P5 Effective Stress

9/4/2020
MECÁNICA DE SUELOS
Effective Stress
Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

IGC-013 MECÁNICA DE SUELOS
Profesor: Diego D. Pérez Ruiz, PhD
Stress Tensor Representation

Ground surface
Stresses acting on the soil sample
Normal stress: Resisted only by solid particles,
✓ Forces developed at the interparticle
contact
Nv : Normal force in the vertical direction
N
=
Th
Nh: Normal force in the horizontal direction
A
z Shear stress: May be resisted by the soil
Nv skeleton,
✓ Increasing the interparticle forces
Tv
T Tv : Shear force in the vertical direction
Soil Sample
Nh =
A Th : Shear force in the horizontal direction
Fully saturated soils

✓ Water filling the voids can withstand normal
(Modified from: Lambe y Whitman, 2000)
stresses by an increase in pressure

300IGC-034 DISEÑO DE FUNDACIONES
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Stress State of a soil element
(Source: FHWA, Report No. FHWA-SA-02-054, 2002. Shallow Foundations).

✓ In a fluid such as water the pressure at any point is the same in all
directions
✓ In the case of soil, which unlike water, possesses resistance to shearing,
the lateral pressure at any point will not be the same as the vertical
pressure at that point

Stress State of a soil element
(Source: FHWA, Report No. FHWA-SA-02-054, 2002. Shallow Foundations).
a. at-rest condition: the ground is “at-rest” without any external disturbance

b. at-rest condition
c. in the “active” state:
d. in the “passive” state

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Effective Stress
The total stress component σ normal to any plane in the soil is divided into two parts
✓ Pore-pressure, uw and
✓ Effective stress component, σ’
Saturated soil Non-elastic
soil skeleton Pore-water
  ’ + w
σ = Total stress ’ = Effective Stress w= pore-water pressure

(Modified from: Schofield y Wroth, 1998)
σ’ must be considered to be effectively carried by the structure of soil particles.
 ' =  − w

Effective Stress
The total stress component σ normal to any plane in the soil is divided into two parts
✓ Pore-pressure, uw and
✓ Effective stress component, σ’
✓ the normal and tangential components are N′ and T
P = SN’ + uw A
w  ' =  − w
(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

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Effective Stress
Effective vertical stress due to self-weight of soil
✓ soil mass having a horizontal surface and with the water table at surface level
✓ The total vertical stress (i.e. the total normal stress on a horizontal plane) σv at
depth z is equal to the weight of all material (solids + water) per unit area above
that depth
✓ The pore water pressure at any depth will be hydrostatic, so at depth z
✓ The effective vertical stress at depth z in this case will be

Effective Stress in Saturated Soil

Without Seepage
Total stress, σ Pore-water pressure, w Effective Stress, ’
0
H
Solid particle
Hgw Hgw 0
H
HA
Hgw + (z–H)gsat zgw (z-H)g ’
z
Pore water
Depth, z
Depth, z
H
Cross-sectional area, A A Hgw + (HA – H)gsat HAgw (HA-H)g ’
Depth, z
(Modified from: Lambe y Whitman, 2000)
The effective stress in a soil mass controls its volume

change and strength
A = Hgw + (HA – H)gsat
If the total stress is constant: A = (HA – H)g ‘ + HAgw
✓ Increasing the effective stress induces soil to move into
a denser state of packing equivalent to reduce the pore
A = ’ + w
pressure

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Effective Stress
Example
A layer of saturated clay 4 m thick is overlain by sand 5 m deep, the water table being
3 m below the surface, as shown in Figure. The saturated unit weights of the clay and
sand are 19 kN/m3 and 20 kN/m3, respectively; above the water table the (dry) unit
weight of the sand is 17 kN/m3. Plot the values of total vertical stress and effective
vertical stress against depth. If sand to a height of 1 m above the water table is
saturated with capillary water, how are the above stresses affected?

