Biology: Unit One

Eukaryotic organisms: animals, plants, fungi, protoctista

Prokaryotic: bacteria
-no membrane bound organelles
-always single celled
-70s ribosomes
-cell membrane & cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, a glycoprotein)
-some have; capsules to prevent dehydration, flagellum for movement, pili for adhesion
-they do respire on special part of cell membrane (mesosome)

Eukaryotic: -plants have cell walls made of cellulose

-fungi have cell wall made of chitin
-protoctista have cell wall made of cellulose.
-have 80s ribosomes
-membrane bound genetic material/true nucleus

Pathogens: microorganisms that can cause disease.

Bacteria, virus, fungus.
Microorganisms produce toxins or damage the host cell, causing disease

Fungusproduce sporesrelease themcreates ring of surrounding fungi.

(reproduction)
Bacteria rod shaped = Bacillus
sphere shaped = Coccus
Reproduce by binary fission, one bacterium splits into two
Viruscomplex structure e.g. Lambda phage
infects bacteria
Polyhedral virusinjects or fuses membrane with host cell

Lyses – splitting
Splits the host cell when the virus is budding (leaving) the host cell it take particles from the
host cell weakening it.

The structure of the digestive system:

Polymers, such as starch, are very long chains of monomers which need to be broken down by
hydrolysis by enzymes so that they can be more easily absorbed and assimilated into cells and
tissues.

Monosaccharides and Disaccharides:

3 carbons=triose sugars
4 carbons=tetrose sugars
5 carbons=pentose sugars
6 carbons=hexose sugars.

Monosaccharides: Glucose=C6H12O6 isomers = same molecular formula

Fructose= C6H12O6
but different arrangement of atoms
Galactose= C6H12O6

Disaccharides: double sugar

2 monosaccharides chemically bonded by glycosidic bonds.
Biology: Unit One

Maltose = glucose + glucose maltase

Sucrose = glucose + fructose sucrose
Lactose = glucose + galactose lactase

Two big to be absorbed into then ileum epithelium, they must be broken down by hydrolysis by
enzymes.

Benedict’s solutions can be used to test for reducing sugars – all monosaccharides, maltose and
lactose (NOT SUCROSE)
Blue copper sulphate ----------------->brick red copper oxide

The structure of amino acids and protein:

Amine – NH2
Amphoteric – acid + basic properties.

Primary structure:
The order of amino acids in a protein.
All amino acids are shortened to 3 letter names
Secondary structure:
The way the protein is coiled up into either the alpha helix or the beta pleated sheet

The alpha helix is kept coiled by a bond between the hydrogen of one peptide bond and the
oxygen of anotherhydrogen bond
The beta pleated sheet is kept together by a hydrogen bond between the peptide bonds
Tertiary structure:
How the whole protein folds up
4 types of bonds between the residues (side chains) of the amino acids
Hydrophobic side chains fold into the centre to form a hydrophobic interaction
Ionic bonds are between oppositely charged molecules
Disulphide bonds are between 2 sulphur atoms
permanent bond – hard to break, needs chemicals
Quaternary structure:
The bonding of 2 different polypeptide chains
Disulphide bond between 2 different polypeptide chains
Biology: Unit One
Not all proteins have this structure (e.g. amylase)
At least 2 chains are needed (e.g. collagen is made of 3 different polypeptide chains)
Order of strength: disulphide, ionic, hydrogen, hydrophobic

Enzyme Action:
Induced fit:

Non-competitive inhibition:

Competitive inhibition:
Biology: Unit One
The Structure of the Respiratory System:
Tidal volume: the volume of air breathed out when resting.
Expiratory reserve volume: the volume of air you can force out after a normal breathe.
Inspiritory reserve: the volume of air you can breathe in after a normal breathe.
Vital capacity: total volume of air that can be expelled out of the lungs after a
maximum breath.
Residual volume: the volume of air left in the lungs in non-compressible parts and in partially
inflated alveoli.

 The lungs are located in the thorax (everything contained within the ribcage)
 Pleural fluid and pleural membranes lubricate the lungs and ribs preventing large frictional
forces making it difficult to breath
 The cartilage keeps the trachea open so that it doesn’t close when you bend your neck.

