Module 1

GITAM
(Deemed to be University)
Satellite Communications
Module 1 : Elements of Orbital Mechanics
By
Dr Ratna Kumari Upadhyayula
Department of EECE
GITAM Institute of Technology(GIT)
Visakhapatnam-530045
Email: rupadhya@gitam.edu
03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 1
Satellite GITAM
• A satellite is an object that has been

intentionally placed into orbit
• An artificial body placed in orbit round the
earth or moon or another planet in order to
collect information or for communication
• A satellite is an object in space that orbits or
circles around a bigger object.
• The word "satellite" refers to a machine that
is launched into space and moves around
Earth or another body in space.
Satellite Communications GITAM
 Communication refers to the exchange (sharing)
of information between two or more entities,
through any medium or channel. In other words,
it is nothing but sending, receiving and processing
of information.
 If the communication takes place between any two
earth stations through a satellite, then it is called
as satellite communications.
 Satellites provide communication for long
distances, which is well beyond the line of sight.

Satellite Image GITAM

Syllabus
GITAM
• Elements of Orbital Mechanics

• Elements of Communication Satellite
Design
• Multiple Access Techniques
• Satellite Link Design
• Earth Station Design

Course Objectives
GITAM
 To understand the orbital mechanics, orbital

controlling and launching the satellite systems.
 To study and understand the spacecraft
integration and subsystems of communication
satellite.
 To study the various multiple access techniques
and satellite onboard processing.
 To study and understand the design of satellite
links.
 To study and understand the design of earth
station, antenna and tracking systems of the
satellites.
Course Outcomes GITAM
Upon successful completion of the course, students will be
able to :
1.Understand the orbital and functional principles of satellite
communication systems.
2.Architect, interpret, and select appropriate technologies for
implementation of specified satellite communication systems.
3.Analyse and evaluate a satellite link and suggest
enhancements to improve the link performance.
4.Select an appropriate modulation, multiplexing, coding and
multiple access schemes for a given satellite communication
link.
5.Specify, design, prototype and test analog and digital
satellite communication systems as per given specifications.
Why we need Satellite GITAM
communications?
• The maximum hop or the station distance is limited

to 1500KM only in both ground wave propagation
and sky wave propagation. Satellite communication
overcomes this limitation. In this method, satellites
provide communication for long distances, which is
well beyond the line of sight.
• Since the satellites locate at certain height above
earth, the communication takes place between any
two earth stations easily via satellite. So, it overcomes
the limitation of communication between two earth
stations due to earth’s curvature.
Books GITAM
Text Books:
1.Dennis Roddy, Satellite Communications, 4/e, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2006.
2.T. Pratt, S. W. Bostian, Satellite Communication, 2/e,
John Wiley and Sons, 2006.
Reference books:
1.Dharma Raj Cheruku, Satellite Communication, 1/e,
IK International Publishing, 2010.
2.D. C. Agarwal, Satellite Communication, 1/e,
Khanna Publishers, 1991.

Contents GITAM
 Introduction
 Earth Orbit Satellites
 Equations of Motions
 Kepler’s Laws
 Orbital Elements
 Orbital Perturbations
 Satellite Launch Systems
 Multistage Launchers
How do Satellites Work GITAM
• Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through

radio broadcast but are too far away to use conventional
means.
• The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for
their communication
• One Earth Station sends a transmission to the satellite.
This is called a Uplink.
• The satellite Transponder converts the signal and sends
it down to the second earth station. This is called a
Downlink.

How do Satellites Work GITAM
Uplink frequency is the frequency at which,

the first earth station is communicating with
satellite.
 The satellite transponder converts this signal
into another frequency and sends it down to
the second earth station. This frequency is
called as Downlink frequency.
Satellite's footprint:It is the Earth area
covered by a satellite radio beam.
Working of a satellite GITAM
Advantages of SatellitesGITAM
The advantages of satellite communication

over terrestrial communication are:
 The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds
that of a terrestrial system.
 Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of
the distance from the center of the coverage area.
 Satellite to Satellite communication is very
precise.
 Higher Bandwidths are available for use.

Disadvantages of Satellites GITAM
The disadvantages of satellite communication:

 Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
 Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used
up.
 There is a larger propagation delay in satellite
communication than in terrestrial
communication.

