N2 µ A

L=
l

µ = µrµ0

Where,

L = Inductance of coil in Henrys

N = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)

µ = Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)

µr = Relative permeability, dimensionless (µ 0=1 for air)

µ0 = 1.26 x 10 -6 T-m/At permeability of free space

A = Area of coil in square meters = πr2

l = Average length of coil in meters

Series and parallel inductors

When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance is the sum of the individual inductors’
inductances. To understand why this is so, consider the following: the definitive measure of
inductance is the amount of voltage dropped across an inductor for a given rate of current change
through it. If inductors are connected together in series (thus sharing the same current, and seeing
the same rate of change in current), then the total voltage dropped as the result of a change in
current will be additive with each inductor, creating a greater total voltage than either of the
individual inductors alone. Greater voltage for the same rate of change in current means greater
inductance

Page 1
Thus, the total inductance for series inductors is more than any one of the individual inductors’
inductances. The formula for calculating the series total inductance is the same form as for
calculating series resistances:

Series Inductances

Ltotal=L1 + L2+ ... Ln

When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less than any one of the parallel
inductors’ inductances. Again, remember that the definitive measure of inductance is the amount of
voltage dropped across an inductor for a given rate of current change through it. Since the current
through each parallel inductor will be a fraction of the total current, and the voltage across each
parallel inductor will be equal, a change in total current will result in less voltage dropped across the
parallel array than for any one of the inductors considered separately. In other words, there will be
less voltage dropped across parallel inductors for a given rate of change in current than for any of
those inductors considered separately, because total current divides among parallel branches. Less
voltage for the same rate of change in current means less inductance.

Thus, the total inductance is less than any one of the individual inductors’ inductances. The formula
for calculating the parallel total inductance is the same form as for calculating parallel resistances:

Parallel Inductances

Page 2
 1
Ltotal=
1 1 1
+ +…
L1 L 2 Ln

Page 3
Practical considerations

Inductors, like all electrical components, have limitations which must be respected for the sake of
reliability and proper circuit operation.

Rated current: Since inductors are constructed of coiled wire, and any wire will be limited in its
current-carrying capacity by its resistance and ability to dissipate heat, you must pay attention to the
maximum current allowed through an inductor.

Equivalent circuit: Since inductor wire has some resistance, and circuit design constraints typically
demand the inductor be built to the smallest possible dimensions, there is no such thing as a
”perfect” inductor. Inductor coil wire usually presents a substantial amount of series resistance, and
the close spacing of wire from one coil turn to another (separated by insulation) may present
measurable amounts of stray capacitance to interact with its purely inductive characteristics. Unlike
capacitors, which are relatively easy to manufacture with negligible stray effects, inductors are
difficult to find in”pure” form. In certain applications, these undesirable characteristics may present
significant engineering problems.

Inductor size: Inductors tend to be much larger, physically, than capacitors are for storing equivalent
amounts of energy. This is especially true considering the recent advances in electrolytic capacitor
technology, allowing incredibly large capacitance values to be packed into a small package. If a
circuit designer needs to store a large amount of energy in a small volume and has the freedom to
choose either capacitors or inductors for the task, he or she will most likely choose a capacitor. A
notable exception to this rule is in applications requiring huge amounts of either capacitance or
inductance to store electrical energy: inductors made of superconducting wire (zero resistance) are
more practical to build and safely operate than capacitors of equivalent value, and are probably
smaller too.

Interference: Inductors may affect nearby components on a circuit board with their magnetic fields,
which can extend significant distances beyond the inductor. This is especially true if there are other
inductors nearby on the circuit board. If the magnetic fields of two or more inductors are able to
”link” with each others’ turns of wire, there will be mutual inductance present in the circuit as well
as self-inductance, which could very well cause unwanted effects. This is another reason why circuit
designers tend to choose capacitors over inductors to perform similar tasks: capacitors inherently
contain their respective electric fields neatly within the component package and therefore do not
typically generate any”mutual” effects with other components.