Effective Stress
Solution
✓ The total vertical stress is the weight of all material (solids + water) per unit area
above the depth in question
✓ Pore water pressure is the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the depth below
the water table
✓ The effective vertical stress is the difference between the total vertical stress and
the pore water pressure at the same depth
✓ The stresses need only be calculated at depths where there is a change in unit
weight

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Effective Stress
Soil classification based on the degree of saturation
Discontinuos water phase

Dry zone
Air filling most voids
Unsaturated soil
Continuos water phase

Two phase zone
Continuos air phase
Water filling most of voids

Capillary fringe
Discontinuos air phase
Saturated soil
Water filling the voids

Saturated zone
Air in a disolved state
(Source: Perez, 2009)

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Effective Stress
Typical pore-water pressure profile
(Source: Perez, 2009)

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Effective Stress
Example
✓ The water table is the level at which pore water pressure is atmospheric (i.e. uw = 0)
✓ Above the water table, water is held under negative pressure and, even if the soil is saturated
above the water table, does not contribute to hydrostatic pressure below the water table
✓ The only effect of the 1-m capillary rise, therefore, is to increase the total unit weight of the
sand between 2 and 3 m depth from 17 to 20 kN/m3, an increase of 3 kN/m3
✓ Both total and effective vertical stresses below 3 m depth are therefore increased by the
constant amount 3 × 1 = 3.0 kPa
✓ Pore water pressures does not change

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Example:
Calculate the total stress, Pore water pressure, and effective stress at points A, B, C.
Point z ' u 
(m) (kN/m2)(kN/m2)(kN/m2)
A 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3.00 49.50 0.00 49.50
B 6.00 99.00 0.00 99.00
C 19 221.72 127.53 349.25
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Effective Stress
Response of effective stress to a change in total stress
Δσ
Δσ
Δσ
u = us ue = 0
u = us

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Effective Stress
Response of effective stress to a change in total stress
✓ Consider the case of a fully saturated soil subject to an increase in total
vertical stress Δσ and in which the lateral strain is zero
✓ volume change being entirely due to deformation of the soil in the vertical
direction
✓ static pore water pressure (us)
✓ excess pore water pressure (ue)
✓ At any time during drainage, the overall pore water pressure (u) is equal to
the sum of the static and excess components
✓ The reduction of excess pore water pressure as drainage takes place is

described as dissipation
✓ Therefore, when ue = 0 and u = us , the soil is said to be in the drained
condition
✓ Prior to dissipation the soil is said to be in the undrained condition

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Effective Stress
Example
A 5-m depth of sand overlies a 6-m thick layer of clay, the water table being at the surface; the
permeability of the clay is very low. The saturated unit weight of the sand is 19 kN/m3 and that of
the clay is 20 kN/m3. A 4-m depth of fill material of unit weight 20 kN/m3 is placed on the surface
over an extensive area. Determine the effective vertical stress at the centre of the clay layer
✓ (a) immediately after the fill has been placed, assuming this to take place rapidly, and
✓ (b) many years after the fill has been placed

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Effective Stress
Example
✓ Immediately after the fill has been placed, the total vertical stress at the centre of the clay
increases by 80 kPa due to the weight of the fill
✓ Since the clay is saturated and there is no lateral strain, there will be a corresponding
increase in pore water pressure. The initial excess pore water pressure ue = 80 kPa
✓ The static pore water pressure us = 78.48 kPa
✓ Pore water pressure therefore increases from 78.48 to 158.48 kPa
✓ During subsequent consolidation pore water pressure gradually decreases again to 78 kPa,
accompanied by the gradual increase of effective vertical stress from 76.52 to 156.52 kPa.

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Effective Stress
Influence of seepage on effective stress
✓ When water is seeping through the pores of a soil:
✓ Total head (i.e. Hydraulic Energy) is dissipated as viscous friction producing a
frictional drag
✓ Frictional drag acts in the direction of flow, on the solid particles
✓ Energy is transferred from the water to the solid particles
✓ Force corresponding to this energy transfer is called seepage force.
✓ Seepage force acts on the particles of a soil in addition to gravitational force
✓ Resultant body force is The combination of the forces on a soil mass due to gravity
and seeping water
✓ The resultant body force governs the effective normal stress on a plane within a soil
mass through which seepage is taking place