Types of Satellites GITAM
There are two major types of satellites:

1. Natural Satellite: It is a celestial body in space that
orbits around a larger body.
Example:Moon.
2. Artificial Satellites: These are made by people and
launched into orbit using rockets and are called
artificial-satellites.
Example: Aryabhatta

Types of Satellites
GITAM
Passive Satellites:
• A satellite that only reflects signals from one Earth
station to another or from several Earth stations to
several others.
• It reflects the incident electromagnetic radiation without
any modification or amplification.
• It can't generate power, they simply reflect the incident
power.
• The first artificial passive satellite Echo-I of NASA was
launched in August 1960.

Active Satellites
GITAM
• In active satellites, it amplifies or modifies and

retransmits the signal received from the earth.
• Satellites which can transmit power are called active
satellite.
• Have several advantages over the passive satellites.
• Require lower power earth station.
• Not open to random use.
• Directly controlled by operators from ground.

Satellite Structure GITAM

How Satellites are used GITAM
• Service Types
 Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)
• Example: Point to Point Communication
 Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
• Example: Satellite Television/Radio
• Also called Direct Broadcast Service (DBS).
 Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)
• Example: Satellite Phones

Satellite Services GITAM
1. Fixed Satellite Service(FSS):A radio communication service
between earth stations at given positions, when one or more satellites
are used; the given position may be a specified fixed point or any
fixed point within specified areas.
Links for existing telephone networks
Transmitting TV signals to cable companies.
Example: Point to Point Communication
2. Broadcast Satellite Service (BSS):A radio communication service
in which signals transmitted or retransmitted by space stations are
intended for direct reception by the general public.
Direct to home (DTH) =Direct broadcasting satellites (DBS)
Example: Satellite Television/Radio

Satellite Services GITAM
3. Mobile Satellite Service(MSS):Mobile satellite
services (MSS) refers to networks of communications
satellites intended for use with mobile and portable
wireless telephones.
Land mobile , maritime mobile and aeronautical
mobile, Satellite Phones
4. Navigation satellite service (NSS):
Global positioning system.
5. Meteorological satellite service
Weather Forecast
Frequency Bands GITAM
 Different kinds of satellites use different frequency bands:

 L–Band: 1 to 2 GHz, used by MSS
 S-Band: 2 to 4 GHz, used by MSS, NASA, deep space research
 C-Band: 4 to 8 GHz, used by FSS
 X-Band: 8 to 12.5 GHz, used by FSS and in terrestrial imaging,
ex: military and meteorological satellites
 Ku-Band: 12.5 to 18 GHz: used by FSS and BSS (DBS)
 K-Band: 18 to 26.5 GHz: used by FSS and BSS
 Ka-Band: 26.5 to 40 GHz: used by FSS

Satellite Orbits GITAM
Orbit: It is the gravitationally curved trajectory

of an object, such as the trajectory of a
satellite around a planet.
Or
An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one
object in space takes around another one.
Satellite Orbits are classified as:
NGSO
GSO

NGSO GITAM
Non Geostationary Orbit (NGSO)
Early ventures with satellite communications used satellites
in Non-geostationary low earth orbits due to the technical
limitations of the launch vehicles in placing satellites in
higher orbits.
Disadvantages of NGSO:
 Complex problem of transferring signal from one
satellite to another.
 Less expected life of satellites at NGSO.
 Requires frequent replacement of satellites compared to
satellite in GSO.
GSO GITAM
Geo Stationary Orbit (GSO)
There is only one geostationary orbit possible around the
earth lying on the earth’s equatorial plane.
The satellite orbits at the same speed as the rotational speed
of the earth on its axis.
Advantages:
Simple ground station tracking.
Nearly constant range
Very small frequency shift
Disadvantages:
Transmission delay of the order of 250 msec.
Large free space loss
No polar coverage
Satellite Orbits GITAM

Types of Satellites Orbits GITAM
• Satellite Orbits
 GEO
 LEO
 MEO
 Molniya Orbit
 HAPs

Geostationary Earth Orbit GITAM
(GEO) (Deemed to be University)
 These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s

surface along the equator.
 Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve around the earth
at the same speed as the earth rotates. This means GEO
satellites remain in the same position relative to the
surface of earth.
Advantages
 A GEO satellite’s distance from earth gives it a large
coverage area, almost a fourth of the earth’s surface.
 GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
 These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and
other multipoint applications.