The alveoli:

Surfactant:
When alveoli deflate, their walls would stick together due to H-bonds between the water molecules.
This would cause permanent collapse of the alveolus. The surfactant disrupts H-bonds to reduce this
surface tension and so allow them to inflate.

Adaptations for effective gas exchange:

 Thin – one cell thick – rapid diffusion
 Large surface area – collectively millions of alveoli for increase rate of diffusion
 Concentration gradient maintained by ventilation movements and momentum of blood in
the capillaries.
 Moist – to allow gases to dissolve before they diffuse.

Oxygen: there is a decrease in percentage of O 2 between expired and inspired air, smaller % in O 2 in
expired air.
CO2: There is a higher percentage of CO2 in expired air than in inspired air.
This is because CO2 is a product of aerobic respiration and needs to be excreted as it
changes the pH of the blood.
Water: There is a higher percentage of water in expired air than in inspired air.
This is because the layer of moisture evaporates during expiration.
Biology: Unit One
Nitrogen:There is a decrease in percentage of N2 in expired air and inspired air.
This is because the percentage of water has increased but the number of N 2 molecules is
still the same.

difference
% decrease= × 100
initial
Tuberculosis:
Cause by a rod shaped bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
It lives inside the cells of its human host and attacks macrophages.
It has a dense, waxy barrier that aids survival inside potentially hostile macrophages.
It grows extremely slowly dividing once every 20 hours.
It can persist in this unusual niche within the human hot for many decades.
The majority of people with TB never have any symptoms – latent.
If untreated it proves fatal.
The most common form is ‘pulmonary TB’ which is a lung infection.
Symptoms include a bloody cough, chest pain, tiredness, weight loss and unusually pale skin.
It can spread to the nervous system causing meningitis; to the lymphatic system, causing
swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck; or to the bones and joints, causing a crippling spine
condition called Pott’s disease.
Only people with an active lung infection can transmit TB.

Specific Immune Responses:

Antibodies:

The Humoral Response:

 Pathogen is present in the blood or lymph and has antigens on its surface.
 Antigens are made of protein, glucoprotein or carbohydrate.
 The body is constantly producing random B-cells.
 If the antibodies of a B-cell are complimentary to one of the antigens it binds to form an
antibody-antigen complex.
 The antigen is then presented on a protein called a major histocompatability complex (MHC)
on the surface of the B-cell.
 A T-cell MHC then binds to the antigen and produces cytokines which stimulates the B-cell to
divide by mitosis.
 The B-cell makes two types of clones: B-memory cells and B-effector cells.
 The effector cells differentiate into plasma cells which secrete lots of antibodies which fit to
the compatible antigen.
 The proteins on the surface of the macrophage bond to the constant regions of the
antibody-antigen complex (but only if the antigen is attached to the pathogen).
 The macrophage then engulfs the pathogen and destroys it with lysosomes.
 This is called phagocytosis.
Biology: Unit One
 The memory cells remain in the body for years and recognise the antigens should you
become infected again.

The Cell Mediated Response:

 When a cell is infected it presents the antigens on its surface on a MHC.
 A killer T-cell which a complimentary receptor then binds to the antigen which stimulates it
to divide by mitosis, after cytokines have been produced, into killer T-cell memory cells and
active killer T-cells.
 The clone active killer T-cells then bind to other infected cells and destroy them.
 The killer T-cells release chemicals that causes pores to form in the infected cells causing
lysis.
 The T-cells are stimulates to divide by T-helper cells which produce cytokines.
 These are produced when bacterium which antigens on its surface is engulfed by a
macrophage.
 The macrophage becomes an antigen presenting cell (APC).
 These present antigens on MHC.
 These bind to and activate T-helper cells with complimentary CD4 receptors.
 The T-helper cells divide by mitosis into T-memory cells and active T-helper cells.
 The clone T-helper cells bond to presenting B-cells and killer T-cells.
 They then produce cytokines causing the B-cells and killer T-cells to divide by mitosis.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from just one type of B-cell and so these are specific for a
single antigen. Monoclonal antibodies are identical and can have medicinal uses.

