.
The gyroscopie rocket design of the military engineer N. V. Gerasimov
is of the g r e a t e s t interest. After consideration of the possible means of
attacking enemy a i r c r a f t , he reached the conclusion that a d i r e c t hit would
be extraordinarily difficult to achieve. He therefore suggested using mine
s h e l l s filled with such explosives a s melinite, ecrasite. pyroxylin, etc.,
t o strike, not the a i r c r a f t itself, but the space in which i t moved.
Gerasimov considered rockets the m o s t suitable means for hurling such
m i s s i l e s , w e r e it not for the drawback of their highly unsatisfactory
accuracy. Rockets could not be considered a s e r i o u s form of weapon
before removal of this fundamental deficiency.
After study of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rocket flight, Gerasimov concluded
that "the chief causes of their low accuracy consisted of:
"1) the instability of the r o c k e t ' s m a j o r axis during a e r i a l flight;
"2) the excessive lengths of rockets, which reached 25 c a l i b e r s
(including the tail);
"3) the t r a n s f e r of the s y s t e m ' s center of gravity a s the rocket
propellant burned; and
"4) the inferior preparation of the rocket propellant, gradually stuffed
into the casings through v e r y long tubes.
Gerasimov designed a rocket which h e felt to be f r e e from all the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s having an undesirable effect on flight accuracy. Most of
his attention was devoted to the attainment of flight stability, for the sake
of which he designed a special type of s t a b i l i z e r .

I35
 "The rocket's m a j o r axis, ' I wrote Gerasimov, "will be stabilized by the
rotation within it of two turbine wheels constituting a gyroscope. T h e i r
velocity will be such a s t o give the rocket axis the s a m e stability a s that
of a m i s s i l e shot from a gun. The turbines a r e made t o rotate by the g a s e s
liberated through combustion of the rocket propellant, and the axis is
stabilized before the rocket begins t o move along the tube of the launching
stand. After burnout, the rotational velocity of the turbines will be main-
tained by air entering through a n orifice in the head of the rocket and moving
v e r y rapidly due t o the difference in a i r p r e s s u r e on the head and the bottom
of the rocket, which r e s u l t s f r o m its swift motion through the a i r . T h e u s e
of a turbine always i m p a r t s stability t o the axis about which the rotation
takes place, and it cannot therefore b e doubted that the axis of the rocket
will be sufficiently stable. I' 50
Gerasimov's gyroscopic rocket (Figure 31) had two main parts: a
cylindrical casing a, containing the rocket propellant, and a gyroscope
compartment b . 6o The cylindrical casing, 170 mm in internal diameter,
was made of 3-mm steel. It contained t h r e e cylinders of compressed
rocket propellant in file, with a cylindrical channel of such dimensions
as t o give a combustion s u r f a c e of 1500 c m 2 (according t o Gerasimov's
figures, enough t o form the quantity of g a s e s required to set the rocket
in motion).
The cylinders burned successively, beginning with the lowest one,
placed alongside the gyroscope. The upper covering of the casing a
simultaneously s e r v e d a s a bottom f o r the chamber containing p a r t of the
explosive, the remainder of which was located in a lower chamber behind
the turbines. Below the casing a was closed off by the base plate b', which
a l s o s e r v e d a s a roof for compartment b . The base plate was fitted with
a movable bottom S with s i x orifices with tubes 1 for emission of the hot
gases. The movable bottom was maintained in the upper position (Figure 31,
section along A B ) by s i x cylindrical springs r , with a pitch of 10 mm, s o
-
designed that when the p r e s s u r e in the casing reached 2 3 atm, the
movable bottom began t o descend, reaching its lowest position a t a p r e s s u r e
of 5 atm.
The tubes 1 descended with the movable bottom, and as they did so, the
l a t e r a l orifices p', through which the g a s e s could escape directly into the
a i r , began to open. AS the bottom descended (with i n c r e a s e of p r e s s u r e
in the casing) an increasing proportion of the gases escaped into the a i r
and only a tiny p a r t entered the channels of the turbine wheel z . A s
Gerasimov noted, the a r e a of the orifices p' had t o be S O calculated, in
accord with the quantity of g a s e s liberated, that the p r e s s u r e inside the
casing did not exceed a previously established limit, approximately 10 atm,
beyond which bursting of the casing would result.
After complete combustion of a l l t h r e e cylinders a i r began to e n t e r
the casing through the orifice y (Figure 31) which had opened in the head
of the rocket. Since the p r e s s u r e in the casing was decreasing, the
movable bottom began t o r i s e and occupied such a position that the l a t e r a l
orifices w e r e closed, S O that a l l the a i r entered the channels feeding the
turbine.
Gerasimov thought that this design would a s s u r e rocket firing accuracy
equal t o that of f i r e from heavy ordnance. He added that the velocity and

136
 along CD

FIGURE 31. N.V . Gerasimov's design for a gyroscopic rocket.

 range of rockets could be considerably increased by using a perfected
rocket propellant and m o r e efficient u s e of the combustion period.

FIGURE 32. Gerasimov's gyroscopic rocket design (second version).

G e r a s i m o v also developed another version of the gyroscopic rocket

( F i g u r e 32), which differed from the first in having the gyroscope a t the
s y s t e m ' s center of gravity, a s well a s in turbine wheels of different f o r m .
T h e subdivision of the rocket propellant into two p a r t s made i t possible to
d e c r e a s e the height of the powder charges (from 24 c m to 1 3 cm), while
the displacement of the s y s t e m ' s c e n t e r of gravity by combustion of the
propellant was thus reduced f r o m 28 m m t o 1 7 m m . T h e drawback of this
second version, in Gerasimov's opinion, was ''some loss of the propulsive
power of the g a s e s formed by the front cylinders, which had t o change their
direction somewhat. Gerasimov gave the velocity of his rocket as
4 0 0 m / s e c , with a range of 8-9 v e r s t s [9500--10,50Oyd]. The weight of the
rocket, totaling 61 kg, was broken down a s follows:

Casing and other parts. . . . . . . . . 1 9 kg

. . . . . . . . . .
Rocket propellant 24 kg
. . . . . . . .
Explosive in projectile 13kg
Gyroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . 5kg

Total weight of rocket . . . . 61kg

G e r a s i m o v did not only intend t o u s e h i s gyroscopic rocket to attack

enemy a i r c r a f t , but a l s o t o propel a i r c r a f t , i. e., as a n aviation engine.
In October 1909 he patented (No. 40945), and in F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 2 received
License No. 21024 "for a device to propel a i r c r a f t , which, a s noted in
the patent application incorporated the following components: a ) a gas
g e n e r a t o r u with annular c h a m b e r s c , filled with combustible m a t e r i a l ;
b ) a gas r e s e r v o i r with movable bottom S, from which branch pipes 1
with a p e r t u r e s p and t' led t o the nozzles t ; c ) jackets f surrounding the
branch pipes I and equipped with the nozzles m ; and d ) two coaxial
turbines z and k , located in the chamber b and successively fed by the
g a s e s leaving the nozzles t , the gases r e l e a s e d by the second turbine
pushing the machine forward.
G e r a s i m o v ' s design w a s not built, but nonetheless c l e a r l y a p p e a r s t o
have been a s o r t of prototype of the modern turbojet engines now i n such
widespread use.
G e r a s i m o v w a s a fervent advocate of military rockets and had sound
insight into the future of such weapons. "Rockets, I' he wrote,

I38

.... I
 "will permit man, while remaining on e a r t h , to rule a l s o in the skies,
since rockets, beyond doubt, will always be able to fly f a s t e r and higher
than any other a i r c r a f t controlled by man.''6z
Gerasimov did not f e e l that the applications of gyroscopic rockets were
confined t o action against enemy a i r c r a f t , but believed that they could a l s o
find u s e in the field, in the defense of f o r t r e s s e s and in naval battles. He
a l s o thought that "in the v e r y n e a r future rockets w i l l replace all cannon
of caliber above 6", since the advantages of a cheap, light, r e c o i l l e s s
rocket stand which does not wear, over a heavy, expensive, short-lived
cannon, a r e too g r e a t .
Gerasimov particularly emphasized the unquestionable advantage of
replacing heavy a r t i l l e r y by rockets for Russia, which was behind the
leading European countries in the development of the f o r m e r . "By this
means, he wrote, "we s h a l l not only catch up with Europe, but in strength
of armament might even precede h e r .
The special commission appointed by the Chief Artillery Administration
a f t e r consideration of Gerasimov's proposal, expressed doubt that "his
rockets w i l l be in a position to compete with the a r t i l l e r y projectiles in
c u r r e n t u s e in accuracy and range. ' I 6 ' The commission nonetheless
decided: "IC can be assumed that with the rocket launching stands now in
u s e and modern forced propellant the rockets of Councillor of State
Gerasimov w i l l prove s u p e r i o r to existing ones in flight stability, and it
w i l l therefore be of use t o perform experiments with them in o r d e r to
make peferctly c l e a r how the internal gyroscope affects their trueness in
flight. 'I 66
The decision of the commission was a l s o influenced by the increasing
urgency of finding means to oppose enemy a i r c r a f t , and the desirability Of
investigating the applicability of gyroscopic rockets for this purpose was
a l s o mentioned.
Wishing, however, to reduce expenses f o r the conducting of experiments,
.the commission urged the use, a t least a t the beginning, of standard 3"
rocket f l a r e s with the forced propellant used for them, since retooling of the
rocket plant's workshops would be required to f i l l casings of g r e a t e r caliber,
and this would involve considerable expense. At the s a m e time, realizing
the complexity of manufacturing a gyroscope of s m a l l diameter, the
commission proposed placing the conventional 3 " rockets to be used in the
initial experiments inside special casings of l a r g e diameter, to the bottom
of which the box containing the gyroscope was attached.
A t the end of 1909 Gerasimov p r e p a r e d to p e r f o r m the preliminary
experiments, in which he intended:
"1) t o study the properties of rocket g a s e s ; 2) t o develop mechanism
designs; and 3 ) to t e s t the f i r i n g accuracy of the rockets, f o r this purpose
adapting a gyroscope t o conventional 3 " rockets. '"'
A t first the experiments were conducted in F r a n c e , and afterwards
(from F e b r u a r y 1910 onward), a t the Main A r t i l l e r y Proving Ground in
Petersburg. The first s e r i e s comprised determination of the p r e s s u r e
developed in the combustion chamber, and the t h r u s t of the rocket
(Gerasimov t e r m e d t h e s e respectively internal and external p r e s s u r e ) .
The measurements were made with Richard automatic r e c o r d e r s .
T h e p r e s s u r e inside the combustion chamber was measured as follows.
In place of a tail, a curved s t e e l cylinder with a channel 1 2 m m in diameter
was screwed into the base plate of the rocket. A s t e e l tube 500" in

I39
 length, which was joined t o a b r a s s tube, a l s o 500" in length, led f r o m
t h e cylinder t o a m a n o m e t e r , The b r a s s tube was connected d i r e c t l y t o
the m a n o m e t e r , designed t o m e a s u r e the i n t e r n a l g a s p r e s s u r e of t h e
rocket and mounted upon a s p e c i a l table, s e p a r a t e d f r o m the rocket by a
low e a r t h embankment.
A dynamometer with hydraulic p r e s s u r e t r a n s m i s s i o n , f o r m e a s u r i n g
t h r u s t , was on t h e same table. The rocket being tested was fastened t o
i r o n r i n g s a t the b a s e of a v e r t i c a l stone wall, t o which was attached a
hydraulic r e c e i v e r . A tube about 2 m in length led f r o m the r e c e i v e r t o
the table with the dynamometer. Both the m a n o m e t e r and the dynamometer
w e r e carefully calibrated by the Richard f i r m . The propellant was ignited
by e l e c t r i c a l i g n i t e r s , The graphs obtained f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e
verified and signed by G e r a s i m o v and the plant d i r e c t o r .
The f i r s t experiments, conducted in November 1909, did not give t h e
data required, s i n c e soon a f t e r beginning the t e s t s t h e b r a s s tube burned
through, and, in a repetition of the experiment, s o d i d the thin-walled
s t e e l tube used t o r e p l a c e it.
G e r a s i m o v tested four r o c k e t s during the second experiment in December
of the s a m e y e a r . This t i m e all went well, and four graphs of t h r u s t v s .
t i m e w e r e obtained. Only t h r e e graphs of combustion c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e
w e r e obtained, the fourth being l o s t through faults i n the r e c o r d i n g
mechanism .
Analysis of the c u r v e s led Gernsimov to the conclusion that t h e t h r u s t
of a rocket depends:
"1) on the amount of gases liberated by combustion of the propellant
in a given period of t i m e ;
"2) on t h e i r minimum velocity in the orifice; and finally
"3) on the t i m e it t a k e s the g a s e s t o a c q u i r e this velocity,
The experiments conducted a t the end of 1 9 0 9 and beginning of 1910
showed that the p r e s s u r e developed in a 3" rocket does not exceed 1 8 a t m ,
and that the t h r u s t of the rocket r e a c h e s about 1 8 0 k g and is not directly
proportional t o the combustion c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e . In F e b r u a r y and M a r c h
1910 G e r a s i m o v conducted a s e r i e s of new experiments with his gyroscopic
rocket, but this t i m e the r e s u l t s showed that t h e u s e of his gyroscope with
the 3" rockets s t a n d a r d in Russia did not provide sufficient angular velocity
t o give the rocket the r e q u i r e d stability.
A s noted i n G e r a s i m o v ' s memorandum t o the Artillery Committee, the
rocket axis could be stabilized only when the gyroscope rotated with a n
angular velocity of not l e s s than 300 r p s , while in 3 " rockets the s h o r t
period of t i m e f o r which the g a s e s acted on the gyroscope (only 1 . 2 5 s e c )
gave an angular velocity of only 7 9 r p s . G e r a s i m o v thought that the
required angular velocity could be attained if the number of o r i f i c e s w e r e
doubled, and the period f o r which the g a s e s acted on the gyroscope
increased t o 4 sec.
During the following two y e a r s (from J u n e 1910 t o June 1912) G e r a s i m o v
continued his t e s t s , but without s u c c e s s , as before. F r o m December 1910
t o J u l y 191 1 the experiments, which c o m p r i s e d stand testing of r o c k e t s as
well as launchings, w e r e conducted by the experimental commission of the
Okhtensk Gunpowder Plant and a t the Main A r t i l l e r y Proving Ground. All
of the rockets tested b u r s t on the stand and the gyroscope did not even
begin to r o t a t e .

140
 A s a result, Gerasimov again altered his rocket design, placing the
s m a l l cylinder intended t o s e t the gyroscope rotating on the stand inside
an i r o n cap screwed onto the bottom of the rocket. Upon the combustion
of this cylinder the gases then flowed exclusively into the gyroscope
compartment; ignition of the l a r g e cylinders occurred through an opening
in the cover of the i r o n cap.
The new experiments, however, conducted between January and April
1912, continued t o give negative r e s u l t s : the rockets either b u r s t on the
chute, burned out without leaving it, o r covered an insignificant range of
no m o r e than about 70 sagenes [165yd].
A s a result, Gerasimov again altered the design, at the end of April1912.
The s m a l l cylinder was brought out behind the bottom, and the gyroscope
s e r v e d as its continuation; a s before, the g a s e s f r o m the l a r g e cylinders
did not a c t upon the gyroscope. The first experiment with this rocket
resulted in explosion of the propellant cylinder, a s a r e s u l t of which the
cylinder was solid-drawn. A t the s a m e t i m e Gerasimov proposed to
replace the previously used propellant (52 70 nitrates, 18 '7'0 carbon, 30 %
s u l f u r ) by the s t r o n g e r one used i n Russian 3" rockets. The l a s t t e s t s ,
conducted in June 1912, a l s o failed t o give positive r e s u l t s .
The extensive factual m a t e r i a l on the t e s t s brought the Committee
appointed t o consider G e r a s i m o v ' s gyroscopic rocket t o the following
conclusion :
"Both the preliminary experiments on stationary rocket ignition (with
instrument determination of propulsive force and internal p r e s s u r e ) and
those on launching f r o m a stand o r open chute have s o f a r given no even
faintly satisfactory r e s u l t s , such a s some attainment of range (however
s h o r t ) and flight precision (in both of these a r e a s these rockets have
proved inferior to our 3 " luminous rockets of old design).
"It is impossible to decide whether the design of the r o c k e t ' s metal
p a r t s , i t s equipment, o r the choice of propellant is t o be blamed f o r t h e s e
exclusively unfavorable r e s u l t s , but in any c a s e , the rocket a s a whole,
together with its launching stand, must be regarded a s insufficiently
developed. T h e r e a r e virtually no indications, however it may have
seemed a y e a r and a half ago, that positive r e s u l t s can be obtained by
continued experimentation with it.
During the period of Gerasimov's experiments, the engineer N. A . Sytenko
(in 1909- 1910 ) and I. V. Volovskii, the f o r m e r a s s i s t a n t director of the
Putilov plant (in 1912) were a l s o developing designs f o r a n t i - a i r c r a f t rockets.
Sytenko's aerorocket (Figure 3 3 ) was designed f o r s t r i k e s against
dirigibles and airplanes and was t o consist of five o r s i x Congreve rockets
joined together, but sharing a common tubular tail.
The aerorocket w a s intended to be ignited in such a way a s t o f i r e a l l
the s e p a r a t e rockets composing it simultaneously. F o r this purpose the
upper p a r t of the rocket stand's connecting piece was fitted with a magnetic
igniter which supplied a s p a r k t o a l l of the component rockets simultaneously.
The r o c k e t s ' warhead was t o consist of shrapnel, which would readily inflict
damage on enemy a i r c r a f t .
"These rockets, with their stands, Sytenko wrote, "can be placed en
m a s s e along demarcation lines a t a s m a l l distance f r o m one another, and
in t i m e of war, when convenient, can be launched by the f r o n t i e r g u a r d s . ''''

141
 The Artillery Committee, however, a f t e r consideration of Sytenko's
design, expressed the view that the combination of s e v e r a l rockets would
r e s u l t in a worsening, r a t h e r than an improvement of ballistic qualities,
s i n c e some i n c r e a s e in the t h r u s t would be accompanied by a n i n c r e a s e
in air r e s i s t a n c e due t o t h e enlarged c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the a e r o -
rocket. It a l s o felt that a f u r t h e r cause of nonuniformity - the unequal
combustion of the forced propellant in each of the rockets grouped about
a common tail - would adversely affect flight precision.

M
FIGURE 33. Aerorocket designed by N. A . Syrenko.

" F u r t h e r m o r e , I ' the Committee Journal continued, "the increased weight

and volume of the head of such a combined rocket will have to be balanced by
extremely long and heavy tails, greatly complicating the launching stands
and increasing t h e i r weight, if the conditions normally accepted a r e t o be
satisfied: namely, that the center of gravity of the rocket be n e a r its casing,
and that the center of air r e s i s t a n c e be n e a r the center of the rocket's o v e r -
a l l shape and below its center of gravity. '"'
As a r e s u l t the Artillery Committee, finding Sytenko's a e r o s t a t un-
suitable for attacks on enemy a i r c r a f t , rejected his project."
In April 1 9 1 2 Volovskii presented to the War Department a design for
a m i l i t a r y rocket (Figure 34, Type No. l ) , a s well a s designs f o r two
launchers for launching rockets f r o m automobiles a n d airplanes. l3
Volovskii proposed t o i n c r e a s e range and accuracy by substituting for
the wooden tail a hollow metal tube, an extension of the rocket casing,
and by using radially placed planes slightly inclined to the axis of the tube
t o make the rocket r o t a t e .
The Artillery Committee rejected Volovskii's project. The Committee
Journal commented that both of the means he proposed for increasing range
and accuracy were not new and had been tested repeatedly both in Russia
and in other countries : 'I. . . Volovskii's proposal is not a t a l l innovatory
and in itself does not constitute a technically well worked out project.
The conclusion was, "In view of the forthcoming experiments with m o r e
fully developed rocket designs based on the s a m e principles,

I42

I
 Rocket type No. I.

9;

Gp.d~pwa.m b Perfected rocket type No. 111.

along Lk i ;

par"". . , LA-.. ." .... I

For mitrailleuse for mitrailleuse For ordnance '

. ,I .

FIGURE 34. I. V. Volovskii's rocket design.

as well a s the comments made above and to be found elsewhere in literature
on the subject, the Committee feels that the conduct of any experiments
whatsoever with this rocket would not be of such interest as t o justify the
expenditure they would entail.
D. D. Kuz'min-Korovaev. Head of the Chief Artillery Administration,
however, did not agree with this opinion and added the following resolution
t o the Committee's conclusion: "The idea of using rockets a s a weapon
against aviators is new, and experiments should therefore be conducted
with Volovskii's rockets, regardless of their cost. On the basis of
this resolution, the War Department decided t o inquire of Volovskii what
ten rockets of his design would cost, with a view to conducting experimental
shooting of these rockets at a e r i a l targets jointly with the Airforce.
Volovskii, meanwhile, had been working to improve his rockets. One
of the most serious objections made by the Artillery Committee had been
that in Volovskii's scheme the rocket acquired its rotational motion at the
cost of a reduction in thrust, which in turn would inevitably result in
shortened range.
To counter this, Volovskii proposed to shorten the tail tube, an extension
of the rocket casing, considerably, and to install a second tube of smaller
diameter, but greater length, inside it (Figure 34, Type NO. II).76 The
tubes were joined by four tie rods d', set a t a certain angle t o the axis of
the rocket. The c r o s s section of the rocket was thus divided into two parts:
an internal solid one, for passage of the gases whose ejection produced the
rocket's forward motion, and an external annular one, for passage, through
the four channels formed by the tie rods, of the gases giving the rocket its
rotational motion.
The division of the rocket's c r o s s section into two parts had the following
advantages, according to Volovskii: by changing the orientation angle of the
tie rods d', the rotational velocity of the rocket could be changed, while
change in the diameter of the internal tube (the rocket tail) made it possible
t o establish a ratio between the a r e a s of the internal (solid) and external
(annular) parts, thus regulating the amount of gases destined to impart
translational and rotational motion, respectively, to the rocket.
Volovskii developed one more version of the rocket (Figure 34, Type
No. III), intended for grazing f i r e from airplanes against cavalry, as well
a s against enemy aircraft.
This version, identical with type No. I1 in its dimensions, differed from
it in that the internal hollow tube which served as the rocket tail was
replaced by a solid wooden bar somewhat l e s s in diameter than the internal
tube, A s a result the a r e a of the external part of the c r o s s section was
increased, though it was still, a s before, smaller than that of the entire
c r o s s section. The intensity of the gas outflow w a s therefore increased.
Varying of the inclination of the four tie rods so as t o make the force of
translational motion considerably greater than that of rotational motion,
Volovskii remarked, would give the rocket the flattest flight trajectory.
In November 1 9 1 2 Volovskii's rocket design with the alterations he had
introduced was considered f o r a second time at a session of the Artillery
Committee, which, after repeating its e a r l i e r opinion that "there are not
sufficient grounds to expect it to give greater range or accuracy than the
old model rockets currently in use, I ' nonetheless thought it possible t o
give the inventor means for a practical experimental check of his calculations,

144
 i I /
I

1 1 :
I

,---t----’

FIGURE 35. Design of a rocket battery for shooting from automobiles.

 in view of the g r e a t i n t e r e s t manifested most recently in the development
of the most perfect type of rocket.17
Volovskii's attempt to build a stand for simultaneous launching of s e v e r a l
rockets is a l s o of i n t e r e s t a s a prototype of future multi-barrelled rocket
launchers. He a l s o developed s c h e m e s f o r a rocket battery to be installed
on an automobile, and a rocket mitrailleuse f o r installation on airplanes.
The rocket battery (Figure 35) consisted of a c e r t a i n number of e j e c t o r s
(equal to the number of rockets), arranged in s t r a i g h t rows in the form of
a s q u a r e and enclosed in a common s h e l l (jacket). T h e s p a c e s between the
e j e c t o r s w e r e filled with some light fireproof material. Each ejector was
equipped with two contacts, wired t o the energy source.
When the rockets w e r e placed in the launchers (ejectors), contacts
located on the forward p a r t of tlle rockets touched the contacts on the
e j e c t o r s . When this happened a corresponding bulb on the control panel
lighted up. After launching of the rocket the contact was broken and the
bulb went out. T h i s made it possible to tell a t any time how many rockets
w e r e ready f o r launching, and which they were.
The layout of the rocket mitrailleuse for shooting from airplanes
(Figure 3 6 ) was roughly s i m i l a r , except that i t did not r e q u i r e a cumber-
some gun c a r r i a g e and was considerably lighter.
A look a t the experiments done in Russia a t the period under consideration
shows that designers and inventors working to improve solid propellant
reaction projectiles at the beginning of the 20th century faced much the s a m e
problems a s had existed a t the middle of the preceding century: increasing
range and accuracy. However, the p r o g r e s s attained in the various fields
of engineeringmade possible the resolution of many of the e a r l i e r problems a t
a much higher technical level.
One of the m o s t important factors determining the thrust of a rocket
engine is, of course, the gas p r e s s u r e in the combustion chamber, i. e.,
in the c a s e s presently being considered, in the rocket casing.
The experiments performed in the 19th century did not make i t possible
to determine the p r e s s u r e in the rocket casing, but the t e s t s performed a t
the beginning of the 20th century showed that the casings of the e a r l i e r
design, manufactured a t the Nikolaev Rocket Plant, could withstand
p r e s s u r e s not exceeding 80 kg/ cm2,
The u s e of s e a m l e s s s t e e l casings made i t possible to i n c r e a s e the
p r e s s u r e in the combustion chamber (rocket casing) to 300 atm, which in
turn allowed a considerable i n c r e a s e in the reactive force.
The use of s e a m l e s s casings permitted the solution of yet another
problem existing since the 19th century - the construction of rockets
with one c e n t r a l exhaust orifice, which in turn permitted further i n c r e a s e
of the p r e s s u r e inside the casing.
Rocket stabilization was perfected. Most of the designs of the l a t t e r
19th century and beginning of the 20th a r e characterized by the rejection
of wooden tails and their replacement by either a hollow metal tube, an
extension of the rocket casing (Andreev, Pomortsev, Sazanov, Volovskii),
or another f o r m of stabilization, such a s supporting s u r f a c e s (Pomortsev),
a gyroscope (Gerasimov), or rotation of the rocket itself (Volovskii).
A s e r i o u s deficiency of a l l these designs was their continued u s e of such
a relat.ively low-calorific fuel a s smoky black powder a s energy s o u r c e .

146
FIGURE 36. Design of rocket mitrailleuse for shooting from airplanes.
 A s a r e s u l t of this, in t h e i r tactical and engineering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s most
of the rockets of the beginning of the 20th century essentially differed very
slightly from Konstantinov's designs of the mid- 19th century.
F u r t h e r improvement of rocket projectiles required the substitution of
some s u p e r i o r fuel for smoky black powder. It proved possible t o do this,
however, only in the 1920's and 1930's, when a new e r a in the development
of solid propellant rockets began.

ROCKET PRODUCTION AT THE SHOSTKA GUNPOWDER

PLANT. USE OF ROCKETS IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR

T r a n s f e r of rocket production t o the Shostka Gunpowder Plant was

discussed a s e a r l y a s 1905, mainly because of financial considerations. A
memorandum of the Inspector of Gunpowder Plants noted, "The transfer
of the rocket plant t o Shostka will not, it seems, occasion any great
simultaneous expense, but the abolition of the Nikolaev rocket plant will
in any c a s e be a highly economical measure, since a few y e a r s of operation
with a surplus will cover the expenses involved in t r a n s f e r of the plant.
It was assumed that casings and a l l their metal p a r t s would b e
manufactured in s e p a r a t e plants, and that only assembly, filling, and
finishing of the rockets would take place a t the Shostka plant.
The decision t o t r a n s f e r rocket production t o the Shostka plant, how-
ever, was made with excruciating slowness. The office of the Inspector of
Gunpowder and Rocket Plants exchanged correspondence with the Chief
Artillery Administration for a number of y e a r s while budgets and lists of
the number of w o r k e r s involved in an annual production of 4000 and 9000
rockets, respectively, w e r e compiled. Only in November 1909 did the
War Council officially confirm the proposal of the Chief Artillery
Administration t o shut down the Nikolaev Rocket Plant and t r a n s f e r
production to the Shostka Gunpowder Plant.
Dismantling of the Nikolaev plant and equipping of a rocket workshop in
the Shostka plant occupied most of 1910, and were completed only in
October of that y e a r . The Nikolaev plant was finally closed, while the
Shostka plant received an o r d e r f o r 6700 rocket f l a r e s to be manufactured
during 1911. 82
Experimental r e s e a r c h on rocket f l a r e s continued in the period preceding
the F i r s t World War. The experiments conducted by D. V. Sazanov, f o r m e r
a s s i s t a n t to the Head of the Nikolaev Rocket Plant, and V. I. Ennatskii,
Secretary of the Artillery Committee, a r e of particular interest.
Sazanov began t o work on rocket f l a r e s in 1907. After pointing out the
shortcomings of the c u r r e n t design, which in his opinion w e r e summarized
by the impossibility of making the rocket tail and the exhaust orifices in
the b a s e plate s t r i c t l y s y m m e t r i c a l about the rocket axis, Sazanov proposed
a radical departure from such a design, substituting for the t a i l an elongated
casing with dimensions to be chosen s o a s not t o a l t e r the weight of the
rocket.
This too will readily be recognized a s a version of Andreev's proposal,
but again without any reference t o his work. However, it is not known
whether Sazanov had some opportunity t o become acquainted with Andreev's
design, or simply developed it independently.

148

.. . . .. ...-
.
 At the s a m e time Sazanov put forward another type of rocket without
b a s e plate o r tail, which featured, in addition to the elongated casing,
gradual change in the diameter of the ignition channeLE4 By an appropriate
choice of diameter for different sections of the ignition channel, Sazanov
expected t o obtain the maximum possible range f o r his design and the
rocket propellants then available.
The Artillery Committee, a f t e r consideration of Sazanov's proposal,
thought i t worthwhile to t e s t his rockets, commenting, "Without a base
plate, which impedes the flow of gases out of the casing and has o r i f i c e s
of limited a r e a f o r their passage, i t will in all probability be possible
t o i n c r e a s e somewhat the length of the channel, thereby increasing the
gas p r e s s u r e in the channel, and giving the rocket g r e a t e r velocity and
accuracy in flight. ' I E 5
The experiments, however, could be begun only in 1909, shortly a f t e r
it was decided t o shut down the Nikolaev Rocket Plant. T h e rockets
actually tested differed substantially from those originally put forward
by Sazanov.
The rockets tested in 1909 (Figure 37), 86 consisted of a metal ( s t e e l
or iron) casing, to which was attached a cap containing an incendiary
compound and two l a t e r a l wooden tails. At one end the casing was closed
off by a metal disk with a depression into which the c a p c o u l d be screwed.
An a p e r t u r e f o r a time-fuse was left in the center of the disk. Two p a i r s
of metal clamps s e r v e d to couple thz tails to the casing.

FIGURE 37. Rocker designed by D. V. Sazanov.