GEO
GITAM
• Disadvantages
 A GEO satellite’s distance also cause it to have
both a comparatively weak signal and a time
delay in the signal, which is bad for point to
point communication.
 GEO satellites, centered above the equator,
have difficulty in broadcasting signals to near
polar regions
03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications

GEO GITAM

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) GITAM
• LEO satellites are much closer to the earth

than GEO satellites, ranging from 500 to
1,500 km above the surface.
• LEO satellites don’t stay in fixed position
relative to the surface, and are only visible
for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.
• A network of LEO satellites is necessary
for LEO satellites to be useful

LEO (Cont.) GITAM
 Advantages (Deemed to be University)
 A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO

satellite gives it a better signal strength and less of a time
delay, which makes it better for point to point
communication.
 A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is less of a waste of
bandwidth.
 Disadvantages
 A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly
 LEO satellites have to compensate for Doppler shifts cause by
their relative movement.
 Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual
orbital deterioration.
Medium Earth Orbit GITAM
(MEO) (Deemed to be University)
• A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between 8,000 km

and 18,000 km above the earth’s surface.
• MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in
functionality.
• MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of
time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 to 8 hours.
• MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO
satellites.

MEO (Cont.)
GITAM
• Advantage
 A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility
and wider footprint means fewer satellites are
needed in a MEO network than a LEO
network.
• Disadvantage
 A MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer
time delay and weaker signal than a LEO
satellite, though not as bad as a GEO satellite.

Other Orbits
GITAM
• Molniya Orbit Satellites

 Used by Russia for decades.
 Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The
satellite remains in a nearly fixed position
relative to earth for eight hours.
 A series of three Molniya satellites can act like
a GEO satellite.
 Useful in near polar regions.

Other Orbits (Cont.) GITAM
• High Altitude Platform (HAP)

 One of the newest ideas in satellite
communication.
 A blimp or plane around 20 km above the
earth’s surface is used as a satellite.
 HAPs would have very small coverage area,
but would have a comparatively strong
signal.
 Cheaper to put in position, but would require
a lot of them in a network.

Satellite History Calendar GITAM
 1957
 October 4, 1957: - First satellite - the Russian Sputnik 01
 First living creature in space: Sputnik 02
 1958
 First American satellite: Explorer 01
 First telecommunication satellite: This satellite
broadcast a taped message: Score
 1959
 First meteorology satellite: Explorer 07
 1960
 First successful passive satellite: Echo 1
 First successful active satellite: Courier 1B
 First NASA satellite: Explorer 08
 April 12, 1961: - First man in space
 1962
 First telephone communication & TV broadcast via satellite: Echo 1
 First telecommunication satellite, first real-time active, AT&T:
Telstar 1
 First Canadian satellite: Alouette 1
 On 7th June 1962 at 7:53p the two-stage rocket; Rehbar-I was
successfully launched from Sonmiani Rocket Range. It carried a
payload of 80 pounds of sodium and soared to about 130 km into
the atmosphere. With the launching of Rehbar-I, Pakistan had the
honour of becoming the third country in Asia and the tenth in the
world to conduct such a launching after USA, USSR, UK, France,
Sweden, Italy, Canada, Japan and Israel.
 Rehbar-II followed a successful launch on 9th June 1962
 1963
 Real-time active: Telstar 2
 1964
 Creation of Intelsat
 First geostationary satellite, second satellite in stationary orbit:
Syncom 3
 First Italian satellite:
03-Sep-20 Department San Marco
of EECE 1
EEC451:Satellite Communications 39
 1965
 Intelsat 1 becomes first commercial comsat: Early Bird
 First real-time active for USSR: Molniya 1A
 1967
 First geostationary meteorology payload: ATS 3
 1968
 First European satellite: ESRO 2B
 July 21, 1969: - First man on the moon
 1970
 First Japanese satellite: Ohsumi
 First Chinese satellite: Dong Fang Hong 01