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Effective Stress
Seepage: pore water flow
✓ The pressure of the pore water is measured relative to atmospheric pressure
✓ Water table (WT) or the phreatic surface is defined as the level at which the water pressure is
atmospheric (i.e. zero)
✓ Below the water table the soil is assumed to be fully saturated, although it is likely that, due to
the presence of small volumes of entrapped air, the degree of saturation will be marginally
below 100%
✓ The level of the water table changes according to climatic conditions, but the level can
change also as a consequence of constructional operations
✓ A perched water table can occur locally in:
✓ An aquitard (in which water is contained by soil of low permeability, above the normal water table
level) or
✓ An aquiclude (where the surrounding material is impermeable).
✓ Artesian conditions can exist if an inclined soil layer of high permeability is confined locally by an
overlying layer of low permeability (i.e. confined aquifer)
✓ The pressure in the artesian layer is governed not by the local water table level but by a higher
water table level at a distant location where the layer is unconfined

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Effective Stress

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Effective Stress
(Source: Heath, 2004))

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Effective Stress
Bernoulli’s Equation
✓h is the total head (Total hydraulic energy)

✓u is the water pressure
✓gw is the unit weight of water (9.81 kN/m3) and
✓z is the elevation head above a chosen datum

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Effective Stress
✓ Below the water table the pore water may be static or may be seeping through the soil under
an hydraulic gradient
✓ The hydrostatic pressure depends on the depth below the water table
✓ Under groundwater flow (i.e. seepage) Bernoulli’s theorem applies to the pore water, but
seepage velocities in soils are normally so small that velocity head can be neglected
w
✓ h is the total head (Total hydraulic energy)

✓ uw is the pore water pressure
✓ gw is the unit weight of water (9.81 kN/m3) and
✓ z is the elevation head above a chosen datum
uw = (hw – z)gw

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Effective Stress
✓ Above the water table, soil can remain saturated, with the pore water being held at negative
pressure by capillary tension
✓ The smaller the size of the pores, the higher the water can rise above the water table
✓ The maximum negative pressure which can be sustained by a soil can be estimated using
✓uc is the pore water pressure (capillary tension)

✓Ts is the surface tension of the pore fluid (= 7 × 10–5 kN/m for water at 10°C)
✓e is the voids ratio and
✓D is the pore size.
✓ D is often taken as that at which 10% of material passes on a particle size distribution chart (i.e. D10)
✓ The height of the suction zone above the water table may then be estimated by
zs = uc / gw

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Effective Stress
h w = u w /g w
(Source: Heath, 2004))

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Permeability and Seepage

✓ Soil consists of solid particles of various sizes with interconnected void
spaces
✓ The continuous void spaces in a soil permit water to flow from a point of
high energy to a point of low energy.
✓ Permeability is defined as the property of a soil that allows the seepage of
fluids through its interconnected void spaces
✓ Required to design earth dams
✓ Determine the quantity of seepage under hydraulic structures
✓ Dewater foundations before and during their construction
✓ Permeability of soils depends on several factors:
✓ fluid viscosity,
✓ poresize distribution,
✓ grain-size distribution,
✓ void ratio,
✓ roughness of mineral particles, and
✓ degree of soil saturation

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Bernoulli ‘s theorem
Total head at A = zA + hA
Total head at B = zB +hB
hA zA and zB = the elevation heads
hA and hB = the pressure heads
Dh = The loss of head between
hB
sections A and B
Dh = (zA + hA) − (zB +hB)
The hydraulic, i, can be written as

zA zB
(Source: Das, 2011) Darcy (1856) relation between the

discharge velocity and the hydraulic
gradient

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Bernoulli ‘s theorem
Total head at A = zA + hA
Total head at B = zB +hB
hA zA and zB = the elevation heads
hA and hB = the pressure heads
Dh = The loss of head between
hB
sections A and B
Dh = (zA + hA) − (zB +hB)
The hydraulic, i, can be written as

zA zB
(Source: Das, 2011) Darcy (1856) relation between the

gradient

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Darcy’s law
Darcy (1856) relation between the

gradient
hA v = ki
hB v = discharge velocity
i = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability
The rate of seepage, q, can be given