A s Major-General Rudakov, a s s i s t a n t to the Head of the Shostka

Gunpowder Plant, l a t e r observed, the features of Sazanov's rocket
design w e r e the following:
"1) The absence of a base plate,
" 2 ) a long, narrow cap f o r luminous pellets,
"3) two tails, placed along the two g e n e r a t r i c e s of the casing, r a t h e r
than one, located along an extension of the rocket axis,
"4) chalk and sulfur a r e not r a m m e d in,
"5) a time-fuse ready for u s e is s c r e w e d into the rocket plug,
"6) a cap, a l s o completely finished and equipped with pellets, is
screwed into the s a m e plug.
T h e experiments w e r e conducted in April 1909, a t the Ochakov proving
ground. Altogether 6 rockets w e r e launched, and ranges of 2100 to 2500 m
w e r e achieved, with l a t e r a l deviations of from 0 to 200m.88
In addition, Sazanov conducted stand t e s t s of rockets in which the length
of the ignition channel had been i n c r e a s e d to 39", while the diameter

I 49
 r e m a i n e d a t I", replacing the propellant by c o m p r e s s e d black powder.
In neither case did a b u r s t c a s i n g occur, s o that Sazanov had a c a s e f o r
proposing the introduction of these changes into the rocket f l a r e s of his
design.
While developing rockets f o r purposes of illumination, Sazanov a l s o
devoted thought t o the application of his rockets a s m i l i t a r y projectiles.
He noted that i f the c a p with 20 pounds of incendiary mixture (measuring
4 5/8 by 2 1 inches) w e r e to be replaced by a cylindrical pointed m i s s i l e
weighing 10 pounds, and m e a s u r i n g 3 l/8 by 1 1 l / 2 inches, the range of the
rocket would rise f r o m 3 t o 5 v e r s t s [3500 t o 5800 yd], and it would be
suitable f o r the bombardment of f o r t r e s s e s , camps, villages, and other
m o r e o r less s i z e a b l e a r e a s . 8 9
T h e Artillery Committee, a f t e r cohsideration of the experiments on
Sazonov's r o c k e t s (with lengthened casing, without b a s e plate, and with
two l a t e r a l wooden tails), concluded that i t would be worthwhile t o
continue the experiments, since the p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s had been
satisfactory. "The range was g r e a t e r than that of luminous rockets currently
in use, flight a c c u r a c y w a s reasonably well preserved, and the stationary
combustion of rockets with c o m p r e s s e d black powder gives s o m e indication
of i t s feasibility in place of weaker rocket propellants. "93
The A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l emphasized the particular desirability
of replacing the rocket propellant by c o m p r e s s e d black powder in view of
the proposed t r a n s f e r of rocket production to the Shostka Gunpowder
Plant, s i n c e it would r e l e a s e the plant from the need to p r e p a r e s p e c i a l
rocket propellant when standard smoky powder could be used. It was there-
f o r e decided t o r e s u m e the experiments a t the Shostka, r a t h e r than the
Nikolaev plant, but only a f t e r rocket production had been properly launched
at the f o r m e r .
T h e rocket workshop of the Shostka Gunpowder Plant began production
in 1911, but the manufacture of the Sazanov rockets dragged on, and the
f i r s t 20 experimental rockets w e r e r e a d y only by 1913.
The r e s u l t s of the t e s t s w e r e completely unsatisfactory; of seven
rockets, only one attained a range of n e a r 2.5 km, while in a l l the other
c a s e s the casings b u r s t due to excessively high gas p r e s s u r e . 91 F u r t h e r
t e s t s of the series of rockets produced a t the Shostka plant were t h e r e -
f o r e abandoned.
T h e professionals p r e s e n t a t these experiments attributed the b u r s t
casings t o the g r e a t difference in the properties of the powder manufactured
i n the Shostka Gunpowder Plant and that of the Nikolaev Rocket Plant.
Major-General Rudakov, a s s i s t e d t o the Head of the Shostka Plant,
r e p o r t e d i t s powder t o be half again as powerful a s that of the Nikolaev
plant. 92
I t was t h e r e f o r e decided, despite the patently unsatisfactory outcome
of the f i r s t tests, t o continue experimentation on Sazanov's rockets a f t e r
approving a different rocket propellant and making s o m e alteration in the
dimensions of the ignition channel. 93 The m a t t e r dragged on, however.
until the beginning of World W a r I.
Ennatskii, who, as noted above, had been s e n t t o Nikolaev in 1907 t o
participate in the t e s t s of P o m o r t s e v ' s rockets, began t o work on rocket
f l a r e s a t a l m o s t the s a m e t i m e a s Sazanov. Analysis of the 1907 t e s t s
brought Ennatskii t o the conclusion that P o m o r t s e v s t a b i l i z e r s would not

150
l e a d t o development of a s a t i s f a c t o r y design f o r r o c k e t f l a r e s in t h e n e a r
fugure, and he t h e r e f o r e urged f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s a t stabilizing r o c k e t s by
making them r o t a t e .
"It would s e e m possible, I t he wrote in September 1907, "to m a k e a r o c k e t
fly s t r a i g h t by making one of i t s components r o t a t e - a s p e c i a l wing (like a
paddle wheel on boats), fastened t o the casing. T h i s wing would b e m a d e t o
r o t a t e n e i t h e r by a i r r e s i s t a n c e , nor by the g a s e s giving the r o c k e t i t s
t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion, but by e i t h e r an a p p r o p r i a t e modification of the s t a n d
or, m o r e c o r r e c t l y , b y m e a n s of w o r k s t o r e d e a r l i e r (for example, by
winding a spring), which is r e l e a s e d by a s p e c i a l catch on the stand a t the
moment the r o c k e t is launched. 'I ~4
Since he realized, however, that the introduction of s e r i o u s a l t e r a t i o n s
in rocket design would r e q u i r e considerable time, and wished t o produce
well-functioning r o c k e t f l a r e s a s soon a s possible, Ennatskii a t f i r s t
l i m i t e d himself to only the m o s t e s s e n t i a l changes. In September 1908 he
r e q u e s t e d f r o m the A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e p e r m i s s i o n to e x p e r i m e n t with
3" r o c k e t f I a r e s of somewhat modified design. 95
Ennatskii proposed to r e t a i n the e s s e n t i a l s of the accepted R u s s i a n
design f o r r o c k e t f l a r e s , i. e., t h e i r m a j o r dimensions and o v e r a l l shape,
m e a n s of stabilization, propellant m i x t u r e , f i l l density, dimensions and
n u m b e r of o r i f i c e s in the b a s e plate, introducing only the following slight
changes:
"1) a ) D e c r e a s e the d i a m e t e r of the c a p and m a k e i t s c o v e r ogival in
shape;
b ) i n s t a l l a m e a n s of filling the c a p with s m a l l pellets.
" 2 ) Adapt the wooden tail to the modified rocket.
"3) Give the ignition channel different, m o r e efficient dimensions. g6
Ennatskii expected by t h e s e changes to obtain an i n c r e a s e in r a n g e t o
two v e r s t s [2350yd]. a s well a s improved a c c u r a c y . T h e p r e l i m i n a r y
e x p e r i m e n t s , p e r f o r m e d between June and August 1 9 1 0 a t the Main
A r t i l l e r y P r o v i n g Ground, with r o c k e t s t e r m e d Type N o . 2, confirmed
his e s t i m a t e s , and the Shostka P l a n t was o r d e r e d t o build 100 Ennatskii
r o c k e t s of 2 km range f o r the conduct of f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s . 97
At the s a m e t i m e the A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e voiced the d e s i r a b i l i t y of a
r o c k e t design f o r illumination a t both s m a l l and g r e a t d i s t a n c e s , In
D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 1 Ennatskii accordingly p r e s e n t e d designs f o r t h r e e types
of r o c k e t s designed for r a n g e s of 2 . 5 km (Type l), 3.5 km (Type 3), and
above 5 km (Type 4). '" In this instance too, however, construction of the
e x p e r i m e n t a l r o c k e t s proceeded a t a s n a i l ' s pace and a c c o r d i n g to s o m e
accounts w a s not finished b e f o r e 1 9 1 6 . 99
It is of i n t e r e s t that not long b e f o r e the F i r s t World W a r a n a t t e m p t w a s
made a t the Shostka Gunpowder Plant t o find c r i t e r i a f o r evaluating
r o c k e t s of different designs. M a j o r - G e n e r a l F. N . Rudakov suggested using
a s an index a so-called design coefficient, by which he m e a n t the r a t i o of
the useful w o r k (which he gave a s the product of payload weight and flight
r a n g e ) t o the weight of the propulsive load. T h e design coefficient w a s thus
d e t e r m i n e d by the f o r m u l a

151
where R is the design coefficient of the rocket,
C is the payload weight,
S is the range of the rocket,
D is the weight of the propulsive load, and
P is the total weight of the rocket.
Rudakov made this relatively simple formula the b a s i s of a comparison
of standard 3'' rocket f l a r e s with Sazanov and Ennatskii rockets (Table 23), loo

TABLE 28. Comparative data on different rocket flares

Standard Rocket flare Rocket flare

3" rocket designed designed
flare by Ennatskii by Sazanov

Payload (illuminating compound)

in kg . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 4.1 6.6
. . . . . .
Propulsive load in kg 10.1 9.4 15.3
incorporating:
rocket propellant . . . . . . 3.9 3.8 7.1
empty casing . . . . . . . 2.6 2.6 4.2
sulfur . . . . . . . . . . 0.6 0.9 -
c a p (empty) . . . . . . . . 1.4 1.1 1.6
rocket tail . . . . . . . . 1.6 1.0 2.4
Range in m . . . . . . . . . 1214 2130 2350
Useful work in kg-m . . . . . . 1192 8733 15510
Design coefficient . . . . . . . 705.1 929.1 1013.1

Not e . The measures in the table have been converted to the metric system.

and concluded that Sazanov's rockets had the b e s t design coefficient,

followed by Ennatskii's, while the standard rockets had the poorest.
A glance a t Rudakov's formula shows that he incorporated in the
propulsive load not only the fuel (rocket propellant), but a l s o a l l of the
rocket's s t r u c t u r a l elements. It was therefore essentially the total
s t a r t i n g weight of the rocket, excepting only the payload. This approach
aroused the objections of the Artillery Committee's representatives, who
believed that the useful work should m o r e properly be r e f e r r e d not t o the
total weight of the rocket, but only to that of the rocket propellant. lol
Furthermore, it was pointed out that Rudakov's c r i t e r i o n neglected such
factors a s flight accuracy and the efficiency of the payload (in the case of
rocket flares, for instance, the brightness of the illumination).
Unfortunately Rudakov's idea of the comparative evaluation of rockets
of differing design received no further attention, and a t the period in
question no satisfactory c r i t e r i a for the evaluation of rockets w e r e developed.
F r o m the above it is c l e a r that before World War I no solution was found
to the problem of building satisfactorily functioning, reliable rocket f l a r e s .
Once the w a r had begun, however, the need for such rockets r o s e sharply.
The Shostka Gunpowder Plant was pressed to quadruple its daily
production of f l a r e s from 50 t o 200 rockets. lo2 During 1915 the plant's
rocket workshop was greatly expanded, other buildings w e r e fitted out,
and a new mechanical plant was installed.

I52

. . . -. .................
4
a
0,

d
In August 1915 t h e Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration informed the C e n t r a l
C o m m i t t e e of W a r I n d u s t r i e s that the a r m y r e q u i r e d 10,000 r o c k e t f l a r e s
p e r month. lo3 T h e Mechanical Section of the C o m m i t t e e thereupon p r e p a r e d
t o place an o r d e r f o r 150,000 r o c k e t s ( f r o m October 1915 to D e c e m b e r 1916).
Since the production of r o c k e t c a s i n g s r e m a i n e d one of t h e g r e a t e s t
bottlenecks and lagged f a r behind front-line needs, slowing down r o c k e t
production, it w a s decided t o o r d e r 50,000 additional c a s i n g s f r o m the Kiev
A r s e n a l , lo4and a f u r t h e r 8000 f r o m the United Siberian Rolling M i l l s . lo5
Despite t h e i r wide application, t h e r o c k e t f l a r e s produced continued to be
of low quality, and this a t t r a c t e d t h e attention of many c o m m a n d e r s of the
A r m y in the Field. In A p r i l 1915, f o r example, Lieutenant-General E . A.
Kolyankovskii, C o m m a n d e r of the 15th A r m y C o r p s , mentioned the following
deficiencies of t h e r o c k e t f l a r e s i n c u r r e n t u s e :
"1) In leaving the s t a n d t h e r o c k e t t r a i l s a s t r i p of fire 15 s a g e n e s
[35 yd] in length and about 8 v e r s h o k [I4 in] in d i a m e t e r , giving the enemy
a n a c c u r a t e indication of the s t a n d ' s location.
"2) T h e t e r r i b l e noise and m a s s e s of s m o k e produced by the launching
eases the e n e m y ' s orientation and a i m i n g of h i s ordnance.
"3) S h o r t range.
"4) Inadequate light and brief duration of illumination (about 15 s e c ) . ''lfl6
Ensign Kucherov of the Household Combat Battalion a l s o d i s c u s s e d the
s e r i o u s defects of r o c k e t f l a r e s in a w r i t t e n r e p o r t on the u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
methods of illumination being used by the A r m y in the Field, which he
submitted to the Department of Gunpowder and Explosives in October,
1915. lo7
In that y e a r the A r t i l l e r y Committee, considering the question on methods
of illumination, pointed out that despite the f a m i l i a r defects of r o c k e t s
l i s t e d i n Lieutenant-General Kolyankovskii's r e p o r t , r o c k e t f l a r e s w e r e
still widely u s e d b e c a u s e of t h e i r lightness and mobility, and t h e i r
s i m p l i c i t y by c o m p a r i s o n with other m e a n s of illumination, s u c h a s s e a r c h -
lights and luminous p r o j e c t i l e s .
While r o c k e t s w e r e being used f o r l o c a l illumination in R u s s i a , a t t e m p t s
w e r e a l s o being m a d e to apply them for o t h e r purposes. T h e m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s of Captain Budevskii of the Bulgarian S e r v i c e w e r e t e s t e d in
P e t e r s b e r g i n 1913, though without s u c c e s s . l o g
In August of the s a m e y e a r t h e Admiralty r e q u e s t e d the Chief A r t i l l e r y
Administration t o give the Shostka Gunpowder P l a n t a n o r d e r f o r 50
3" r e s c u e rockets."" In September 1 9 1 3 t h i s o r d e r w a s i n c r e a s e d t o
300 r o c k e t s , and in J a n u a r y 1914 i t w a s doubled again. '11
In F e b r u a r y 1915 an o r d e r f o r 20,000 3" and 4'' r o c k e t s of the s a m e
type a s f l a r e s , but without t h e luminous h e a d s , a r r i v e d f r o m t h e naval
battalions of the A r m y in t h e Field. T h e s e r o c k e t s w e r e t o b e used t o
bombard w i r e entanglements with g r a p n e l , '12
During t h e F i r s t World War many p e r s o n s and organizations in R u s s i a
worked t o i m p r o v e rocket flares. In September 1915 M a j o r - G e n e r a l E . B.
Pokhvisnev, i n c h a r g e of a r t i l l e r y supplies f o r t h e n o r t h e r n front, r e p o r t e d
to the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration that t h e Fifth A r m y had t e s t e d r o c k e t
flares manufactured i n P e t r o g r a d i n t h e p r i v a t e l a b o r a t o r y of A. P.
Serebryakov. The r e p o r t e m p h a s i z e d that "the r e s u l t s obtained w e r e
excellent: s i m p l i c i t y of handling, duration of combustion 1 - 2 m i n u t e s ,
c o n s i d e r a b l e a r e a illuminated.

153
 Also engaged i n the creation of new methods of illumination w e r e M a j o r -
G e n e r a l Helfreich, Captain Likhonin, Junior Captain A r t e m ' e v , Second
Lieutenant Makhonin, the War Industries Committees of Moscow, Kiev,
and Khar'kov, t h e T r o i t s k i i Plant, the Vaulin Plant, etc.'14
In considering t h e i r work, however, it m u s t be borne i n mind that i n
t h e s e y e a r s illuminating projectiles which did not work on a r e a c t i o n
principle w e r e a l s o often t e r m e d r o c k e t s . In p a r t i c u l a r , the so-called
hand-rockets, which w e r e shot f r o m a s p e c i a l pistol or rifle and w e r e
essentially illuminating c a r t r i d g e s , achieved widespread u s e .
The m o s t important rocket flare designs of this period are those of
Junior Captain V. A . A r t e m ' e v and Lieutenant I. I. Makhonin.
Vladimir Andreevich A r t e m ' e v began work on rocket flares before the
F i r s t World War, when h e was stationed a t the f o r t r e s s of B r e s t - L i t o v s k ,
During the y e a r s 1915 and 1916 A r t e m l e v introduced a number of
improvements i n the design of 3 " rocket flares. He proposed t o r e p l a c e
the pellets by parachute flares with aluminum powder, which would greatly
i n c r e a s e the duration of the illumination, a n important c r i t e r i o n in the
evaluation of r o c k e t s .
At t h e beginning of 1916, I. I. Makhonin, Second Lieutenant of the
Engineers ,, proposed an "illuminating self -propelled projectile, 'I which
consisted of "a rocket turbine with the capability of bombarding the enemy
not only with a luminous bomb, but a l s o with explosives, asphyxiating
g a s e s , and a smoky compound.
I\iiakhonin's design f o r his rocket projectile, however, took t h e f o r m of
a s i m p l e sketch unaccompanied by n u m e r i c a l data o r description. "As far
as c i n be judged, I ' r a n the J o u r n a l of Section VI of the A r t i l l e r y Committee,
"Second Lieutenant Makhonin's projectile c o n s i s t s of a m e t a l d r u m filled
with c e r t a i n substances, which m u s t b e propelled by five r o c k e t s spaced
i n a c i r c l e and r e s t i n g with t h e i r heads upon the drum."116
The t e s t s of Makhonin's projectile in M a r c h 1916 gave v e r y good r e s u l t s ,
which led the Field Inspector-General of A r t i l l e r y t o raise the question of
manufacturing 500,000 s u c h r o c k e t s . "To emphasize t h e importance of s u c h
a device as a rocket turbine-engine, 'I he r e m a r k e d , "I r e q u e s t that it be
given t h e widest possible u s e by placing on the turbine s o m e chemical
substance, in p a r t i c u l a r , a n explosive, and thus t r a n s f o r m i n g it into a u
a e r i a l mine, which, when used i n concentrated l a r g e n u m b e r s against a
given enemy t a r g e t , would prove t o b e a powerful and f e a r s o m e weapon. "'"
Repeated experiments performed in July 1916 d i d not, however, confirm
this p r o m i s e . A s noted in the A r t i l l e r y Committee Journal, "Not one rocket
worked p r o p e r l y and fulfilled i t s function. 1'118 The r e s u l t s of tests held in
September w e r e little b e t t e r ; a l m o s t half of the r o c k e t s launched refused t o
function. As a r e s u l t of t h e s e t e s t s the A r t i l l e r y Committee held that
Makhonin's rockets did not fulfill t h e i r purpose and w e r e t h e r e f o r e un-
suitable f o r purposes of illumination. '"
In October 1916 the Headquarters of the S u p r e m e Commander -in-Chief
held comparative t e s t s of various illuminating and r e s c u e devices, including
r o c k e t s . lZo Because of a disagreement between the A r t i l l e r y Committee and
t h e Office of the Inspector-General of A r t i l l e r y as t o how the r e s u l t s should
b e i n t e r p r e t e d , however, it was decided r e p e a t t h e t e s t s i n t h e s p r i n g of
1917. lZ1
The illuminating devices tested included 3 " rocket flares of f o r t r e s s
type, manufactured by the Shostka Gunpowder Plant and converted by

154

.. ..-_.
.. ...- .- . .. . .. . -.. ,, ,, ,
 Junior Captain A r t e m ' e v into parachute rockets, and Second Lieutenant
Makhonin's rocket m i s s i l e s .
It w a s originally planned a l s o t o t e s t Ennatskii's 3 " rocket f l a r e s , but
they did not a r r i v e in t i m e and were therefore excluded.
Artemlev's rockets received p r a i s e , but w e r e recognized as suitable only
f o r f o r t r e s s and s h o r e warfare. Their clumsiness, together with the fact
that they revealed the launching point, w e r e awkward t o t r a n s p o r t when
adjusted, and required a special stand, made them unfit f o r field and trench
warfare. lZ2
Makhonin's rocket m i s s i l e s c a m e in for s h a r p c r i t i c i s m as extremely
dangerous in operation and awkward. The common opinion of the delegates
f r o m the front was that they were altogether unsuitable as illuminating
projectiles, and should be rejected. lZ3
N o satisfactory design for rocket m i s s i l e s was thus developed before the
end o f w o r l d w a r I. T h i s was largely t o b e explainedby the f a c t t h a t b l a c k s m o k y
powder, a relatively low-calorie fuel, continued to be used as the energy
s o u r c e f o r rockets.
F u r t h e r improvement of solid propellant rockets required replacement
of the relatively weak forced compound by a b e t t e r and m o r e caloric fuel,
and efforts in this direction were begun a s e a r l y as 1915, when I. P. Grave,
an instructor in the Artillery School, proposed the u s e of a new rocket
propellant based on smokeless pyroxylin powder. lz4
The Artillery Committee considered this proposal, and although it m e t no
essential objections, i t was rejected because its development would have
required a long time, and the w a r seemedlikely to end soon, making it point-
l e s s to embark on an extended project.
After this refusal, in 1915 the inventor turned to the board of the
Shlissel'burg Gunpowder Plants of the Russian Society f o r the Manufacture
and Sale of Gunpowder, presenting his initial considerations as t o the
percentage composition of the new powder.
The board conducted a few preliminary experiments, but with un-
satisfactory r e s u l t s , and informed Grave that his mixture disintegrated
without giving a compact m a s s . They nonetheless allowed him to work
privately in the plant, placing a t his disposal the plant laboratory and
two a s s i s t a n t s .
The f i r s t stage of the experiments was concerned with obtaining a
compact and only slightly compressed m a s s by hot rolling a mixture of
two s o r t s of pyroxylin with stabilizing substances. A compact m a s s was
obtained in the f o r m of ribbons or even s t r i p s , and cut into pieces which
w e r e then fed into a preheated p r e s s equipped with a compound m a t r i x .
Leaving one upper input opening in the p r e s s , Grave obtained the gunpowder
m a s s in the f o r m of a b a r 70" in diameter, which was then cut by hand
into cylindrical pieces. The cylinders were dried briefly, and a f t e r 48 - 72
hours hardened to such an extent as t o p e r m i t machining on a lathe and
drilling of a c e n t r a l longitudinal channel. A liquid solvent was used t o s e a l
the drilled-out channel at one end with a thin disk of the s a m e m a s s .
On 14 J u l y 1916 (certificate No.746), Grave received a patent for:
"1) A military, o r luminous rocket, distinguished by the use, in place
of a forced compound, of a compressed cylinder of gelatinized nitrocellulose
with a n admixture of stabilizing substances.

I55
 "2) Themethod of manufacture of this rocket, which is distinguished by
the fact that the cylinder substituted f o r the forced compound has one or
m o r e longitudinal s e a l e d channels. I ' l Z 5
Replacement of forced rocket compound by smokeless (colloidal) powders
was threfore proposed as e a r l y as 1916, and experiments on the
manufacture of cylinders of compressed nitrocellulose w e r e actually
begun. However, neither in 1916 nor l a t e r did Grave succeed in
arranging experiments on the u s e of h i s cylinders in j e t m i s s i l e s . The
triumph of smokeless powder over forced rocket propellant thus remained
uncertain until the end of World War I.

NOTES

See Otchety o deistviyakh Voennogo ministerstva za 1889-1900 g.

(Reports on the Activities of the W a r Department f o r 1889-1900).
Sankt-Peterburg, 1891 -1902.
I v a n o v . Spuskanie r a k e t bez upotrebleniya spuska (Rocket Launching
without Use of an Incline). - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, NO. 3, Section I,
pp.313-315, 1902.
Alteration in the Design of Signal Rockets. Artillery Committee Journal
No. 400. - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 11, official section, p. 358, 1902.
Artillery Command No. 123, 1 2 September 1904. - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal,
No. 12, official section, p. 260, 1904.
Ibid., p. 261.
Artillery O r d e r No. 95, 1908. - Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 9, Official
Section, pp. 76-77, 1908.
' Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 6, Official Section, p. 25, 1904.
* F r o m the Report of Major-General Belyi, Artillery Commander of the
Vladivostok F o r t . - AIM Archive, Artillery Committee s t o r e , entry 3913,
file 585, s h e e t s 217-219.
The table is compiled f r o m the r e p o r t s made by the Commanders of
R u s s i a ' s various military regions t o the Chief Artillery Administration.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, entry 8, files 1370, 1373, 1376, 1378, 1379, 1382,
1384, 1391, 1392, 1393, 1396.
lo AIM Archive, Artillery Committee s t o r e , entry 39/4, file 417,
sheet 320.
l1 S o n k i n , M. Russkaya raketnaya a r t i l l e r i y a (Russian Rocket Artillery),
Moskva, 1952; S h u v a e v ,N . A. Istoriko-kriticheskii analiz razvitiya
osnov mekhaniki peremennoi m a s s y ( A Historico-Critical Analysis
of the Development of the Fundamental Mechanics of a Variable M a s s ) .
Dissertation.- Gorki State University, 1955; L y a p u n o v , B. V.
Raketa (Rockets). Moskva, 1960.

1107 I56
l2 It should b e noted that m o s t of t h e documents t o b e found in t h e a r c h i v e s
r e l a t i n g to t h e r e s e a r c h done on solid propellant r o c k e t s i n R u s s i a during
t h e early y e a r s of t h e 20th century w e r e discovered by V. A. Guseva-
T a r a s o v a (Postgraduate, MVTU), and figured l a r g e l y i n h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n
(1958).
l3 A n d r e e v . Boevye r a k e t y s trubchatym khvostom (Military Rockets
with Tubular Tails). - AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e ,
e n t r y 3913, file 246, s h e e t s 245-248.
l4 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3913, file 246,
s h e e t 246.
l5 Ibid., s h e e t 247.
l6 A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l , No. 630, 1 November 1891. - AIM
Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3913, file 246, s h e e t 240.
l' AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3 9 / 3 , file 246, s h e e t 248
obverse.
l8 Ibid., s h e e t 247.
Ibid.
2o Ibid., s h e e t s 251-251 obverse.
21 A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l , NO. 400, 24 J u l y 1902. - AIM Archive,
A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3 9 / 3 , file 349, s h e e t 299. See a l s o
A r t i l l e r i i s k i i Zhurnal, NO. 11, Official Section, p , 357, 1902.
22 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 349, s h e e t 275.
23 P o m o r t s e v , M. Opyty PO primeneniyu r a z n o i f o r m y poverkhnostei k
dvizhushchimsya r a k e t a m (Experiments on the Application of Surfaces
of Various Shapes t o Moving Rockets).- AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y
Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3 9 / 3 , file 349, s h e e t 372.
24 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee store, e n t r y 3913, file 349, sheet 376.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid., s h e e t s 373 o b v e r s e - 374.
27 P o m o r t s e v , loc. cit., s h e e t s 373 obverse-375.
Ibid., s h e e t 375.
29 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3 9 / 4 , file 417, s h e e t 295.
30 A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l , No. 62, 27 J a n u a r y 1906. - TsGVIA, s t o r e
504, e n t r y 8, file 1445, s h e e t 18.
31 Ibid., s h e e t s 18-18 obverse.
32 TsGVIA, store 504, e n t r y 8, file 1445, s h e e t 20.
33 F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e experiments s e e t h e A r t i l l e r y Committee
J o u r n a l , No. 357, 5 A p r i l 1908. - AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee
s t o r e , e n t r y 3913, file 585, s h e e t s 45-54.

157
9(
P o m o r t s e v ,M. Rezul'taty opytov s raketami novogo tipa,
proizvedennykh v 1907 godu v g. Nikolaeve i Ochakove (Results of
Experiments with Rockets of a New Type, Performed in 1907 at
Nikolaev and Ochakov). - AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store,
entry 3913, file 585, sheets 50171 -50171 obverse.
35 Artillery O r d e r No. 123, 1904, and Chief Artillery Administration
Circular NO. 47, 1905.
s6 These experiments are described in S. V. Karabchevskii's r e p o r t of
12 May 1909. AIM Archive, Artillery Committee s o t r e , entry 3913,
f i l e 585, sheets 277 obverse-279.
ST Ibid., sheet 279.
AIM Archive, Artillery Committee s t o r e , entry 3913, file 585,
sheets 404-405.
39 AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store, entry 3913, file 349, sheet 408.
40 b i d . , sheets 408-408 obverse.
41 Ibid., sheet 408 obverse.
42 P o m o r t s e v ,M. Proekt ustroistva rakety S O szhatym vozdukhom
(Design for a Compressed-Air Rocket). - AIM Archive, Artillery
Committee s t o r e , entry 3914, file 417, sheets 299-302.
* AIM Archive, Artillery Committee s t o r e , entry 3914, file 417, sheet 301.
44 Artillery Committee Journal, NO. 42, 18 January 1906. - AIM Archive,
Artillery Committee s t o r e , entry 3914, file 417, sheet 307.
45 Artillery Committee Journal, NO. 497, 30 May 1907. - Ibid., sheet 434.
46 Artillery Committee Journal, NO. 357, 5 April 1908. - AIM Archive,
Artillery Committee store, entry 3913, file 585, sheet 52.
47 b i d . , sheets 53 obverse -54.
48 AIM Archive, Artillery Committee s t o r e , entry 3913, file 585, sheets
54-54 obverse.
mid., sheets 406-417.
Ibid., sheet 279 obverse.
51
AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store, entry 39/3, file 585, sheets267
obverse -268.
52 Artillery Committee Journal, NO. 86, 27 January 1910. - AIM Archive,
Artillery Committee store, entry 3913, file 585, sheet 434 obverse.
* Ibid., sheet 436.
54 AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store, entry 3913, file 585, sheet 283.
56 Tekhnika vozdukhoplavaniya, No. 1, p. 9, 1912.
56 The contents of Ryabushinskii's article a r e described in the book:
R y n i n , N. A. Rakety i dvigateli pryamoi reaktsii (Rockets and
Ramjet Engines). Leningrad, 1929.

158

.. .. . .. , .
i 57 E x c e r p t e d f r o m t h e A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e Journal, No. 277, 1909.-
AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 704,
s h e e t 243.
G e r a s i m o v , N. Z h i r o s k o p i c h e s k a y a r a k e t a (A G y r o s c o p i c Rocket). -
AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 577, s h e e t 14.
59 Ibid.
6o F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r o c k e t ' s m e c h a n i s m , see Bid., s h e e t s 19 - 21.
61 G e r a s i m o v , N. Z h i r o s k o p i c h e s k a y a raketa.-AIM Archive, Artillery
C o m m i t t e e store, e n t r y 39/3, file 577, s h e e t 21.
62 Ibid., s h e e t 1 4 o b v e r s e .
63 Ibid., s h e e t 1 5 o b v e r s e .
Ibid.
65 J o u r n a l of t h e S p e c i a l C o n f e r e n c e of 1 a n d 11 S e p t e m b e r 1909.- AIM
Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e store, e n t r y 39/3. f i l e 577, s h e e t 44
obverse.
O6 Ibid., s h e e t s 44 o b v e r s e - 4 5 .
67 F r o m M i l i t a r y E n g i n e e r G e r a s i m o v ' s r e p o r t . - AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y
C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 577, s h e e t 138.
68 Ibid., s h e e t s 140-140 obverse.
69 J o u r n a l of the C o m m i t t e e ' s s e s s i o n of 3 J u l y 1912.- AIM Archive,
A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 577, s h e e t 348 o b v e r s e .
70 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 585,
s h e e t 441.
Ibid., s h e e t 442.
l2 Ibid.
73 R e p o r t of I.V.Volovskii, 19 A p r i l 1912.- AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y
C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 704, s h e e t s 203-207.
74
A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e J o u r n a l , No. 629, 3 J u n e 1912.- AIM Archive,
A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 704, s h e e t s 199-201.
75 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 704,
s h e e t 212.
76 D e s c r i p t i o n of the r o c k e t of i m p r o v e d type No. I1 and No. I11
(patent No. 52725). - AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e ,
e n t r y 39/3, file 704, s h e e t s 244, 245.
77 A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e J o u r n a l , No. 1254, 3 D e c e m b e r 1912.- AIM
Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 704, s h e e t s
241 - 243.
la F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d e s i g n of the r o c k e t b a t t e r y a n d r o c k e t
m i t r a i l l e u s e see AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e store, e n t r y 39/ 3,
f i l e 704, s h e e t s 251-252.

159
 79 Memorandum No. 464 of the Inspector of Gunpowder and Rocket Plants,
31 December 1905. TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1375, s h e e t 3.
Ibid., s h e e t 43.
E x c e r p t f r o m the W a r Council Journal, 20 November 1909. Ibid.,
s h e e t 137.
82 On this see TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1375, s h e e t 604.
83 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/4, file 417, s h e e t 185.
84 Ibid., s h e e t 188.
85 AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3914, file 417, s h e e t 188
obverse.
TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1445, s h e e t s 246 obverse-247.
a7 Ibid., file 1473, s h e e t 10 obverse.
88 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1445, s h e e t s 245 obverse-248.
Ibid., s h e e t 244 obverse.
Ibid., s h e e t 253.
91 R e p o r t on testing of Major-General Sazanov's r o c k e t s . TsGVIA, s t o r e
504, e n t r y 8, file 1473, s h e e t 11.
92 Ibid., s h e e t 1 2 .
93 Copy of A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e Notice, 18 June 1914. Ibid., s h e e t 4.
94 F r o m J u n i o r Captain Ennatskii's r e p o r t . AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y
Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 39/3, file 585, s h e e t 50/48.
95 Report of G u a r d s Captain Ennatskii. - AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y
Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3913, file 585, s h e e t s 143-147.
96 A r t i l l e r y Committee Journal, No. 83, 24 January 1909. - AIM Archive,
A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y 3913, file 585, s h e e t 148 obverse.
81 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1445, s h e e t 266.
E n n a t s k i i ' s Report. - AIM Archive, A r t i l l e r y Committee s t o r e , e n t r y
3913, file 704, s h e e t s 126-133.
99 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 11, file 331, s h e e t 2
loo TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1473, s h e e t 13.
lol Ibid., s h e e t 1 2 .
lo2 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1395, s h e e t s 3, 26, 52.
lo3 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 11, file 314, s h e e t s 6, 7.
*04 TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1395, s h e e t 10.
lf15 Ibid., s h e e t s 5-6.
loti TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, file 1395, s h e e t 13.

160
 Tbid., f i l e 1396, s h e e t s 1-2.
lo3 A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e J o u r n a l , S e c t i o n 11, No. 1229, 27 J u l y 1 9 1 5 .
T s G V I A , store 504, e n t r y 8, file 1395, s h e e t 1 5 8 .
log AIM A r c h i v e , A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e s t o r e , e n t r y 3 9 / 3 , f i l e 795,
s h e e t s 15-19, 8 8 - 8 9 , 92-100, 108-110, 114-115,
ll@ T s G V I A , s t o r e 504, e n t r y 8, f i l e 1390, s h e e t 1.
'11 Ibid., s h e e t s 3, 20.
Ibid., f i l e 1395, s h e e t 1 .
T s G V I A , s t o r e 504, e n t r y 11, f i l e 316, s h e e t 1.
'14 For m o r e d e t a i l s of t h e s e r o c k e t s , see t h e p a p e r s of S e c t i o n VI of
t h e A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e . TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 7, f i l e 687, a n d
a l s o e n t r y 11, f i l e s 314, 324, 326, 330, 332, a n d 345.
T s G V I A , store 504, e n t r y 11, f i l e 321, s h e e t 29.
Ibid., s h e e t 40.
117 Ibid., s h e e t 29 o b v e r s e .
11* J o u r n a l of S e c t i o n V I of t h e A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e , No. 2 9 8 0 , 31 J u l y
1916.-TsGVIA, s t o r e 504, e n t r y 11, f i l e 321, s h e e t 8 3 .
'19 J o u r n a l of S e c t i o n VI of t h e A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e , N o . 3559,
2 7 S e p t e m b e r 1916; Ibid., s h e e t 1 0 4 o b v e r s e .
l Z oT s G V I A , s t o r e 504, e n t r y 11, file 321, s h e e t s 1 1 3 - 1 1 6 .
T s G V I A , s t o r e 506, e n t r y 2, f i l e 370, s h e e t s 1 - 1 0 .
l Z 2TsGVIA, s t o r e 506, e n t r y 2, f i l e 370, s h e e t 6.
l Z 3 Ibid., s h e e t 6 obverse.
l z 4 The i n f o r m a t i o n o n G r a v e ' s w o r k is t a k e n p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e a r t i c l e of
S e r e b r y a k o v ,M. E. O b o t e c h e s t v e n n o m p r i o r i t e t e v o b l a s t i a r t i l l e r i i
( R u s s i a n P r e - e m i n e n c e in A r t i l l e r y ) . - I z v e s t i y a Voennoi a r t i l l e r i i s k o i
i n z h e n e r n o i a k a d e m i i i m e n i D z e r z h i n s k o g o , Vol. 91, pp. 25 -29.
M o s k v a , 1955.
lZ5 S e r e b r y a k o v , M . E . op. c i t . , p . 2 6 .