Page 4
Formula to find the resonant frequency in a LC circuit

1
ƒ=
2 π √ LC

ƒ=Frequency (Hz)

L=Inductance (H-henrys)

C=Capacitance (F-farads)

Also this can be written as following

1
L=
4 π ƒ2 C 2
2

Formula to find the inductance of an inductor

L=
Ma N 2 A L=Inductance (H-henrys)
d

Ma=4 π × 10−7=1.26 ×10−6

d=length (m)

A=Area (m 2 → π r 2)

N=Number of turns

L= μr
turns2 ×area −6
× 1.26 ×10
lenght

μr =Relative permeability

Air core-1.00000037~1

PVC=1

Iron=100

Ferrite=10-1000

Length=m

Area=m 2

Page 5
Page 6
The following formula also can use to find the inductance of an inductor when the

L=
D2 N 2
18 D+ 40 l

L=inductance ( μH-micro henrys)

D=diameter

N=turns of coil

l =length

1V
1 Henry =
1 A /s

Formula to find capacitance of a capacitor

A
C=kε 0
d

C=capacitance (F)

k=die electric constant (relative permittivity)

air-1 glass-5-7

plastic- paper-3

ceramic-

ε 0=permeability of free space (8.85×10−12 c 2 /N m2)

d=distance between plates (m)

A=area (m 2)

Page 7
Impedance (z)

Impedance is a kind of a resistance when we talk about A/C circuits. It also measured in ohm ( Ω ).
That means impedance is A/C resistance.

Impedance = R2 +( x L + x C )
√
R=resistance

x L =inductor reactions

x C=capacitor reactions (in some cases this maybe 0)

Z=-jx

Z=impedance

-j=imaginary number ( √ (−1) )

X=reactance

Actually imaginary number shows the relationship between the factors. Also it has a value. We can
call this also as an imaginary component. Generally we use –j to represent the imaginary number
because if we use i as an imaginary number we can be confused with i which represent the current
in circuits. √ (−1) This value is not possible. That’s why we call it as an imaginary number.

Impedance of an inductor.( x L )

x L =2 π ƒ L

x L =¿Inductor reactions or impedance (Ω )

ƒ =frequency

L=inductance

Impedance of a capacitor

1 1
x C= =
ωC 2 π ƒ c

x C=capacitor reactions or impedance ω=2πƒ (when the frequency is given )

2π
ω=angular frequency (rad/s=2 π ƒ ) ω= (when the frequency is not given )
T

ƒ= frequency (Hz) ω =angular frequency

Page 8
 C=capacitance (F) T=time period

Impedance of an antenna

Impedance = ZL load impedance = Impedance of a transmitter

In a given direction the gain of the antenna and impedance of the antenna is same under the same
frequency.

Calculate the decibel

Pout
dB=10× log
[ ]
P¿
P¿<¿ P out ¿ (we call a circuit like this as an amplifier )

Pout is greater than 1

dB=decibel (power-w)

When we divide the Pout by P¿ some values will be very small .So we write it as a 10 multiply by its
logarithmic number.

Examples:

3
1) dB=10× log [] 1

=10×0.477 = 4.77dB

P(w)
2) dB= 10× log
[ o .oo 1 w(mw) ]
= dBm miliwatt

1w=30dBm

10w=40dBm

1 μw =-30dB

1mw=0dBm

1
dBm = 10× log [ ]
2.5
= 2.5mw = 4dBm

Page 9
Antenna directivity

We consider the directivity about an antenna to determine its gain. Also we can get an idea about
how greatly the antenna transmit the signals by consider the directivity of an antenna. Mostly
directivity is important when you plan to transmit the signals to specific direction .In satellites, GPS
and radar systems this is very important. In mobile phones we don’t care about this because the
signals should be able to come any direction .Finally this is a measurement depend on direction.