zA zB by
q = kiA
(Source: Das, 2011) A = cross-section of the soil,

perpendicular to the direction of flow

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Darcy’s law
✓ The coefficient of permeability, k, has the units of velocity, such as cm/s or mm/s,
and is a measure of the resistance of the soil to flow of water
✓ Darcy’s law is true for laminar flow through the void spaces
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Constant-head permeability test
ASTM D2434 Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Falling-Head Test
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Falling-Head Test
Refer to the constant-head permeability test arrangement shown in Figure 7.5. A test gives these
values:
✓ Length of specimen = 30 cm
✓ Area of the specimen = 177 cm2
✓ Constant-head difference = 50 cm
✓ Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/s
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Falling-Head Test
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
✓ Length of specimen = 8 in
✓ Area of soil specimen = 1.6 in2
✓ Area of standpipe = 0.06 in2
✓ Head difference at time t = 0 = 20 in
✓ Head difference at time t = 180 s = 12 in
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in/s
k = 8.52 x10-4 in/s
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Falling-Head Test
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer with k = 5.3x10-5 m/s for the
permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage through it in m 3/h/m-width, if H = 3 m and a=8°
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Example
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer with k = 5.3x10-5 m/s for the
permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage through it in m 3/h/m-width, if H = 3 m and a=8°
q = kiA = k (sin a) (3cos(a)1)

K = 5.3x10-5 m/s
Q = 0.0789 m3/h/m-width
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Falling-Head Test
Find the flow rate in m3/s/m-length (at right angles to the cross section shown) through the
permeable soil layer given H = 8 m, H1 = 3 m, h = 4 m, L = 50 m, a = 8°, and k = 0.08 cm/s
Ans = 0.19x10-3 m3/s/m
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil - horizontal flow
v = average discharge velocity

v1, v2, v3, . . . , vn discharge velocities of flow in layers (Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil - vertical flow
v = average discharge velocity

v1, v2, v3, . . . , vn discharge velocities of flow in layers (Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Example
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity . Given:
✓ H1 = 2 m, k1 = 10-4 cm/s
✓ H2 = 3 m, k2 = 3.2x10-2 cm/s
✓ H3 = 4 m, k3 = 4.1x10-5 cm/s
= 107.07x10-4 cm/s
= 0.765x10-4 cm/s
Ans = 139.96
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Example
A three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm x 100 mm in cross section. Water is supplied to
maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across the sample. The hydraulic conductivities
of the soils in the direction of flow through them
are as follows:
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Effective Stress
Example
A three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mmx100 mm in cross section. Water is supplied to
maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across the sample. The hydraulic conductivities
of the soils in the direction of flow through them
are as follows:
= 12.13x10-4 cm/s
= 0.0809 cm3/s = 291.24 cm3/h
(Source: Das, 2011)

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No Seepage
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Upward Seepage
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Upward Seepage
izgw is due to upward seepage of water

Limiting condition for the rate of
seepage increase
icr = critical hydraulic gradient (for zero

effective stress)
✓ For icr soil stability is lost
✓ This situation generally is referred to
as boiling, or a quick condition
✓ For most soils, the value of icr varies
(Source: Das, 2006) from 0.9 to 1.1

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Upward Seepage
’ = H2g’ – hgw
’ = H2(g’ – h/H2 gw)
’ = H2(g’ – i gw)
Effective stress will become zero
’ = H2(g’ – icr gw) = 0
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Example 2:
Consider the upward flow through a layer of sand in a tank as shown in next figure
For the sand: void ratio, e = 0.52 and specific gravity of solids = 2.67
1.Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress at points A and B
2.What is the upward seepage force per unit of volume of soil, igw
Point z 'o u 
(m) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
A 1.70 3.43 24.03 27.46
B 2.7 6.85 41.2 48.05
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Effective Stress
Example
A 20-ft thick layer of stiff saturated clay is underlain by a layer of sand. The sand is under
artesian pressure. Calculate the maximum depth of cut H that can be made in the clay
Ans. H = 13.76 ft
(Source: Das, 2011)

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Downward Seepage
(Source: Das, 2006)