161
CONCLUSION

Over a considerable s t r e t c h of t i m e - f r o m the end of the 18th century

t o the G r e a t October Revolution - Russian designers and r e s e a r c h e r s
contributed a g r e a t deal t o the improvement of solid propellant rockets.
However, Russian r o c k e t r y did not follow a smooth, even path of
evolutionary development. During its 250 y e a r s of history a r i s e and fall
of interest in various types of rockets, and periods characterized by s h a r p
c r i t i c i s m of rocket weapons occurred m o r e than once.
Despite the repeated attempts of scientific historians t o a s c r i b e the
beginnings of rockets in Russia to the 14th, 12th, and even 10th centuries,
t h e i r assumptions cannot be substantiated either analytically or by
documents, and must be regarded as highly unreliable. Documents indicate
that rockets were f i r s t used in Russia during the second half of the 17th
century.
At f i r s t they were used only to c r e a t e fireworks and illuminations for
entertainment. Only during the f i r s t quarter of the 18th century d i d the
a r m y come to adopt them a s a means of giving signals.
Pyrotechnic rockets came into widespread u s e in Russia a t the turn of the
18th century, thanks mainly to the activity of P e t e r I. During h i s reign new
fireworks laboratories w e r e built, a number of foreign works on a r t i l l e r y
and pyrotechnics were translated into Russian, national c a d r e s of pyrotechnic
experts began t o be formed, and signal rockets were f i r s t used by the a r m y .
During the period dealt with in this book solid propellant rockets under-
went significant changes. T h e r o c k e t s of the 17th and 18th centuries were
quite primitive f r o m an engineering point of view, and their production
depended to a g r e a t extent on the experience and s k i l l of the m a s t e r s . They
consisted of a cardboard casing containing a payload (pyrotechnic compounds)
and a rocket chamber, which served simultaneously as r e s e r v o i r f o r the
rocket propellant and combustion chamber. To stabilize the rockets a long
wooden b a r (the tail), which absorbed the p r e s s u r e of the countercurrent of
air and maintained a c e r t a i n position of the longitudinal axis, was attached
t o the casing.
The rocket experts of this period devoted p a r t i c u l a r attention to the
composition of the rocket mixture, since they believed the quality of
pyrotechnic rockets t o depend p r i m a r i l y on its c o r r e c t choice. A g r e a t
many formulas, all basically consisting of nitrates, sulfur, and carbon,
taken i n different proportions, w e r e worked out - all empirically.
The idea that choice of the design p a r a m e t e r s , as well as of the rocket
mixture, affected the quality of rockets became established only at the end
of the 18th century, and it was reflected in the works on a r t i l l e r y and
pyrotechnics published a t that period.
By t h e beginning of the 19th century Russian pyrotechnicians had
accumulated a good deal of experience in the production and u s e of

162

... - -. .. .. .I I
. .
.
I -A
.
pyrotechnic r o c k e t s . Efficient r a t i o s and dimensions f o r the r o c k e t c a s i n g
and t a i l had been worked out, composition of t h e r o c k e t m i x t u r e had been
determined and i t s f i l l density regulated, and the significance of the
dimensions and shape of t h e ignition channel w e r e understood. The books
on t h e a r t of pyrotechnics published e a r l y in t h e 19th century even included
d e s c r i p t i o n s of multistage and composite r o c k e t s (rocket c l u s t e r s ) .
All of t h e r e s u l t s obtained, however, w e r e obtained e m p i r i c a l l y and
w e r e based not on t h e o r e t i c a l , but on exclusively e x p e r i m e n t a l
considerations. By the beginning of t h e 19th century t h e r e was s t i l l n o
t h e o r y of explosive compounds, r o c k e t design, o r r o c k e t flight.
T h i s was t o be explained t o a l a r g e extent by t h e f a c t that up t o t h e end
of the 18th century, in R u s s i a a s in o t h e r European c o u n t r i e s , r o c k e t s
w e r e used exclusively f o r f i r e w o r k s displays and t o give signals a t night.
A s a r e s u l t t h e demands m a d e upon t h e m w e r e not v e r y g r e a t and w e r e
s a t i s f i e d by t h e numerous e x p e r i m e n t s of t h e pyrotechnicians, without any
g r e a t need f o r a fundamental t h e o r y of r o c k e t r y being felt.
At t h e end of the 18th c e n t u r y i n India, however, and a f t e r t h e t u r n of t h e
19th c e n t u r y i n Europe r o c k e t s again acquired m i l i t a r y significance, and in
R u s s i a the question of producing m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s a r o s e , t o occupy t h e
M i l i t a r y Study Committee f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s . The first s u c c e s s f u l
R u s s i a n designs f o r m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e produced by Kartmazov and
Zasyadko, working independently, in the y e a r s 1814 -1817, but achieved
no widespread s u c c e s s .
The principal difference between t h e m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s of t h e f i r s t
q u a r t e r of the 19th century and the pyrotechnic r o c k e t s was in the composition
of t h e payload and the m a t e r i a l f r o m which the casings w e r e fabrjcated
(cardboard was replaced by m e t a l ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , while in pyrotechnic
r o c k e t s the pyrotechnic compound and the r o c k e t m i x t u r e w e r e both
enclosed i n t h e c a s i n g and constituted a whole f r o m the manufacturing
point of view, the m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s of t h e beginning of t h e 19th century w e r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c l e a r division between t h e r o c k e t casing and t h e warhead.
They w e r e s e p a r a t e p a r t s , manufactured s e p a r a t e l y , and joined only when
t h e r o c k e t was finally a s s e m b l e d .
A p r a c t i c a l solution to t h e p r o b l e m of m a s s production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s
i n R u s s i a and t h e i r introduction to r e g u l a r u s e in the a r m y was found only
during the second half of the 1820's. The f i r s t experiment in the m a s s e d u s e
of m i l i t a r y rockets o c c u r r e d during t h e R u s s o - T u r k i s h War of 1828 -1829,
when t h e Russian troops m a d e relatively g r e a t u s e of r o c k e t s a t Shumla and
a t the s i e g e s of Varna and S i l i s t r i a .
This m i l i t a r y experience showed the g r e a t potential of rocket weapons,
while i t a l s o demonstrated the poor quality of those then actually in u s e .
The r o c k e t s of t h e 1830's and 1840's suffered f r o m a number of s e r i o u s
defects, including relatively s h o r t r a n g e , inaccuracy, and w o r s t of a l l ,
unreliability in operation.
T h e s e y e a r s s a w t h e u s e of signal, incendiary, and m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s
supplemented by attempts to u s e r o c k e t s f o r t h e destruction of fortifications,
l o c a l illumination, and s u b m a r i n e a r m a m e n t . E x p e r i m e n t s undertaken f o r
t h e s e p u r p o s e s failed t o yield positive r e s u l t s .
Until the middle of the 1840's R u s s i a n r o c k e t engineering developed
v e r y slowly, and t h e poor quality of r o c k e t s impeded t h e i r widespread u s e .
Many of the c o r p s of a r m y c o m m a n d e r s took a d i m view of r o c k e t weapons
and sought t o prevent t h e m f r o m r e a c h i n g t h e t r o o p s . During t h e f o r t i e s ,

163
 however, this situation changed radically, The development of m i l i t a r y
activity in the Caucasus resulted in a s h a r p upswing of demnnd for m i l i t a r y
r o c k e t s . Such advantages of rockets a s their lightness, adaptability t o
firing without heavy ordnance, and r e a d y application in m a s s e d salvoes
c l e a r l y appeared during battles in mountainous t e r r a i n difficult of a c c e s s .
Although military r o c k e t s could not compete with a r t i l l e r y in range and
accuracy, they proved a v e r y successful complement t o i t .
The s t e e p i n c r e a s e in the production of military rockets made the
question of their quality even m o r e p r e s s i n g , and it became essential
t o improve their range and a c c u r a c y of firing, and even m o r e , t o make
them safe t o u s e .
Rocket weapons achieved their m o s t widespread u s e , in Russia as in
m o s t other European countries, about the middle of the 19th century, when
military rockets w e r e being produced in very great numbers and s e n t t o
almost all m i l i t a r y regions. They w e r e often used in military actions,
and in a number of instances special rocket battalions performed with
s u c c e s s . Sea-going ships began t o b e a r m e d with military r o c k e t s .
A g r e a t deal of work was done t o improve the design and manufacturing
techniques of m i l i t a r y rockets. During this period the P R Z group was
ably headed by K. I, Konstantinov, one of the g r e a t e s t exponents of the m i d -
19th century Russian a r t i l l e r y school, whose contribution t o the development
of Russian rocketry was enormous.
A s a l r e a d y noted, Konstantinov was one of the world's g r e a t e s t experts
on rocket production, had a thorough knowledge of the history of r o c k e t r y
and carefully followed the m o s t recent developments in foreign countries
such a s Austria, England, P r u s s i a , and F r a n c e , in o r d e r to make u s e of
all the advantages they presented. Konstantinov's work a l s o was widely
known outside Russia and influenced the development of rocketry through-
out the world.
Konstantinov introduced a number of significant improvements in the
design and manufacture of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s . Under his direction the
P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute was a l m o s t completely re-equipped, He a l s o
proposed a whole s e r i e s of m e a s u r e s designed to improve the quality
of military rockets and m a k e their production s a f e .
The adoption of these m e a s u r e s did bring about s o m e improvement
in the quality of Russian military rockets, with i n c r e a s e s in range,
accuracy, and life in s t o r a g e , while c a s e s of premnture explosion w e r e
almost entirely eliminated. However, no fundamental improvement in
the quality of rockets was attained a t PRZ. A s previously noted, the
disparity between the number and extent of Konstantinov's Drojects and
those actually realized i s striking.
By the end of the 1850's the reorganization of the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket
Institute was basically complete and such possibilities f o r the improvement
of military rockets a s existed in the Institute itself had been a l m o s t fully
exploited. Nonetheless, despite all the improvements introduced during
the preceding decade, the engineering plant of the Institute remained v e r y
poor.
Konstantinov's biggest project - t h e replacement of manual labor by
mechanized production - w a s not accomplished a t PRZ, where m o s t
operations continued t o be performed manually. A s before a mechanical
motor, of any s o r t whatsoever, was unavailable, and a l l the machines

164
 w e r e actuated by s h e e r m u s c l e power, which involved a considerable n u m b e r
of men. F u r t h e r improvement in m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s was impossible without
fundamental change in mqnufacturing techniques. The p r i m i t i v e production
techniques, i n which manual labor was predominant, had t o b e abandoned in
favor of automation, with a l l m a j o r p r o c e s s e s p e r f o r m e d by machine.
Konstantinov sought t o b r i n g t h i s about by designing a new r o c k e t institute
a t Nikolaev and o r d e r i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y plant f o r i t a b r o a d , However, the
construction of t h e Nikolaev Rocket Institute was r e p e a t e d l y interrupted
and was not completed before t h e beginning of t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s .
In addition t o m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s , pyrotechnic and s i g n a l r o c k e t s w e r e still
being produced i n R u s s i a at this period. During t h e second half of the 19th
century r o c k e t s a l s o c a m e t o be used f o r illumination and f o r throwing r e s c u e
l i n e s to ships in d i s t r e s s . The s a m e period s a w the first attempts to u s e
r o c k e t s a s a i r c r a f t engines.
The development of Russian r o c k e t r y up to t h e middle of the 19th century
was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e absence of any t h e o r e t i c a l principles of r o c k e t
design and production. The accumulation of e x p e r i m e n t a l data, without any
a t t e m p t at s e r i o u s scientific analysis of the f a c t o r s governing the p e r f o r m a n c e
and quality of r o c k e t s , was considered sufficient. The i m p r o v e m e n t s made
in the design of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w e r e generally based neither on t h e o r e t i c a l
n o r e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h , but r a t h e r on the intuition and guesswork of
individuals. Konstantinov was the f i r s t t o undertake a scientific approach
to the p r o b l e m s of r o c k e t design, and he laid the foundations of experimental
r o c k e t dynamics.
His e m p a h s i s on experimental r e s e a r c h was d e l i b e r a t e , f o r while
Konstantinov d i d not deny the need f o r "a m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y of r o c k e t
design and firing, I ' he r e g a r d e d experimentation as t h e principal m e a n s
f o r improvement of r o c k e t s .
This choice was a l s o t o b e explained by t h e complexity of t h e p r o c e s s e s
o c c u r r i n g inside a rocket, which w e r e difficult t o analyze. At t h e middle
of t h e 19th century s c i e n c e p o s s e s s e d no methods f o r t h e p r e c i s e
determination of s u c h f a c t o r s a s the t e m p e r a t u r e of the g a s e s , t h e i r p r e s s u r e ,
taking into account the continuous flow, the exhaust velocity of the combustion
products, etc.
Experimentation was t h e r e f o r e the s i m p l e s t and m o s t n a t u r a l method.
During the 1840's and 1850's P R Z conducted a g r e a t many e x p e r i m e n t s t o
d e t e r m i n e the significance of the composition and fill density of the rocket
m i x t u r e , dimensions and shape of the ignition channel, number and c r o s s -
sectional a r e a of the exhaust o r i f i c e s , e t c .
By t h e end of the 1850's the r e s e a r c h e r s had quite a good idea of t h e
qualitative i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e f a c t o r s , Konstantinov t r i e d t o u s e
h i s extensive experimental data to d e t e r m i n e the optimum p a r a m e t e r s of
m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s , but was impeded in his attempt by the u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i s , and t h e l a c k of p r e c i s e m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , which
m a d e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e exact n u m e r i c a l relationships.
Konstantinov died in 1871. The v a s t body of e x p e r i m e n t a l data gathered
a t P R Z had no g r e a t scientific r e v e r b e r a t i o n s , and a t h e o r y of rocket motion
was not born before the end of t h e 19th century.
At t h e beginning of the s e v e n t i e s , when t h e Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t went
into operation, i t was a l r e a d y quite c l e a r that r o c k e t s running on black
s m o k y powder could compete with a r t i l l e r y p i e c e s neither in r a n g e nor i n
 firing accuracy. The development in a r t i l l e r y engineering which resulted
f r o m the s u c c e s s e s of metallurgy, chemistry and ballistics (steel casting,
rifled b a r r e l s , and smokeless powder), made rockets worthless a s weapons
and the l a s t third of the 19th century saw their retirement in Russia, just
a s in the other countries of Europe.
This s t e p marked the end of an e r a in the development of Russian
rocketry. Encompassing m o r e than sixty y e a r s , this period saw the r i s e ,
comparatively widespread dissemination, and rapid fall of rocket weapons,
and left a notable t r a c e in the history of Russian military engineering.
It was a l s o of great importance in the development of Russian rocket
theory and engineering, since i t saw the foundations of the design of solid
propellant rockets laid, the f i r s t attempts a t the creation of the new
science of experimental rocket dynamics, and the expression of a number
of ideas which would influence the course of r e s e a r c h in rocketry for many
years.
During the second half of the 19th century, repeated attempts were made
in Russia to power a i r c r a f t by means of gunpowder rockets. Several
original designs for solid propellant rocket engines, both f o r lighter- than-
a i r and heavier- than-air craft, w e r e proposed.
Inventors w e r e attracted by the apparent simplicity of using jet engines
t o achieve flight. However, most of them did no more than present the
plan of an engine, unaccompanied by the details of its construction or of the
p r e c i s e amount of energy required for jet flight. Not one of these designs
was actualized during the period under consideration.
Even later, however, solid propellant rocket engines w e r e not used a s
independent aeroengines, because of their very brief operating time
(governed by the combustion time of gunpowder) and the difficulty involved
in regulating t h e i r thrust.
The r e t i r e m e n t of military rockets did not, however, signify the
termination of a l l rocket production. Signal rockets, r e s c u e rockets, and
pyrotechnic rockets continued to be produced in Russia into the 20th century.
The so-called luminous rockets achieved particularly widespread use during
this period in f o r t r e s s e s and siege- trains, and constituted an integral p a r t of
the Russian a r m y ' s means of illumination.
However, despite their widespread use, rocket f l a r e s w e r e s t i l l of poor
quality. At the beginning of the 20th century a number of r e s e a r c h e r s
sought to improve them, in particular, by increasing their range and
accuracy, and by prolonging the duration of the illumination. Some
encouraging r e s u l t s were obtained, but fully satisfactory rockets were
not developed before the end of World War I.
Repeated efforts w e r e made to revive military rockets in spite of their
retirement. These efforts w e r e redoubled in the y e a r s immediately
preceding World War I. The s u c c e s s e s in the development of aeronautics
and aviation gave every b a s i s for assuming that the a i r f o r c e would play a
significant role in the next w a r . Efforts were therefore made t o c r e a t e
a new type of anti-aircraft rocket, concurrently with work on rockets f o r
field warfare.
Examination of the experiments conducted by Russian r e s e a r c h e r s a t the
beginning of the 20th century shows that they w e r e confronted by essentially
the s a m e basic problems faced by their predecessors in the middle of the
preceding century: i n c r e a s e of range, and close grouping of rocket f i r e .

166
 However, the intervening p r o g r e s s in the v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s of engineering
m a d e possible a much m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y resolution of long- standing
p r o b l e m s . At the beginning of the 20th century rocket engineering was able
t o profit f r o m s e a m l e s s s t e e l c a s i n g s and improved m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s .
T h e m e a n s f o r stabilizing r o c k e t s w e r e a l s o improved, Most designs
a t the beginning of the 20th century r e j e c t e d the wooden tail in favor of
s u p e r i o r devices, s u c h a s stabilizing s u r f a c e s , o r a gyroscope.
T h e l e v e l of scientific knowledge among rocket e n g i n e e r s a t this period
w a s s t i l l low. Most of the R u s s i a n s engaged in the construction of new
types of solid propellant r o c k e t s w e r e not acquainted with the t h e o r e t i c a l
p a p e r s on j e t propulsion, and in s o m e c a s e s entertained naive and down-
r i g h t e r r o n e o u s i d e a s a s to the origin and c h a r a c t e r of r e a c t i v e force. T h e
r e s e a r c h e r s a l s o made no effort a t a t h e o r e t i c a l solution of s u c h p r o b l e m s
as t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the velocity and r a n g e of a rocket, and displayed
t o t a l l a c k of i n t e r e s t i n s u c h i d e a s a s the efficiency of a r o c k e t engine o r of
the r o c k e t a s a whole.
T h e fundamental drawback of a l l r o c k e t designs a t the beginning of the
20th century r e m a i n e d the u s e of s u c h a r e l a t i v e l y low-calory fuel a s black
s m o k y powder. T h i s delayed p r o g r e s s in r o c k e t r y and r e s u l t e d in the fact
that f r o m a t a c t i c a l and engineering point of view t h e specifications of most
r o c k e t s a t t h e t u r n of the 20th c e n t u r y differed only slightly f r o m those of
the r o c k e t s of 50 y e a r s before, designed by Konstantinov (they w e r e s t i l l
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e l a t i v e l y low range, considerable deviation, and p r e m a t u r e
explosion).
Before the end of World W a r I no m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s that could s u s t a i n
c o m p a r i s o n with rifled a r t i l l e r y w e r e built. T h e r e was a corresponding
l a c k of s a t i s f a c t o r i l y functioning r o c k e t f l a r e s .
T h e f u r t h e r improvement of solid propellant r o c k e t s demanded the
r e p l a c e m e n t of black s m o k y powder by b e t t e r propellants of higher
c a l o r i f i c value, b a s e d on s m o k e l e s s powder. T h i s too, however, was
achieved only after the end of World W a r I, when a new s t a g e in the
development of solid propellant r o c k e t s began.

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 APPENDICES

1 . DESCRIPTION O F THE FIREWORKS O F 1686;::

On the 20th day of J a n u a r y in the p r e s e n t 194th y e a r [ s i c ] , by d e c r e e of

t h e g r e a t T s a r P e t e r Alekseevich, Mighty P r i n c e and Absolute Sovereign
of All G r e a t e r and L e s s e r and White R u s s i a , the R u s s i a n e x p l o s i v e s m a s t e r
G r i g o r i i P r o k o f ' e v and h i s a s s i s t a n t s w e r e o r d e r e d t o c r e a t e a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t
by the shooting of f i r e w o r k s .
T h e town had 8 t o w e r s , and 100 a s c e n d i n g 2-ounce r o c k e t s on e a c h tower.
Twelve quarter-pound high-flying r o c k e t s w e r e a r r a n g e d about e a c h of
these towers.
In the cantonment w e r e 4 high-angle cannon, t o shoot wooden balls,
e a c h containing 1 0 0 ground r o c k e t s .
T h e r e w e r e 10 m a r q u e e s , each containing 8 0 2-ounce r o c k e t s .
Item, a s e m i c i r c l e containing 35 qL,arter-pound r o c k e t s .
Item, a wooden tub of w a t e r , 3 a r s h i n wide; in t h i s tub, a c o v e r and
f o u r wooden b a l l s , containing 2 5 0 2-ounce r o c k e t s .
Item, an octagonal wheel, with 8 l/Z-pound r o c k e t s .
Item, a c l u s t e r of 50 2-ounce r o c k e t s .
About this, 8 s m a l l tents, e a c h containing 30 2-ounce r o c k e t s .
Item, on the ground, a Catherine w h e e l with 250 2-ounce r o c k e t s .
Item, on the w a l l s r i n g i n g the e n t i r e town, 120 r o c k e t s , pounders,
l/Z-pounders, 1/4-pounders, and 2-ounce r o c k e t s .
Item, f o r the f i r i n g e n t e r t a i n m e n t itself: 2 l a n c e s , 2 poles, 2 s a b e r s ,
2 e a r t h e n w a r e pots, 2 cudgels, 6 ropes, 2 kites, 200 ground r o c k e t s ,
50 114-pound r o c k e t s .
Item, s u p p l i e s for the e n t e r t a i n m e n t : 1 0 pud of h a n d - c r e a m , 11/2 pud
refined s a l t p e t e r , 112 pud s u l f u r , 10 pounds oil, 50 a r s h i n medium canvas,
30 s h e e t s white iron, a pound of flour, a pud of black t a r , 2 pud s t a n d a r d
thick r o p e s , a 150-sagene r o p e f o r flying r o p e s and kites, a pud of r o l l e d
iron, 20 pud s t e e l , 1 pud lead, a s t e e l r a s p , 2 saws, a s m a n y n a i l s of
v a r i o u s types a s r e q u i r e d , 3 good a x e s , 5 wooden candlesticks, 50
11/2-sagene b a r s of firewood, chopped into 5 - v e r s h o k s e c t i o n s .
Item, of s u c h things a s a r e not n o r m a l l y found in the t r e a s u r i e s of
mighty l o r d s , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o buy: 5 pounds camphor, 10 pounds
turpentine, 5 pounds w i r e , 5 q u i r e s a r t i s t s ' paper, a r e a m of paper,
10 a r s h i n shiny c o l o r e d flax, 5 pounds cotton t h r e a d , 7 a r s h i n good c o l o r e d
flax, 7 a r s h i n thin canvas, 1 0 pounds i s i n g l a s s , 3 pounds turpentine,
1 0 pounds beeswax, 1 c h e t v e r i k wheat flour, 112 v e d r o linseed o i l , 3 pounds
d r y i n g oil, 10 pounds thin r o p e , 1 pud thick rope, a 150-sagene r o p e f o r
throwing, 112 pud l a r d , 5 pounds c r u s h e d tendons, 10 cowhides, 3 copper

* State Historical Museum, Department Of Written Source,, ?tor? 440, file 3 7 8 , sheets 9 -12.

168
frying-pans, an i r o n long-handled ladle, 3 sieves, 3 p a i r s s c i s s o r s , a l a r g e
tub, 200 tallow candles, 20 limewood jambs, 1 0 maplewood jambs, 2 r e a m s
grey paper. A l l these w e r e bought f o r the sum of 23 rubles, 26 altyn,
and 4 coppers [i.e., 23 rubles, 8 0 kopecks].

2. ROCKETS”

In military tactics rockets a r e depended upon for attacks upon

f o r t r e s s e s . When the batteries, both cannon and m o r t a r s , a r e a l l ready
for firing, since in launching his major attack the general wishes t o deliver
a powerful salvo against the f o r t r e s s , he has the chief battery r e l e a s e a
rocket as a signal.
Signal rockets in use range from one- t o six-pounders. The rocket takes
its caliber from the weight of lead i t contains. Here, f o r example, a r e the
dimensions of a 3-pound rocket. Compasses a r e used to make the rocket’s
caliber correspond to the dimensions of 3 pounds of lead, and the rocket‘s
length is made equal to 7 such calibers.
Now the rocket casing must be prepared and rolled. T h e f r a m e of a
paper rocket is t e r m e d the casing. After the caliber is chosen, it is
divided into 7 equal parts, 5 of which give the thickness of the r o l l e r o r
wood on which the paper f o r the casing is to be rolled, while the thickness
of the casing walls is taken as 117 caliber. The good heavy wrapping paper
is taken, cut along the sheet and t r a n s v e r s e l y to the rocket casing, and
rolled upon a r o l l e r , while the protruding ends a r e pasted together. After
rolling sufficiently to give the casing a diameter equal t o the caliber, it is
taken from t h e r o l l e r , and one end is stretched to form a neck. T h e ends
a r e then s o cut a s to make the length of the casing equal t o 7 calibers. The
ends a r e dipped into molten glue to e n s u r e that the paper does not t u r n up
during filling, and the casing is then ready.
The entire length of the casing should next be divided into three equal
parts, of which two a r e filled with [rocket] compound, while the third is
left for the powder, which i s strewn over the slag. The mold in which the
rocket is t o be filled with the compound is made next: s m a l l - c a l i b e r molds
a r e generally of wood, while b r a s s ones a r e c a s t for l a r g e sections. The
mold should have the s a m e caliber a s the rocket, but need not be s o long a s
the casing; 5l/2 c a l i b e r s is an adequate length. T h e r e is a base plate with
a s e m i c i r c u l a r cap whose diameter should correspond t o that of the internal
ignition channel of the rocket. On the cap is an i r o n rod 3l/2 c a l i b e r s in
length, and with a thickness a t the cap of 114 caliber or 113 the ignition
channel diameter. The rod must be a cone tapering towards i t s upper end.

Compound for a 3-pound rocket

1st compound 2nd compound
Nitrates . . . . . . . . 32 Sulfur. . . . . . . . .1
Sulfur . . . . . . . . 6.5 Nitrates . . . . . . . .2
Limewood coal . . . . . 14 . . . . . .3
Gunpowder pulp

* D a n i l o v , M. Nachal’noe znanie teorii i praktiki v artillerii s priobshcheniem gidrostaticheskikh

pravil (Elementary Theory and Practice of Artillery with an Appendix on the Laws of Hydrostatics),
pp. 72- 14. Moskva, 1762.

169
 Whichever of these two compounds is desired may be chosen. It should ~

be carefully pulverized in a tray, a f t e r which it is to be sieved t h r e e times.

Next four r a m r o d s of diameters corresponding t o that of the ignition channel
a r e required: the f i r s t , equal to that of the channel; the second, l e s s ; the
third, still l e s s ; and the fourth, l e a s t of all. The r a m r o d s a r e used to stuff
the rocket a s follows. Placing the casing in the mold, the compound is
poured in one ounce a t a time, and each such f i l l is rammed in by 2 0 or 25
powerful blows of a wooden beetle. When the compound is level with the
rod, it should be stuffed in by a solid r a m r o d without holes, in o r d e r t o
make a one-caliber l a y e r of solid, or, in laboratory parlance, blind
compound above the rod.
A wooden disk, with a hole for ignition of the gunpowder from the rocket
compound in its center, is placed above the compound, and above it 5 ounces
of powder a r e poured over the slag. Finally the end is drawn together and
tightly tied with cord, above which it is glued, and the rocket is then
A faceted awl of the s a m e length a s the rod should then be used t o clean
out the ignition channel, and a f t e r thinning the gunpowder pulp in wine, the
rocket should be oiled for ignition. The rocket t a i l should b e equal to 7lb
o r 8 t i m e s the length of the rocket, and its thickness a t the rocket should be
equal to 1/3 caliber. Once the t a i l has been attached t o the rocket, it should
be supported on an awl a t a point 3 l/2 c a l i b e r s away f r o m the rocket, so that
the whole, including the tail, will be in a s t a t e of equilibrium. This
concludes our promised exposition of rocket manufacture.

3 . DESCRIPTION O F THE MANUFACTURE O F INCENDIARY AND

REBOUNDING ROCKETS O F VARIOUS TYPES, MADE ACCORDING
TO THE DIMENSIONS AND RULES O F KARTMAZOV, MEMBER,
5TH CLASS, O F THE MILITARY SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE*

1. Rockets a r e divided into two types: high-flying and rebounding.

2 . High-flying rockets a r e again subdivided into two types: incendiary,
which a r e 4" in diameter, and, including the cap filled with incendiary
compound, from which they take t h e i r name, 41" in length; and explosive,
which have the s a m e diameter and a r e 34" in length, including the powder-
charged explosive. Rockets of both these types can be used in the siege of
f o r t r e s s e s since, a s experiments have shown, they fly up to 1 2 60 sagenes
[2940yd] and fall with such f o r c e a s to bury their e n t i r e length, with p a r t of the
tail, in the hardest ground.
3 . Rebounding rockets a r e a l s o divided into two types, of which the
first, incendiary rebounding rockets, c a r r y i n g an incendiary compound
and explosive, a r e 2 l b " in diameter and 28" in length (including the
explosive). They may be used to s e t f i r e t o m a r s h y regions and s i m i l a r
a r e a s which the enemy might use for an ambush, and may a l s o be used
with considerable s u c c e s s against enemy cavalry, since they fly along
the ground with fire and noise, inflicting injury upon the enemy when they
explode. T h e i r range may be reckoned a s up t o 1000 sagenes [2330 yd],
but they may a l s o be used, a s desired, a t any distance since t h e i r range
depends upon the launching angle. The second type, rebounding rockets
TsGVIA. store 35, entry 4/ 245, code 188. file 65, sheets 96-100.

170
 carrying explosive, a r e 2 " i n diameter, with an overall length of about 25",
and a range of u p t o 800 sagenes [1870yd]; they can be used against cavalry.
4. Incendiary rockets and rebounding rockets of l a r g e and s m a l l caliber
a r e a l l filled in the s a m e way, with differences only in the number and
force of the packing blows.
5 . The first type, l a r g e high-flying incendiary rockets, a r e manufactured
a s follows: copper soldered cylinders, t e r m e d casings, with an interior
diameter of 4 inches, a r e made from sheet i r o n with a thickness of 0.07 o r
0.08 English inches. Soldered to the casings a t one end a r e convex copper
disks 0.09 English inches in thickness, with a round central a p e r t u r e which
corresponds to the thickness of the ramrod. The length of the casings
should be 30 inches. The casing is glued inside five turns of wrapping
paper, then s e t up on a ramrod, mounted on a pile d r i v e r 201h inches in
length, in an anvil block. An oaken mold is then fitted over it, and s e t up
perpendicularly. A five-ounce m e a s u r e is used t o pour into the casing a
little s i l t moistened with water and by means of a r a m r o d 50 blows a r e
made upon this by a 60-pound wooden r a m . A f t e r thus constructing the
mouth of the rocket, which must give passage to its propulsive force, the
casing is stuffed with propellant. This is poured in, using the s a m e
measure, and, letting the rocket down onto the aforementioned ramrod,
50 blows a r e inflicted with the s a m e wooden r a m . This procedure i s continued
until the casing is filled. A channel for ignition of the incendiary from the
rocket propellant is made in the s i l t stuffed in above the propellant, and a
cap filled with an incendiary compound is mounted on the filled casing. One
end of the cap is cylindrical, with internal diameter equal to the external
diameter of the casing, while the other end is conical. These two p a r t s
have a total length of 1 9 inches, divided equally between them. In the
cylindrical p a r t a r e three l a r g e round orifices, three inches in diameter,
while the cone has three similar, but somewhat s m a l l e r orifices, two
inches in diameter. Finally, t h e r e a r e three s m a l l longitudinal orifices
n e a r the pointed tip. Throughout its length the cap has a channel
communicating with channels leading to a l l of the orifices mentioned
above. A l l these channels a r e fed by trowels. The cap is then fitted over
the casing by means of a ribbed s t r i p a t i t s end, and is secured by t a r r e d
twine wound around it. T h i s is the procedure followed in the filling of
incendiary rockets, r e g a r d l e s s of their caliber, which affects only the
f i l l measures, quantities of compound and number of blows, which a r e
dependent on the diameter.
6. The second type of high-flying rockets with shells a r e filled exactly
like the above, except that they a r e fitted with a gunpowder-charged shell
instead of a cap with incendiary compound. The weight of explosive
corresponds to the caliber of the rocket, and it is secured to a cruciform
b r a c e by means of riveted bands of tin and cords.
7. Rebounding rockets a r e filled exactly like the above.
8. A l l types of rockets require tails from 6 t o 6 % times the length of
the rocket, with an equilibrium point one caliber away from the mouth of
the rocket, where it is ignited. The tails of large-caliber rockets a r e
screwed together in the middle by nuts, first, because during a campaign
it is m o r e convenient t o transport them with the two p a r t s unscrewed;
second, because when the rockets s e e action, they can thus m o r e readily
b e adjusted t o the rockets when aiming; and third, because a long tail,
always tending to warp, is b e t t e r protected from warping when divided
into two halves.

171
 Cost estimate for parts of one large - Notes
4" incendiary rocket kopecks

4" casing with cap, made in

Sesterbek . . . . . . . . - Cost unknown to me
Five sheets of wrapping paper for
internal glueing . . . . . . 50
Glue for glueing . . . . . . . 20
Rocket propellant (incl. losses incurred
in its preparation), and preparation
of tincture for it . . . . . . 38
Finished pine tail . . . . . . 60
Wire . . . . . . . . . . 15
Nuts for screwing . . . . . . - Arsenal's requirements unknown
Total . . . 83

Fittings and accessories for cap

Incendiary compound . . . . . 15
Trowel . . . . . . . . . 20
Resinous cement . . . . . . 20
Resinated flax to cover holes . . . 25
Oilcloth to protect cap from dryness
of the air . . . . . . . . 70
Cords tosecurecap . . . . . . 40
Total. . . . 90
Grand t o t a l . 13

This rocket, when filled, with cap

and tail, weighsasmuch as41 pounds
_____ .
Estimate
kopecks Notes
for a high-flying 4" rocket with shell
__ -
Casing made in Sesterbek . . . . - :ost in Sesterbek unknown
Paper for internal glueing . . . . 50
Glue . . . . . . . . . . 20
Rocket propellam including
tincture . . . . . . . . 38
Tail . . . . . . . . . . 60
Wire . . . . . . . . . . 15
Nuts for tail . . . . . . . . - .rsenal's requirements unknown
__ __-
Total . . . 83

Seven poundshell . . . . . . 5
Powder used inside . . . . . . 64
Skirts about shell to secure it to the
casing . . . . . . . . . 30
Cords . . . . . . . . . 40
Resinous cement . . . . . . . 20
Trowel . . . . . . . . . 5
Resinated flax to cover holes . .
_. _ .
20
_ -
Total. . . . 84
Grand total . 67
- .-
-~ -~ -_ -

172

..... ....................... m .,TI ~~ -nr r r ...... -iii nnr .m' .';E. '
 For'2.5" rebounding incendiary Notes
kopecks
rockets
Casing made in Sesterbek . . . . - Cost in Sesterbek unknown
.
Paperforglueing . . . . . 30
Glue . . . . . . . . . . 15
.
Rocket propellant . . . . . 2
Tinctures . . . . . . . . 35
Tail . . . . . . . . . . 40
. . .
Three pound shell . . . 45
Gunpowder . . . . . . . . 34
Cords. . . . . . . . . . 20
Skirts about shell to secure it to
the casing . . . . . . . 25
Resinous cement . . . . . . 20
Trowel . . . . . . . . . 5
Resinated flax to cover holes . . . 12

Total . . . 83

4. ON INCENDIARY AND REBOUNDING R O C m T S "

1. I n c e n d i a r y r o c k e t c a s i n g s . The c a l i b e r of a l a r g e r o c k e t is
4 English i n c h e s . The length of the c a s i n g is 7 c a l i b e r s , o r 28 inches, while the
thickness of its w a l l s is 0.05 inch. T h e b a s e plate is 0.1 inch in thickness.
Wrapping paper 0.025" thick is pasted onto the s i d e s of the c a s i n g a t
i t s middle. T h e o r i f i c e i n t h e bottom is 1.5" in d i a m e t e r . Of the r i n g s
s e c u r i n g the tail, t h e c e n t e r of the first is located 1.3" f r o m the bottom of
t h e casing, and that of the second is midway between t h i s one and the third,
whose c e n t e r is 14" f r o m the bottom of the casing. T h e r i n g s a r e 1 . 6 " in
width, while t h e height of the s h a c k l e s into which the t a i l is i n s e r t e d is
2.05" above t h e s i d e of the casing.
The c a l i b e r of a s m a l l r o c k e t is 2.5", while i t s casing m e a s u r e s 7
c a l i b e r s , or 17.5", in length. The thickness of the c a s i n g w a l l s is 0.05",
while that of the b a s e plate is 0.1". Wrapping paper 0.025" thick is pasted
onto the s i d e s of the c a s i n g a t i t s middle. T h e orifice in the bottom is 1 ' '
in d i a m e t e r . T h e r e a r e two r i n g s s e c u r i n g the tail, the c e n t e r of the first
of which is 0.6" f r o m the bottom of the casing, while the second is located
a t t h e middle of the casing. T h e width of the r i n g s is 1.2". T h e height of
t h e s h a c k l e s into which the t a i l is i n s e r t e d is 1.55" above the s i d e o f t h e casing.
2 . T h e c a p . The e y l i n d r i c a l p a r t of the cap is 9.2", while the e x t e r n a l
s i d e of the cone m e a s u r e s 10". T h e cylinder has 15 longitudinal s l i t s ,
m a d e f o r the g r e a t e s t convenience in a s s e m b l y and attachment t o the
casing, which are 4.5" f r o m the head of the cone, and f o u r holes,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o f o u r s i m i l a r holes 0.9" in d i a m e t e r i n t h e rocket, 1.3"
f r o m t h e b a s e of the cone. A s m a l l c a p is m a d e proportional t o a l a r g e
one, a c c o r d i n g t o the r a t i o of c a l i b e r s . T h e holes in t h e cone of a l a r g e
c a p a r e a r r a n g e d a s follows: the c e n t e r s of t h e f i r s t four holes, which
are 0.9" i n d i a m e t e r , are 1.5" f r o m the b a s e of the cone, while the next group
of t h r e e holes, 0.6" in d i a m e t e r , a r e 1.5" beyond the p e r i p h e r y of the f i r s t set;
the t h i r d group of two holes, r e m o v e d a f u r t h e r 1.5", a r e 0.5" i n d i a m e t e r , while
the fourth group of two holes, a distance of 1.5" beyond the third, a r e 0.25" in
d i a m e t e r . T h e h o l e s a r e a r r a n g e d p y r a m i d a l l y on the cone.
* TsGVA, store 35. entry 4/245, code 155, file 65. sheets 41 -47 obverse.