Radiation pattern = F (θ , ϕ ) = √ sin(θ)

Directivity

1
2π π
D= 1
4π
∫∫ ¿ F(θ , ϕ)∨¿2 sin θdθdϕ ¿
0 0

peak value of related power

=
average

Typical directivity Typical directivity (dB)

Short dipole antenna 1.54 1.76
Half wave dipole antenna 1.64 2.15
Patch(microscopic antenna) 3.2-6.3 5-8
Horn antenna 10-100 10-20
Dish antenna 10-10000 10-40

Radiated power of an antenna

εIRP = PT −Lc+Ga
εIRP =Radiated power (dB) Ga = antenna gain (dB)

PT =transmitter output power (dB)

Lc= antenna cable power loss (dB)

Page
10
Antenna cable power loss

Lc=k 1( √ F +k 2 )× F

Lc = cable power loss (dB per 100 ft)

k1 and k2 = resistive loss constant (use a attentunal power handling table)

F =frequency (MHz)

Example:

k1 = 0.444

k2 = 0.00126

F= 100MHz

According to above equation answer will be 4.6 dB per 100 ft.

Antenna efficiency

Antenna efficiency is a measurement about how good the antenna transmits or radiates the input
power. The value of efficiency should be a number between 0 and 1.Also we can measure this as a
percentage or in dB.

P radisted (εIRP)
ε R=
Pinput

ε R=antenna efficiency (dB)

Pinput =input power (dB)
Pradiste d =radiated power (dB)
Total efficiency=
The small antennas are very
inefficiently because their gain lower
than -10dB.Also it can be cause
when they are smaller than the half
wave length.

ϵ T = M L −ϵ R
i.e. =International Efficiency factor=dB
ϵ T = total efficiency

M L = antenna loss

ϵ R = impedance mismatch

The mobile phone and Wi-Fi antennas efficiency is very high as 20% -70% (-7dB—1.5dB) but car AM
radios antenna efficiency is very low as 1% (20dB) because their antennas are very smaller than half
wave length.

Page
11
Likewise without material power losses it can be very close to 100% (0dB) of efficiency of half wave
dipole antennas ,dish and horn antennas .

Calculate the gain of an antenna

Gain of an antenna is a measurement about how well that antenna receives or transmits the signals
in specific direction under specific efficiency. To archive this we can make that antenna directional.
We measure the gain against with an isotropic antenna.

Lossless isotropic antenna is an imaginary sphere shaped antenna that we assume it radiates the
signals to all directions with same power in 3 dimensional world. Then the signal radiation point is in
the centre of the antenna. Also we assume that the whole input power is transmitted by the
isotropic antenna without any power losses. In real world we can’t find an antenna like isotropic
antenna.

Also we talk about another an imaginary antenna named as” omini directional antenna” .It also
receive the signals from all the directions as 7same as isotropic antenna.

If the gain of an antenna is 3dB that means that antenna receive or transmit 3dB higher power than
isotropic lossless antenna with same input power.

The gain of a isotropic antenna= dBi = dBd+2.15

The gain of a dipole antenna = dBd = dBi-2.15

G=ϵ R × D

G=gain (dB)

ϵ R=efficiency (dB)

D= directivity (dB)

U AUT
K=
V¿

K=gain (dB)

U AUT =antenna under test

V ¿=radiation intensity

P¿
= input power
4π

Usually the gain of the half length ( 2λ ) dipole antenna is 2.15dB or 2.15dBi.A real antenna gain can
be as high as 40dB to 50dB.

Page
12
If you don’t know the direction of signals where they come from it’s good to use low gain antenna.
Then the antenna receives the signals equivalent in all the directions.

Parabolic reflector antenna gain

2
πD
G = 10 log 10 k ( )
λ

G= gain (dB)

k = efficiency factor (usually 50% to 60%, i.e.0.5 to 0.6)

k =k r k t k s k m

k r=¿ radiation efficiency (this can be ignored)

k t= aperture taper efficiency (this one mainly affect on the gain)

k s=spillover efficiency

k m= miscellaneous efficiency elements

D= diameter (m)

λ =wave length of the signal (m)

Optimizing the parabolic antenna gain

To provide optimum gain to a reflective surface of the parabolic antenna the level of the illumination
in centre should be greater than at the sides. The reflector should be fully illuminated to archive the
best gain.

λ
Also the width of holes in the reflective metal should be greater than
10

Beam width

Beam width is defined as the points where the power falls to half of the maximum power in first lobe
in radiation pattern or in other word beam width is the aperture angle where the most power is
radiated .i.e. the -3dB points on a radiation pattern diagram.