 1971
 First UK launched satellite: Prospero
 ITU-WARC for Space Telecommunications
 INTELSAT IV Launched
 INTERSPUTNIK - Soviet Union equivalent of INTELSAT
formed
 1974
 First direct broadcasting satellite: ATS 6
 1976
 MARISAT - First civil maritime communications satellite
service started
 1977
 EUTELSAT - European regional satellite
 ITU-WARC for Space Telecommunications in the Satellite
Service
 1979
 Creation of Inmarsat Communications
Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite
03-Sep-20 41
Satellite History Calendar
 1980
GITAM
 INTELSAT V launched - 3 axis stabilized satellite built by Ford Aerospace
 1983
 ECS (EUTELSAT 1) launched - built by European consortium supervised
by ESA
 1984
 UK's UNISAT TV DBS satellite project abandoned
 First satellite repaired in orbit by the shuttle: SMM
 1985
 First Brazilian satellite: Brazilsat A1
 First Mexican satellite: Morelos 1
 1988
 First Luxemburg satellite: Astra 1A
 1989
 INTELSAT VI - one of the last big "spinners" built by Hughes
 Creation of Panamsat - Begins Service
 On 16 July 1990, Pakistan launched its first experimental satellite, BADR-I
from China
Satellite History Calendar
 1990
GITAM
 IRIDIUM, TRITIUM, ODYSSEY and GLOBALSTAR S-PCN projects
proposed - CDMA designs more popular
 EUTELSAT II
 1992
 OLYMPUS finally launched - large European development satellite with
Ka-band, DBTV and Ku-band SS/TDMA payloads - fails within 3 years
 1993
 INMARSAT II - 39 dBW EIRP global beam mobile satellite - built by
Hughes/British Aerospace
 1994
 INTELSAT VIII launched - first INTELSAT satellite built to a contractor's
design
 Hughes describe SPACEWAY design
 DirecTV begins Direct Broadcast to Home
 1995
 Panamsat - First private company to provide global satellite services.
 1996
 INMARSAT III launched - first of the multibeam mobile satellites (built
by GE/Marconi)
 Echostar begins Diresct Broadcast Service
 1997
 IRIDIUM launches first test satellites
 ITU-WRC'97
 1999
 AceS launch first of the L-band MSS Super-GSOs - built by Lockheed
Martin
 Iridium Bankruptcy - the first major failure?
 2000
 Globalstar begins service
 Thuraya launch L-band MSS Super-GSO
 2001
 XM Satellite Radio begins service
 Pakistan’s 2nd Satellite, BADR-B was launched on 10 Dec 2001 at 9:15a
from Baikonour Cosmodrome, Kazakistan
 2002
 Sirius Satellite Radio begins service (Deemed to be University)
 Paksat-1, was deployed at 38 degrees E orbital slot in December 2002,
Paksat-1, was deployed at 38 degrees E orbital slot in December 2002
 2004
 Teledesic network planned to start operation
 2005
 Intelsat and Panamsat Merge
 VUSat OSCAR-52 (HAMSAT) Launched
 2006
 CubeSat-OSCAR 56 (Cute-1.7) Launched
 K7RR-Sat launched by California Politechnic University
 2007
 Prism was launched by University of Tokyo
 2008
 COMPASS-1; a project of Aachen University was launched from Satish
Dawan Space Center, India. It failed to achieve orbit.
Introduction to Kepler’s Laws
GITAM
 We know that satellite revolves around the earth, which is
similar to the earth revolves around the sun. So, the principles
which are applied to earth and its movement around the sun
are also applicable to satellite and its movement around the
earth.
 Many scientists have given different types of theories from

early times. But, only Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was one of
the most accepted scientist in describing the principle of a
satellite that moves around the earth.
 Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite

communication theory and observations. These are popularly
known as Kepler’s laws. These are helpful to visualize the
motion through space.
Kepler’s Three Laws GITAM
Kepler’s Law of Orbits – The Planets move

around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at
one focus.
Kepler’s Law of Areas – The line joining a planet

to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
interval of time.
Kepler’s Law of Periods – The square of the time

period of the planet is directly proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.
Kepler’s First Law GITAM
 “It states that the path followed by a satellite around its primary (the
earth) will be an ellipse”.
 This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and F2 as shown in the
figure below. Center of mass of the earth will always present at one
of the two foci of the ellipse.

Kepler’s First Law GITAM
 If the distance from the center of the object to a point
on its elliptical path is considered, then the farthest
point of an ellipse from the center is called as apogee
and the shortest point of an ellipse from the center is
called as perigee.
 Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as:
where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and

semi minor axis of the ellipse respectively.

Kepler’s Second Law
GITAM
 It states that, “For equal intervals of time,to be
(Deemed the area
University)
covered by the satellite is equal with respect to the

center of the earth.” It can be understood by taking a
look at the following figure.
 Suppose that the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances, in
the same time interval, then the areas B1 and B2
covered in both instances respectively, are equal.