173
 A s m a l l cap has t h r e e holes in the cylinder, corresponding to t h r e e
in the rocket, and in the cone a lower row of three, and a second row of two.
3. T h e a x i s p o l e . The length of the pole is five calibers, or 20",
while its thickness ranges from 1.5" at its base to 0.6" a t its tip. Its b a s e
is made i n the f o r m of a quadrilateral bolt terminating in a s c r e w with a
nut used to s e c u r e i t t o the b a r . The length of this bolt, excluding the
screw, is f r o m 7" t o 9". The length of a s m a l l pole is 12.5", and i t s
thickness ranges from 1" a t its b a s e to 0.3" at its tip. In other r e s p e c t s
it is like the l a r g e pole.
4. T h e r a m r o d s. These a r e generally turned of the d r i e s t and
strongest wood, with diameter corresponding t o the ignition channel with
extremely s m a l l tolerance, and length corresponding t o that of the casing.
The head above this p a r t is turned a little thicker, and has a hole. Ramrods
for l a r g e rockets a r e turned in 8's, and for s m a l l rockets, in 6's, one
s m a l l e r than the next by 118 p a r t , and in s m a l l ones, by 116 part, of the rod.
Seven of the r a m r o d s a r e straight-through and the eighth is blind, but in
o r d e r t o pass through them the appropriate m e a s u r e in accord with their
size, the rod is divided into seven equal p a r t s and the first l a r g e r a m r o d
is straight-through for the entire length of the rod, while the second
p a s s e s 617 of the length of the rod, the third, 517, the fourth, 417, the
fifth, 317, the sixth 217, the seventh117 of the length of the rod, while the
eighth is blind. F o r s m a l l ramrods, the rod is divided into five parts,
and the s a m e procedure is followed. It is m o s t important that the r a m r o d s
be truly and properly drilled out in accord with the thickness of the sod,
and that they be machined with such s m a l l tolerances that they t u r n freely
only during filling, and a r e easily withdrawn thereafter.
5. T h e p i l e d r i v e r u s e d f o r r o c k e t s t u f f i n g . T h e p i l e
d r i v e r can be made of any kind of wood, whichever is cheapest, and consists
of two b a r s a t l e a s t 3 vershok [5l/4"] thick, a t l e a s t fourvershok[7"]
wide, and 33/4 a r s h i n [105"] long. They a r e bound together, 8 vershok
[14"] apart, by two c r o s s - b e a m s of the s a m e thickness, though they m a y be
narrower, and 1 sagene [84"] i n length. Uprights 3 vershok [5l/4"] thick,
3l/2 vershok [61/8"] wide, and S1/4 a r s h i n [147"] high a r e then r a m m e d i n
a t a distance of 8 vershok [14"] from the c r o s s - b e a m . Above they a r e
bound together by a drilled-through beam of the s a m e thickness and width,
14 vershok [241/2"] in length. Two beams of the s a m e thickness and width
a s these uprights, and 8 vershok [ 14"] in length, a r e seated by the up-
rights upon two straight-through tenons, and a n i r o n bolt, over which is
fitted a pulley-block, is passed through them. T o each upright a r e nailed
two thin beams, forming grooves 2 vershok [31/2"] apart, in which a
ll/Z-pud [54-lb] r a m must move. Beneath this piledriver a beam a t l e a s t
3 vershok [5l/4"] Chick and a t l e a s t 5l/2 a r s h i n [15"] long is dug into the
ground. T o this, n e a r its center, is attached the r a m r o d on which the
rocket is filled.
6. T h e m 01 d . The mold in which the casing is enclosed f o r filling
with propellant is made from the two halves of a log of d r y wood, sawn
a p a r t longitudinally. The halves a r e 13 vershok [223/4"] long, and 7 to
8 vershok [1Z1/4" to 14"] in diameter. Each half is hollowed out into a
semicylindrical channel along its entire length, s o a s t o receive half of
the casing. T h e casing is intended to fit compactly when the two halves are
closed together over it, and f o r this purpose they a r e tightened by a n i r o n
band.

174
 7. T h e p r o p e l l a n t u s e d i n r o c k e t s . This propellant consists
of n i t r a t e s , sulfur, and carbon.

Proportion for big rockers

Nitrates . . . . . . . . . . 18 parts
Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . 5 .
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . 8 .
Proportion for small rockets
Nitrates . . . . . . . . . . 18 parrs
Sulfur . . . . . . . . . 31/5 .
Carbon . . . . . . . . . 54/5 .

To make the propeliant, the nitrate, sulfur, and carbon must separately
be rubbed and sifted extremely fine, then thoroughly mixed and again sifted
s e v e r a l t i m e s , since the m o r e finely the compound is rubbed, the better it
will perform. A 4 " rocket r e q u i r e s 1 2 pounds 88 zolotniki [ 1 2 . 9 2 Russian
pounds] of this propellant, and a 2 l/2" rocket, 3 pounds 22 zolotniki
[ 3 . 2 3 Russian pounds], The amount of incendiary compound required f o r
a big rocket i s 5 pounds 24 zolotniki [5.25 Russian pounds], and for a small
rocket, 1 pound 72 zolotniki [1.75 Russian pounds].
8 . R e g u l a t i o n s f o r f i l l i n g w i t h r o c k e t p r o p e l l a n t . The
casing is s o s e t up and viewed on the pole that i t r e a c h e s right down to the
beam on which the pole stands. T h r e e o r four felt disks a r e then fitted
over the pole, which is s m e a r e d with f r e s h pig fat, and the casing is again
fitted over the pole and covered with the mold, over which is forced the
i r o n band. Wedges a r e then driven in at both ends, and the whole i s bound
about the piledriver uprights with cord. A l a r g e r a m r o d is then inserted
into the casing, and a distance of 1 a r s h i n [42"J from i t s head is measured
upwards along the upright. At this point a hole is drilled in the left upright,
and into it is inserted a wooden peg t o hold back the r a m , S O that the
o p e r a t o r s will not have to hold it in their hands when they pour in the
propellant. In o r d e r to r a i s e the r a m a fixed distance in stuffing, it is
r a i s e d to this peg, while above, the piledriver uprights a r e bound with cord,
and notches a r e then made on the r a m r o d . In stuffing, these m a r k s w i l l
show how much propellant should be stuffed in by which r a m r o d . They a r e
cut a s follows: f i r s t a t r i a l is made with the f i r s t r a m r o d , lowering it t o the
v e r y bottom of the casing and, i f i t is longer than desired, making a notch on
it level with the b r i m of the casing. The second is then lowered, and if it
a l s o proves too long, a s i m i l a r m a r k is made. This m a r k is then held level
with the lower end of the f i r s t r a m r o d , while the l a t t e r is marked a t the
point reached by the end of the second r a m r o d . This m a r k will then indicate
how much propellant should be stuffed into the f i r s t r a m r o d . The third
r a m r o d is then lowered into the casing, and should i t s head a l s o protrude,
a notch is made, t o be held level with the lower end of the second r a m r o d .
The notch then made on the l a t t e r a t the point reached by the end of the
third r a m r o d will indicate how much propellant should be stuffed in by the
second r a m r o d and the s a m e method i s followed with a l l the o t h e r s . It
should be noted that when a r a m r o d is lowered into the casing and the
c l e a r a n c e is g r e a t , another layer of wrapping paper is pasted onto the
casing, to p e r m i t the r a m r o d to t u r n f r e e l y inside it and t o allow it t o dry;

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 a f t e r lowering the blind r a m r o d into the casing, however, it is marked
level with its brim, and f r o m this m a r k it is displaced downward
1114 c a l i b e r s and marked again.
When all this has been done, the stuffing takes place as follows: the
propellant is poured into the casing in m e a s u r e s of 24 zolotniki [0.25 Russian
pounds] f o r big rockets, and 12 zolotniki [0.125 Russian pounds] f o r s m a l l .
A beetle should be at hand just in o r d e r t o ensure that the propelzant all f a l l s
to the bottom, and the f i r s t r a m r o d is then inserted into the casing and,
before the heavy blows, is seated by t h r e e light taps of the r a m . T h e r e
follow 25 blows of the r a m , raising it t o the cord and turning the r a m r o d
a f t e r every blow by means of a stick inserted in its head. After these
25 blows t h e r e is a pause while the r a m r o d is raised a little and the
propellant is knocked out of it into the casing; then, lowering it again,
t h e r e follow another 25 such heavy blows, turning the r a m r o d after each,
This procedure is followed for each f i l l of propellant and for t h r e e r a m r o d s .
For the fourth, fifth, and sixth r a m r o d s the procedure is the s a m e , but
each f i l l receives 45 heavy blows, with a pause a f t e r the 22nd to knock the
propellant out of the r a m r o d . For the seventh and eighth r a m r o d the s a m e
procedure is followed, with 40 heavy blows. When the casing is filled up
with propellant, s i l t is packed above it to the depth of 1/4 caliber by 40
heavy blows, after which the casing is removed f r o m the rod by a windlass
and the hole is sealed with resinated flax. Small rockets a r e stuffed using
a 10-pound hand beetle, and following the s a m e procedure: f i r s t two
r a m r o d s with 35 measured blows per fill, and a pause a f t e r 1 7 to knock the
propellant out of the r a m r o d , then two m o r e r a m r o d s with 30 blows, and a
pause a f t e r 15, and finally, the fifth and sixth r a m r o d s with 25 blows, and
a pause after the 12th.
9. I n c e n d i a r y c o m p o u n d a n d i t s p r e p a r a t i o n . This
compound consists of saltpeter, sulfur, antimony, r o s i n and oil of
turpentine, in the following proportion:

Saltpeter . . . . . . . . . 14 parts
Sulfur. . . . . . . . . . 6 .
Antimony . . . . . . . . 1 part
Rosin . . . . . . . . . . 1 ..
Oil of turpentine. . . . . . . 2 parts

A l l of the ingredients a r e separately rubbed very fine and boiled over

coals in a stove made for the purpose, on top of which stands a cauldron.
After it has warmed up somewhat, i t s edge is s m e a r e d with pig fat, and
the sulfur and r o s i n a r e placed inside and melted into a liquid. While
this is happening, the saltpeter is poured in a little a t a time, while s t i r r i n g
constantly with a trowel. When it is sufficiently mixed, the antimony is
poured in and the mixture is s t i r r e d further. Then, removing the cauldron
f r o m the heat onto thick felt, the oil of turpentine is poured in and the
mixture i s again s t i r r e d with a trowel. The cap is filled with the compound
while s t i l l warm (it should by no means have been allowed t o get cold),
without disturbing the ignition channel in the rocket casing.
10. F i l l i n g t h e c a p w i t h i n c e n d i a r y c o m p o u n d . A s n o t e d
above, the incendiary compound is to be filled while s t i l l warm. The hands
a r e thus s m e a r e d with pig fat, and the compound is poured in a little a t

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I

a time, packing e a c h fill i n with a r a m r o d s o m e 1 5 t i m e s , and continuing

until the c a p and the designated p a r t of the c a s i n g a r e full.
11. A t t a c h i n g t h e s h e l l a n d t h e c a p . B e f o r e i t is s e c u r e d
t o the rocket, the c a p is p r e p a r e d a s follows: when the compound in the
c a p h a s completely cooled and hardened, a hole is d r i l l e d in the compound
in t h e middle of t h e cap, as f a r as the l a r g e orifices, or, if i t is d e s i r e d
to p r e p a r e a l l the holes, a s f a r a s the l a s t ones; then e a c h of t h e s e holes
should be d r i l l e d through l a t e r a l holes t o t h e one m a d e in the middle, and
filled with a n illuminating compound, packed in a s in p a p e r tubes of gun-
powder, and p r e p a r e d by m e a n s of a trowel. After t h i s a hole is a l s o
d r i l l e d through the incendiary compound and silt, a s f a r a s the r o c k e t
propellant, i n the c e n t e r of the casing. After this is done, the c a p is
fitted tightly onto the c a s i n g and bound tightly with twine, f r o m beginning
t o end of t h e notches. After perforating the s i l t in the r o c k e t a s f a r a s the
r o c k e t propellant, t h e s h e l l is i n s e r t e d into i t by m e a n s of a tube, the
s h e l l tube s u p p o r t having previously been set s t r a i g h t i n the s i l t . Two
half-inch bands of s h e e t i r o n a r e placed c r o s s w i s e o v e r t h e shell, and it
is then attached t o t h e r o c k e t like the cap. T h e length of t h e s e bands
should b e about 15 inches. All of the o r i f i c e s i n the c a p and beneath the
r o c k e t a r e c o v e r e d with fireproof r e s i n a t e d flax.
12. T h e s h e l l o f a n i n c e n d i a r y r o c k e t . T h e s h e l l s should
b e of the s a m e d i a m e t e r a s the r o c k e t with walls half the thickness of
those of conventional c a s t s h e l l s of the s a m e d i a m e t e r .
13. W e i g h t a n d s i z e o f t a i l s a n d t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t
t o t h e r o c k e t . T h e t a i l s a r e made of pine or s o m e other light wood
2" thick a t i t s upper end, and thinner below, and 7 l12 t i m e s the
c i r c u m f e r e n c e of the r o c k e t c a s i n g in length, planed to f o r m a right
tetrahedron. If one moves along the t a i l away f r o m t h e casing, the r o c k e t
begins to overbalance a t a point 4 c a l i b e r s away f r o m t h e casing. T h e t a i l
is then p a s s e d through lugs, the two lower of which a r e heated r e d hot, and
have one hole p i e r c e d i n e a c h (the lugs are heated and t h e holes m a d e b e f o r e
filling); t h e s c r e w fitted t o the upper lug is turned e x t r e m e l y tight, and the
tail is p e r f o r a t e d opposite t o the holes i n the two lower lugs, through which
i r o n n a i l s a r e driven. T h e t a i l s should b e m a d e of the d r i e s t possible wood,
which would keep the weight of a 4" r o c k e t t a i l down to only 12 pounds, but
due to the unavailability of d r y wood here, big t a i l s have n e v e r weighed less
than 14 l12 pounds, and have been known to r e a c h 1 6 l12 pounds. T a i l s f o r
s m a l l r o c k e t s weigh f r o m 3 t o 4 l14 pounds.
14. T h e l a u n c h e r . T h e launcher i s m a d e o f s t r o n g d r y w o o d , o f a
planed b a r m e a s u r i n g 7 " on a l l s i d e s and 8 l/Z time-s the c i r c u m f e r e n c e of
the c a s i n g in length. In this b a r is hollowed pyramidally, f r o m one end t o
the other, a groove of the s a m e length a s the t a i l into which the t a i l e a s i l y
fits. T h e end which is not chiseled through is rounded off a s i n the t r a i l
of a gun-carriage, and is p e r f o r a t e d b y a hole designed t o f i t a slide-valve
with spring, a s i n g u n - c a r r i a g e s of e a r l y design. T h e depth of t h i s groove
is 5", and inside it, towards the bottom, a r e s m a l l r o l l e r s on pivots. From
its upper end t h e bottom and s i d e s of the groove a r e e x t e r n a l l y bound with
s h e e t iron, and the lower s h e e t is bent upwards along a l i n e o v e r t h e s u r f a c e
of the r o l l e r s f o r 6 inches. T h i s flange is rounded at both its ends. T h e
groove is fitted with two legs, attached t o a cushion by a bolt. T h e bolt,
p a s s e d through t h e cushion and the groove, connects the l e g s with t h e

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 groove. T h e legs, for the launchers of l a r g e rockets, a r e made 213 the
length of the e n t i r e groove, while those for s m a l l rockets a r e made
2 l k a r s h i n [63"] long.
15. E l e v a t i o n of t h e l a u n c h e r i n d e g r e e s [ l a u n c h i n g
a n g l e ] a n d r a n g e of a r o c k e t . T h e g r e a t e s t l a u n c h i n g a n g l e f o r b i g
rockets is 55". though this can be decreased to 35" and even lower. With
a launching angle of 55" a 4" rocket covers a distance of 950 to 1 2 5 0 sagenes
[ 2 2 2 0 t o 2920 yd], while a t 35" i t w i l l r e a c h a l i t t l e over 500 s a g e n e s ( l l 7 0 y d l .
Small rockets with long tails a r e launched a t from 40" to 25", and w i l l r e a c h
750 sagenes I1750 yd] a t the higher angle, and 5 0 0 [1170 yd] a t the lower.
Small rockets intended to ricochet a r e cut into a wooden s p h e r e 4" in
diameter, but a r e in other r e s p e c t s like rockets shot in a curved
t r a j e c t o r y . They a r e normally equipped with s h e l l s and launched from the
ground, Small r o c k e t s have been found m o r e convenient for this purpose,
since experiments show the l a r g e ones t o r e a c h no f a r t h e r , and sometimes,
not s o f a r .

Colonel of A r t i l l e r y Zasyadko

5. PROGRAM O F EXPERIMENTS WITH A ROCKE!T

BALLISTK! PENDULUM FOR TJ3E IMPROVEMENT
O F 2-INCH ROCKETS':'

A rocket pendulum can be used to determine, f o r each rocket tested:

1. T h e time for which the propulsive force a c t s .
2 . T h e magnitude of the entire propulsive force produced by combustion
of the rocket propellant from i t s beginning to i t s end, in pud-feet
[I pud = 361bl.
3. The internal gas p r e s s u r e i n the casing in pounds p e r s q u a r e inch of
internal casing a r e a , i. e., the successive magnitudes of this p r e s s u r e at
the end of s u c c e s s i v e a r b i t r a r y time intervals, s o that the variation of the
internal p r e s s u r e from the beginning to the end of combustion can be
r e p r e s e n t e d by a curve, with the a b s c i s s a proportional t o the time and the
ordinate proportional to the internal p r e s s u r e in pounds. F r o m this can
be determined:
4. The limiting maximum gas p r e s s u r e in the casing.
5. T h e t i m e between the commencement of combustion and the moment
of maximum gas p r e s s u r e .
F r o m this i t is evident that a rocket pendulum can be used to determine:
a ) T h e relationship between the proportionality of the constituents of the
rocket propellant, all features of the rocket's internal design, and the
p a r a m e t e r s noted above.
b) The minimum possible thickness (determined by calculation) of the
. i r o n in the casing of the rockets tested. ::*

- 237.
.. AIM Archive. VUK store, entry 40, file 113, sheets 231
From the formula x = ' ~ . where x is the thickness of the casing walls, v is the internal diameter of
t
the casing, p i s the weight necessary t o bunt iron for the required cross section. equal t o a unit of
surface, and t is the limit of the internal pressure i n pounds per unit of internal area of the casing.

178

I
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T h e f e a t u r e s of the i n t e r n a l design of r o c k e t s of a given c a l i b e r a r e :

1. Ingredients of the r o c k e t propellant and t h e i r proportionality.
2. Density of t h e r o c k e t propellant.
3 . Height of the blind propellant.
4. Height of the ignition channel.
5 . D i a m e t e r of the ignition channel.
6. Size of the g a s exhaust orifices.
T h e r e a r e thus s i x f a c t o r s the effect of variation in which on the
p e r f o r m a n c e of the r o c k e t propellant is s t i l l v e r y poorly understood.
T o study them fully i t would b e n e c e s s a r y t o p e r f o r m a n u m b e r of
e x p e r i m e n t s with a rocket pendulum, v a r y i n g e a c h of t h e s e f a c t o r s in
o r d e r t o obtain different combinations; but even with a s m a l l number of
v a r i a t i o n s in e a c h factor, the number of different combinations would
b e c o m e enormous, t h e r e would b e no end t o the experiments, and the
idea would b e l o s t i n the m a s s of r e s u l t s and t h e i r applications.
T o facilitate the investigation, the v a r i a t i o n s c a n b e limited, on the
b a s i s of s u c h f a c t s as a r e now p a r t i a l l y known, i. e.:
1. F o r r o c k e t s with a n exhaust orifice equal t o the c r o s s section of
the casing, a propellant consisting of p u r e gunpowder pulp should b e
used; f o r weakened propellants, which m a y be r e q u i r e d i f the exhaust
orifice is reduced i n s i z e , two series of propellants should b e adopted:
a) Gunpowder weakened by the a d m i x t u r e of varying percentages of
carbon.
b ) Gunpowder weakened by the a d m i x t u r e of varying percentages of
n i t r e and s u l f u r .
2. In a l l possible e x p e r i m e n t s the density of the propellant should b e
brought up t o the maximum possible l i m i t .
3. T h e height of the blind propellant should b e made equal to the
thickness of the propellant about the channel, b e c a u s e the combustion of
t h e blind propellant alone m u s t give rise to a propulsive f o r c e whose only
a p p r e c i a b l e effect will b e t h e production of deviations.
In addition, a t the beginning e x p e r i m e n t s with d i r e c t application t o the
design of r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l and c e n t r a l t a i l s should b e conducted. T h e s e
e x p e r i m e n t s c a n b e divided into series:
F i r s t s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s . Investigations toward the
design of r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l t a i l s and a n exhaust orifice equal to the c r o s s
s e c t i o n of the casing.
P r o p e l l a n t - gunpowder pulp.
D i a m e t e r of the channel - 0.6", 0.8", 1.O", 1.2", 1.4".
Channel height - 3 lh, 4, 4 l/2, and 5 c a l i b e r s .
T h i s gives 2 0 different combinations. E a c h combination should b e
t e s t e d both igniting the r o c k e t propellant a t i t s edge and igniting it by
m e a n s of a quick-firing p r i m e r , extending t o the bottom of t h e channel,
with the r o c k e t c o v e r e d with r e s i n a t e d flax. T h i s will double the number
of e x p e r i m e n t s , making 40 altogether.
S e c o n d s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s . T o d e t e r m i n e the effect of
the s i z e of the exhaust o r i f i c e in r o c k e t s with l a t e r a l t a i l s and a b a s e
plate with c e n t r a l orifice.
P r o p e l l a n t - gunpowder pulp.
T h e c e n t r a l o r i f i c e i n the b a s e plate is taken a t 0.8", 1.0", 1.2", 1.4".
and 1.6". F o r e a c h o r i f i c e one r o c k e t with a channel i n the propellant

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 0.6" in d i a m e t e r should be tested, and another the d i a m e t e r of whose
ignition channel is 0.2" less than that of the exhaust orifice in the b a s e
plate. For both these rockets the height of the ignition channel should
b e allowed to r u n through the values of 3 l/2, 4, 4 %', and 5 calibers,
giving a total of 40 rockets. In each rocket the two different methods of
ignition employed in the f i r s t series should be tested, giving a total of
80 r o c k e t s f o r the second series.
T h i r d s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s . Investigations of r o c k e t s with
a c e n t r a l tail and b a s e plate designed f o r a c e n t r a l tail.
In these experiments the a r e a of the g a s exhaust orifice can be taken
as the maximum possible permitted by the c e n t r a l t a i l design, w h e r e the
tail is s c r e w e d on. It m u s t be taken into account that the tail s c r e w m u s t
have a d i a m e t e r of 0.8", while the d i a m e t e r of the channel will be constant
and will be determined by the d i a m e t e r of the t a i l s c r e w in the b a s e plate.
It m u s t be 0.2" less than this, giving i t a d i a m e t e r of 0.6". The v a r i a b l e s
will be the proportionality of the ingredients of the propellant and the height
of the channel. For the f o r m e r one can take the two types of propellant
mentioned above: gunpowder pulp with a n admixture of carbon, and gun-
powder pulp with an admixture of n i t r e and sulfur, allowing s i x
variations in each type. F o r each propellant the channel can be taken
a t 3 l/2, 4, 4 l/2, and 5 calibers, giving 48 different r o c k e t s for the
third series of experiments.
In a l l of the series of experiments i t is a s s u m e d that only one experiment
will be performed f o r study of each factor in the internal design of rockets. One
successful experiment should be sufficient t o determine the relationships
sought, f o r the following r e a s o n s .
1. The r e s u l t s obtained by m e a n s of the pendulum f o r each rocket will
have a l l the a c c u r a c y that could be desired, due t o the design of the pendulum
and the m e a n s adopted for conduct of the experiments.
2. T h e r e s u l t s obtained f o r one rocket, tested on the pendulum, can be
allowed with only a s m a l l d e p a r t u r e f r o m the m e a n r e s u l t s which would be
obtained from many experiments s i n c e in carefully built rockets t h e r e can
be no g r e a t variation in the performance of the propellant. It m u s t be
incomparably less than the variation in the performance of gunpowder
charges, s i n c e the rocket propellant constitutes a dense m a s s , a l m o s t
unaffected by the various circumstances in which a rocket can be placed
during storage; a gunpowder charge, on the other hand, consists of g r a i n s
susceptible to displacement into a different relative position and subjected
m o r e than a m a s s of rocket propellant to the influence of e x t e r n a l
circumstances, on account of t h e i r considerably g r e a t e r s u r f a c e a r e a
relative t o t h e i r m a s s .
T h e lack of mean r e s u l t s can b e partially compensated for by the
familiar graphic method of c o r r e c t i n g the experimental r e s u l t s which
determine the functional relationship between any variable and another
variable depending upon it. T h i s is done a s follows:
The experiments ef each series, a s is evident from the scheme, consist
of s e v e r a l c l a s s e s of experiments, in each of which a r e tested a number of
rockets distinguished from one another by continual variation of j u s t one
p a r t of the design. T h e r e s u l t s obtained f o r each c l a s s can t h e r e f o r e be
represented graphically by broken lines, plotting the design changes along
the a b s c i s s a e and the results, along the ordinates. In this way a broken

180
 line will b e obtained f o r t h e variation of t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r combustion of
the e n t i r e propellant, another f o r the variation in t h e magnitude of t h e
propulsive f o r c e , e t c .
If t h e s e broken l i n e s a r e replaced by continuous c u r v e s running between
the points determined, one has an e m p i r i c a l approximation of t h e t r u t h .
The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t s of a l l t h r e e s e r i e s are a s follows::)
For the f i r s t s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s , casings with a n exhaust o r i f i c e equal
t o the c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e casing. For this p u r p o s e t h e manually m a d e
casings r e m a i n i n g f r o m l a s t y e a r ' s e x p e r i m e n t s c a n be used
For the second series of e x p e r i m e n t s , casings with a s m a l l e r g a s exhaust
orifice, and five different s c h e m e s corresponding t o different a r e a s of the
orifice. T o speed up the e x p e r i m e n t s , two casings could b e used f o r each
s c h e m e , making a t o t a l of 1 0 c a s i n g s , which would have t o b e p r e p a r e d
manually a t t h e S e s t r o r e t s k plant.
For the third series of e x p e r i m e n t s , c a s i n g s with b a s e p l a t e s of m y
design, t o finish the r o c k e t s used by u s , with c e n t r a l t a i l s , until t h e
perfection of Pikte r o c k e t s , t h e r e f o r e t h e n u m b e r can b e confined t o
1 0 casings.
In t h e c a s i n g s f o r t h e second and third s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s t h e
thickness of t h e walls m u s t b e m a d e much g r e a t e r than is usual, o r
approximately 0 . 5 " , t o avoid e v e r y danger of a n explosion and to c o n s e r v e
the casings.
A s t h e s e c a s i n g s have no lugs, they can be f i l l e d in one of the Rocket
Institute's 3" molds.
The casings f o r the second and third s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s m u s t be
fitted with i r o n plugs on wedges to strengthen the l a y e r of clay which
constitutes the blind propellant.
This p r o g r a m of e x p e r i m e n t s with a r o c k e t pendulum will s e r v e a s the
b a s i s f o r a t h e o r y of i n t e r n a l r o c k e t construction, which now e x i s t s only
in the vaguest f o r m . T h i s t h e o r y would m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o s t r i v e
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y f o r t h e perfection dependent on t h e i n t e r n a l design of a
rocket. Indeed, t h e following c a n b e a s s u m e d a p r i o r i t o b e p r e r e q u i s i t e
t o the attainment of t h i s perfection:
1 , The magnitude of t h e propulsive f o r c e m u s t b e t h e maximum.
2. The t i m e f o r which the propulsive f o r c e a c t s m u s t be the minimum,
provided i t is no less than t h e t i m e needed f o r the r o c k e t t o l e a v e t h e stand.
3 . The t i m e between t h e beginning of combustion and t h e moment of
m a x i m u m gas p r e s s u r e in t h e r o c k e t m u s t be l e s s than t h e t i m e needed
f o r t h e r o c k e t t o leave t h e stand.
4 . The wear and t e a r on the c a s i n g m u s t be a s l i t t l e a s possible, t h e r e -
f o r e the m a x i m u m gas p r e s s u r e in the c a s i n g m u s t be a s low as possible
when t h e propulsive f o r c e is a t i t s maximum, to m i n i m i z e the w e a r and t e a r .
In addition, t h e i n c r e a s e and d e c r e a s e of p r e s s u r e i n t h e c a s i n g should
o c c u r continuously, and in proportion t o t h e t i m e . It would m o s t likely be
b e s t , both from t h e point of view of m a x i m u m propulsive f o r c e , and f r o m
that of minimum w e a r and tear on t h e casing, f o r t h e p r e s s u r e t o r e a c h i t s
upper l i m i t rapidly, r i s i n g in proportion t o t h e t i m e , then t o r e m a i n constant,
and finally, to fall off rapidly and in proportion t o t h e t i m e , r a t h e r than d r o p
instantaneously.

T h e three series include 168 rockets. but t h e number of casings c a n be far lower. since e a c h casing
c a n be used for a number of experiments.

181
 The external design of a rocket, which implies the weight of the entire
fully-equipped rocket, the length of the tail, the position of the center of
gravity and its displacement during flight, etc., c a n be based on known
f a c t s unrelated t o this subject, on the fundamentals of theoretical
mechanics, on the data which I found in previous experiments, and finally,
is subject t o f u r t h e r experimental r e s e a r c h .
A p r o g r a m of investigations towards the establishment of a theory of
external rocket design (in the s e n s e used above) will be the subject of
another monograph.
15 May 1849.
Captain Konstantinov

6. TAILLESS SIGNAL AND MILITARY ROCKETS’k

A s is well known, t h e r e a r e other means, besides a tail, for making a

rocket fly straight, i. e.:
1. A rocket can be made to fly sufficiently straight by p r o p e r situation
of the center of gravity alone; this r e q u i r e s only that the center of gravity a
of afully-equipped rocket casing be located along the direction of forward
motion of the c e n t e r of the figure 6, and that through burnout the center of
gravity of the e n t i r e s y s t e m , being displaced, not p a s s behind the center of
the figure, nor even coincide with i t . If either of t h e s e contingencies
occurred during flight, the rocket, r a t h e r than flying straight, would take
the c o u r s e of a Schwarmer.
A well-designed rocket, even though i t proceeds in a given direction,
thus follows a r a t h e r winding course. This is particularly due t o the fact
that the nonconcentric combustion of the propellant causes displacement
of the center of gravity, not along the axis of the rocket casing, but along
a n i r r e g u l a r c u r v e about the rocket axis. To dispel the consequent
i r r e g u l a r i t y in flight, wings a r e fitted t o the lower p a r t of the rocket casing.
(I brought details of signal rockets of this type, used by the Sardinian
a r t i l l e r y , f r o m Turin in 1840.) These wings i n c r e a s e the l a t e r a l air
r e s i s t a n c e on the lower p a r t of the rocket, thereby maintaining it in the
direction of flight.
In place of wings, a c e r t a i n Vaillant f r o m Boulogne-sur-Mer (Manuel
de s ’ a r t i f i c i e r de Vergnaud) conceived the idea of using a triangular p r i s m
of thin cardboard, tangent t o and s e c u r e d to the lower p a r t of the rocket.
Pounder signal rockets with wings and with p r i s m s have been repeatedly
manufactured in the laboratory section of the g e n e r a l Gunpowder School.
For launching two rings of wire c and d were attached t o the s u r f a c e of the
rocket casing and used t o launch the rocket f r o m a v e r t i c a l i r o n rod s e c u r e d
t o the upper p a r t of a stake. The flight of t h e s e rockets was always
completely satisfactory, and in particular that of the rockets with p r i s m s ,
which a r e s u p e r i o r to those with wings in c e r t a i n important respects, i. e. :
they a r e e a s i e r to make, a p r i s m is m o r e e a s i l y attached to the surface
of a casing, and in addition, rockets with p r i s m s a r e far e a s i e r to t r a n s p o r t
than those with wings.

* AIM Archive, ShGF store, entry 12. file 31, sheets 32 - 35.

182
 It would be exceedingly useful to bring signal rockets with p r i s m s
into actual use, on account of their ready transportability and safety
in launching, but the s a m e s y s t e m is inadmissible f o r military rockets,
because of the insufficient flatness of trajectory. Rockets fitted with
wings and p r i s m s can only be launched vertically, o r a t high angles.

They have v e r y long range a t high launching- angles, - and the insufficient
flatness r e s u l t s from the s h o r t n e s s of the rocket. To attain flatness of
t r a j e c t o r y i n spite of this, the rocket would have tohave a v e l o c i t y n e a r that of
an a r t i l l e r y projectile which follows a flat trajectory, and rockets cannot
be given such velocities.
When the length of the rocket i s increased by a tail, flatness is
increased by l a t e r a l a i r r e s i s t a n c e on both the ascending and descending
a r m s of the trajectory.
2 . Another means for directing rockets without t a i l s consists of
imparting to the rockets in flight rotational motion about their axis.
This method reduces the flatness of trajectory even m o r e than the
preceding one, since the rotational motion of the rocket about i t s axis,

183
 produced by t h e design of the rocket, :+ always a b s o r b s p a r t of the
propulsive force, thereby reducing the action of the propulsive f o r c e
in the direction of flight, with a consequent reduction in velocity and
t r a j e c t o r y flatness.
3. T h e r e is y e t another method of making a r o c k e t fly s t r a i g h t without
a tail. T h i s c o n s i s t s of i m p a r t i n g t o the rocket, whose c e n t e r of gravity
is located a s i n winged r o c k e t s , a high initial velocity b y m e a n s of a gun-
powder c h a r g e in a n a p p r o p r i a t e l y designed launching tube, or, i n a c c o r d
with the c a l i b e r of the rocket, in the b a r r e l of a f i r e - a r m o r the b o r e of
a n ordnance piece. T h i s w a s MontgCry's idea and w a s developed b y him,
though in v e r y incomplete fashion, in his 1825 w o r k on r o c k e t s . On t h e
b a s i s of t h i s idea Montge'ry p r o p o s e s r o c k e t s of s p e c i a l design, which he
t e r m s "rochettes. 'I
T h e Foss r i f l e incendiary r o c k e t s used by u s a r e a p r a c t i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n
of Montge'ry's idea and probably constitute i t s only possible application.
T h e r e is no doubt that the idea could b e m a d e a b a s i s f o r the design of
t a i l l e s s m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s m e a n t t o b e shot from light ordnance by a r e d u c e d
c h a r g e o r f r o m launching tubes specially designed f o r this object.
Unfortunately s u c h r o c k e t s , in s p i t e of t h e i r probably flat t r a j e c t o r i e s
and s m a l l deviations, would offer no p a r t i c u l a r advantages. Shot f r o m
a r t i l l e r y pieces, they would constitute a n expensive projectile whose c o s t
and difficult maintenance would not b e compensated f o r by i t s advantages,
c o n s i s t i n g of the g r e a t explosive and incendiary effect of r o c k e t p r o j e c t i l e s
by corn p a r is on with conventional a r t i l l e r y projectiles.
T h e introduction of r o c k e t s a s a r t i l l e r y p r o j e c t i l e s would l e a d t o an
i n c r e a s e in the a l r e a d y existing d i v e r s i t y of ordnance ammunition and
this alone is a l m o s t a sufficient a r g u m e n t that the idea of shooting t a i l l e s s
r o c k e t s f r o m a r t i l l e r y p i e c e s should not be pursued.
T h e shooting of t a i l l e s s r o c k e t s by a c h a r g e f r o m s p e c i a l l y designed
launching tubes would lead t o a s p e c i a l a r t i l l e r y whose c h a r a c t e r would
b e p a r t i c u l a r l y notable f o r having combined the deficiencies of conventional
and r o c k e t a r t i l l e r y , without the chief advantages of e i t h e r . T h e efficiency
of t h i s a r t i l l e r y would thus b e l e s s than that of conventional a r t i l l e r y . On the
the other hand, although the l a u n c h e r s of this a r t i l l e r y wouldbe considerably
e a s i e r to move than a r t i l l e r y pieces, they would weigh f a r m o r e than
conventional r o c k e t l a u n c h e r s , with the r e s u l t that t h i s a r t i l l e r y would have
considerably less mobility than existing rocket a r t i l l e r y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
s o much t i m e would b e r e q u i r e d to load the launching tubes with r o c k e t s
that t h i s a r t i l l e r y would b e s l o w e r in action, not only than rockets, but
even than ordnance. T h i s new a r t i l l e r y , constituting something in between
conventional and r o c k e t a r t i l l e r y , would be devoid of t h e qualities which
are the r e a s o n f o r the vitality of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s , t h e i r existence a t present,
and t h e u r g e f o r t h e i r improvement, i. e., the l a c k of any d e s t r u c t i v e effect

* Rotational motion about the axis of the rocket c a n b e produced by:

a ) Oblique gas exhaust orifices.
b) An oblique surface attached to the rocket, in the stream of the escaping gases.
c ) External spacings on the casing to produce rotational motion through a i r resistance.
d) Screwlike threads on the inner surface of t h e launching tube and projections, which fit into t h e m ,
on the surface of the rocket. In a l l of these cases. careful investigation of the matter shows convincingly
that the rotational motion occurs a t the expense of the rocket's propulsive force.