Mainly we talk about two types of beam width. Those are Hpbw and FNBW.

Hpbw-Half power beam width

Hpbw is the angle between half power points of a main lobe in radiation pattern. Usually this value is
equal to -30dB but sometimes referred as 3dB.Normally the beam width is measured in radians or
degrees.

Page
13
FNBW-First Null Band Width

FNBW= 2Hpbw ???????????????????????????

FNBW =2?????????????

In the radiation pattern draw two tangents on both sides starting from the origin of the radiation
pattern. The angle between these both tangents is called as FNBW.

Beam width of a parabolic antenna

70 λ
Beam width Ψ =
D

Ψ = beam width

λ = wave length (m)

D= diameter (m)

Effective length

Effective length is the ratio of the magnitude of voltage at the open terminals of the receiving
antenna to the magnitude of field strength of the incident wave front in the same polarization.
When the incident wave arrives at the input terminals of the antenna this wave has some field
strength, whose magnitude depends upon the antennas’ polarization. This polarization should match
with the magnitude of voltage at receiver terminals.

V oc
Le =
Ei

Le = effective length

V oc =open circuit voltage

Ei =field strength of the incident wave

Effective area or aperture

Effective area is the area of the receiving antenna which absorbs the most of the power of the
incoming wave front. When the total area of an antenna is exposed to the wave front only some
portion of the antenna receives most of power of the signal. We call that area as “Effective area” or
“Effective aperture “. The power received by other areas of the antenna is mostly wasted as heat.

λ2 C2 G
Ae = ×G = ×
4π ƒ2 4 π

Ae=effective aperture

C=speed of light

Page
14
 ƒ= frequency

G=gain (this should be in linear value)

If the gain is in dB value then use this equation,

G (dB)
2 10
Ae = C × 10
ƒ 2
4π

Radiation patterns

Types of radiation patterns

Omini-directional pattern (non-directional pattern)

This pattern has a dough nut shape in 3-diamentional world.

Pencil-beam pattern

This one has a shape of a sharp directional pencil

Fan beam pattern

This pattern has a fan shaped pattern.

Shaped beam pattern

The beam which is non-uniform and pattern less is called as shaped beam.

Polarization

Polarization methods

Linear polarization

When a wave is transmitted or received it may be done in different directions .Linear polarization
helps to maintain the wave in particular directions. This can be used to improve the directivity of an
antenna.

Circular polarization

?????????

Horizontal polarization

Horizontal polarization makes the wave weak as reflections of earth surface affected it. They are
usually weak at low frequencies below 1GHz.This method use in T.V. transmissions to archive
better ????? to noise ratio.

Page
15
Vertical polarization

In low frequency vertically polarized waves are advantageous for ground (???wave???)
transmissions. These are not affected by surface reflections. Hence this method use in mobile
communications.

Page
16
Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

This is the Kirchhoff’s first law about electric. The Kirchhoff’s current law or KCL states that the,

“Total current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the nodes
as it has no other place to go except to leave as no change is lost within the node.”

In other words the algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving node must be equal to zero.

I (exiting )+ I (entering)= 0

I (exiting ) = leaving current

I (entering ) = entering current

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Gustav Kirchhoff’s voltage law is the second of his fundamental laws.

His voltage law states that for a closed loop series path “the algebraic sum of all the voltage around
any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.”

This is because a circuit loop is a closed conducting path so no power energy is lost.

In other words the algebraic sum of all the potential differences around the loop must be equal to
zero as,

εV =0 εV = total voltage

The idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the conservation of energy, as moving around a closed
loop or circuit, you will end up back to where you started in the circuit and therefore back to the
same initial potential with no loss of voltage around the loop. Hence any voltage around loop must
be equal to any voltage source met along the way.

So the voltage through a circuit with a power supply and three resistors can be given as following. In
this equation we consider the voltage has a negative polarization.