Kepler’s Third Law GITAM
 It states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit is
proportional to the cube of its semi major axis length.
 Mathematically, it can be written as follows −
T 2α a 3
T2=(4π2 /μ)a3
where, 4π2/μ is the proportionality constant.
μ is Kepler’s constant & its value is equal to 3.986005x 1014m3 /sec2
 Finally, ‘a’ can be represented in terms of mean motion of the

satellite as given below:
a3=μn2
where, ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.

Satellite Communication GITAM
Orbital Mechanics (Deemed to be University)
 The path of satellite revolving around the earth is

known as orbit.
 This path can be represented with mathematical
notations.
 Orbital mechanics is the study of the motion of the
satellites that are present in orbits. So, we can
easily understand the space operations with the
knowledge of orbital motion.
Orbital Elements:Orbital elements are the
parameters, which are helpful for describing the
orbital motion of satellites.
Equations of Motion GITAM
Forces acting on Satellite :

 A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it
undergoes a pulling force from the earth due to
earth’s gravitational force. This force is known as
Centripetal force (F1) because this force satellite
tends towards it.
 Mathematically, the Centripetal force (F1) acting on

satellite due to earth can be written as

Where, G is universal gravitational constant and it is

equal to 6.673 x 10-11 N∙m2/kg2
M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
m is mass of the satellite
R is the distance from satellite to centre of the Earth.
 A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it

undergoes a pulling force from the sun and the
moon due to their gravitational forces. This force is
known as Centrifugal force (F2) because this force
tends the satellite away from earth.
 Mathematically, the Centrifugal force (F2) acting on
satellite can be written as
where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite

Orbital Velocity –’v’:
 Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the
satellite revolves around earth.
 Satellite doesn’t deviate from its orbit and moves with
certain velocity in that orbit, when both Centripetal and
Centrifugal forces are balanced with each other.
 So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).

 Therefore, the orbital velocity of satellite is
 So, the orbital velocity mainly depends on the

distance from satellite to center of the Earth (R),
since G & M are constants.
For a circular orbit, the distance covered by the satellite will
be 2πr,
where r is the radius of the satellite’s orbit.
Therefore, the orbital period, T=Distance /Velocity

T=2πr/v
where v is orbital velocity given by

Orbital Elements GITAM
Following are the orbital elements:
1. Semi major axis
2. Eccentricity
3. Mean anomaly
4. Argument of perigee
5. Inclination
6. Right ascension of ascending node
 These six orbital elements define the orbit of earth
satellites.
 Therefore, it is easy to discriminate one satellite
from other satellites based on the values of orbital
elements.
1.Semi Major Axis GITAM
The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the size of

satellite’s orbit. It is half of the major axis. This runs
from the centre through a focus to the edge of the
ellipse. So, it is the radius of an orbit at the orbit's two
most distant points.

1. Semi Major Axis (Contd.) GITAM
 Length of semi major axis(a) not only determines

the size of satellite’s orbit, but also the time period of
revolution .
 If circular orbit is considered as a special case, then
the length of semi-major axis will be equal to radius
of that circular orbit.

2. Eccentricity GITAM
 The value of Eccentricity(e) fixes the shape of
satellite’s orbit.
 This parameter indicates the deviation of the orbit’s
shape from a perfect circle.
 If the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis
of an elliptical orbit are a & b, then eccentricity (e)
will be
 The value of eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero,

since both a & b are equal. The value of eccentricity of
an elliptical orbit lies between zero and one.
2. Eccentricity (Contd.) GITAM
In above figure, the satellite orbit corresponding to

eccentricity (e) value of zero is a circular orbit.
The remaining three satellite orbits are of elliptical
corresponding to the eccentricity (e) values 0.5, 0.75
and 0.9.
3. Mean Anomaly GITAM
 For a satellite, the point which is closest from the

Earth is known as Perigee.
 Mean anomaly (M) gives the average value of
the angular position of the satellite with reference
to perigee.
 If the orbit is circular, then Mean anomaly gives
the angular position of the satellite in the orbit.
 But, if the orbit is elliptical, then calculation of
exact position is very difficult. At that time, Mean
anomaly is used as an intermediate step.