184

I III lrrrl 1 1 - 1 I-
on the launcher, and concentration of the r e a s o n s f o r the projectile's motion
and its t e r m i n a l effect in the projectile itself.
6 July 1849
Colonel Konstantinov

7. THE INTRODUCTION AND USE O F MILITARY

ROCKETS IN THE NAVY*

The following a r e the contents of a note on the introduction and u s e of

m i l i t a r y rockets in the Navy, r e a d by Colonel Konstantinov, Permanent
Member:
1 . Comparison of military rockets with conventional artillery
Deficiencies of rockets:
a. Military rockets cost m o r e than rounds fired from a r t i l l e r y pieces.
b. They a r e m o r e prone to deteriorate through prolonged storage o r
unfavorable conditions than is a r t i l l e r y ammunition.
c. They a r e inferior to ordnance both in s t r i k i n g f o r c e and accuracy.
d. In l a r g e numbers, exceeding 500, rockets have higher weight and
volume than those of a r t i l l e r y pieces with their ammunition.
Advantages of rockets:
1. T h e projectile incorporates its means of propulsion.
2 . T h e s m a l l space required f o r rocket launching,
3 . T h e ready transportability of rocket launchers and individual rockets.
F o r these r e a s o n s rockets, despite their drawbacks, constitute a useful
weapon even when conventional a r t i l l e r y is available, since they sometimes
make it possible to achieve r e s u l t s unattainable with conventional a r t i l l e r y .
Proof of this is furnished by the increasing annual demand f o r m i l i t a r y
rockets in the Caucasus, where 6000 rockets a r e to be s e n t this year. and
m e a s u r e s are being taken to i n c r e a s e the annual shipment to 12,000.
Rockets might have c e r t a i n special u s e s in the Navy, e. g. :
1. F o r operations from rowboats o r the s h o r e .
2 . F o r action against ships from s h o r e b a t t e r i e s .
3. F o r action against the s h o r e whenever the Navy must undertake
independent military operations against the s h o r e .
4. F o r signalling and illuminating.
5. T o throw lines.
T o examine m o r e closely the utility of introducing rockets in the Navy
i t would b e helpful to conduct experiments on military rockets under the
direction of the Rocket Institute and in the presence of o b s e r v e r s from the
Navy Department. F o r the purpose of testing rockets in the five instances
l i s t e d above, at l e a s t a t f i r s t , it would b e n e c e s s a r y to limit the t e s t s t o
2 ' ' rockets, whose use, to the exclusion of other calibers, in the Caucasus,
testifies t o their being the most perfected of o u r designs.
F o r rocket operations on t e r r a i n and against ships from the coast the
launchers and launching methods now i n u s e a r e sufficient, but rowboat
operations would r e q u i r e new launchers equipped to d i r e c t rockets even
when the boat is pitching and tossing, and which would protect the s h i p
Journal of the Naval Scientific Committee, No. 109, 3 February 1851. TsGAVMF, sotre 162, entry 1.
file 285, sheets 4 - 6.

185
and crew from the rocket's f i e r y wake. Such a launcher with a percussion
mechanism for ignition of the rockets might be built according to the
instructions of the Rocket Institute in the Izhorskii Naval Workshops. A
l i s t of rockets for the f i r s t experiments is appended. a:

Colonel Konstantinov

After hearing these r e m a r k s the Committee, being of the opinion that

military rockets might be of use t o the Navy, proposed to p r e s e n t the idea
to the scrutiny of the Head of the Chief Naval Staff, requesting his opinion
of the following:
1. Allowing the indicated experiments to be performed.
2 . Permitting the use of the Committee's funds, up t o the s u m of
300 s i l v e r rubles, required f o r the manufacture of 1 7 0 rockets f o r the
experiments ,
3. Communication with the War Department on the subject of having
these rockets made in the Rocket Institute and s t o r e d t h e r e until required,
a s well as having the Institute supply means f o r performance of the
experiments.
4. Ordering from the Izhorskii Naval Workshop, on the instructions
of Colonel Konstantinov, a rocket launcher for u s e on training ships.
Original signed by the Honorable Chairman of the Committee and the
m e m b e r s and authenticated by the learned Secretary.

8. A SHORT NOTE ON MEASURES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT

O F RUSSIAN MILITARY R O C m T W *

Military rockets have been in use in Europe f o r about 50 y e a r s , but

a t present they a r e everywhere regarded as second-class weapons and
no government has yet affirmed the need for any great outlay on rockets.
Only in Austria has the influence of General Augustin, who has made
considerable improvement in rockets, succeeded in constituting 118 of
a l l the field a r t i l l e r y t of rocket batteries; however, the rockets
manufactured in Austria a r e exclusively of s m a l l caliber ( 2 " and 2 l/2").
The manufacture of rockets was taken up in F r a n c e in 1806, a f t e r
their use by the English a t Boulogne. R e s e a r c h on the subject was
conducted under the observation of a special commission composed of
f i r s t - r a n k scientists, but frequent coups-d'&at and, to a n equal extent,
the extraordinary difficulty of perfecting rockets, have been the r e a s o n
why rocket r e s e a r c h i n F r a n c e has continued to the present day, and the
French now have only one rocket battery in the E a s t .
In England rockets a r e used both by land f o r c e s and by the Navy f o r
operations from s m a l l rowboats, but the organization of the rocket
b a t t e r i e s is unknown t o us.

It goes without saying that funher experiments in this area would depend on the success of the first ones.
* * AIM Archive, ShGF some, enuy 12, file 154, sheets 149-160.
t The note communicated this year by the Suite of His Highness Major-General Count Stakelberg shows
that Austria's 168 field batteries include 20 rocket batteries.

186
 F r e n c h and English Congreve r o c k e t s a r e completely different f r o m
the A u s t r i a n ones both i n t h e i r appearance and in t h e i r performance:
Congreve r o c k e t s have long r a n g e - up to 1600 s a g e n e s [3735 yd] - but
deviate considerably f r o m the a i m i n g plane, while the A u s t r i a n rockets,
with a r a n g e of no m o r e than 350 s a g e n e s [ 8 2 0 yd], a r e distinguished b y
accuracy.
F o r a long t i m e we had no information about the A u s t r i a n r o c k e t design,
which w a s kept a closely-guarded s e c r e t , and although Major Moore
attempted t o r e p r o d u c e it i n Russia, he failed due t o h i s l a c k of f a m i l i a r i t y
with the subject. Finally Colonel Konstantinov. D i r e c t o r of t h e Rocket
Institute, i n two t r i p s t o Vienna, succeeded in penetrating the s e c r e t of
the A u s t r i a n rockets, which would of c o u r s e have r e m a i n e d permanently
i n a c c e s s i b l e t o s o m e o n e less conversant with the b u s i n e s s of r o c k e t
production. Xc
Our Rocket Institute w a s tooled f o r the production of r o c k e t s of the
English type, whose m i l i t a r y u s e i n appreciable n u m b e r s in R u s s i a
began i n 1846, as a consequerice of the r e q u i r e m e n t s of P r i n c e Vorontsov.
Since then about 33,000 R u s s i a n m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s have b e e n manufactured,
and they w e r e u s e d with considerable s u c c e s s , i n the c a p t u r e and defense of
Ak-Mechet, and a t the s i e g e of S i l i s t r i a , a s P r i n c e Vorontsov, I m p e r i a l
Aide, G e n e r a l P e r o v s k i i , and P r i n c e Gorchakov testify. According t o the
dispatch of Lieutenant-General B r i m m e r in the battle of Kyuryuk-Dara
a g a i n s t the T u r k s , the r o c k e t s with the C o s s a c k Hundreds, on the right
flank of the R u s s i a n position, not only t e r r i f i e d the enemy infantry and
c a v a l r y by t h e i r novelty and unexpectedness, but being well- aimed, inflicted
r e a l damage on the enemy m a s s e s , especially during the p u r s u i t .
It is thus a p p a r e n t that 2 " field rockets, when p r o p e r l y u s e d t o
supplement ordnance i n mountainous and d i s s e c t e d t e r r a i n w h e r e the l a t t e r
is not e a s i l y t r a n s p o r t a b l e , can b e quite useful, and R u s s i a n r o c k e t s a r e
beginning to a t t a i n this goal.
As f a r a s long-range rockets, of about 3 l/2" c a l i b e r , a r e concerned,
they a r e g e n e r a l l y of little u s e in the defense of s e a c a o s t s b e c a u s e of
t h e i r c o n s i d e r a b l e deviation in flight and the awkwardness of t r a n s p o r t i n g
t h e m with t h e i r long tails, and f o r t h e additional r e a s o n that the e x t r e m e l y
l i m i t e d weight of t h e p r o j e c t i l e t h e s e r o c k e t s c a n c a r r y d e c r e a s e s with
i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a n g e d e s i r e d . O v e r long d i s t a n c e s r o c k e t s cannot c a r r y
any g r e a t e r projectile than a 12-pound s h e l l , whose effect on a s h i p is
totally insignificant. In s u c h c a s e s high-angle f i r e f r o m a r t i l l e r y pieces
is always p r e f e r a b l e , s i n c e the l a t t e r not only s t r i k e f a r m o r e a c c u r a t e l y
than rockets, but c a n shoot p r o j e c t i l e s of v e r y g r e a t c a l i b e r . Long-range
r o c k e t s a r e equally ineffectual in the bombardment of c i t i e s or f o r t r e s s e s ,
b e c a u s e of t h e insignificant s i z e of t h e i r p r o j e c t i l e s , and a n e n e m y can
only think of bringing r o c k e t s c l o s e t o t h e s h o r e in s m a l l b o a t s when
attacking a n unfortified position.
F r o m t h i s i t is c l e a r that in o u r p r e s e n t w a r with the E n g l i s h and F r e n c h
we have no r e a s o n t o f e a r r o c k e t launchings f r o m enemy s h i p s . T h e news-
paper r e p o r t s of e x p e r i m e n t s conducted i n F r a n c e on long-range r o c k e t s a r e

A small printing of the detailed description of the Austrian rockets. with sketches, composed by
Colonel Konstantinov. was made by royal order for distribution at the disposition of the Inspector-
General of Artillery.

187
 only apparently impressive, but give no a s s u r a n c e of particularly
destructive effect, since, a s shown above, these rockets can c a r r y
no m i s s i l e substantially g r e a t e r than a 12-pounder.
T h e r e a l utility of l a r g e - c a l i b e r rockets is limited to their application,
for demolition purposes, in land attacks or f o r t r e s s defense, to open a
b r e a c h i n a bank of e a r t h or t o destroy the works of those under siege.
However, high-quality demolition rockets able to withstand t r a n s p o r t and
s t o r a g e cannot be built with the existing equipment of the Rocket Institute.
F r o m 1823 to 1850 Russian rocket production w a s directed by the
Englishman Massingbird-Turner, and throughout t h i s period i t remained
at the s a m e level. T h e chief deficiency of the r o c k e t s was t h e i r rapid
deterioration in s t o r a g e and their tendency to b u r s t in launching,
particularly pronounced in large-caliber (3 l/2") rockets. T h e r e a s o n for
this is the weakness of the p r e s s e s , which date back to Moore's days,
which makes it impossible to f i l l the rockets with d r y propellant. The
compound must f i r s t be dampened, and the moisture i t contains then
r e s u l t s in c r a c k s when i t d r i e s .
After 1850, when Colonel Konstantinov, an officer endowed with
exceptional abilities and having wide knowledge, succeeded a s Director
of the Rocket Institute, Russian rocket production made great p r o g r e s s .
The concern of this field-officer resulted in much g r e a t e r accuracy and
safety in rocket production than before, brought about uniformity in the
preparation of the propellant and a l l rocket parts, improved rocket
launchers and replaced almost a l l machines by new ones differing from
the older models. T h e only exception to this was the p r e s s e s , whose
construction would have required a rriechanical motor and the reorganization
of the e n t i r e Rocket Institute. The practice of filling rockets with dampened
propellant could therefore not be altogether done away with. Konstantinov
accomplished a l l this without burdening the t r e a s u r y with g r e a t expense,
and with extremely limited financial a s s i s t a n c e . Without enough steady
a r t i s a n s , but annually employing new ones periodically sent to him from
various places and from the Guards infantry, Konstantinov nonetheless
succeeded in eliminating the p r e m a t u r e explosion of 2" rockets filled
with damp propellant. :I:
The manufacture of military rockets is the h a r d e s t of a l l laboratory
tasks, and in the Russian a r t i l l e r y only Colonel Konstantinov, dedicating
his life to rockets and t i r e l e s s l y studying them and investigating every
possibility for their improvement, subjecting every alteration in their
design to careful experiment, is able to bring Russian rockets up to the
s a m e level as foreign ones.
Now Russian m i l i t a r y rockets a r e a useful supplementary weapon in the
Army, as the testimonies cited above make clear, and although they a r e
less a c c u r a t e than the Austrian ones, they fly farther, which is essential
now that hand f i r e - a r m s a r e s o highly developed.
By comprehensive annual experiments in the presence of the Artillery
Section of the Military Scientific Committee, Konstantinov laid f i r m
foundations f o r the final establishment of c o r r e c t rocket design in Russia.
T h e s e experiments have required extended periods of time and untiring

* Konstantinov was not responsible for t h e construction and launching of the

3 1 / 2 " rockets used during the
field-engineers' experiments a t Peterhof in 1850. The explosion of one of rhese on the launcher nearly
took the life of Adjutant-General Prince Menshikov.

1707 188
efforts and now Colonel Konstantinov need only be given the n e c e s s a r y
m e a n s in o r d e r t o attain the d e s i r e d perfection. He has not excluded
3 l / 2 " long-range rockets f r o m his r e s e a r c h , and in the experiments
performed these rockets no longer burst, although, due to the weakness
of the p r e s s e s which r e q u i r e the u s e of dampened propellant, the Rocket
Institute cannot fully guarantee their quality.
T h e highest a r t i l l e r y command has not lost sight of the necessity of
equipping the Rocket Institute t o produce rockets of the desired quality.
Profiting from the information about Austrian rockets collected by
Konstantinov, and the g r e a t experience which he had acquired in this
a r e a , the Inspector-General of Artillery permitted him t o draw up plans
f o r the design of b a r r e l s for the preparation of propellant, new p r e s s e s ,
and a s t e a m engine, together with the n e c e s s a r y s t r u c t u r e s they involve.
At the s a m e t i m e Baron Korf, General of Artillery, was petitioning f o r a n
i n c r e a s e in the permanent staff of the Rocket Institute, taking into account
that the maximum set for it in 1850 was reduced i n view of the proposal
t o found another rocket institute in the Caucasus; since this proposal had
come t o nothing, the existing staff of the P e t e r s b u r g Rocket Institute was
insufficient. Presentation of the budget and staff s c h e m e s formulated
was delayed, f i r s t , by P r i n c e Vorontsov's proposal t o found a s p e c i a l
rocket institute in Georgievsk, second, by the v e r y formulation of machinery
designs, which required extended study and involved profound engineering
ideas, and finally, by the failure t o resolve the question of t r a n s f e r r i n g the
Rocket Institute and the place f o r a r t i l l e r y experiments f r o m Volkova
field. 'I:
It is inconvenient to leave the rocket institute in i t s p r e s e n t location not
only because i t is unsafe and because of the proximity of the connecting
railway line, but a l s o because t h e r e is insufficient room f o r the installation
of a s t e a m engine and of new workshops. A f u r t h e r point of necessity in
favor of the t r a n s f e r of the rocket institute t o a new location is that the
installation of a safe heating s y s t e m in i t would involve rebuilding of a l l the
s t r u c t u r e s , which would in t u r n mean bringing a l l rocket production f o r
c u r r e n t o r d e r s to a halt.. .
The following m e a s u r e s m u s t therefore be taken t o fulfill the i m p e r i a l
command without delay, and t o place our rocket production unquestionably
on such a high level that i t not only does not l a g behind, but even outstrips
that of foreign governments.
1 ) T h e Rocket Institute should be removed f a r t h e r from the connecting
railway line and built c l o s e r t o Volkova village. F o r this purpose the
n e c e s s a r y land should be rented from the Volkova peasants, 1 2 l / 2 desyatina
[33.75 a c r e s ] , f o r a n annual r a t e equal to the yearly income they r e c e i v e
from it, 1541 s i l v e r rubles, T h e ground f o r the a r t i l l e r y experiments,
however, should be left on Volkova field, but the buildings on i t should be
rebuilt and s o m e new ones e r e c t e d . T h e ground itself should be partitioned
off and surrounded by a hedge on t h r e e sides. The plan of the sections
allotted for the cottages should b e changed s o that they lie parallel, r a t h e r
than perpendicular t o the T s a r s k o e Selo railway line, and no f r e s h boundary
line should be drawn between the plots and the testing ground, especially
a c r o s s the l a t t e r .
T h e order t o seek a new location for the artillery experiments and the rocket institute c a m e in 1846 by
royal command, as a result of His Majesty's observation, m a d e after a visit t o the poorhouse. which
was built by a local Civic Group near Volkova Cemetery. that the view from there, on either side of
the Tsarskoe Selo railway line, was unsightly.

189
 Leaving the rocket institute and the a r t i l l e r y testing ground a t Volkova
field would save the t r e a s u r y the 740,132 s i l v e r rubles required to purchase
the land of Piskarev. In place of this there would be only a s m a l l outlay
for rental of the new location f o r the rocket institute from the residents of
Volkova and completion of the testing ground.
2) A rocket institute to be built on the newly chosen s i t e should be
designed from the plans and budgets drawn up for t h i s purpose, for the
annual production of 12,000 field and demolition rockets of various calibers,
with installation of a heating system safe for operations involving gunpowder.
According to the estimates, construction of the workshops with assembly of
the machines and metal parts, and of the b a r r a c k s for the a r t i s a n s would
require 755,263 s i l v e r rubles, but the cost of commercial s t r u c t u r e s could
be lowered.
3 ) W i t h foundation of the new rocket institute corresponding new staffs
should be assigned, with an increased number of m a s t e r s , apprentices,
and artisans, in accord with the scheme specially drawn up.
4) Until completion of the rocket institute in the new location, rocket
manufacture should be continued in the existing institute, using its
facilities and attempting no m o r e than the production of rockets with moist
propellant, which it is equipped to turn out.
When these proposals will receive preliminary approval from the
E m p e r o r , the already existing plans f o r the new staff and budget of the
rocket institute will be presented for final ratification.

9. TERMINATION O F THE MANUFACTURE O F

2" MILITARY ROCKETS??

By o r d e r of the Chairman of the Artillery Committee the notes of a

member [of the Committee] in charge of affairs r e f e r t o the Committee
for its conclusion, under the numbers 105, 107, 539, 592, and 653, the
replies of the regional a r t i l l e r y commands and headquarters t o the
question of withdrawing 2 " military rockets from use, a s follows: Omsk,
No. 309/1885, and Turkestan, No. 558/1885 (commands); Irkutsk,
No. 2685/1885, Caucasus, No. 2997/1885, and Amur, No. 2835/1885
(headquarters).
The subject a r o s e a s follows. In the previous y e a r (1884) the
Artillery Committee had been instructed t o study the m a t t e r of 1500 2"
military rockets delivered from Orenburg to Tashkent. Of these a l a r g e
number turned out to have deteriorated during the journey and t o r e q u i r e
r e p a i r . The Master of the Ordnance therefore requested the Committee
t o consider the utility of the continued production and use of 2" military
rockets, suggesting that in view of the present design and armament of
field and mountain a r t i l l e r y it might b e advisable to withdraw and
discontinue the manufacture of the 2" rockets.
Bearing in mind that m i l i t a r y rockets w e r e nowhere used in European
w a r s subsequent to the Crimean campaign, and feeling that their future u s e
would be unlikely, and considering that Russians had used military rockets

Artillery Committee Joumal No. 12. 16 January 1886. TsGVIA. store 504. entry 8. file 1354,
sheets 4- 10 obverse.

190

__ --. .-- .. .I. .,. ..I .

I, .
I .. I I
p r i m a r i l y in w a r s with s e m i - b a r b a r i a n peoples and that, s o f a r a s was
known t o t h e Committee, the r o c k e t s had been dispatched to the battalions
in the field a t the r e q u e s t of individuals in command of expeditions, the
A r t i l l e r y Committee, i n i t s j o u r n a l No. 462, f o r 2 5 October 1884, e x p r e s s e d
the view that f o r final resolution of the m a t t e r , i t would b e b e s t t o a s k the
t r o o p c o m m a n d e r s i n distant regions how much importance they attached
t o t h e u s e of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s and whether they did not find the t i m e
opportune f o r t h e i r withdrawal, following the example of the European
armies.
T h e aforementioned r e p l i e s j u s t r e c e i v e d show that the c o m m a n d e r s of
t h e Omsk, Turkestan. Irkutsk, and C a u c a s u s m i l i t a r y regions a r e a l l
a g r e e d i n the view that 2" m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s a r e of little value in m i l i t a r y
action, especially i n view of the perfected long-range weapons of o u r troops,
and that t h e i r u s e should be altogether discontinued f o r the following
reasons:
1, The Commander of the Omsk region finds m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s
u s e l e s s e v e n i n A s i a t i c w a r s , due to t h e i r low a c c u r a c y , poor
s t r i k i n g force, and e x t r e m e l y unpredictable flight v a g a r i e s , s o m e t i m e s
r e s u l t i n g i n injury t o the troops launching them. A f u r t h e r objection is the
difficulty of maintaining them in a p r o p e r s t a t e of r e p a i r during t r a n s p o r t ,
s i n c e the propellant d e t e r i o r a t e s if i t is shaken o r exposed to g r e a t heat.
AS a r e s u l t the r o c k e t s frequently explode on the stand o r c l o s e t o it,
injuring the attendants. Under s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t is n a t u r a l t o
d i s t r u s t a weapon which at a decisive moment c a n c a u s e confusion of which
the enemy c a n r e a d i l y take advantage. J u s t such a c i r c u m s t a n c e was
w i t n e s s e d during the Kokand campaign by Major-General Savrimovich, the
p r e s e n t C o m m a n d e r of the W e s t S i b e r i a n A r t i l l e r y Brigade.
2. T h e C o m m a n d e r of the T u r k e s t a n region a l s o r e g a r d s the s u m s
expended on m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s as a waste of money, s i n c e t h e i r unpredictability
i n flight, t h e infrequent explosion of t h e i r s h e l l s and t h e i r s h o r t r a n g e make
it i m p o s s i b l e f o r them to compete with rifle fire. Moreover, the b u r s t i n g
of r o c k e t s on the s t a n d is dangerous t o the attendants. When r o c k e t s a r e
u s e d a g a i n s t c a v a l r y t h e i r m e r e a p p e a r a n c e i n the a i r frightens the h o r s e s
and c r e a t e s d i s o r d e r , but in w a r against the peoples of C e n t r a l Asia
r o c k e t s do not even offer t h e s e advantages, s i n c e the Asiatic c a v a l r y is
not o r d e r e d t o begin with, and a t t a c k s in an enormous m a s s , only an
insignificant p a r t of which c a n b e affected by r o c k e t s launched against it.
On the o t h e r hand, the delivery of r o c k e t s t o the T u r k e s t a n region is
costly, and i n addition, formation of the rocket detachments r e s u l t s in
weakening of the C o s s a c k units, f r o m which the b e s t m e n and h o r s e s a r e
selected.
A s a r e s u l t the C o m m a n d e r of the T u r k e s t a n region feels that s o m e of the
m o s t r e l i a b l e r o c k e t s to b e found in the depots of the region, together with a
few s t a n d s and o t h e r paraphernalia, should b e kept i n s o m e of the regional
fortifications, in any c a s e , f o r u s e against enemy t r o o p s in the improbable
contingency of t h e investment of t h e s e fortifications; f o r leaving the r o c k e t s
in s e r v i c e until they b e c o m e u s e l e s s will involve no new expenditure. T h e
r e m a i n i n g rockets, however, i n his opinion, should b e destroyed, and the
s t a n d s and other appurtenances reduced to s c r a p i r o n and sold.
3 . T h e C o m m a n d e r of the I r k u t s k region, while a g r e e i n g that
production of m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s should b e t e r m i n a t e d because of t h e i r

191
 low effectiveness in battle, believes that i t would be useful t o r e t a i n the
military rockets presently in the regional depots f o r the event of w a r with
the Mongols and Chinese, whose cavalry is s o disorganized that in the
absence of a r t i l l e r y military rockets could be of u s e by impeding the
enemy's control of his h o r s e s .
4 . T h e Commander of the Caucasus region, agreeing that production of
military rockets should b e discontinued because of their low m i l i t a r y
capabilities, and their tendency t o deterioration through t r a n s p o r t o r the
influence of temperature, humidity, etc., feels that the existing rockets
should b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o the disposition of the Commanders of the
Transcaspian region and the T u r k e s t a n region, where alone occasions
f o r their use can a r i s e , since the chief purpose of r o c k e t s should be not
s o much t o s t r i k e a s t o demoralize the s e m i - b a r b a r i a n and undisciplined
hordes of native cavalry. Previous campaigns have shown, however, that
even in this theater of w a r occasions for the u s e of m i l i t a r y rockets have
a r i s e n extremely seldom, and that when they did the rockets w e r e not
always successful, s i n c e they not only failed a t t i m e s to inflict injury
on the enemy, but endangered the troops using them by bursting on the
stand. A s far a s the u s e of m i l i t a r y rockets in the event of a clash with
the T u r k s o r P e r s i a n s is concerned, i t cannot be expected to be of any
s e r v i c e since a t present not only their r e g u l a r troops, but a l s o m o s t of
their i r r e g u l a r cavalry, a r e a r m e d with breech-loading rifles characterized
by g r e a t range and accuracy, qualities which the rockets do not possess.
5. T h e Commander of the Amur region, while recognizing that
military rockets have now completely l o s t their value in w a r s with
countries whose troops a r e properly organized and well armed, f e e l s that
they can still be of u s e in the Amur region, since in the event of w a r
there, not only troops drawn up in modern a r r a y would be involved, but,
f o r the most part, crowds who could b e made t o panic by the rockets.
With this attitude, and in view of the fact that the regions of European
Russia, in all probability, contain a considerable number of m i l i t a r y rockets
doomed t o destruction, and that their production will again be terminated,
while the a r t i l l e r y depots of the Amur region contain a t present a total
of only 800 rockets serviceable f o r m i l i t a r y use, Baron Korf, Adjutant
General and Commander of the region, r e q u e s t s f r o m the Minister
of War a disposition f o r shipment t o his region of the g r e a t e s t possible
number of rockets, together with stands and a l l other appurtenances.
Information, The following is the number of 2 " r o c k e t s presently t o
b e found in depots:

In the depots of the Omsk region . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6057 rockets

., ,, ,. ., ,.
Turkestan region . . . . . . . . . . . 2812 .
,, .I I, 41 II
. . .
Kiev region . . . . . . . . . . 400 .
,, I, I, . , I ,
Caucasus region .
. . . . . . . . . . . 3425 "
,, I, .( ,I 11
Amur region . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061 ''
I n the Nikolaev Rocket Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5650 "

19405 "

T h e Nikolaev Rocket Plant has been given a n o r d e r for the manufacture of

250 2 " military rockets in 1886.

192
 A f t e r examining a l l t h e above and taking into account the opinions of
t h e C o m m a n d e r s of t h e m i l i t a r y r e g i o n s mentioned with r e g a r d to the
u s e l e s s n e s s of manufacturing m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s of t h e type c u r r e n t in
Russia, and b e a r i n g in mind t h e thin w a l l s of the r o c k e t propellant forced
into the casing, which frequently s u f f e r s e v e r e j o l t s when the r o c k e t s ,
t r a n s p o r t e d in c a r t s , and m o r e particularly, in pack-loads, a r e c a r e l e s s l y
taken down f r o m the h o r s e s and put on t h e ground, thereby inducing c r a c k s
in the propellant and ruining the rockets, the A r t i l l e r y C o m m i t t e e decided:
1 ) T h a t the manufacture of 2 " m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s at the Nikolaev Rocket
P l a n t now b e terminated, and that it b e left t o the Rocket P l a n t t o m a k e
u s e of those of t h e r e m a i n i n g machines, lathes, i n s t r u m e n t s , etc., which
c a n b e employed in t h e manufacture of r o c k e t f l a r e s , r e s c u e r o c k e t s , and
other objects.
2 ) T h a t in a c c o r d with t h e r e q u e s t of t h e C o m m a n d e r of the Amur
region the 5650 2" m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s p r e s e n t l y i n the Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t
b e shipped a t his disposition and w h e r e v e r he wishes, with the beginning of
s u m m e r i n the coming y e a r (1886). All of t h e s e r o c k e t s , which have not yet
undergone t r a n s p o r t , should i n any c a s e b e examined, and only those of
t h e m should b e s e n t whose a p p e a r a n c e indicates that they a r e in p e r f e c t
o r d e r , although s u c h examination w i l l give no guarantee that a f t e r the
journey t o the Amur region s o m e r o c k e t s w i l l not b u r s t in launching.
T h e r o c k e t s t a n d s and p r e s c r i b e d appurtenances should b e shipped with t h e
r o c k e t s , and w h e r e convenient, m a y b e taken f r o m the depots of the
C a u c a s u s or other r e g i o n s w h e r e they a r e t o be found.
3 ) T h e m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s now t o be found in the depots of the Asiatic
m i l i t a r y r e g i o n s should, in a c c o r d with the opinion of the C o m m a n d e r s
of t h e s e regions, b e r e t a i n e d in t h e s e depots o r in other places,
conformable t o the occasion of t h e i r being r e q u i r e d in battle.
4) T h e m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s s t o r e d in t h e depots m u s t unfailingly b e
periodically (not less than once a y e a r ) checked and t e s t e d in the p r e s e n c e
of an officer in c h a r g e of e x p e r i m e n t s , with t h e i r launcher and
p r e l i m i n a r y drive, in a c c o r d with the r u l e s s e t forth in the description
of 2 " m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s w r i t t e n by Captain Stepanov of the Nikolaev Rocket
P l a n t and disseminated in the C o m m i t t e e Journal, No. 409 (1853). T h i s
d e s c r i p t i o n should b e u s e d a s a guide in dealing with m i l i t a r y r o c k e t s and
their storage.

10. COMPRESSED AIR ROCKETS WITH SPECIAL

GUIDES IN PLACE O F TAILS':

Notes No. 491 and 1176 of the b u s i n e s s m a n a g e r of the A r t i l l e r y

Committee, f o r 1905, refer t o the C o m m i t t e e f o r i t s conclusion Colonel
P o m o r t s e v ' s r e p o r t s of 21 A p r i l and 14 October 1905, the first of which
d e a l s with the r e p l a c e m e n t of r o c k e t t a i l s by s p e c i a l guides, and the second of
which is concerned with the r e p l a c e m e n t of f o r c e d r o c k e t propellant by com-
p r e s s e d air.
F r o m t h e f i r s t r e p o r t it is c l e a r that Colonel P o m o r t s e v h a s r e p l a c e d
the r o c k e t t a i l b y a s p e c i a l vane c o n s i s t i n g of 4 s t e e l bands (1 mm thick
and 50" wide), attached at t h e i r c e n t e r s t o t h e 4 extensions of a s t e e l
tube, at the e n d s of two mutually perpendicular d i a m e t e r s . T h e tangent
Artillely Committee Journal No. 42, 18 January 1906. AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store, entry
39/4, file 417, sheets 293, 305- 307.

193
 ends of the bands a r e riveted together in pairs, forming a spider on the
tube, which is tightly fitted over the lower end of the rocket casing and
is securely coupled t o it.
The a r m s of the vane, since they meet s m a l l a i r resistance when the
rocket is in translational motion, s e r v e a s excellent guides, and since
they a r e lighter than a tail, rockets with a vane of this type, a s experiments
at the Main Artillery Proving Ground have shown, fly m o r e accurately and
farther than rockets with tails. F o r the launching of vaned rockets
Pomortsev built a v e r y light stand, consisting of 4 iron guide s t r i p s
arranged in p a i r s in two mutually perpendicular planes, with their inner
edges parallel. The r e a r ends of the guides a r e coupled by an i r o n ring
and b r a c e s t r i p s in the plane of the ring, but the forward ends a r e f r e e to
admit the rocket casing with the required gap, placing the a r m s of the
vane between the neighboring guides. The lower guide s t r i p is connected
by means of a hinge to a s m a l l tripod, which makes it possible to launch
the rocket a t any angle desired. The total weight of stand and tripod is
about 1 pud [36 Ib], but experiment has shown such a light stand to be r a t h e r
unstable.
In his second r e p o r t Pomortsev r e m a r k s that during his l a s t journey
abroad, among other things, he visited s e v e r a l plants in Belgium and
F r a n c e which a r e concerned with the development of pipes for compressed
gases, and that he stayed a t the French Socigtk metallurgique de Montbard,
n e a r Dijon. This plant is involved in widespread production of pipe and
has a special factory for the electrolytic extraction of oxygen and hydrogen.
The plant then ships these gases in compressed form to many places in
F r a n c e and Belgium. The director of this establishment, an excellent
engineer, was highly receptive t o Pomortsev’s idea and together they
developed a design for a rocket propelled by compressed a i r .
Attaching a schematic diagram of this rocket, Colonel Pomortsev
requests that an o r d e r now be given t o the French plant, in o r d e r to
begin experiments on the rockets a t the beginning of the coming spring.
The essence of the design is a s follows: a s e a m l e s s s t e e l pipe with a
threaded hole in its head s e r v e s a s a r e s e r v o i r for compressed a i r a t
200 atmospheres. When filled with a i r , the pipe is closed by the shank
of a steel sleeve which s c r e w s into the hole. The sleeve has a disk-like
top whose diameter is slightly g r e a t e r than the external diameter of the
pipe. Along the axis of the sleeve is drilled a channel whose upper p a r t
is fitted with a screw thread, while i t s middle, smooth part, of somewhat
s m a l l e r diameter communicates with the lower surface of the sleeve head
by four mutually perpendicular radial ducts in the thickness of the head,
whose outflow orifices a r e arranged with perfect symmetry about the axis
of the pipe and diverge downwards somewhat from it. Finally, the lower,
a l s o smooth p a r t of the central channel through the sleeve , s t i l l s m a l l e r
in diameter, is closed off by a copper cup whose base r e s t s upon an ebonite
disk. This is pressed against the lower edge of the middle p a r t of the
channel by the s t e m of the central screw, whose head is screwed into its
upper, threaded part. In the s t e m of the central screw below is a r e c e s s
for a percussion cap. When this is exploded by an electrical s p a r k the
ebonite disk and copper cup a r e broken, permitting the compressed a i r
to escape from the r e s e r v o i r through the radial ducts.