The absorption of the products of digestion:

From the ileum: -large surfacevilli
folds
microvilli
-epithelium is 1 cell thick
short diffusion pathway.
-good blood supply in each villus to maintain concentration gradient.
-very longlonger digestion time
-very narrow
more contact of digested food with ileum wall.

Villus has a lacteal; absorbs the digested products of lipidsthese are fatty acids and glycerol.
Biology: Unit One
How monosaccharides are absorbed:

Cholera:
Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of cholera.
Vibrio cholerae uses pili to attach to the microvilli of columnar epithelial cells that line the small
intestine.

The heart and circulatory system:

Its function are:
-to deliver O2, water, hormones, glucose and other food molecules to cells.
-to remove urea and CO2.

All arteries except the pulmonary artery carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
All veins except the pulmonary vein carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
The renal vein has very low levels of urea.
The dorsal aorta has very high blood pressure.

The Pathway of Blood:

Oxygenated
Lungspulmonary veinleft atriumbicuspid valveleft ventriclesemi lunar
valveaortabody

De-oxygenated
Bodevenae cavaeright atriumtricuspid valveright ventriclesemi lunar valvepulmonary
arterylungs

During Ventricle Systole:

 T he ventricles contract
 The atrioventricular valves close
 The semi lunar valves open
 Blood flows through the aorta and pulmonary trunk
Biology: Unit One
The semi lunar valves close during ventricular diastole.
The atrioventricular valves open during ventricular diastole.

The Structure of the Human Heart:

The Cardiac Cycle:

The Conductive System of the Heart:

 Made of cardiac muscles
 Does not fatigue
 Is miogenic so it can initiate its own contractions as it contains an area of excitable cells
which initiate its contractions.
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How is the Cardiac Cycle Controlled?

 In the wall of the right atrium is the sinoatrial node (SAN). A wave of contraction spreads out
from the SAN across both atria, causing them to contract,
 Between the atria and the ventricles is a layer of non-conductive tissue, which prevents the
spread of the wave of excitation passing directly from the atria to the ventricles.
 The wave of electrical activity is allowed to pass through a second group of cells called the
atrioventricular node (AVN), which lies between the two atria).
 The AVN, after a short delay, conveys a wave of electrical activity between the two ventricles
along specialised muscle fibres called the bundle of His.
 The bundle of His transmits a wave of excitation down both sides of the atrioventricular
septum to the base of the ventricles.
 Special fibres called the Purkyne fibres, which branch upwards, conduct the waves of
excitation to all parts of the ventricles, causing them to contract from the bottom up.

Control of the Heart Rate:

1. CO2 in blood Cardiac Control Centre

2. pH of blood Medulla of Brain

4.Chemo
receptors send 5.Sympathetic
a message to nerve takes a
the CC in message from
medulla the CCC to the
SAN and AVN.
3.Chemo receptors Chemo receptors in aortic and
detect changes carotid body

6. SAN activity
Heart Rate
SAN
7. AVN activity
Intensity of ventricular AVN
constriction

8. Results: more blood is

pumped to lungs and CO2
diffuses out blood pH will
return to normal.

In recovery: the pH of the blood has returned to normal after exercise but the heart rate is still high.
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Cardiac Control Centre

Medulla of Brain

2.Nervous
message sent 3. CCC sends
to brain impulses down
the
parasympathetic
nerve to the SAN
1. Normal blood pH Chemo receptors in aortic and and AVN.
detected. carotid body

4. SAN activity
Heart Rate SAN

AVN
5. AVN activity
Intensity of ventricular
constriction

6. Cardiac output returns to

normal.
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Cardiac Output:

Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume

cm3 per beats per cm3
minute minutes
from one
ventricle
Same volume on both sides, higher pressure on left side.

Heart Disease:
Atheroma: formed from an accumulation of white blood cells that have taken up low-density
lipoproteins. These then transform into fatty streaks which can enlarge into an irregular
patch called atheromic plaque.
Thrombosis: is a condition which occurs when an Atheroma breaks through the lining of the blood
vessel causing blood flowing to be restricted resulting in blood clots (thrombosus)
Aneurism: the weakened point in an artery wall, due to high blood pressure, which swell to form
balloon-like, blood-filled structures.
Myocardial Infarction: More commonly known as a heart attack. Results from a blockage in he
coronary arteries.