4. Argument of Perigee GITAM
Satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points.
First point is called as descending node, where the
satellite passes from the northern hemisphere to the
southern hemisphere.
Second point is called as ascending node, where the
satellite passes from the southern hemisphere to the
northern hemisphere.
Argument of perigee (ω) is the angle between
ascending node and perigee. If both perigee and
ascending node are existing at same point, then the
argument of perigee will be zero degrees.
Argument of perigee is measured in the orbital plane at
earth’s center in the direction of satellite motion.
4. Argument of Perigee GITAM

5. Inclination GITAM
 The angle between orbital plane and earth’s
equatorial plane is known as inclination (i).
 It is measured at the ascending node with direction
being east to north. So, inclination defines the
orientation of the orbit by considering the equator
of earth as reference.

5. Inclination (Contd.) GITAM
There are four types of orbits based on the angle of
inclination.
 Equatorial orbit – Angle of inclination is either zero

degrees or 180 degrees.
Polar orbit - Angle of inclination is 90 degrees.
Prograde orbit - Angle of inclination lies between zero

and 90 degrees.
 Retrograde orbit - Angle of inclination lies between 90

and 180 degrees.
5. Inclination (Contd.) GITAM

6. Right Ascension of Ascending
Node
GITAM
The right ascension of the ascending node, Ω, is the

angle in the equator plane taken from the First
Point of Aries γ to the ascending node of the orbit
(in counter clockwise direction).

Orbital Elements: GITAM
Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It is denoted as ha.
Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the
Earth. It is the major axis of the orbit. One-half of this line’s length is the
semi-major axis equivalents to satellite’s
mean distance from the Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane
going from north to south.
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane
going from south to north.
Inclination: the angle between the orbital plane and the Earth’s equatorial
plane. Its measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit,
going from East to North. Also, this angle is commonly denoted as i.

Line of Nodes: the line joining the ascending and descending nodes
through the centre of Earth.
Prograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction as
the Earth’s rotation. Its inclination is always between 0 0 to 90 0. Many
satellites follow this path as Earth’s velocity makes it easier to lunch these
satellites.
Retrograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction
counter to the Earth’s rotation.
Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in the
orbital plane at the Earth’s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.

Right ascension of ascending node: The definition of an orbit in space, the

position of ascending node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the longitude
of ascending node changes and cannot be used for reference. Thus for
practical determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing the
ascending node is used. For absolute measurement, a fixed reference point
in space is required. It could also be defined as “right ascension of the
ascending node; right ascension is the angular position measured eastward
along the celestial equator from the vernal equinox vector to the hour circle
of the object”.
Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the
satellite with reference to the perigee.
True anamoly: It is the angle from point of perigee to the satellite’s position,
measure at the Earth’s centre.
Orbital Perturbations GITAM
 The orbital perturbations are created due to

gravitational and non-gravitational forces or
parameters.
 Earth’s magnetic field also causes orbital
perturbations.
 Main external perturbations come from Sun
and Moon.
 When a satellite is near to these external bodies,
it receives a stronger gravitational pull.

Orbital Perturbations GITAM
 Low-orbit satellites get affected due to friction
caused by collision with atoms and ions.
 Solar radiation pressure affects large GEO
satellites, which use large solar arrays.
 Self-generated torques and pressures caused by
RF radiation from the antenna.
 Most satellites use a propulsion subsystem in
order to maintain a proper spin axis direction
and control the altitude of the satellite against
perturbation forces.

Orbital Correction/Control GITAM
 The Tracking, Telemetry, Command and

Monitoring (TTC&M) subsystem present at
earth station, monitors the position of satellite.
 If there is any change in satellite orbit, then it

sends a signal regarding the correction to orbit
control subsystem.
 Then, it will resolve that issue by bringing

the satellite into the correct orbit.

Launching of Satellites GITAM
The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is
known as launching process. During this process,
from earth stations we can control the operation of
satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in launching a
satellite.
 First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle
contains rockets and fuel for lifting the satellite
along with launch vehicle from ground.
 Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle
contains smaller rockets. These are ignited after
completion of first stage. They have their own fuel
tanks in order to send the satellite into space.
Launching of Satellites GITAM
 Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the

launch vehicle is connected to the satellite
fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which
contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.
 Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the
upper stage of launch vehicle, when it has been
reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the
satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit
sends the satellite higher into space.

Satellite Launch Vehicles GITAM
Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a
particular orbit based on the requirement. Satellite launch
vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets. Following are
the two types of satellite launch vehicles.
1. Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)
Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after
leaving the satellites in space.
2. Reusable Launch Vehicles(RLV)
Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be
used multiple times for launching satellites. Generally, this
type of launch vehicles will return back to earth after
leaving the satellite in space.