194
 The advantage of placing the exhaust orifices in the rocket head is that
the rocket's propulsive force, being applied in front of the center of
gravity, contributes t o flight stability. The stabilizing vane described
above is mounted on the r e a r end of the rocket, in place of a tail, and a
luminous or other projectile is mounted on the disk-like head of the
sleeve.
P o m o r t s e v showed, from the numerical data given in his notes, that a
IO-cm compressed a i r rocket weighing 16 to 17 kg, about the weight of a
3'' flare, could hold 1 l / 2 cubic m e t e r s of a i r under a p r e s s u r e of 200
atmospheres. T h e a i r , escaping through the four r a d i a l ducts, 2.5 m m
in diameter, is completely exhausted in 2 5 seconds, giving the rocket a n
initial propulsive force of not l e s s than 40 kg, o r no l e s s than that of a
3'' flare, but since i t a c t s for a longer period, the compressed air rocket
might be expected to have a longer range.
O p i n i o n of t h e c o m m i t t e e . In its journal for 1903 (No. 554), the
Artillery Committee, a f t e r declaring itself in favor of experiments on
compressed air rockets, voted to allow Colonel P o m o r t s e v 1000 rubles for
his experiments. The money was used to build a pump to c o m p r e s s the
g a s e s and to finance experiments for the development of stabilizing devices
to replace rocket tails, as well a s preliminary experiments on rocket
propulsion by means of compressed a i r . Finding his r e s u l t s satisfactory,
the Artillery Committee voted Pomortsev another 1000 rubles upon his
petition for this sum t o enable the completion of h i s experiments on
compressed a i r rockets.

11. FROM THE REPORT ON A MISSION T O THE NIKOLAEV

ROCKET PLANT TO PARTICIPATE IN MAJOR-GENERAL
POMORTSEV'S EXPERIMENTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT O F
A NEW TYPE O F ROCK-T FLARE*

..
. Summarizing all of the above, I a r r i v e a t the following conclusions:
1) Major-General Pomortsev has been conducting experiments toward
the development of a new type of rocket for about 5 y e a r s , but they have
not yet yielded any result, despite the full sympathy of the Artillery
Committee in making both the m a t e r i a l and technical a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r
these experiments.
2 ) After spending about 1 l / 2 months a t the Nikolaev Rocket Plant on a
mission of participation in these experiments, I a m convinced of the
complete lack of a program in their conduct, which leads m e to a s s e r t
that they will not yield an improved rocket f l a r e in the n e a r future.
3) In o r d e r t o promote the development of a new type of rocket flare,
Major-General P o m o r t s e v should be removed from l e a d e r s h i p of the project
in favor of someone who has experience in working with gunpowder.
For my part, I can indicate the following instructions t o be followed for
the attainment of success:
1 ) Attention should be concentrated on the development of rocket flares,
and only incidentally devoted t o military rockets (recalling that g r e a t
importance was formerly attributed to military r o c k e t s both h e r e and

AIM Archive. Artillery Committee store. entry 39/3. file 585. sheets 50/46 obverse - 50/48 obverse.

195
 abroad for the simple reason that the smooth cast-iron a r t i l l e r y then in
u s e produced l e s s effective f i r e than rockets, whereas the rifled a r t i l l e r y
and light machine guns now in use have caused military rockets in many
instances t o lose a l l value in war, in the field, and in f o r t r e s s e s ) . This
demands altering the cap with pellets, giving it the most effective shape
for reduction of wind resistance, and equipping it with pellets of a s t r o n g e r
(i.e., brighter) compound, since that currently in u s e is adequate for
illumination only over distances not exceeding one v e r s t .
2) To come t o the development of a rocket flare, one must f i r s t of a l l
study the curves of p r e s s u r e in rockets for different combinations of
ingredients in the rocket propellant, its density of compression, the
dimensions of the ignition channel and the s i z e and shape of the exhaust
orifices. This will require an improved dynamometer, m o r e suitable for
this purpose than that proposed by Major-General Pomortsev.
The r e s e a r c h program should be a s follows:
a ) F i r s t of a l l the p r e s s u r e curve for the existing type of 3" rocket
f l a r e m u s t be found.
b) Then, without altering any other conditions in the equipment of
existingrockets, only the s i z e of the exhaust orifices should be varied
in o r d e r t o find, under certain set conditions, the most efficient orifice.
Concurrently one can investigate the best shape and disposition of the
orifices - whether a single central orifice of a given a r e a , o r s e v e r a l
orifices grouped symmetrically about the axis of the rocket and together
giving the s a m e a r e a .
c ) After the most efficient type of orifice has been found, the best
dimensions for the ignition channel, a l l other things being equal, must
be sought (i. e., the dimensions which will give the gkeatest propulsive
force). T h e shape of the ignition channel used in r e s a u e rockets -with a
narrow neck in the middle - should be tested.
d) It should be determined whether the currently accepted rocket
propellant (72 p a r t s n i t r e to 14 of sulfur and 20 of carbon) is the best.
P r a c t i c e gives the following indications, which should be used a s a guide
in seeking the components of a rocket propellant. Carbon should b e used
in the s m a l l e s t possible quantity, a s a substance which in appreciable
quantities will make the propellant too loose and m o r e likely to dry out.
The most powerful propellant is gunpowder: 75 p a r t s of nitre, 1 2 l/2 p a r t s
of sulfur and 1 2 l / 2 p a r t s of carbon. This can be weakened by addition of
sulfur until it reaches I f 5 of the weight of nitre; further addition of sulfur
r e s u l t s in too great an increase of the amount of solid residue, s o that
the explosive properties of the compound a r e not reduced in proportion to
its adulteration, probably because the holes in the base plates become
obstructed by the solid residue. When the limiting quantity of sulfur, equal
to 115 that of nitre, is reached, further weakening r e q u i r e s r e s o r t t o carbon,
though the amount of sulfur can be increased somewhat with the addition of
carbon, since the residue of combustion is then less dense. The propellant
chosen should be the b e s t in t e r m s of range, curvature of trajectory, and
l e a s t likelihood of bursting the casing. The quality of the carbonaceous
products used has an enormous effect on the properties of the triple
mixture:

196
 I
Analysis of coal in percenl
Efficiency
Tempera-
Temperature of Nitrogen of coal in
ture of
carbonization Carbon H y T per-
:ombustion
oxygen centages
~-
.~

210' 340 - 360' 72.64 4.70 0.57 22.10 36.16

350 360 - 370 76.64 4.14 0.61 29.66
432 400 81.54 1.96 1.16 15.25 18.87
1500 600- 800 94.57 0.74 1.66 17.31
Melting point of platinum 1250 96.52 0.62 1.95 0.94 15.00

In general it can be said that the most suitable coal is that which is most
easily ignited, burns fastest, and leaves the l e a s t ash. The extent to which
all this depends on the temperature a t which carbonization of the wood
occurred appears from the above table of Violette, who carbonized almost
identical pieces of buckthorn turned out a t 150".
e ) The most favorable degree of compression for the rocket propellant
must be determined (incidentally determining the absolute density of the
compressed propellant). The journals of f o r m e r experiments kept on file
in the Rocket Plant will be of some assistance in working on the second
point.
f ) In place of tails and guides efforts should be made to utilize
rotational motion for the attainment of flight accuracy. F o r the rotational
motion to i n c r e a s e the accuracy of the projectile's translational motion, it
must, a s is well known, take place about a certain axis tangent to the
trajectory, and must be fully developed before the projectile c e a s e s t o be
guided or, what amounts to the s a m e thing, before the axis of rotation
c e a s e s to be supported. Only then w i l l the desired stability of the
projectile relative to the direction of firing be achieved.
In ordnance pieces and hand f i r e - a r m s these conditions a r e satisfied
by the full development of the rotational motion in the b a r r e l of the gun
itself, whose walls determine the position of the axis of rotation, This
will not occur, however, i f the rotational motion continues to develop and
increase when the projectile is no longer guided, or, what would be
altogether disadvantageous for flight accuracy, when the rotational motion
is produced by translational motion, a s , for example, by a i r resistance
against the s p i r a l grooves or through the s p i r a l ducts in the projectiles;
for then the rotation can a r i s e about a random axis with no specific
orientation to the direction of motion, and instead of correcting the flight of the
projectile, can become a new source of deviation. Finally rotational
motion s e t up even prior to the projectile's translational motion in space
will be inadequate t o regulate i t s flight if i t s translational motion continues
through action of the propulsive force, whose development in the projectile
does not cease, and which causes constant change of the direction of motion
of the projectile relative t o its axis, even though within very close limits.
In this case the rotational motion would undergo constant change from the
direction of the translational motion. These considerations, which a r e
applicable t o a l l projectiles, fully explain the failure of the means of
applying rotational motion t o regulation of rocket flight adopted when
military rockets w e r e introduced in a l l the a r m i e s of Europe. These
means can be divided into the following three categories:

197
 1) The rotational motion is produced through a i r resistance by means
of helical vanes located on the outside of the casing o r tail of the rocket
projectile;
2 ) By means of launching tubes whose inner surface is rifled to
accommodate tenons located on the outside surface of the rocket;
3) By means of the exhaust gases, p a r t of which leave the rocket
through s p i r a l ducts inside the casing, o r by the p r e s s u r e of the exhaust
gases against oblique s u r f a c e s attached t o the rocket tail.
Experiments on these means of imparting rotation, however. w e r e
not conducted carefully, nor w e r e they accorded s e r i o u s importance,
even a s applied to a r t i l l e r y projectiles. They w e r e simply regarded a s
a m a t t e r of taste and fashion, and it was supposed that this enthusiasm
would pass, to give their due t o smooth-bore guns. Modern rifled
a r t i l l e r y and the most recent discoveries (the single-gage railway of
Bretten and elimination of tossing on ships by means of a rotating
gyroscope) give irrefutable proof that the rotation of a moving body
o r one of its component p a r t s is the s u r e s t means of giving it stability.
Whichever of the t h r e e means outlined above is chosen, the rotation will
always be achieved a t the expense of the propulsive force which gives r i s e
to the translational motion, and since t h e propulsive force of rockets is
extremely limited, its partial absorption t o c r e a t e rotation will have a s a
consequence decreased velocity and consequently, reduced range and
flatness of trajectory. It s e e m s possible t o achieve flight steadiness and
long range by communicating rotational motion to a component p a r t of the
rocket - a special vane ( s i m i l a r t o the propeller on a ship), attached t o
the casing, which would be made t o rotate neither by the a i r resistance
nor by the p r e s s u r e of the gases giving r i s e t o the rocket's translational
motion, but either by appropria.te design of the launching stand, or, m o r e
correctly, by previously storetl work (for instance, by means of a wound
spring which is s e t in motion by the r e l e a s e of a special delay on the stand
a t the moment the rocket is launched).
4 ) O u r experiments on the improvement of rocket f l a r e s need not
always be confined t o the Nikolaev Rocket Plant; much r e s e a r c h might
b e pursued equally successfully a t the Main Artillery Proving Ground
during the autumn and winter months. Preparation of the experimental
rockets and their dispatch t o Sankt-Peterburg for instrument r e s e a r c h
and direct firing tests might be discussed in correspondence with the
rocket plant.

Guards Captain Ennatskii

1 2 . CALCULATION FOR GAS TURBINES

WITH A GYROSCOPE*

All of the energy obtained by passage of the gases through the turbine
wheel goes to overcome the opposing r e s i s t a n c e s created by rotation of
the two wheels constituting the gyroscope, s o that if the diameter of these
wheels and the desired velocity of rotation a r e known, the amount of gas

AIM Archive. Artillery Committee store, entry 39/3, file 511. sheets 31-42.

198
flowing into t h e turbine, the dimensions of the inlet and exhaust o r i f i c e s
and the length of the nozzles through which the g a s p a s s e s can be
d e t e r m i n e d with sufficient a c c u r a c y f o r initial e x p e r i m e n t s .
If the d i a m e t e r of the wheels is taken a s 1 3 c m and the velocity of
rotation a s 30,000 r p m , the r e s u l t s of P r o f . L e v i t s k i i ' s e x p e r i m e n t s with
a L a v a l turbine 20 cm in d i a m e t e r c a n be used.
T h e f r i c t i o n a l s u r f a c e of the d i s k s can b e taken a s approximately
proportional t o t h e s q u a r e s of the d i a m e t e r s , s o the r a t i o of t h e s u r f a c e s
will b e

It should a l s o b e b o r n e in mind that the p e r i p h e r a l velocity is

proportional to the d i a m e t e r s , s o that in o r d e r to obtain identical values
for the friction, the angular velocity f o r a 20 c m turbine, and consequently,
the number of revolutions, m u s t b e reduced f r o m the number of revolutions
13
of a 13-cm turbine, in the r a t i o ~0 = 0.65, i. e . , in this c a s e , 30,OOOX 0.65 =
= 19,5000. A c c o r d i n g t o L e v i t s k i i , a turbine rotating with a velocity of
20,000 revolutions r e q u i r e d 4.55 h. p.. and one rotating a t 17,600 revolutions,
3.33 h.p. Reduction of the number of revolutions by ~
240 OOO -
o 1 2 -% t h e r e f o r e
12 200
r e d u c e s t h e w o r k l o s s e s by 455 = 26.8 70.
It c a n t h e r e f o r e b e a s s u m e d that reduction of the number of revolutions
b y 500 (470)will r e s u l t in a 9 % reduction of r e s i s t a n c e , i. e., 19,500
revolutions will c o r r e s p o n d t o a loss of 4.55-0.41 = 4.14 a c t u a l h. p. ;
multiplying by the reduced s u r f a c e , we obtain finally 4.14X0.845 = 3.47
actual h. p.
F o r small Laval t u r b i n e s the p r a c t i c a l efficiency can be taken
as 0.33, but this is when the s t e a m s t r i k e s the blade af the turbine with
a velocity of about 7 2 5 m / s e c ; in this c a s e the actual velocity of the g a s e s
m u s t b e taken a s about 1 4 0 0 m / s e c , and the efficiency will t h e r e f o r e be
about 2 0 % . In o t h e r words, the kinetic e n e r g y of the incoming g a s e s m u s t
b e equal t o 17.35 h. p. o r 17.4X75 = 1305 kg-m, and s i n c e the velocity is
1 4 0 0 m / s e c , g a s with a kinetic e n e r g y of
nu2
= 1305 = &
X 14002, T h e n
1305 x 2 x 9.91 - 25 944
P = ~ 9 6 0 - ~ - = ~ o k g / s e c . A s w i l l b e explained below,
1 0.0133
t h e combustion products of t h e r o c k e t propellant, a t t h e g r e a t e s t p e r m i s s i b l e
p r e s s u r e of 10 a t m o s p h e r e s , have a specific volume u = 0.788 m3, or
788,000 em3. Consequently, i n place of 1 k g / s e c one m u s t put i n
0.0133X0.788 = 0.01048m3, and s i n c e the minimum velocity a t the o r i f i c e
w i l l b e about 9 0 0 m / s e c , the minimum a r e a of t h e o r i f i c e s w i l l b e
0.01048 -
- 900 - 0.000012m2, or 1 2 m m 2 , and s i n c e t h e g a s initially e n t e r s a t a
p r e s s u r e of about 2 a t m o s p h e r e s , the initial a r e a of the inlet o r i f i c e s m u s t
be 1 2 x 5 = 60mm2.
In d e t e r m i n i n g t h e dimensions of the exhaust o r i f i c e s , it m u s t b e
r e c a l l e d that the g a s e s expand t o 10 t i m e s t h e i r f o r m e r volume, but on
t h e o t h e r hand t h e i r t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s considerably and t h e i r velocity
i n c r e a s e s , s o that, following s t e a m turbine p r a c t i c e , one c a n take the
area of the exhaust o r i f i c e s as 8 t i m e s t h e minimum, or 9 6 m m 2 .

199
 A s far as the length of the inlet ducts is concerned, it should be noted
that by Rosenhein’s experiments a distance of 1 6 m m between the minimum
and exhaust c r o s s sections is insufficient f o r the expansion of s t e a m f r o m
8 a t m to 1 a t m , but a distance of 20” allows the p r e s s u r e to descend to
1a t m .
In practice the length of the nozzles is made somewhat g r e a t e r ; in
( s m a l l ) Lava1 turbines they are made s o m e 30-40” in length,
which is perfectly suitable f o r the c a s e under discussion.
Now I shall p a s s to calculation of the volume and exhaust velocity of the
g a s e s formed by combustion of the f o r c e propellant. Since this propellant
is v e r y s i m i l a r t o mine powder, I have taken the data f o r the l a t t e r , which
a r e given in B r i n k ’ s i n t e r i o r ballistics.
Table XIX ( p . 25) notes that the t e m p e r a t u r e of dissociation is 1682”,
while Table VI11 gives the products of dissociation of this powder. Making
u s e of the data given by Bellunzo (p. 58) f o r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c constant
of the various products of combustion, I found R f o r t h i s mixture to be 41.9.
One can then determine u f r o m the f o r m u l a 9-5.o r u=-.F.4P
In t h i s c a s e
F = 1700+273 = 1973, which must be 1 9 7 . 3 , , ~ =10.5kg, and R = 41.9.
Then u = 197.3 41.9 = 788 which c o r r e s p o n d s to 0.788 m3.
10.5
F r o m Table 11, compiled f r o m experimental data, and curve IV, we can
find the velocity in the minimum orifice to be l 0 6 0 X f i = 1060X0.88 = 932m.
To obtain the final velocity t h i s figure m u s t be multiplied by 1.85, obtained
f r o m curve VI in accord with the ratio of the initial and final p r e s s u r e s

--
10.5
1.05- lo *

The final velocity c o m e s out to be 932 X1.85 =1724 m / s e c . The

calculated velocities, however, must be regarded as approximate, since the
dissociation products of mine powder include not only g a s e s , but a l s o a
finely crushed solid residue, constituting by weight 51 % of the ballast which
reduces the velocity of the gases.
Still ‘more difficulties are encountered in determining the p r e s s u r e of the
outflowing g a s e s against the rocket, since as far as I know, no effort h a s
been made to determine the c a u s e s of the r o c k e t ’ s motion.
T h e r e is no doubt that a rocket is set in motion by the reactive f o r c e
resulting f r o m the outflow of the g a s e s . This p r e s s u r e P can be e x p r e s s e d
by the formula P = A Y W , where p is the weight of the g a s e s leaving p e r
second, g is the acceleration due t o gravity = 9.91 m / s e c 2 , and W is the
velocity of the g a s e s through the a r e a of a minimum orifice, in m / s e c ;
A is a numerical coefficient, introduced as a correction f o r the t i m e taken
by the g a s e s t o reach the velocity W.
For c l a r i t y t h i s equation can be written

and r e a d as follows: the r a t i o of the p r e s s u r e c r e a t e d by the g a s e s to the

weight of g a s e s leaving p e r second is equal t o the r a t i o of the velocity

200
acquired by the g a s e s during one second to the velocity acquired in one
second by a body falling f r e e l y in a vacuum. If the o b s e r v e d velocity
through the minimum o r i f i c e w e r e reached by t h e g a s e s in one second, t ,
would be equal to 1, but of c o u r s e the g a s e s r e a c h t h i s velocity in a
considerably s h o r t e r t i m e , s o that

Unfortunately too few scientifically organized e x p e r i m e n t s on r o c k e t s

have been m a d e to p e r m i t determination of the coefficient A, but an
approximate idea can be f o r m e d f r o m the following argument, based on
g r a p h s of the combustion of rocket propellant. The f i g u r e of 0.3 i n o r
8 m m / s e c f o r the speed of combustion of r o c k e t propellant is taken a s
c o r r e c t , and it is approximately so, since a 24 m m l a y e r of rocket
propellant b u r n s in 3 s e c . However, it is highly probable that combustion
under high p r e s s u r e a t the end p r o c e e d s m o r e rapidly than combustion
under lower p r e s s u r e a t the beginning. One may t h e r e f o r e a s s u m e that
in 0.1 s e c , with a dynamometer p r e s s u r e of 200kg, a 1.5" layer
will burn. Then the amount of propellant of density 1.8 g / c m 3 which is
burned will be

5 (D2- D:)h
4
+"
4
2
x 0.15 = (7.62- 7.32)x
4
x44+%?!? x 0.15 =(45.365-441.855)44+
4
+45.365 x 0.15 = 161.2 cm3,
and, in fact, 161.2 X 1.8 = 290 g or 0.291 kg, a s we know; the amount of
g a s e s obtained i s 0.29X0.51 = 0.148 kg.
Substituting i n the f o r m u l a A = pg t h e values P = 200, g = 9.91, W = 930,
WP
and d = 0.148 gives
200 x 9.91 - 1882
A = - 14.4.
0.146 x 930 137.6
The a r e a of the exhaust o r i f i c e in a 3" rocket is 11 cm2, o r 0.0011 m2, while
the exhaust velocity of the g a s e s a f t e r 0.1 s e c is 9 3 0 m / s e c , s o that in
0.1 s e c , 0.1023 m 3 of g a s e s , weighing 0.148 kg, will flow out. Consequently,
1023
the specific volume V=mo = 0.691, which c o r r e s p o n d s to a p r e s s u r e

p = F- .---- 41.9 _--

. R = 197.3 6274
- 691 = 12 kg, or 1 1 . 5 a t m , which is close to the a s s u m e d
(I 691
f i g u r e of 1 0 a t m .
The m e a n s u r f a c e of combustion a t t h i s t i m e w a s 2 3 x 4 4 + 4 5 = 1057 cm2;
t h e r e f o r e , 1 kg of p r e s s u r e is obtained p e r 5 c m 2 combustion a r e a a t 11 atm.
That is why I chose as n o r m a l combustion a r e a in m y c y l i n d e r s 1500cm2,
with an exhaust o r i f i c e a r e a designed t o give an i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e in t h e
c a s i n g of about 1 0 a t m .
T h e p r e s s u r e on the r o c k e t is found t o b e about 300kg. i.e., 5 t i m e s
t h e weight of the rocket. With a different propellant t h i s r a t i o will change,

20 1
but it will always be possible t o determine the n u m e r i c a l coefficients if a
few a c c u r a t e graphs a r e drawn.

9 September 1909
N. G e r a s i m o v

1 3 . RESULTS O F TESTS O F ROCKET FLARES WITH

GUIDES DESIGNED BY MAJOR-GENERAL POMORTSEV,
CONDUCTED BY THE NIKOLAEV ROCKET PLANT
DURING THE YEARS 1908 - 1909':

The A r t i l l e r y Committee J o u r n a l No. 637, 1908, is devoted to the subject

of Major-General P o m o r t s e v ' s petition f o r continued testing of the r o c k e t s
of h i s design. The Committee decided: 1) That the e x p e r i m e n t s of the n e a r
future a t the Nikolaev Rocket Plant and the Ochakov Proving Ground should
be p r i m a r i l y on rocket f l a r e s running on a burning propellant and fitted with
guides; 2 ) That, since Major-General P o m o r t s e v ' s participation in the
experiments would be helpful, and in view of h i s d e s i r e to continue the
experiments, the rocket plant should b e advised t o follow h i s guidance and t o
cooperate in performing t h e experiments; 3) That t h e expense f o r the
i n s t r u m e n t s which Major-General P o m o r t s e v will have t o o r d e r f o r h i s
rocket r e s e a r c h should be borne by the T r e a s u r y , the o r d e r s to b e placed
a f t e r information t o be provided by Major-General P o m o r t s e v h a s
acquainted the Committee with the design of the instruments.
At the instance of the Chairman of the A r t i l l e r y Committee, in a 1909
memorandum of the b u s i n e s s m a n a g e r (No. 911), the r e p o r t of the Nikolaev
Rocket Plant dated 1 5 May 1909 (No. 885) has just been r e f e r r e d to the
Committee f o r evaluation. The r e p o r t includes an appendix dealing with the
e x p e r i m e n t s on the development of P o m o r t s e v r o c k e t s , performed by
Lieutenant -Colonel Karabchevskii and t h e plant mechanical engineer
Demenkov, during t h e period 1907 -1909. The r e p o r t presented a l s o
includes tables, sketches, and graphs, ** and i n c o r p o r a t e s the following
remarks:
1) At the v e r y outset of the experiments, before casings, stands,
dynamometer, etc., w e r e o r d e r e d , Major-General P o m o r t s e v allowed
the following i n a c c u r a c i e s and e r r o r s :
a) The weight of a n i r o n riveted casing f o r a 3" rocket flare w a s
a s s u m e d to b e 1 2 pounds, while the actual weight is about 8 pounds.
b) Major-General P o m o r t s e v thought that an iron riveted casing produced
by the rocket plant would withstand a maximum p r e s s u r e of 1 5 a t m ;
actually it can withstand a p r e s s u r e of about 80 a t m , i. e., m o r e than
5 t i m e s what was a s s u m e d .
c) In the casings delivered f r o m the Montbard f a c t o r y in F r a n c e , the
lower, elongated p a r t turned out t o b e s o f l i m s y that the rocket plant had
to cut off this p a r t of the casing and machine a n i r o n b a s e plate of

* Artillery Committee Journal, No. 86, 21 January 1910. AIM Archive, Artillzry Committee store, entry
39/3. file 585, sheets 265-437 obverse.
* * In this edition the tables, sketches, and graphs are omitted, but they are preserved in the AIM Archive,
Artillery Committee store, entry 39/3, file 585, sheets 284-433.

202
a p p r o p r i a t e shape, which was then s e c u r e d to the casing by p r e s s i n g the
c a s i n g into t h e groove of the b a s e plate and rolling t h e ends of the casing
o v e r the b a s e plate. T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e the cost of the
Montbard casings.
d) The Rocket Plant c a l l s attention to t h e f a c t that in h i s r e p o r t on
r o c k e t f l a r e s i n c u r r e n t u s e M a j o r - G e n e r a l P o m o r t s e v mentions those
having no p r a c t i c a l application, i. e., with a r a n g e of only about 4 5 0 sager,es
[lo50 yd], as a r e s u l t of which they s e r v e m o r e to illuminate whoever f i r e s
them, while rocket f l a r e s underwent t h e i r baptism of fire o n l y m o s t r e c e n t l y
in the Russo-Japanese War, and p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t h e defense of P o r t A r t h u r .
Although t h e plant p o s s e s s e s no official data on t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e , both in
the R u s s i a n d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h i s defense and in the d e s c r i p t i o n s of f o r e i g n e r s
in the Japanese besieging a r m y , the t e s t i m o n i a l s t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of the
r o c k e t s a r e m o s t enthusiastic. In o r d e r to avoid making unfounded
s t a t e m e n t s , the plant p r e s e n t s a dozen o r so d e s c r i p t i o n s of the p e r f o r m a n c e
of the r o c k e t s at the s i e g e of P o r t A r t h u r , e x t r a c t e d from the c u r r e n t p r e s s .
2) E x p e r i m e n t s on r o c k e t s with guides at t h e end of 1907 and in 1908 and
1909 w e r e continued by Karabchevskii and Demenkov without the
participation or direction of P o m o r t s e v .
After the 1907 e x p e r i m e n t s a t the Rocket Plant, in which P o m o r t s e v and
Ennatskii participated, the Plant s e t as a goal f o r the s a m e y e a r repetition
of the e x p e r i m e n t a l launchings of r o c k e t s with guides. Since the e a r l i e r
e x p e r i m e n t s had shown the lower p a r t of t h e Montbard c a s i n g s to be
unstable, i t w a s replaced by a machined b a s e plate s e c u r e d to the casing,
with a single c e n t r a l exhaust o r i f i c e 1 inch in d i a m e t e r . T h e s e b a s e plates
a r e shown in F i g u r e s 1, 2 , 3, and 4 ( s h e e t 3 ) . Eight c a s i n g s with such b a s e
p l a t e s w e r e made, filled with propellant, and f i r e d , hooked up to a
dynamometer. The p r e s s u r e they produced w a s s o g r e a t that the a r r o w
of the r e c o r d e r flew off the d r u m , and n e i t h e r the c u r v e nor the maximum
p r e s s u r e could be determined. The c a s i n g s suffered no damage.
T h i r t y c a s i n g s modified a s d e s c r i b e d above w e r e launched at the
Ochakov Proving Ground on 18 October 1 9 0 7 , with the r e s u l t s shown in
T a b l e 13. T h e r o c k e t s w e r e launched f r o m s t a n d s modified s o that t h e
l a t e r a l f a c e s w e r e connected by i r o n arcs, while the lower face w a s
considerably lengthened ( s h e e t 1, F i g u r e s 1 and 2 ) . T h e s e changes in t h e
stand w e r e made because the i r r e g u l a r flight of the r o c k e t s with guides
in t h e f i r s t launching w a s attributed t o i m p e r f e c t i o n s in t h e stand, and
in p a r t i c u l a r t o i t s instability and e x c e s s i v e l y s h o r t s i d e s .
In examining t h e r e s u l t s of the e x p e r i m e n t s , Karabchevskii and
Demenkov conclude that on the whole t h e launchings of 18 October a r e
less s a t i s f a c t o r y than those of the first launchings ( 5 September), when
t h e flight of t h e r o c k e t s was m o r e uniform. The f a i l u r e of the l a t e r
launchings w a s attributed t o t h e s m a l l d i a m e t e r of the guides (about 3",
or considerably less than in the first launchings) and t h e fact that t h e
stand w a s s t i l l s h o r t . The plant cannot p u r s u e i t s e x p e r i m e n t s in t h e
winter b e c a u s e i t l a c k s heated workshops, and b e c a u s e Ochakov is
unavailable f o r rocket launching e x p e r i m e n t s . However, so a s not t o
w a s t e the t i m e , the winter of 1907-1908 w a s devoted to experiment on
the application of c i r c u l a r and r a d i a l guides t o s i g n a l r o c k e t s of c u r r e n t
de sign.

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 Such r o c k e t s w e r e laucched on the field of t h e Rocket Plant on 21 January
1908, with the r e s u l t s given i n Table 4.
Throughout 1908 the Rocket Plant used a dynamometer to study the
p r e s s u r e developed by the existing types of rocket f l a r e s with different
combinations of ignition channel length and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of gas
exhaust orifices. The dynamometer w a s installed a t one end of a tube
with a n a c c u r a t e sensitive manometer, which showed the maximum
p r e s s u r e i n the casing; the dynamometer pen w a s replaced by a pencil
and the t r a c i n g of the c u r v e w a s perfectly c l e a r .
Some 80 r o c k e t s w e r e burned out under different conditions, with the
r e s u l t s shown in Table 5.
F r o m this table the Rocket Plant concludes that the optimum
combination is a c e n t r a l exhaust orifice 1 l/2I1 i n d i a m e t e r with a n
ignition channel 112" in diameter; d e c r e a s e in the s i z e of the exhaust
orifice r e s u l t s in reduction of the useful p r e s s u r e , and a t a d i a m e t e r
of 112" the casing b u r s t s . Increasing the s i z e of the exhaust orifice
beyond 1 l i 2 " d i a m e t e r r e s u l t s in a d r o p in p r e s s u r e .
T h e m o s t r e c e n t experimental launchings of r o c k e t s with v a r i o u s types
of guides w e r e held by the Rocket P l a n t o n 27 A p r i l 1909, a t Ochakov.
Altogether 38 rockets w e r e launched under the following conditions. A
long c a s t - i r o n tube, instead of the f o r m e r s h o r t stands, w a s used as
launcher ( s h e e t 1, F i g u r e 13). T e n rockets, whose c a p s w e r e filled with
80 1 1/2" pellets, and with sulfur instead of an explosive charge, w e r e
launched i n the daytime at the proving ground, and t h e i r range and
deviations f r o m the line of aiming w e r e determined. Twenty s i m i l a r
rockets, whose c a p s c a r r i e d an explosive charge, w e r e launched a t night
f r o m a m a r i n e battery.
The r e s u l t s of t h i s launching a r e shown in Table 6, f r o m which the
Rocket Plant h a s drawn the following conclusions: 1) Rockets with c a p s
of the old type do not have s o long a range as those with elongated c a p s
of s m a l l e r d i a m e t e r , in spite of the fact that the total loaded weight of the
old caps, a t something o v e r 2 0 pounds, is less than that of the new ones.
This is to be explained by the lower r e s i s t a n c e a r e a of the l a t t e r . 2) Some
of the rockets with guides, r a t h e r than a tail, flew s t r a i g h t , s o m e deviated,
occasionally v e r y greatly, f r o m the directrix, and 7 rockets, upon leaving
the stand, bit into the e a r t h as if it w e r e water. 3) T h e range was the s a m e
as in the f i r s t two launchings at Ochakov, i. e., up t o 2 v e r s t s [8750 ft].
4) The stand consisting of a c a s t - i r o n tube, although b e t t e r than previous
types, h a s the drawback that a c i r c u l a r guide r e q u i r e s f o r its fitting (the
edge extending f r o m the e x t e r n a l r i n g to the thick r i n g by which the guide
is fitted onto the rocket casing) four s l i t s along the length of the tube.
T h e s e p a r t s become v e r y unstable, and the l e a s t jolt they r e c e i v e is
communicated to the rocket as it l e a v e s the stand, i. e., at the m o s t
important moment f o r acquisition of the p r o p e r initial direction.
The fact that the c e n t e r of gravity of a rocket with a guide coincides
with the c e n t e r of the body, making the rocket generally unstable in flight,
is a g r e a t contributing factor, in the opinion of the Rocket Plant, t o such
i r r e g u l a r i t y in the flight of the rockets.
The c e n t e r of gravity of a 3" rocket flare lies on the casing beneath the
cap, a t a distance of 203/4" f r o m the v e r t e x of the c a p cone, and 7 3 314"
f r o m the tail cone. It is 53" distant from the c e n t e r of the body. In rockets

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with guides t h e c e n t e r of gravity is on t h e c a s i n g a t a distance of
approximately 223/4" f r o m t h e o r i f i c e and 22 1/4" f r o m t h e v e r t e x of
t h e cone, i.e., it a l m o s t coincides with the c e n t e r of the body.
T h i s is the chief r e a s o n why g r a z e b u r s t s o c c u r with r o c k e t s with
guides, s i n c e a t t h e l e a s t provocation the rocket head t i p s f o r w a r d ,
causing t h e e n t i r e rocket t o overbalance, and i t falls to the ground
upon leaving the stand.
0 p i n i o n o f t h e c o m m i t t e e . A f t e r consideration of the r e p o r t
of Lieutenant-Colonel Karabchevskii, Head of t h e Gunpowder Workshop
of the Nikolaev Rocket Plant, on the e x p e r i m e n t s of 1907 -1909,
concerned with t h e development of r o c k e t s with guides designed by r e t i r e d
M a j o r - G e n e r a l P o m o r t s e v , the A r t i l l e r y Committee h a s r e a c h e d t h e
following conclusion:
1) At i t s beginning t h e r e p o r t mentions the i n a c c u r a c i e s admitted by
M a j o r - G e n e r a l P o m o r t s e v even b e f o r e t h e beginning of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s
on r o c k e t s with v a r i o u s t y p e s of guides, a s well as when the e x p e r i m e n t s
w e r e begun in 1907, to be d i s m i s s e d only in 1908, when continuation of
the e x p e r i m e n t s was placed in t h e hands of the w o r k e r s o f t h e R o c k e t p l a n t .
2) All of the e x p e r i m e n t a l launchings of r o c k e t f l a r e s with guides
instead of tails, conducted a t v a r i o u s t i m e s at Ochakov, can be r e p r e s e n t e d
f o r c l e a r n e s s in the following table.
A s e a r l y a s 1907, b e f o r e the beginning of the e x p e r i m e n t s in prospect
a t the Rocket Plant, the A r t i l l e r y Committee, having in mind the r e s u l t s
of the s u c c e s s f u l p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h of M a j o r - G e n e r a l P o m o r t s e v on the
application of t a i l l e s s guides to r o c k e t s , anticipated the collection of data
which would m a k e possible m a s s production of the new r o c k e t s . The 1907
e x p e r i m e n t s a t Ochakov did not justify t h e s e hopes: the a c c u r a c y of the
r o c k e t s with guides, as t h e table shows, w a s highly unsatisfactory, with
60 70 of the r o c k e t s launched undergoing considerable deviations f r o m the
a i m i n g plane. The remaining 4 0 70, although they kept t o the d i r e c t r i x ,
showed such e x t r e m e d i s p a r i t y of range that they w e r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r
an a r e a of s o m e 2 0 s q u a r e v e r s t s [app. 9 s q u a r e m i l e s ] .
In the A r t i l l e r y Committee Journal No. 637, 1908, where the r e s u l t s
of the f i r s t launching of r o c k e t s with guides a r e d i s c u s s e d , the Committee,
for the fullest possible illumination of the question of using guides f o r
r o c k e t s , in view of the fact that r o c k e t s with guides have approximately
double the range of those with wooden t a i l s , e x p r e s s e d itself in favor of
continuation of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s f o r final c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the m a t t e r .
The r e s u l t s of the two subsequent e x p e r i m e n t a l rocket launchings, a s the
Rocket P l a n t ' s r e p o r t m a k e s evident, a l s o failed to give s a t i s f a c t o r y
r e s u l t s , in spite of the r e m o v a l of a l l the c a u s e s to which M a j o r - G e n e r a l
P o m o r t s e v and Lieutenant -Colonel Karabchevskii attributed t h e f a i l u r e of
t h e f i r s t launching, by considerably lengthening t h e launching stand,
i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i a m e t e r of the guides, and employing t h e m in the m o s t
v a r i o u s f o r m s . Only 2 0 % of the r o c k e t s in the second series of
e x p e r i m e n t s , and no m o r e than 1470 i n the third, flew s t r a i g h t .
3) The u s e of guides on signal r o c k e t s , which a r e launched v e r t i c a l l y ,
gave good r e s u l t s : the altitude achieved w a s g r e a t e r than that of signal
r o c k e t s with a single wooden tail, and no l e s s than that of signal r o c k e t s
with two s h o r t l a t e r a l wooden t a i l s .