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No Seepage
Upward Seepage
Downward Seepage
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Exercise:
The moist weight of 28.3 x10-4 m3 of soil is 54.27 N. If the moisture content is 12% and the specific
gravity of soil solids is 2.72, find the following:
a. Moist unit weight (kN/m3), R/. 19.18 kN/m3
b. Dry unit weight (kN/m3), R/. 17.13 kN/m3
c. Void ratio, R/. 0.56
d. Porosity, R/. n = 0.359
e. Degree of saturation (%), R/. 0.583
f. Volume occupied by water (m3), R/. 0.592x10-3 m3
Exercise:
The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m 3. Find the void ratio of the soil and
the specific gravity of the soil solids.
e = 0.631
Gs = 2.61
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Exercise:
The moist unit weight of a soil is 19.2 kN/m 3. Given Gs = 2.69 and moisture content w = 9.8%,
determine
a. Dry unit weight (kN/m3), R/. 17.49 kN/m3
b. Void ratio, R/. e = 0.509
c. Porosity, R./ n = 0.337
d. Degree of saturation (%), R/. S = 51.79%
Exercise:
For a saturated soil, given w = 40% and Gs = 2.71, determine the saturated and dry
unit weights in kN/m3
gsat = 17.86 kN/m3
gd = 12.76 kN/m3
(Source: Das, 2006)

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Exercise:
The mass of a moist soil sample collected from the field is 465 grams, and its oven dry mass is
405.76 grams. The specific gravity of the soil solids was determined in the laboratory to be 2.68. If
the void ratio of the soil in the natural state is 0.83, find the following:
a. The moist density of the soil in the field (kg/m 3), R/. 1678.3
b. The dry density of the soil in the field (kg/m 3), R/. 1468.48
c. The mass of water, in kilograms, to be added per cubic meter of soil in the field for saturation,
R/. 239.7
Exercise:
The maximum and minimum dry unit weights of a sand are 17.1 and 14.2 kN/m3 respectively. The
sand in the field has a relative density of 70% with a moisture content of 8%. Determine the moist
unit weight of the sand in the field.
g = 17.4 kN/m3
(Source: Das, 2006)

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References
✓ Das, B. M. (2010). Principles of geotechnical engineering. Canada: Cengage
Learning.
✓ Das, B. M. (2011). Principles of foundation engineering. Stamford: Cengage
Learning.
✓ Holtz, R. D., & Kovacs, W. D. (1981). An introduction to geotechnical
engineering. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
✓ Heath, R. C. (2004). Basic ground-water hydrology. U.S. Department of the
Interior, U.S . Geological Survey. Virginia: U.S . Geological Survey.
✓ Knappett, J. A., & Craig, R. F. (2012). Craig’s soil mechanics. London: Spon
Press.
✓ Pérez Ruiz, D. D. (2009). A refined true triaxial apparatus for testing
unsaturated soils under suction-controlled stress paths . Arlington: ProQuest.

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9/4/2020

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

Stress Tensor Representation

Fully saturated soils

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

Stress State of a soil element

(Source: FHWA, Report No. FHWA-SA-02-054, 2002. Shallow Foundations).

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

Stress State of a soil element

(Source: FHWA, Report No. FHWA-SA-02-054, 2002. Shallow Foundations).

a. at-rest condition: the ground is “at-rest” without any external disturbance

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

σ = Total stress ’ = Effective Stress w= pore-water pressure

σ’ must be considered to be effectively carried by the structure of soil particles.

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

σ’ must be considered to be effectively carried by the structure of soil particles.

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

✓ The pore water pressure at any depth will be hydrostatic, so at depth z

✓ The effective vertical stress at depth z in this case will be

σ’ must be considered to be effectively carried by the structure of soil particles.

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

Effective Stress in Saturated Soil

(Modified from: Lambe y Whitman, 2000)

The effective stress in a soil mass controls its volume

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

Discontinuos water phase

Continuos water phase

Water filling most of voids

Water filling the voids

(Source: Perez, 2009)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Perez, 2009)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

Effective Stress in Saturated Soil

(Source: Das, 2006)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

✓ The reduction of excess pore water pressure as drainage takes place is

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)

Facultad de Ingeniería – Ingeniería Civil

(Source: Knappett and Craig, 2012)