1. Expendable Launch Vehicles GITAM

2. Reusable Launch Vehicles GITAM

GITAM

Launch vehicle selection factor GITAM
 Price/cost
 Reliability-Recent launch success/failure history
 Dependable launch schedule- Urgency of the customer
 Performance
 Spacecraft fit
 Safety issues
 Launch site location
 Availability-launch site; vehicle; schedule;
 Market conditions-what the market will bear

GITAM

Multistage Rocket Launchers GITAM
• Staging is the combination of several rocket sections, or

stages, that fire in a specific order and then detach, so a
ship can penetrate Earth’s atmosphere and reach space.
• The operative principle behind rocket stages is that you

need a certain amount of thrust to get above the
atmosphere, and then further thrust to accelerate to a
speed fast enough to stay in orbit around Earth (orbital
speed, about five miles per second).

• It’s easier for a rocket to get to that orbital speed without

having to carry the excess weight of empty propellant
tanks and early-stage rockets. So when the fuel/oxygen
for each stage of a rocket is used up, the ship jettisons
that stage, and it falls back to Earth.
• A multistage rocket, or step rocket is a launch

vehicle that uses two or more rocket stages, each of
which contains its own engines and propellant.

• Rockets stages are typically stacked or parallel (boosters

on the sides of a central vessel). The two-stage rocket is
common, but space programs have successfully
launched rockets with as many as five separate stages.
• By jettisoning stages when they run out of propellant,

the mass of the remaining rocket is decreased. Each
successive stage can also be optimized for its specific
operating conditions, such as decreased atmospheric
pressure at higher altitudes.

• This staging allows the thrust of the

remaining stages to more easily accelerate the
rocket to its final speed and height.
• A multistage rocket is required to
reach orbital speed.
• There are multiple staging schemes for
rockets, and the number of stages varies
depending upon the spacecraft and the
mission objectives.
GITAM
Different Kinds of Rocket Staging

• Serial staging
• Parallel staging
• Stage-and-a-half
• Single staging

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Communications
Serial staging
GITAM
Stages are attached, one on top of the

other, or stacked. The first stage ignites at
launch and burns through its fuel until its
propellants are spent.
Now useless dead weight, in a staging
maneuver the first stage breaks free from
the previous stage, then begins burning
through the next stage in straight
succession.
03-Sep-20 89
Communications
Serial staging
GITAM

Serial staging GITAM
In serial or tandem staging schemes, the first

stage is at the bottom and is usually the
largest, the second stage and
subsequent upper stages are above it, usually
decreasing in size
Depending on the rocket, the second stage
may get the payload into orbit or require a
third or fourth stage to ultimately deliver it
to space. It depends on the individual rocket
and mission.
Parallel staging GITAM
• Whereas serial staging involves stacked

stages, parallel staging features one or
multiple booster stages strapped to a
central sustainer, as on the space shuttle.
• At launch, all the engines ignite. When
their propellant runs out, the strapped-on
boosters fall away.

Parallel staging
GITAM
• In parallel staging schemes solid or liquid rocket

boosters are used to assist with launch. These are
sometimes referred to as "stage 0".
• In the typical case, the first-stage and booster
engines fire to propel the entire rocket upwards.
When the boosters run out of fuel, they are detached
from the rest of the rocket (usually with some kind
of small explosive charge or explosive bolts) and fall
away

Parallel staging GITAM

Other Staging
GITAM
• Stage-and-a-half: This less common staging has

a main core that acts like a sustainer stage and a
booster stage that falls away during the flight.
• Single staging. More a dream in development
than a current reality, a single stage rocket is a
simpler technology that doesn’t require multiple
complicated and dangerous stages to get
through the atmosphere.

Launch of a Black Brant GITAM
12 multistage sounding rocket (Deemed to be University)

Performance of Multistage rocket
Launchers
GITAM
• The reason multi-stage rockets are required is the limitation the

laws of physics place on the maximum velocity achievable by a
rocket of given fueled-to-dry mass ratio. This relation is given by
the classical rocket equation:

Launchers GITAM
• The delta v required to reach low Earth

orbit (or the required velocity of a sufficiently
heavy suborbital payload) requires a wet to
dry mass ratio larger than can realistically be
achieved in a single rocket stage.
• The multistage rocket overcomes this limit by
splitting the delta-v into fractions.