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 4) The initial r e s e a r c h on the best dimensions f o r the ignition channel
and s i z e of the g a s exhaust orifices, in the f i r s t experiments of 1907,
gave no solution to t h i s problem. Table 1 , appended to the A r t i l l e r y
Committee Journal No. 637 (1908) does not make i t possible to come to
any definite conclusion, since even a f t e r improvement of techniques f o r
filling the casing with propellant and change of the p a r t s of the casing,
different and unexpected p r e s s u r e values were s t i l l obtained. The
subsequently repeated experiments on burning out a considerable number
of rocket casings to dispel some of the factors obscuring r e s e a r c h on the
question, and performed bytheRocket Plant in 1909 (Table 5), make i t
possible to determine some of the optimum p a r a m e t e r s : a) The gas exhaust
orifice should be central, and f o r our 3" casing its s i z e should be
approximately equal to the s u m of the a r e a s of the six o r i f i c e s used in
c u r r e n t practice. F o r s i x orifices each 518" in diameter, this comes to
1.84 in2, which gives the best diameter f o r a single c e n t r a l orifice a s 1.5".
b) F o r the existing dimensions of the rocket casing, the most
advantageous s i z e f o r the ignition channel will evidently be that presently
in use, i.e., diameter 1" and length 15".
5) The adoption of a modified cap with pellets was extremely effective.
I t s dimensions a r e : length to vertex of the cone, 21 I/8", principal section
of the cap, 17", and i t s base, 4 1/8"; diameter of the cap, 4". F o r g r e a t e r
strength the bottom of the cap is a disk of the s a m e i r o n a s the casing. It
contains 80 1 l/2" pellets, which a r e arranged in 11 rows of 7 pellets, 3
being placed in the base. The empty cap weighs about 3 pounds, and the
pellets, about 14 pounds 50 zolotniki [14.52 pounds]. The explosive charge,
slow-match, etc., have a total weight of about 1 pound, s o that the loaded
cap weighs about 18 I/2 pounds. On i t s external face the bottom of the cap
h a s a threaded s t e m , which s c r e w s into a ring p r e s s e d into the casing, in
o r d e r to fasten the two together. This is done on the spot when the rocket
is being readied f o r launching.
T h i s review of the Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t ' s r e p o r t on the numerous
experiments performed with rocket f l a r e s fitted with guides h a s convinced
the A r t i l l e r y Committee that substitution of the proposed guides f o r tails,
while it i n c r e a s e s the range of the rocket f l a r e s , makes their flight
i r r e g u l a r . The Committee therefore thinks it opportune to t e r m i n a t e
these experiments.
The existing experimental data, taking into account both the A r t i l l e r y
Committee Journal No. 8 3 f o r 1908 and the r e s u l t s of the most recent
experiments a t t h e Rocket Plant, lead the Committee to propose that further
experiment f o r the improvement of 3" Russian rocket f l a r e s of c u r r e n t
design be conducted under the following conditions:
1) Instead of the currently employed cap 6" in d i a m e t e r one should use
an i r o n cap 4 0 mm in diameter, and of such length a s to accommodate
1 0 rows of 7 pellets each, with 3 in the base, giving a total of 7 3 pellets.
With 11 rows of 7 pellets and t h r e e in the base, giving a total of 8 0 in the
cap, an arrangement actually built at the plant, the c a p weighed almost
2 1/2 pounds m o r e than the current design, with a total weight of about
18 l/2 pounds. The alternative proposed above will give perfectly adequate
illumination, a s in the currently used type of cap, without any i n c r e a s e in
i t s weight (about 1 6 l/2 pounds). The b a s e of the c a p should be ogival in

206
f o r m , with the r a d i i of curvature used in a r t i l l e r y projectiles of the s a m e
caliber. The cap should be attached to the casing by means of a threaded
shaft in the bottom of the cap, which is screwed into a ring s e t into the
casing by pressing the edges of the l a t t e r around it and rolling them over.
F o r g r e a t e r durability the bottom of the cap should be made of casing iron,
in the shape of a disk, with an orifice for a time-fuse.
2) The casings f o r these experiments a r e among the s e a m l e s s ones
remaining at the Rocket Plant f r o m those ordered f r o m the Montbard
f a c t o r y in F r a n c e . These casings must be tested after being cut t o the
length of the 3" rocket f l a r e s in c u r r e n t use, with ignition channels of
identical diameter and length, and of increased length, since in these
l a t t e r , increase in the length of the channel w i l l r e s u l t in an increase in
the gas p r e s s u r e in the channel, and consequently, will i n c r e a s e the rocket's
range and regularity in flight. When the length of the ignition channel is
increased, the a r e a initially ignited, and therefore, the quantity of gas
initially formedupon ignition, a r e increased, and in this c a s e the diameter
of the ignition channel may have t o be changed f r o m the f o r m e r 1" to
something l e s s .
The base plate with a c e n t r a l gas exhaust orifice must be made separately
and attached to the casing by pressing and rolling over it the casing's
trailing edge. The diameter of the orifice should be 1 1/2", giving it a n a r e a
of 1.84 s q in [sic].
3 ) The rockets should r e t a i n a wooden tail coaxial with the rocket. A
bushing with three a r m s converging in a threaded hole at its end is secured
to the r e a r edge of the rocket, and a shaft seated on the rocket tail is
screwed into this hole.
Since in these rockets the cap filled with pellets will be longer, thereby
shifting the rocket's center of gravity n e a r e r t o its head, the length and
diameter of the tail must s o be chosen a s t o move the center of gravity
backwards. In this way the rocket's axis can be made almost to coincide
with the direction of motion until the moment the rocket b u r s t s . The rocket
will then constantly move forward, and the effect on the flight of t h e s e
rockets, a r i s i n g f r o m the application to them of the old unchanged tail, w i l l
readily be eliminated.
These rockets c l e a r l y consist of t h r e e fundamental p a r t s which a r e
readily dismantled: cap, casing, and tail. They can therefore be packed
compactly, and a r e correspondingly e a s i e r to t r a n s p o r t .
The following should be noted with r e g a r d t o the arrangements f o r these
experiments: the Nikolaev Rocket Plant will c e a s e t o operate on 1 January
1910, when its activities w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o the Shostensk Gunpowder
Plant. The proposed experiments c a l l f o r the filling of a certain number of
rocket casings with an inserted base plate having a c e n t r a l orifice 1 1/2'1 in
diameter, and an end whose external s u r f a c e is threaded for a bushing.
Since a l l of the proposed changes in the casing, both for the seating upon it
of the cap, and the attachment of the tail, must be made before it is filled
with forced propellant (the various modifications a r e hardly feasible a f t e r
filling, in view of the danger involved), conduct of the experiments in their
entirety will be impossible until the establishment of rocket production a t the
Shostensk plant. However, i t would be a s well t o request the Nikolaev
Rocket P l a n t now, if there remain f r o m the experiments of the past few
y e a r s , 1 ) 3'' s e a m l e s s s t e e l casings of various lengths with a ring f o r
attachment of a cap f i l l d with pellets and a base plate with central orifice

207
 i n s e r t e d into t h e i r f o r w a r d and r e a r ends, respectively, f i l l e d with rocket
propellant, and with ignition channels of v a r i o u s dimensions; 2) caps, about
4 " i n d i a m e t e r , with pellets 1 l/2" i n d i a m e t e r , and with a bottom modified
so that it can b e s c r e w e d into the r i n g p r e s s e d into t h e upper p a r t of t h e
casing; 3) 8 6 0 1 l/2" pellets. If t h e s e p a r t s a r e t o b e found in t h e plant, they
should be shipped t o the Sankt-Peterburg ammunition dump, t o be placed a t
the disposition of Section V of the Committee. Even should t h e s e i t e m s b e
unavailable, the plant should nonetheless ship, as indicated above, 25
finished 3" rocket f l a r e s .

14. GERASIMOV'S GYROSCOPIC ROCKET':;

Two memoranda, of 9 June;:;: and 30 J u n e of the p r e s e n t y e a r ( t h e

second superseding the f i r s t ) presented by G e r a s i m o v and dealing with
his gyroscopic rocket design, have reached the Commission f o r its
evaluation. The content of the second memorandum, submitted by
G e r a s i m o v t o the C h a i r m a n of the Commission, is as follows:
Regarding his rocket design, on the b a s i s of experiments, as fully
developed, Gerasimov requested his friend Vice-Admiral Bubnov, the
S e c r e t a r y of the Navy, t o a s s i s t h i m in the conduct of a firing experiment
t o determine the a c c u r a c y of his r o c k e t s , producing the metallic rocket
p a r t s f o r this purpose in the Navy Department plant. In r e p l y t o h i s
memorandum of 28 June, His Excellency resolved that "The conduct of the
experiments should be supported, and a n o r d e r given t o the Obukhov plant
t o manufacture one hundred rockets, the expense t o be borne by the
experimental fund. Subsequent negotiations revealed that t h e f i r s t
installment of s o m e 20-30 rockets would b e r e a d y about the middle of
September of this y e a r . To equip t h e s e rockets G e r a s i m o v requested
that the Shostka Gunpowder Plant be given an o r d e r f o r the manufacture
and delivery t o the Okhtensk Plant of the following quantity of powder,
granulated like rifle powder.

Rocket propellant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 pud L1440 Ibl

Compound of 52% nitre, 18% carbon, 3 0 % sulfur. . . . . . , 10 pud 1360 Ib]
Compound of 6 2 % nitre, 18% carbon, 20% sulfur. . . . . . . 3 pud [lo8 lb]

The l a s t v a r i e t y of powder is d e s i r a b l e f o r the compression of small

cylinders f o r experiments, in o r d e r t o give the gyroscope g r e a t e r velocity
of rotation.
M r . G e r a s i m o v r e q u e s t s the Okhtensk Gunpowder Plant t o give
instructions f o r the p r e s s i n g of cylinders f o r the r o c k e t s out of the powder
which is t o a r r i v e f r o m the Shostka plant, and that f o r this purpose the
molding workshop now be readied, in o r d e r to be able t o undertake this
work f r o m the middle of August. At p r e s e n t , as M r . Gerasimov knows,
the molding workshop is closed f o r l a c k of work. It is d e s i r a b l e t o a l e r t
t h e Experimental Commission now of forthcoming work f o r continuation of

Journal of the Commission, 3 July 1912. AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store, entry 39/3,
-,t>.,. file 577, sheets 342-344, 348-349.
*,. Communicated in accord with a note from the business manager of the Artillery Committee, dated
16 June, this year, No. 1131, for evaluation by Section V of the Committee.

208
i
k
the experiments and equipping the rockets. M r . Gerasimov requests that
this work, and supervision of the pressing, be entrusted to Nedzel'skii,
the Provincial Secretary, who has been concerned with such matters up
t o now.
Mr. Gerasimov requests the gun factory to give instructions for
shipment of whatever tail fuses remain there to the Obukhov Plant, and for
the adjustment of the instrument for determination of the rocket's
gyroscopic properties.
According to the decisions of the Commission, in the journals for 1909
and 1910, the program for elaboration of Gerasimov's rockets must include:
1) The development of a type of gyroscopic rocket and study of the
properties of the gases formed by combustion of the forced propellant.
2) The manufacture of a rocket stand.
3) The presentation by M r . Gerasimov, after development of his
rocket, of 30 rockets to the Main Artillery Proving Ground for firing tests.
In its journal for 21 December 1910, the Commission, summarizing the
results of all previous experiments, arrived at the conclusion that
experiments with Active State Councillor Gerasimov's rocket a r e incomplete,
and that there a r e no indications of confidence that launchings of this type of
rocket will yield favorable results.
Gerasimov's above -mentioned memorandum coincided with the expenditure
of all the material for conduct of experiments with his rocket(i.e., gyroscopes,
casings, and pressed cylinders) in his possession, and the Commission
therefore finds it necessary to present in the present journal the results of
a l l the experiments performed from 21 December 1910 (when the
Commission's last journal was composed) until the last gyroscopic rocket
test, which was to have taken place on 2 6 June 1 9 1 2 .
The experiments of the past year and a half took place at two locations:
the Experimental Commission of the Okhtensk Gundpowder Plant (where the
rockets were burned out on the spot), and the Main Artillery Proving Ground
(where the rockets were launched from the stand).
F r o m December 1910 to 2 June 1911 the experiments were performed
exclusively by the Experimental Commission, and attempts were made t o
change the powder of the small cylinders 118 mm in diameter, which would
have turned the gyroscopes well and ignited the big cylinders; but the
French powder for the small cylinders, composed of 52 parts nitre to 18
parts carbon and 30 parts sulfur burned very slowly (a small cylinder took
45 seconds to burn), and the gyroscope failed to rotate. A t first the s m a l l
cylinders, of the same compound, were ordered from the Shlissel'burg
Gunpowder Plant, but when they were tested in the rocket, the latter burst.
The s a m e cylinders, of the same gunpowder compound, were then ordered
from the Okhtensk Gunpowder Plant, while at the same time small cylinders
of gunpowder were again obtained from France, with the composition 62
parts nitre to 18 parts carbon and 20 parts sulfur. But when these latter
were burned in a rocket together with the big cylinders, the rockets burst
after 112 second.
F r o m 2 June to 2 2 July 1911, small cylinders manufactured by the
Okhtensk Gunpowder Plant were tested together with large cylinders of
French powder, in the ratio 52/18/30, a t the Main Proving Ground. A l l
of the rockets launched burst on the stand, and the gyroscopes failed to
rotate.

209
 Because of these r e s u l t s the design of G e r a s i m o v ' s rocket was rnodified,
and the s m a l l cylinder, which was t o s t a r t the gyroscope rotating while on
the stand, was placed inside an iron cap screwed onto the bottom of the
rocket; a s a r e s u l t all of the g a s e s f o r m e d by the combustion of t h i s
cylinder flowed exclusively into the gyroscope compartment, and ignition
of the big cylinders took place through a n orifice in the lid of the iron cap.
T h i s change in the design, mentioned in G e r a s i m o v ' s r e p o r t of August
1911 t o the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration, was approved by Section V of
the Committee, and 9 r o c k e t s of the new design (without gyroscopes) w e r e
manufactured a t the Sankt-Peterburg gun factory. It was decided to o r d e r
30 m o r e of the ( F r e n c h ) big cylinders, which by t h i s time, had been a l m o s t
a l l used up, f r o m the Sevran Livry plant (with 52/18/30 propellant), and
supervision of t h e i r manufacture was entrusted t o Colonel Bordelius, the
A r t i l l e r y Receiver, who happened to be t h e r e . ( T h e s e cylinders have not
yet been delivered.)
By the beginning of November 1 9 1 1 the r o c k e t s o r d e r e d f r o m the gun
factory w e r e ready. T h e s e rockets w e r e fitted with the remaining l a r g e
F r e n c h cylinders and with s m a l l cylinders c o m p r e s s e d a t the Okhtensk
Gunpowder Plant ( a l l with propellant in the r a t i o 52/18/30). When individual
small cylinders w e r e tested in the r o c k e t s the internal p r e s s u r e and t i m e of
combustion w e r e determined. A charge 70 m m high and 88 m m in diameter
burned f o r 8 seconds, giving an internal p r e s s u r e of about 6 a t m o s p h e r e s .
Combustion of t h e s e c h a r g e s made the gyroscope rotate. When rockets of
t h i s design and equipment w e r e subsequently tested a t the Proving Ground,
the rockets burned out completely without leaving the stand. It was
suggested that imperfections of the stand might have been responsible f o r
the r o c k e t ' s being jammed on it.
By t h i s t i m e a l l of the big F r e n c h cylinders had been used up, and upon
G e r a s i m o v ' s petition Section V of the Committee decided that until delivery
of m o r e cylinders f r o m F r a n c e , the l a r g e cylinders too would be p r e s s e d
in the molding workshop of the Okhtensk Gunpowder Plant.
Meanwhile, a t G e r a s i m o v ' s instance, 3 pud [lo8 lb] of powder f o r the
cylinders w a s o r d e r e d f r o m the Shlissel'burg and Shostka Gunpowder
P l a n t s (composition, 52/18/30). The s t r o k e of the piston in the molding
workshop did not p e r m i t p r e s s i n g of cylinders of the full height (250 m m ) ,
and they had to be p r e p a r e d in p a r t s in the f o r m of rings, inner fuse, and
a solid bottom.
At f i r s t the p a r t s w e r e joined only by glueing, and in all t e s t s , both by
the Experimental Commission, and at the Proving Ground, a l l of the r o c k e t s
b u r s t on the stand. L a t e r , when the r i n g s w e r e p r e s s e d , a thin l a y e r of
graphite w a s p r e s s e d in a t the joints.
Two rockets thus manufactured w e r e tested a t the Proving Ground in
January 1912, but one altogether failed to leave the stand, while the other,
after flying forward s o m e 70 s a g e n e s [163 yd] and falling t o the ground,
turned back and fell a second time s o m e 50 sagenes [117 yd] behind the stand.
In o r d e r to avoid the reproach that the rockets w e r e held back by the
stand, in view of the possibility that the rocket was jammed by the s t a n d ' s
guides, the Commission proposed in all future experiments to launch the
rockets f r o m a n open chute. The r e s u l t s of s e v e r a l chute launchings in
F e b r u a r y , March, and April, w e r e a s follows: the r o c k e t s e i t h e r b u r s t on
the chute, burned out without leaving the chute, or achieved the insignificant
range of about 70 sagenes [163 yd].

210
 At the end of April the design of the rocket was further modified by
removing the s m a l l cylinder f r o m the bottom and s o placing it that the
gyroscope served a s i t s extension. The first experiment with such a
rocket resulted in bursting of the propellant cylinder, as a r e s u l t of
which the cylinder was manufactured as a whole.
At this time Gerasimov voiced the desirability of replacing the propellant
f o r m e r l y used f o r the s m a l l cylinders by the s t r o n g e r propellant used in o u r
3" rockets, and a s m a l l quantity of t h i s was o r d e r e d f r o m the Shlissel'burg
and Shostka Gunpowder Plants.
The rocket propellant sent f r o m the Shostka Plant was too fine for
G e r a s i m o v ' s rockets, since under compression in the molding workshop i t s
density remained low and the rockets fitted with cylinders made of it b u r s t
on the spot.
Finally, four l a s t launchings of rockets f r o m a chute were held in June
1912. The l a r g e cylinders w e r e compressed from 52/18/30 propellant at
the Okhtensk Plant, and the s m a l l cylinders from rocket propellant
(manufactured a t the Shlissel'burg Plant). The r e s u l t s were: 2 rockets
left the chute, somersaulted in flight and fell a t a distance of about
250 sagenes [585 yd]. One of these rockets left the chute exceedingly fast,
s o that the s m a l l and large cylinders were ignited simultaneously (the whistle
of the gyroscope was not heard). Of the two remaining rockets, in one only
the s m a l l cylinder burned, and the l a r g e ones failed to be ignited ( a l a y e r of
paraffin had been p r e s s e d into the bottom of the i r o n cap to prevent rapid
ignition of the l a r g e cylinders, and the rocket did not even leave the stand);
in the other, the electrical sparkplug failed to ignite the s m a l l cylinder, and
a f t e r three attempts to f i r e the rocket, breakage of the tube containing the
e l e c t r i c a l sparkplug prevented i t s launching.
These data on the testing of M r . G e r a s i m o v ' s gyroscopic rockets have
brought the Commission to the following conclusion.
Both preliminary experiments on burning out of rockets on the spot (with
instrument determination of the propulsive f o r c e and the internal p r e s s u r e )
and experimental launchings f r o m a stand or open chute have so far given no
satisfactory r e s u l t s whatsoever, in the f o r m of appreciable range, however
short, o r of accurate flight (in both of these r e s p e c t s these rockets have
proved inferior even to o u r old-style 3" rocket f l a r e s ) .
It is impossible to s a y whether the exclusively unsatisfactory r e s u l t s
. constantly obtained a r e to be blamed on the design of the rocket's m e t a l
p a r t s , on the method of equipping it, o r on the choice of a gunpowder
compound; in any case, the rocket as a whole, together with the stand,
must be regarded as insufficiently developed, and t h e r e a r e almost no
indications, as was the c a s e a y e a r and a half ago, of the possibility of
obtaining favorable r e s u l t s in experiments with it.
In view of the above, without presently giving an opinion a s to the final
termination of experiments with Mr. G e r a s i m o v ' s gyroscopic rocket, the
Commission, bearing in mind Mr. G e r a s i m o v ' s request that the N a v y
Department o r d e r casings with gyroscopes f o r rockets of h i s design, and
that h e is requesting that a warrant f o r o r d e r of the n e c e s s a r y powder and
rocket propellant be issued, feels that such a warrant can be given if the
Navy Department will o r d e r the rockets.
Meanwhile the Commission is taking heed of the fact that so far no
propellant suitable f o r M r . G e r a s i m o v ' s rocket h a s been developed, and

21 1
M r . Gerasimov, r a t h e r than the Commission, m u s t give the directions f o r
i t s development. Since when manufacturing rocket propellant and smoky
powder a t different t i m e s compounds differing somewhat in t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s
can be obtained, the compounds requested by Mr. Gerasimov in h i s r e p o r t
should be o r d e r e d f o r a l l 100 rockets. The Commission should add that an
o r d e r of powder f o r 15 rockets h a s a l r e a d y been given to the F r e n c h Sevran
Livry plant.
The Manager of Artillery Engineering Institutions should communicate
the need f o r manufacture a t the Shostka Gunpowder Plant of powder and
propellant f o r 100 casings, as follows:
F o r t y pud [14401b] granulated rocket propellant (the g r a i n s to be of the
s a m e s i z e a s in smoky rifle powder), 1 0 pud [3601b] black powder, t h e
52/18/30 compound used f o r F r e n c h mining powder, and 3 pud [lo8 lb] of
62/18/30 powder; the whole to be delivered, if possible, to the Okhtensk
Gunpowder Plant by the middle of August, t h i s y e a r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , it is n e c e s s a r y to continue, if possible, experiments on
the p r e s s i n g of t h i s powder into cylinders f o r rockets, in a c c o r d with
M r . G e r a s i m o v ' s instructions, on the p r e s s e s of the molding workshop of
the Okhtensk Gunpowder Plant, during the s a m e t i m e period.
In a c c o r d with M r . G e r a s i m o v ' s instructions, the gun factory should be
requested to ship i t s remaining adaptable rocket f u s e s to the Obukhov Plant,
and to adjust the instrument for determination of the rockets' gyroscopic
properties.
It would be useful to bring t h i s journal of the Commission to the attention
of the Navy Department.

15. THE ROTATING ROCKET DESIGN O F

RE TIRED LIEU TENAN T VO LOVSKII::;

In the A r t i l l e r y Committee Journal No. 629 (1912), a memorandum of

Lieutenant Volovskii, now r e t i r e d , f o r m e r Vice-Director of the Putilov
Factory, dated 1 9 April of t h i s y e a r , and submitted to the S e c r e t a r y of
War, was discussed. This memorandum contained proposals relating t o
Volovskii's design f o r a rotating rocket t o be f i r e d a t troops and airplanes.
On the b a s i s of both experimental data and l i t e r a t u r e on the subject
(analyzed in detail in this journal) the Committee h a s concluded that the
performance of any experiments whatsoever with t h i s rocket - b e a r i n g in
mind a number of proposed experiments with m o r e highly-developed rocket
designs - is not of such i n t e r e s t a s to justify the financial outlay they would
require. In t h i s journal the Head of the Chief Artillery Administration
proposed the following resolution: "The idea of using rockets as anti-
a i r c r a f t weapons is new, and experiments should therefore be made on
Volovskii's rockets, r e g a r d l e s s of the financial outlay they entail. I '
When t h i s m a t t e r was presented to the a s s i s t a n t of the S e c r e t a r y of War
on 9 June of t h i s y e a r , an o r d e r was given t o inquire of M r . Volovskii the
cost of manufacturing 10 of h i s rockets, and then to conduct firing experiments

* Artillery Committee Journal No. 1254, 8 November 1912. AIM Archive, Artillery Committee store,
entry 39/3, file 704. sheets 241-243.

212
on them, jointly with the a e r o n a u t i c a l section, with the object of determining
the effect of t h e i r b u r s t i n g i n m i d - a i r upon a e r i a l t a r g e t s .
M r . Volovskii w a s informed of t h e proceedings by Directive No. 2 6 6 8 1
of the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration, f o r 18 June of t h i s y e a r . In r e p l y
he again submitted, on 1 3 October, a memorandum with appendices,
a d d r e s s e d to the S e c r e t a r y of War, and t h i s , in a note No. 1 9 3 6 of the
b u s i n e s s m a n a g e r of the A r t i l l e r y Committee (1912), w a s r e f e r r e d to the
Committee f o r i t s conclusion.
In t h e copy submitted M r . Volovskii notes that s i n c e the presentation of
h i s initial design f o r a rotating rocket, he h a s m a d e e s s e n t i a l i m p r o v e m e n t s
in t h e rocket, and that the design of individual component p a r t s of the rocket
h a s undergone detailed elaboration.
In the original design ( s e e sketch No. l):*the union of the r o c k e t main
body with the t a i l was to be by m e a n s of a common m e t a l tube containing
t h r e e r a d i a l fins at a s m a l l angle to t h e a x i s of the tube. When the rocket
was launched, the p r e s s u r e of the exhaust g a s e s o n t h e s e fins was to i m p a r t
to the rocket not only translational, but a l s o rotational motion. Such an
a r r a n g e m e n t , in the i n v e n t o r ' s opinion, with t h e f o r c e of the g a s e s working
simultaneously t o c r e a t e translational and rotational motion, would o p e r a t e
to the d e t r i m e n t of the f o r m e r . T o o v e r c o m e the deficiency, in r o c k e t No. 2 ,
the function of the g a s e s was divided into two independent c a t e g o r i e s by
fixing inside t h e c a s i n g and concentric with i t a second tube of s m a l l e r
d i a m e t e r , constituting t h e r o c k e t t a i l . The tubes w e r e joined by f o u r t i e -
r o d s , a r r a n g e d a t a c e r t a i n s m a l l angle to the a x i s of the rocket, s o that
the c r o s s section of t h e rocket would be divided into two fields, a c e n t r a l
one, inside, f o r p a s s a g e of the g a s e s c r e a t i n g t h e t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion, and
an e x t e r n a l annular one f o r p a s s a g e of the g a s e s along four channels to give
the rocket rotational motion. Division of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the
rocket into two fields made it possible to change the rotational velocity of
the rocket by a l t e r i n g t h e angle of inclination of the t i e - r o d s , and to
d e t e r m i n e t h e most efficient r a t i o of the a r e a s of the c e n t r a l and e x t e r n a l
annular fields by varying the d i a m e t e r of the i n t e r n a l tube, thus regulating
the partition of the g a s e s between t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion and rotation.
Rocket type No. 3 is designed f o r g r a z i n g fire f r o m a i r p l a n e s against
cavalry. The i n t e r n a l tube is replaced in t h i s rocket by a wooden rod,
which m u s t be covered with a l a y e r of pitch o r r e s i n e d hemp. During flight
the r e s i n m u s t be ignited, which will c a u s e it to e m i t a g r e a t quantity of thick
black smoke. The descent of such a burning object, with a g r e a t quantity of
smoke, upon t h e c a v a l r y will, in M r . Volovskii's opinion, throw the h o r s e s
into a s t a t e of panic f e a r , while the projectile in t h e r o c k e t ' s warhead,
c a r r y i n g a powerful explosive, will upon impact complete the t o t a l d i s o r d e r
of the c a v a l r y .
To t h e s k e t c h e s of t h e r o c k e t s a r e appended those of:
a) a launching device ( r o c k e t cannon) with control panel showing that the
contacts on t h e rocket head touch those on the launcher;
b) a maneuverable g u n - c a r r i a g e ; and
c) a rocket m i t r a i l l e u s e .
The design of t h e s e is evident f r o m the s k e t c h e s attached to the copy.
With r e g a r d to t h e Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration proposal that 10 r o c k e t s
of Volovskii's design b e built and p r e s e n t e d f o r testing, Volovskii r e p o r t s
See Figure 34 on p. 143.

213
that all h i s efforts t o have t h i s done in private plants have come to nothing,
since none of the plants have e v e r engaged in rocket production, and would
therefore have to install a new plant before being able to undertake it.
The inventor was invited t o a s e s s i o n of Section V of the Committee on
30 October of t h i s y e a r , so that he might personally elucidate s e v e r a l points.
Meanwhile, he had reported that i f h e w e r e vouchsafed a sum of 1 0 0 0 rubles,
100 rockets of h i s design might be o r d e r e d even f r o m a private plant, and
could then be presented to the A r t i l l e r y Department f o r testing.
O p i n i o n o f t h e C o m m i t t e e . M r . Volovskii's new design f o r a
rotating rocket is distinguished f r o m the previous one by the installation
of a tube in the path of the exhaust g a s e s . This tube is intended f o r passage
of a p a r t of the g a s e s , communicating exclusively translational motion to
the rocket, while oblique t i e - r o d s a r e placed in the external annular space
formed, to se-t the rocket in rotation.
The designation of t h e s e rockets a s a n t i - a i r c r a f t weapons cannot be
called c o r r e c t . The general principles established for anti-aircraft fire,
i. e., the longest possible range, accuracy, and rapid fire, a r e beyond any
doubt m o r e readily t o be attained by the special guns now being designed
f o r t h i s purpose, and a r e a l m o s t completely lacking both in rockets of
established type, o r in those identical to them, such a s the rocket proposed
by M r . Volovskii.
In confirmation of the above the A r t i l l e r y Committee Journal No. 277, f o r
1909, on the r e s u l t s of experimental firing upon dirigibles, conducted n e a r
the town of S e s t r o r e t s k , should be quoted: "The idea of bombarding balloons
with rockets had to be completely dismissed, due to the notorious a i m l e s s n e s s
of this bombardment, which was revealed by the experiments; due t o the
slowness and poor a c c u r a c y of the rockets, one could not count on throwing
a rocket anywhere n e a r the dirigibles, if the l a t t e r w e r e to move. "
Although the modifications noted above i n M r . Volovskii's rocket do not
appear essentially to affect h i s f o r m e r design o r to overcome the
deficiencies of this type of rocket, a s noted in the A r t i l l e r y Committee
Journal No. 629 f o r 1912 (lengthened casing insteadof a t a i l ; cfr. experiments
with Colonel Sazanov's rocket; communication of rotational motion during
the translational motion), so that t h e r e a r e no adequate grounds f o r expecting
f r o m it any i n c r e a s e in range o r a c c u r a c y o v e r the r o c k e t s of old design s t i l l
in use, the A r t i l l e r y Committee finds it possible, in view of the recent
i n t e r e s t in finding the m o s t perfect type of rocket, to meet the inventor half-
way and give him an opportunity f o r experimental verification of h i s
calculations. With t h i s object the Committee f e e l s that M r . Volovskii should
be allowed the s u m of 1000 rubles to o r d e r 100 r o c k e t s of h i s design f r o m a
private plant, s o that upon t h e i r completion, he can p r e s e n t t h e s e rockets,
with a stand, t o the Chief Artillery Administration f o r testing of t h e i r flight
a c c u r a c y and range.

16. REPORT ON THE EXPERIMENTS WITH

MAJOR-GENERAL SAZANOV'S ROCKETS"

At the instance of a directive of the Chief A r t i l l e r y Administration,

No. 9599, for 26 F e b r u a r y 1913, 2 0 rockets of Major-General Sazanov's
* TsGVIA. store 504. entry 8, f i l e 1473, sheers 10-17.

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design w e r e manufactured in the r o c k e t workshop, and filled with a black
powder propellant, f o r the conduct of e x p e r i m e n t s to d e t e r m i n e t h e i r
range, t h e b u r s t i n g altitude of t h e cap, and t h e d e g r e e of illumination of
t e r r a i n they provided. The e x p e r i m e n t s on t h e s e r o c k e t s w e r e begun a t t h e
f o r m e r Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t and consisted of t h e following: an i r o n
riveted 3" c a s i n g without b a s e plate, 34 3/4" in length, with w a l l s 0.08" thick,
w a s filled with rocket propellant; a c a p filled with sand equal in weight t o the
luminous pellets w a s s e a t e d on it, and t h e r o c k e t s put together i n t h i s way,
a f t e r being fitted with two p a r a l l e l l a t e r a l t a i l s , w e r e launched f r o m a stand
to d e t e r m i n e t h e i r r a n g e and a c c u r a c y .
The journal of t h e s e launchings, appended to the r e p o r t of the a s s i s t a n t
to the Head of the Nikolaev Rocket P l a n t , No. 7, f o r 4 May 1909, shows that
in the launchings of s i x r o c k e t s , r a n g e s between 3100 and 3420 p a c e s w e r e
obtained, with deviations f r o m the d i r e c t r i x ranging f r o m 0 t o 300 p a c e s .
F o r i n c r e a s e of the r a n g e it was then proposed to p r e s s into the c a s i n g s
a black powder propellant; e x p e r i m e n t s on the pit burnout of r o c k e t s with
a 39" channel had shown the i r o n c a s i n g s to be sufficiently s t r o n g f o r t h i s
propellant. To complete the e x p e r i m e n t s i t t h u s r e m a i n e d only t o equip
the c a s i n g s with black powder propellant and the c a p s with luminous pellets,
and t o launch the r o c k e t s f r o m t h e stand, to d e t e r m i n e t h e i r range, the
t h i c k n e s s of t h e blind propellant ( b u r s t i n g altitude of the cap), and t h e d e g r e e
of illumination of the t e r r a i n .
The f e a t u r e s of M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's r o c k e t s a r e the following: 1)
the lack of a b a s e plate; 2 ) a long, n a r r o w c a p f o r the luminous pellets;
3) two t a i l s located along two g e n e r a t r i c e s of the casing, r a t h e r than one,
located along an extension of the rocket a x i s ; 4) the a b s e n c e of a fill of
chalk and sulfur; 5) a t i m e - f u s e is s c r e w e d into the plug of t h e finished
rocket; 6) the cap, a l s o finished and filled with pellets, i s s c r e w e d into
the s a m e plug.
M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's r o c k e t s have important advantages o v e r
existing 3" rocket flares a s f a r a s the simplicity of working with them and
t h e i r improved safety a r e concerned: 1) in existing r o c k e t s with an i r o n
b a s e plate the p r e s s i n g in of the propellant p r o c e e d s f r o m the head end,
and in o r d e r to f o r m a c h a m b e r the f i r s t f i l l s a r e of chalk, which is taken
out a f t e r the e n t i r e casing is filled. In M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's rocket,
thanks to t h e a b s e n c e of a b a s e plate, the c a s i n g can be filled f r o m the tail
end, and i n o r d e r to f o r m the c h a m b e r , i t need proceed no f u r t h e r than a
point the n e c e s s a r y 1 1/2" away f r o m the cutoff of the casing. The chalk
f i l l is thus superfluous, as a r e s u l t of which the r a t h e r dangerous operation
of s c r a p i n g t h e chalk out of the filled rocket with s t e e l hooks can be
eliminated. 2 ) In existing r o c k e t s the t i m e - f u s e , having f i r s t been filled
with propellant throughout i t s length, is p r e s s e d into the casing by m e a n s
of the s u l f u r which a t the s a m e t i m e s e r v e s a s a plug, then t h e superfluous
propellant is drilled out of the fuse, the c a p is s e a t e d and filled with pellets;
in M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's r o c k e t s an i r o n plug is i n s e r t e d instead of the
sulfur, and t h e t i m e - f u s e and finished cap, complete with pellets, a r e
s c r e w e d into t h i s plug.
M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's propellant-filled c a s i n g is t h u s involved in none
of the operations; t h e fuse and c a p are s c r e w e d into i t in finished f o r m .
A f t e r r o c k e t s had been p r e p a r e d in a c c o r d with t h e description and s k e t c h e s
provided by M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov, e x p e r i m e n t a l launchings w e r e begun.

215

I
 T h e f i r s t rocket, s o that i t s range and l a t e r a l deviation could b e
determined p r e c i s e l y , was launched during t h e day, and a range of 1 2 6 5
s a g e n e s I2950 yd] was obtained, with a deviation of 1 0 0 s a g e n e s [ 2 3 5 yd]
to the right. The height of the explosion and the d e g r e e of illumination
could not be observed, since the daylight and the g r e a t r a n g e m a d e the
b u r s t i n g of the c a p and the combustion of the p e l l e t s invisible. When the
next rocket w a s launched, in t h e evening, it b u r s t on t h e stand a f t e r ignition;
it t o r e off the c o v e r of the stand, fell n e a r i t and burned relatively slowly,
throwing out of the b u r s t in the c a s i n g p i e c e s of propellant burning in t h e
a i r . The b u r s t in the c a s i n g was about 10" in length, in the head p a r t ,
p a r t l y along a s e a m , and p a r t l y in a w e l d l e s s section; the c a p was thrown
out and b u r s t s e p a r a t e l y f r o m the casing, a s h o r t while l a t e r . After
construction of a new stand, a rocket was launched in the p r e s e n c e of
M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov, who had been invited, and the s a m e thing happened:
the casing b u r s t in two places, and the b u r s t s , about 1 2 " long in the head
p a r t , and s o m e 15" in the t a i l p a r t , o c c u r r e d p a r t l y along s e a m s , and
p a r t l y in weldless a r e a s . After t h i s i t w a s decided to t e s t the rocket by
on-the-spot burnout in a pit, but without determination of the g a s p r e s s u r e ,
s i n c e t h e r e w a s s o m e apprehension a s to t h e adequacy of t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r
p r e s s u r e determination. T h i s turned out to be fully justified, s i n c e the
burned out r o c k e t b u r s t and the stand to which the m a n o m e t e r is n o r m a l l y
attached w a s t o r n f r o m i t s place by the f o r c e of the g a s e s . The head
section of the c a s i n g suffered a 1 2 " b u r s t along the s e a m . When a channel
was drilled in the propellant of one of the r o c k e t s , the propellant took f i r e
and the casing suffered a 20" split in a weldless place in i t s longitudinal
middle. Somewhat l a t e r r o c k e t s whose ignition channel 0.787" in d i a m e t e r
was bored out (in two r o c k e t s ) to I " , and l a t e r , in one rocket, to 1.5", w e r e
burned i n the pit.
All of the r o c k e t s b u r s t i n the pit, accompanied by phenomena m o r e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of an explosion than b e f o r e : a sound like a shot, and extensive
damage to the casing.
T h e d i r e c t r e a s o n f o r the f a i l u r e of the e x p e r i m e n t s on Major-General
Sazanov's rocket m a y be the following. In both c a s e s of bursting, it
o c c u r r e d while the rocket was being placed on the launching stand
immediately a f t e r i t s ignition. If the d a t a of Table 1, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the
conditions of ignition and initial combustion of t h e propellant in M a j o r -
G e n e r a l Sazanov's r o c k e t s a r e compared with those f o r the 3" rocket f l a r e s
c u r r e n t l y being m a s s - p r o d u c e d and f o r Colonel E n n a t s k i i ' s No. 2 rocket, we
s e e that while the two l a t t e r r o c k e t s each have 4 s q in of combustion s u r f a c e
p e r unit of ignition channel volume, M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's rocket h a s
5.1 s q in. The gunpowder propellant with which h i s r o c k e t was filled t h e r e -
f o r e exceeded conventional rocket propellant in power by a f a c t o r of a t
l e a s t 1.4.
T o g e t h e r a l l t h i s shows that a t e v e r y given moment of combustion of t h e
propellant, a considerably g r e a t e r amount of g a s p e r unit of volume is
developed in the channel of Major-General Sazanov's r o c k e t than in the o t h e r s
with which it is compared. F u r t h e r m o r e , the s p e c i a l shape of t h i s channel
m u s t be taken into account, s i n c e i t is twice a s long a s in the o t h e r r o c k e t s ,
and s m a l l e r in d i a m e t e r , i. e., it h a s the f o r m of a v e r y long, n a r r o w tube,
which m a k e s outflow of the l i b e r a t e d g a s e s a t the p r o p e r t i m e f a r m o r e
difficult.

216
TABLE 1

3" No.2 of 3" of Major-

Parameters of rocker 3" mass-produced
Colonel Ennatskii General Sazanov

Channel
Length. . . . . . 1 5 in 1st in 30 in
Diameter . . . . . 5 in 1 in 0.787 in
Ratio of diameter to
length . . . . . 0.066 0.065 0.026
Surface . . . . . 47.12 s q in 48.70 sq in 74.17 sq in
Volume . . . . . 11.78 c u in 12.18 c u in 14.58 c u in
Ratio of surface IO channe
volume . . . . . 4 s q in 4 sq in 5.1 sq in

Propellant
. .
Type of propellant Rocket Rocket Gunpowder
Density . . . . . 1.78 1.78 1.85
Force . . . . . . 1.00 1.00 1.40

T h e s e data, together with t h e fact that in e v e r y c a s e the rocket b u r s t

immediately a f t e r i t s ignition, give a b a s i s f o r supposing that the bursting
o c c u r r e d through the above-mentioned s t r u c t u r a l deficiencies in the shape
of the channel and the unsuitability of i t s dimensions to the f o r c e of the
propellant used.
The favorable r e s u l t s of the e x p e r i m e n t s conducted with t h i s rocket in
Nikolaev, with a channel of exactly the s a m e design, a r e wholly explained
by the weakness of the propellant manufactured in the Nikolaev Rocket
Plant, s o m e idea of which will be given by the following considerations.
All o t h e r things being equal, an idea of the f o r c e of the rocket propellant
can be gained f r o m the range o v e r which it propels the rocket. The a v e r a g e
range of a 3" rocket at the Nikolaev Rocket Plant was 4 5 0 s a g e n e s [ l o 5 0 yd];
a t the Shostka plant, because of the s u p e r i o r rocket propellant, i t reached
580 s a g e n e s [ I 3 5 5 yd]. L a t e r , during the pit burnout experiment on a 3''
r o c k e t filled with gunpowder propellant, p e r f o r m e d a t the l a t t e r factory, i t
w a s revealed that both the magnitudes of t h e s e p a r a t e p r e s s u r e s of the gun-
powder g a s e s against the head p a r t of the rocket, and the t o t a l work a r e a
bounded by the c u r v e of t h e s e p r e s s u r e s exceeded the v e r y s a m e p a r a m e t e r s ,
as obtained f o r r o c k e t s filled with the propellant of t h e Nikolaev Rocket
P l a n t , by approximately 4 0 70. T h e s e data, taken together, indicate that the
power of the Shostka p l a n t ' s propellant exceeded that of the Nikolaev
p l a n t ' s by a f a c t o r of about 1.80. Despite i t s roughness, t h i s e s t i m a t e gives
an idea of the v e r y s e r i o u s difference in the power of the propellants used in
both c a s e s in the e x p e r i m e n t s on M a j o r - G e n e r a l Sazanov's rockets.
T o preclude the possibility of the r o c k e t ' s bursting, the e l a s t i c i t y of t h e
g a s e s developed in i t s channel m u s t be reduced, and t h i s is m o s t s i m p l y
done by reducing the f o r c e of the rocket propellant.
Choice of a suitable w e a k e r propellant, or shortening of t h e r o c k e t ' s
ignition will yield the d e s i r e d r e s u l t , but with a corresponding reduction i n
the r o c k e t ' s serviceability.

217
 In o r d e r t o reveal, insofar as p r e s e n t circumstances p e r m i t , the
ballistic qualities of Major -General Sazanov's rocket, we s h a l l compare
it with m a s s -produced 3'' rocket f l a r e s and with Colonel Ennatskii's No. 2
rocket, assuming, as was shown in experiments conducted a t the Nikolaev
Rocket Plant, that it is capable of transporting its luminous payload
(pellets), weighing 1 6 pounds and 8 zolotniki [l6.08 pounds], a distance of
1100 sagenes [ 2 5 7 5 yd].
The major t a s k laid by p r e s e n t s e r v i c e requirements upon rocket
f l a r e s is the t r a n s p o r t of the g r e a t e s t possible luminous payload over the
g r e a t e s t possible range in a given direction, Through its fundamental
design principles the rocket incorporates in itself both the payload and t h e
means for its t r a n s p o r t .
If we designate the weight of the luminous payload a s C, and the distance
it can be transported as S , the product CS is an approximate indication of
the rocket's useful work. The s a m e amount of useful work, however, can
be obtained by various means, depending on the design of the rocket, and the
most perfect design will be that which allows production of the given amount
of useful work at minimum cost. If we deduct C f r o m the total weight of the
rocket readied f o r launching P , we obtain the weight of the driving load D ,
whose sole function is to t r a n s p o r t C, F r o m this it is c l e a r that the r a t i o
of the product CS, the useful work of any rocket, t o the weight D of its
driving load,

shows how much useful work is obtained p e r unit of driving load, and gives
an a c c u r a t e idea of the value of the rocket's design.
The following comparative table gives estimates of the amount of useful
work and design coefficients f o r t h r e e rockets, the range S of Major-
General Sazanov's rocket being taken as that obtained during experiments
a t the Nikolaev plant.
This table shows that the amount of useful work (CS) of Sazanov's
rocket is twice that of the m a s s -produced rocket and 1.7 t i m e s that of
Colonel Ennatskii's No. 2 rocket. When the design coefficients a r e
compared, the r e s u l t s a r e not so pronouncedly in favor of Major- General
Sazanov's rocket, but it s t i l l r e t a i n s its pre-eminence. Let us now s e e
t o what this is due.
The following table shows that Major -General Sazanov's rocket has a
long, n a r r o w cap, promoting the s t r e a m l i n e flow of air about it, and a
considerable c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l load, but that it is filled with a somewhat
weaker propellant.
Going by the value of the construction coefficient, Colonel Ennatskii's
rocket has the single advantage of the narrow cap, while the l e a s t successful
design of the mass-produced rocket p o s s e s s e s none of the indicated
advantages.
In o r d e r t o determine the influence of the shape of the cap on the range of
a rocket, four mass-produced rockets whose wide caps ( d = 6 " ) had been
replaced, retaining the s a m e weight of luminous payload C, by narrow

218

I
ones ( d = 4"), were launched. The range obtained varied from 780 to
850 sagenes [1820 to 1985 yd], showing that the wide cap reduces the
range of a mass-produced rocket by no less than 200 sagenes [ 4 6 5 yd]

TABLE 2

3" No. 2 rocket of 3" of Major-General

Parameters of rocket 3" mass-produced
Colonel Ennatskii Sazanov

Pounds Zolotniki Pounds Zolotniki Pounds Zolotniki

a) L o a d
1) Luminous C pellets . 14 16 10 18 16 8
2) Driving D
Propellant. . . . 9 51 9 20 11 18
. .
Empty c a s i n g . 6 44 6 28 10 26
Sulfur . . . . . 1 48 2 12 10 26
Cap (empty) . . . 3 32 2 78 3 86
Tail . . . .. 3 !I ,'3 2 48 5 84
2 tails
Totals . . . . 24 76: 22 90 37 22

b) R a n g e S 580 sagenes 1000 sagenes 1100 sagenes

[l sagene = I ft] [ l sagene= 7 ft] [l sagene = 7 ftl
Useful work CS 8210 pound-sagenes 10160 pound-sagenes 11688 pound-sagenes
Useful work per unit of 1 pound-sagene = app. [ 1pound-sagene = app. [lpound-sagene = app.
driving load: I ft-lbl I ft-lbl I ft-lbl
CS
R= - (design coefficient 331.7 pound-sagenes 443.6 pound-sagenes 415.2 pound-sagenes
D
1 pound-sagene = app. [l pound-sagene= app. [lpound-sagene = app.
I ft-lb] I ft-lbl I ft-lb]

TABLE 3

3" rocker flares

Parameters of rocker
Colonel Ennatskii's Ma jor-General
mass-produced
No. 2 Sazanov's

1) Shape of cap: Wide Narrow Narrow

Diameter . . . . 6 l / 4 in 4 in 43/4 in
Length . . . . . 1 2 l / 4 in 19U2 in 2 1 1/4 i n
2) Cross-sectional load . 1.39 pounds 1.11 pounds 1.81 pounds
3) Force of propellant:
Short . . . . . Rocket (Shostensk) Rocket (Shostensk) Rocket (Shostensk)
Relative force . . 1 1 0.17
4 ) Design coefficient. 331.7 pound-sagenes 443.6 pound-sagenes 415.2 pound-sagenes

Table 4 shows that when the mass-produced rocket and Colonel

Ennatskii's No. 2 a r e both given a narrow cap, they have the same design
coefficients, understandably, since in this case their designs a r e almost
identical.
In this case General Sazanov's rocket differs from these in the great
length of its casing and the consequently greater transverse load,

219
 TABLE 4. Design coefficients of rockets

3" rocket flares

mass-produced Colonel Ennatskii's General Sazanov's

. .
No. 2

1)Actually. . . . . 331.7 pound-sagenes 443.6 pound-sagenes 475.2 pound-sagenes

2) When the wide c a p of
the mass-produced
rocket is replaced by
a narrow one. . . . 446.0 pound-sagenes 443.6 pound-sagenes 475.2 pound-sagenes

a s well a s in the absence of a base pl e. Whether the superior design

coefficient of General Sazanov's rocket is to be attributed-only t o its -
t r a n s v e r s e load, or whether ballistic advantages resulting f r o m the
absence of a base plate a l s o play a r o l e a r e questions which can be answered
only after careful experimentation. In any c a s e , it should be recognized
that even going by the r e s u l t s of the t e s t s conducted a t the Nikolaev plant
General Sazanov's rocket is distinguished f r o m the other rockets compared
with it by i t s ballistic properties, and in addition has the important advantage
over them of its g r e a t e r simplicity and the safety of its equipment,
In o r d e r t o show how such a feature a s the absence of a base plate can
be reflected in the useful work of a rocket's driving load, l e t us consider
the conditions under which the working p r e s s u r e n e c e s s a r y f o r motion is
created in its channel.
The gases formed by combustion of the propellant a c t equally in a l l
directions. Their p r e s s u r e on the s i d e s of the casing is balanced, but
that on the head p a r t has nothing t o balance i t , since the gases can leave
through the orifices in the base plate; this p r e s s u r e is what causes the
axis of the rocket t o move in the direction opposite t o that of theoutflowing
g a s e s . F r o m this it is evident that the motion of a rocket proceeds f r o m
the principle of reaction o r recoil, which also takes place in a f i r e - a r m .
But t h e r e is no recoil when the f i r e is blank; for it t o occur, the g a s e s
liberated by combustion of the charge must c r e a t e an impact by means of
a bullet o r projectile.
In exactly the s a m e way creation of a working p r e s s u r e in the channel of
the rocket r e q u i r e s the placing of some obstacle in the path of the liberated
g a s e s t o reduce t h e i r velocity. Then the schematically required working
p r e s s u r e p will be obtained f r o m the difference V - V I between the speed of
formation of the g a s e s by combustion of the propellant and the speed of t h e i r
outflow through the open end of the casing.
This obstacle, reducing the initial velocity of the g a s e s a t the end of the
casing, is provided by the base plate, in the wide s e n s e of the word. When
V = V , , this difference, and therefore the propulsive p r e s s u r e , go to 0.
Experiment shows that if we make no channel a t a l l in a rocket of
conventional design, o r f i l l it with a compound of light brown powder, i. e.,
c r e a t e such conditions that the v e r y slowly liberated gases f r o m combustion
of the propellant will find a completely f r e e exit through the hole in the base
plate, such a rocket will not move f r o m the stand because of the absence of
any working p r e s s u r e . F r o m what has been said it is not hard t o s e e that
the s a m e p r e s s u r e p can be obtained f r o m a v e r y great number of values of

1107 220
 the velocities V and V I , or f r o m widely differing consumptions of rocket
propellant. The designer's problem is t o choose such values that the
consumption of propellant, as well a s the driving load D, will be minimum.
F o r a given p , however, the minimum speed of combustion (consumption)
of the propellant can a l s o be obtained for a minimum V I . F r o m this the
enormously important r o l e of the base plate in rocket design is evident.
In general the gases obtained f r o m combustion of the propellant, in
passing to the casing outlet, l o s e a p a r t of their initial velocity due to
friction against the walls of the channel and of the casing, and, as might
be expected, of the internal p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e a s a r e s u l t of which some
difference in the velocities V and VI and the corresponding p r e s s u r e a r e
created as it w e r e naturally.
With the object of decreasing f u r t h e r V I , the exhaust velocity of the
g a s e s , obstacles increasing their friction must be placed in their path,
or they should even be made to do s o m e work, e. g. :
1) Keeping the rocket caliber the s a m e , the lengths of the casing and
the ignition channel a r e considerably increased (rockets of Sazanov and
Volovskii).
2 ) The a r e a of the f r e e orifice in the casing is reduced by a s m a l l
flange, and the remaining orifice is covered by a disk of cardboard (German
rocket f l a r e s Mark 78 and 8 cm. Guards' Captain Ennatskii's r e p o r t on his
foreign mission of 1909).
3 ) A base plate with holes whose a r e a depends on the circumstances is
attached t o the f r e e end of t h e casing (majority of p r e s e n t and past systems).
4 ) The exhaust gases a r e made to t u r n a propeller attached to the rocket
and serving t o make it r o t a t e in flight (English 9- and 20-lb militaryrockets.
Ennatskii's r e p o r t on his foreign mission of 1 9 0 9 ) .
F r o m what has been said it follows that the longer the rocket (channel),
the l e s s it r e q u i r e s a base plate (in the narrow s e n s e of the w o r d ) .
Consequently, a length is conceivable at which the need for a base plate
w i l l disappear altogether. This, or something close t o it, is the c a s e of
General Sazanov's rocket. The following facts convince us of t h i s :
1 ) The v e r y great length and s m a l l diameter of the channel of Sazanov's
rocket. With the s a m e caliber it is m o r e than twice a s long a s comparable
rockets.
2) The high value of the design coefficient of this rocket, whereas when
the base plate is inadequate (its total absence, as already shown, is not
permissible), the required driving p r e s s u r e is obtained by excessive
consumption of rocket propellant, completely uncalled f o r by the
circumstances, which cannot fail to be seriously reflected in the value of
the driving load D , and t h e r e f o r e in the coefficient itself.
3 ) The complete failure of experiments on the application of the principle
of l a r g e holes in the base plate to the 3'' mass-produced rocket with its s h o r t
channel.
A l l of this brings u s t o the unavoidable logical conclusion that General
Sazanov's rocket, like all rockets, h a s a b a s e plate, whose r o l e is filled
by the g r e a t length, and in part, by the narrowness, of i t s channel.
The last peculiarity of General Sazanov's rockei is its being guided
by two completely identical l a t e r a l wooden tails.
The s i m p l e s t method of guiding the motion of a rocket is by continuation
of the rocket casing in the direction opposite t o the motion, by means of a

22 1

I
rigid tail. The basic requirements the tail must satisfy in o r d e r best to
fulfill i t s function a r e :
1) The axis of the tail must as far as possible be a n extension of the
axis of the rocket casing.
2 ) The tail must be a n immutable system.
3 ) It must be as light as possible, in o r d e r not to i n c r e a s e the driving
load D and not to shift the rocket's center of gravity in the direction of the
tail. The tails of General Sazanov's rocket have an insufficiently l a r g e
c r o s s section for t h e i r length, and the means of attaching them to the
casing does not a s s u r e their perfect p a r a l l e l i s m . The relative position
of the tails therefore is slightly affected by random occurrences, o r by
the weather. Under such circumstances one cannot even discuss satisfaction
of conditions 1 and 2 above witH any s o r t of precision.

TABLE 5
3" rocket flares
Colonel Ennatskii's
Parameters of the rocket mass-produced General Sazanov's
No. 2

Length of casing . . . 23 in 21.6 in 34.75 in

Length of channel . . . 1 5 in 15 i n 30 in
Diameter of channel . . 1i n 1in 0.181 in
Weight of rocket . . . 39 pounds 31 pounds 1 pud [36 pounds]
14 pounds
Weight of tails. . . . 3 pounds 2 pounds 5 pounds
93 zolotniki 48 zolotniki 84.3 zolotniki
(two tails)
Weight of t a i l as a
percentage of weight
. . . .
of r o c k e t , 10q 7B 1170

Despite their c l e a r l y inadequate thickness, together, a s Table 5 shows,

they nonetheless a r e heavier than each of the tails of the other rockets, and
i n particular, of Colonel Ennatskii's rocket No. 2. F u r t h e r m o r e , attached
t o the sides, r a t h e r than beneath the casing, they undoubtedly c r e a t e e x t r a
air resistance, which cannot fail to have an a d v e r s e effect on the range.
Altogether, one can only t e r m this arrangement of tails extremely negative
and deplore its u s e by General Sazanov, since the good ballistic qualities
of his rockets must suffer f r o m it, to a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r degree. This
is the m o r e lamentable since f o r such rockets (lacking a base plate) t h e r e
exists a tested s y s t e m which fulfills its objective, of conventional c e n t r a l
tails, located along the rocket axis, attached t o the casing by means of a n
i r o n bracket.
Experiments on the application of two l a t e r a l tails to rockets were
performed in Russia after the Sevastopol campaign (Major -General
Konstantinov's work on rockets), and the idea was rejected even then.
The preceding analysis of General Sazanov's proposal p e r m i t s the
following practical conclusions.
The most important p a r t of his idea is the problem of a long, narrow
rocket, with a long, narrow channel. General Sazanov has doubled the

222
 1 5 " channel length hitherto accepted f o r a 3" rocket flare, and has equipped
this lengthened rocket with a s i m i l a r l y narrow cap t o hold the pellets. A s a
r e s u l t of all this the rocket's load is distributed f o r the most p a r t
longitudinally.
This shape has promoted e a s i e r s t r e a m l i n e flow about the rocket in
motion and, in addition, has greatly increased its c r o s s -sectional load.
These factors in t u r n have promoted increased range, and consequent
i n c r e a s e i n the r o c k e t ' s design coefficient.
The great length of the rocket's ignition channel has made a base plate
(in the narrow s e n s e of the word) superfluous, and has made it possible
to profit f r o m the resulting advantages of convenience and safety.
Finally, the rocket proposed by General Sazanov, despite its c l e a r l y
unsatisfactory guidance system, s u r p a s s e s Colonel Ennatskii's No. 2, the
best of the rockets compared with it, in the value of its design coefficient,
and in addition has on its side a l l the advantages resulting f r o m the absence
of a base plate.
The advantages cited f o r a long rocket and channel a r e s o significant a s
to demand the attention of rocket designers, especially when 3 " o r s i m i l a r
calibers a r e involved.

Major-General Rudakov, a s s i s t a n t t o the Head of the

Percussion- Cap Plant

223

L
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221
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-
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Polozhenie o chisle signal'nykh raket v batareyakh (Regulations as t o the Number of
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Polozhenie o feierverkakh (Fireworks Regulations). Sankt- Peterburg. 1809.
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Pravila dlya razryadki boevykh raket, podlezhashchikh k unichtozheniyu (Rules for
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Pravila dlya razryazheniya boevykh raket (Rules for the Deactivation of Military
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Pravila dlya upotrebleniya boevykh raket na grebnykh sudakh i n a beregu (Rules
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Pravila dlya upotrebleniya 2-dyuimovykh boevykh raket, s pokazaniem predostorozh-
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perevozke i khranenii v zapase (Rules for the Use of 2" Rockets, with an
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Pribor inosuantsa Motandra dlya pridaniya vrashcheniya boevym raketam, ne
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-
Rotation to Tailless Military Rockets). Artilleriiskii Zhurnal, No. 6,
-
Sect. I, pp. 8 9 99. 1856.

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Rezul'taty proizvedennykh Artilleriiskim otdeleniem opytov nad brosaniem v nochnoe
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230
S h t e r n f e l ' d , A. A. Konstantin Ivanovich Konstantinov -otets russkoi boevoi
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-
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23 I
T o p u n o v , L. F. Rozhdenie otechestvennoi boevoi rakety (Birth of the Russian
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4
T y u 1i n a , I. A. Razvitie mekhaniki reaktivnogo dvizheniya t e l peremennogo
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.
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No. 12, pp. 1260 - 1213. 1880.

232
 NAME I N D E X

Andreev 109, 113-116, 118, 146, Demidov, A. P. 9, 14

148, 157 Demidov, I. 14
Ankudovich, V. A. 62 Dennet 92
Artem'ev, V. A. 154-155 Dibich, I. I. 28
Augustin 186 Dolgorukov, V. A. 44

Bellunzo 200 Elagin,I. 14

Belyi 156 Elizabeth 13
Benkenstein 14 Ennatskii,V. I. 113, 117, 123, 148,
Berdyugin 58, 86 150-152, 155, 160, 198, 218-223
Berezhen 129 Erebo,R. 13, 21
Bernoulli, D. 68 Ermo1ov.A. P. 28, 29, 30
Bockler, G. A. 4 - 6, 19 Euler, L. 68
Bogdanov, A. 5, 18, 20, 21 Eval'd,A. V. 105, 107, 117
Bogoslovskii, M. M. 19
Boxer 98 Farcot 47
Braun,E. 5, 20 Fedorov, V. G. 17
Brechtel 4 Fe0dos'ev.V. I. 17, 19
Brimmer 187 Fontana, G. 100
Brink 200 Foss 184
Brown 73 Fronsperger, L. 4, 18
Bryus 1 4 Furtenbach 4
Bubnov 208
Buchner, J. Z. 5, 20 Garber 14
Budevskii 153 Gerasimov, N. V. 117, 135-141, 146,
Buff0n.J. 68 159, 202, 208-212
Geshvend, F. 105, 108
Catherine I1 13 Gorchakov 187
Cheleev, F. S. 9, 14-16, 20, 21, Gorden,P. 4
24, 87 Goupille 58
Chernyshev, A. I. 44 Grave,I. P. 155, 156, 161
Chernyshev, N. G. 1, 17 Guseva-Taras0va.V. A. 157
Chichinadze 57
Congreve, V. 22, 24, 41, 58, 92 Hale 58-59
Hartmann 6 2
Danilov,M. V. 8, 9, 14, 20, 21, 169 Helfreich 154
Demenkov 117, 123, 129, 133, 202-203

233

' I I IIII II Ill II I I I I I I 11111 I I I I 111111I II I 11111 I

 Inekhov 1 4 Makhonin, I. I. 117, 154-155
Ivanov 109, 110, 156 Mandryk, A. P. 86, 87
Martynov, M. 1 4
Jannine 100 Markevich,A. 9, 14
Johansen 44 Maslov 36
Iul1,I. 5, 10, 20, 21 Massingbird-Turner 28, 29, 188
Matyukevich, F. 98
von Kaiser, K. 65 Mavrodin, V. V. 17
Kalinnikov 56 Mazyukevich, M. 38
Karabchevskii, S. V. 117, 123, 129, 133, Melissino, P. 14
134, 158, 202-205 Menshikov 188
Kartmazov 23-28, 53, 163, 170 Meshcherskii, I. V. 109
Kibal'chich, N. I. 102 -104, 107 Mikhailov, 0, 18
Kirpichnikov, A. N. 17 Miolan 100
Klement'ev, V. 1 4 MontgLry 60, 86, 87, 184
Klenk,K. 2, 18 Moore, W. 60, 86, 87, 188
Klimov,M. 4 Moraine 61, 62
Koiet, B. 2
Kolyankovskii, E. A. 153 Nat,E. 98
Konstantinov, K. I. 32, 4 1 -48, 53, 57, Nechaev 80
58-79, 84-89, 92, 93, 99, 101, Nemov,M. 1 4
102, 148, 164-165, 182, Nezhdanovskii, S. S. 105-106, 107
185 -189, 222 Nicholas I 4 4
Korchmin, V. D. 13, 21 Nottingham 58 -59
Korf 189, 192
Kostyrko 36, 70, 71, 74 Onufriev, A. 4
Kozen 29, 34, 67
Kreits 5 Parlby 58
Kucherov 153 Paskevich 30
Kulibin,I. P. 14, 21 Pavlova, G. E, 21
Kuzakov, V. K. 1 7 Perovskii 187
Kuz'min-Korovaev. D. D. 144 Pestich 45
Peter 1 4 , 5 , 8, 10, 13, 19, 21, 162, 168
Lagrange, I. 68 Pikte 1 8 1
Langrini, J. B. 4, 19 Piober 64, 68
Lava1 199, 200 Podruzskii 8 2
Levitskii 199 Pokhvisnev, E. B. 153
Ley,W. 37, 98 Polivanov,N. 84
Likhonin 154 Pomortsev, M. M. 113, 117 -135, 146,
Linevich 117 150, 157, 158, 193-196,
Lomonosov, M. V. 12, 14, 21 202-2203. 205
Luk'yanov, P. M. 18, 20 Primenko, A. E. 17, 18
Lyapunov, B. V. 17, 156 Prokof'ev,G. 4, 16%
Proust 65

234
Rainov, T. I. 18 Sytenko,N. A. 111,135, 141, 1 4 2
Reintal', R 99
Richard 123, 139 Talbot 7 3
Romen,A. 4 Tikhonravov, M, K. 11
Rostovtsev, Ya. I. 46 Tremblay 92
Rovinskii, D. A. 20, 21 Treteskii, I. I. 100-102, 107
Rudakov 149, 150, 151, 1 5 2 Trowgrouse 9 2
Rumyantsev, P. 98 Tsiolkovskii,K. E. 17, 109
Ryabushinskii, D. P. 135, 158 Tsytovich,P. 18, 21, 98
Rynin,N. A. 17, 158 Tyulina, I. A. 88

Savrimovich 1 9 1 Unge 1 0 9
Sazanov, D. V. 113, 117, 146-150,
152, 160, 214-223 Vanchinov, A. 25
Schmidlapp,J. 4, 18 Vaulin,K. 25
Schreiber 5 Vessel', E. Kh. 8, 20
Serebryakov, A. P. 153, 1 6 1 Vilinbakhov, V. B. 17
Serebryakov, M. E. 161 Violette 197
Shesternikova, L. 1 9 Vishnyakov 56
Shil'der, K. A. 3 2 -34, 38 Vlasov 94
Shtelin, Y a, Y a, 14 Vnukov,V.M. 25, 29
Shuvaev, N. A. 17, 156 Volovskii, I. V. 117, 135, 141-146, 159
Siemienowicz, C. 5 -7, 1 9 212 - 214
Sinyarev,G. B. 1 7 , 1 9 Vorontsov, M. S. 35, 101, 187, 189
Sipyagin 30 Vrochenskii, N. 84, 85
Skornyakov-Pisarev, G. G. 13, 21
Skripchinskii 56 - 57 Wallhausen 4
Sokovnin,N. h4, 101, 107 WhitworthPC. 10, 21
Sonkin,M.E. 18, 156 Wolff,C. 68
Stepanov 82, 1 9 3
Step anov, F. V. 98 YakovIev, A. I. 107
Stiller 9 2
Subotowicz,M. 5, 19 Zasyadko, A. D. 24-28, 31, 53, 163, 178

235
EXPLANATORY LIST OF ABBREVIATED NAMES OF
USSR INSTITUTIONS APPEARING IN THIS TEXT
Abbreviation Full name (transliterated)
AIM Artilleriiskii Istoricheskii
Muzei
GAU Glavnoe Arkhivnoe
Upravlenie
MGU Moskovskii Gosudarstven-
nyi Universitet
MVTU Moskovskoe Vysshee
Tekhnicheskoe Uchili-
shche(im N. E. Baumana)
T sG AOR Tsentral'nyi Gosudarstven-
nyi Arkhiv Oktyabr'skoi
Revolyutsii i Sotsialistiches-
kogo Stroitel 'stva
TsGAVMF Tsentral'nyi Gosudarstven-
nyi Arkhiv Voenno-
Morskogo Flota
TsGVIA T sentia1'nyi Gosudarstven-
nyi Voenno-Istoricheskii
Arkhiv
VUK Voenno-Uchenyi Komitet
1707 236
Translation
Historical Artillery Museum
Main Administration of
Archives
Moscow State University
Moscow Higher Technical
School (im. N. E. Bauman)
Central Government Archives
of the October Revolution and
of the Building of Socialism
Central Government Archives
of the Navy
Central Government Archives
of Military History
Military Scientific Council
!

Cover printed in Jerusalem, Israel TT 66-51152