Performance of Multistage rocket GITAM
Launchers (Deemed to be University)
• As each lower stage drops off and the

succeeding stage fires, the rest of the
rocket is still traveling near the burnout
speed.
• Each lower stage's dry mass includes the
propellant in the upper stages, and each
succeeding upper stage has reduced its
dry mass by discarding the useless dry
mass of the spent lower stages.
Launchers
GITAM
• A further advantage is that each stage can

use a different type of rocket engine, each
tuned for its particular operating conditions.
• Thus the lower-stage engines are designed
for use at atmospheric pressure, while the
upper stages can use engines suited to near
vacuum conditions.

Launchers GITAM
• Lower stages tend to require more

structure than upper as they need to bear
their own weight plus that of the stages
above them.
• Optimizing the structure of each stage
decreases the weight of the total vehicle
and provides further advantage.

GITAM
1. Calculate the orbital velocity of the earth so that the satellite revolves
around the earth if the radius of earth R = 6.5 × 106 m, the mass of earth M
= 5.9722×1024 kg and Gravitational constant G = 6.67408 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Solution:
Given:
R = 6.5 × 106 m
M = 5.9722×1024 kg
G = 6.67408 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
The Orbital velocity formula is given by
= √(6.67408 × 10-11 ×5.9722×1024 / 6.5 × 106)
= √36.68 x 1013/ 6.5 x 106
= 7.5 x 109km/s
03-Sep-20 102
Communications
GITAM
2. A satellite launch is made for the study of Jupiter. Determine its
velocity so that its orbit around the Jupiter. Radius of Jupiter R =
70.5 × 106 m, Mass of Jupiter M = 1.5 × 1027 Kg,
Gravitational constant G = 6.67408 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
When the given parameters are substituted in the orbital

velocity formula, we get
= √(6.67408 × 10-11 × 1.5 × 1027 / 70.5×106)
= √10.0095 x 1016 / 70.5 x 106
= √0.141 x 1010
= 3.754 x 104m/s.

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Communications
GITAM
3. A satellite wishes to orbit the earth at a height of 100 km
(approximately 60 miles) above the surface of the earth. Determine
the speed, acceleration and orbital period of the satellite.
Given : R = Rearth + height = 6.47 x 106 m
Mearth = 5.98x1024 kg
G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
v = SQRT [ (6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2)•(5.98 x 1024 kg) /
(6.47 x 106 m) ]
v = 7.85 x 103 m/s

03-Sep-20 104
Communications
GITAM
4. Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the period is 1-
day.
Note that in Mathcad this will be automatically recorded in rad/s. Thus, for the
record:

03-Sep-20 105
Communications
References
GITAM
• 1.Dennis Roddy, Satellite Communications, 4/e, Tata McGraw Hill,

2006.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistage_rocket
• https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/rocket/rktstage.html
• https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-rocket-staging-
learn-about-the-different-purposes-of-each-rocket-stage#what-is-
drag-and-how-does-it-impact-rocket-staging
• https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-
4/Mathematics-of-Satellite-Motion
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/satellite_communication/satellite
_communication_orbital_mechanics.htm

03-Sep-20 106
Communications
GITAM
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GITAM

Module 1 : Elements of Orbital Mechanics

• A satellite is an object that has been

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 3

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 4

• Elements of Orbital Mechanics

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 5

 To understand the orbital mechanics, orbital

• The maximum hop or the station distance is limited

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 9

• Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 11

Uplink frequency is the frequency at which,

The advantages of satellite communication

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 14

The disadvantages of satellite communication:

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 15

There are two major types of satellites:

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 16

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 17

• In active satellites, it amplifies or modifies and

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 18

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 19

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 20

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 21

 Different kinds of satellites use different frequency bands:

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 23

Orbit: It is the gravitationally curved trajectory

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 24

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 27

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 28

 These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 29

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 31

• LEO satellites are much closer to the earth

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 32

 A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO

• A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between 8,000 km

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 34

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 35

• Molniya Orbit Satellites

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 36

• High Altitude Platform (HAP)

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 37

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 40

 Many scientists have given different types of theories from

 Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite

Kepler’s Law of Orbits – The Planets move

Kepler’s Law of Areas – The line joining a planet

Kepler’s Law of Periods – The square of the time

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 48

where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 49

covered by the satellite is equal with respect to the

03-Sep-20 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 50

 Finally, ‘a’ can be represented in terms of mean motion of the