V s + ( −I R1 ) + (−I R 2 ) +(−I R 3)=0

V s = the power supply voltage (example: 9v battery with)

−I R1 =

−I R2 =
} voltage through the resistors. (This can be calculated using ohm’s law → V=IR )

Page
17
−I R3 =

Coulomb

Coulomb is the international unit of measuring electric charge. It can be symbolized as C.

1C is equal to 6.24 × 1018 electrons or 6.24 quintillion electrons.

Thus 6.24 × 1018 electrons have 1C of charge. Also this is true for positrons or protons, although
these two types of particle carry charge of opposite polarity to that of the electron.

The force with which tow electrically charged bodies attract or repel one another depends on the
product of the charges (Coulombs) in both objects, and also on the distance between the objects.

If the polarities are same (negative/negative or positive/positive) the so-called Coulomb force is
repulsive; if the polarities are opposite (negative/positive or positive/negative) the force is attractive.

For any charged bodies the Coulomb force decrease in proportion to the square of distance their
charge centers.

The relationship between Farads and Coulombs can be given as below.

1C
1F =
V

C =coulomb

V= voltage

So the one Farad can be described as the capacitance which stores one coulomb charge across a
potential difference of one volt.

If you charge a capacitor using a 1.5 V battery, once it is fully charged the voltage of the capacitor
also same as the battery.

One amp represents a rate of electrons flow of 1 coulomb of electrons per second, so a-1 farads can
hold 1 amp-second of electrons at 1 volt.

A one Farad capacitor will be as big as a soda bottle depends on its’ voltage.

Page
18
Capacitance

Formula to find capacitance of a capacitor

A
C=ε
d

C=capacitance (F)

ε 0=permeability of free space (8.85×10−12 c 2 /N m2)

d=distance between plates (m)

A=area (m 2)

Series capacitance

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the series
capacitors’ individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in series, the overall
effect is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of the plate spacings of the
individual capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate spacing, with all other factors
unchanged, results in decreased capacitance.

Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The
formula for calculating the series total capacitance is the same form as for calculating parallel
resistances:

Series Capacitances

1
C total=
1 1 1
+ +…
C 1 C2 Cn

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual
capacitors’ capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall effect is that
of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate areas of the individual capacitors.
As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate area, with all other factors unchanged, results in increased
capacitance.

Page
19
Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The
formula for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same form as for calculating series
resistances:

Parallel Capacitances

C total=C1 +C 2 + …C n

As you will no doubt notice, this is exactly opposite of the phenomenon exhibited by resistors. With
resistors, series connections result in additive values while parallel connections result in diminished
values. With capacitors, its the reverse: parallel connections result in additive values while series
connections result in diminished values.

Uses of capacitors

Capacitor type Use

Air Often used in radio tuning circuits
Mylar Most commonly used for timer circuits like clocks, alarms and counters
Glass Good for high voltage applications
Ceramics Used for high frequency purpose like antenna ,X-ray and MRI machines
Super capacitor Power-electric and hybrid cars

If there isn’t any replenishing current after the capacitor is fully charged, it will lose charge due to
self discharge.

Page
20
Calculate the time taken by capacitors to fully charge

All electrical or electronic circuits or systems suffer from some of “time-delay” between its’ input
and output terminals when a signal or voltage, continuous (DC), or alternative (AC), is applied to it.
This delay generally known as time delay or Time Constant which represents the timer response of
the circuit when an input step voltage or signal is applied.

Timer constant has units of, Tau =τ

The electrical charge stored on plates of the capacitor is given as;

Q=CV

The time required for the capacitor to fully charge is equivalent to about 5 Time Constants or 5T

The transient response time T, is measured in terms of

τ =R ×C , in seconds

R=resistance (ohm-Ω)

C=capacitance (Farads-F)

Then the RC (R-resistor C-capacitor) charging circuit can be written as 5× RC

Mathematically we can say the time required for a capacitor to charge up to one time constant (1T)
is given as

τ = R×C

How much current can supply a AA or AAA battery

Normal AA/AAA batteries that have a voltage rating of 1.5v can supply constant 50mA current for
total capacitance of 1800-2600 with charge and 3.90 wh of energy Alkaline batteries.

If the resistance across the battery is 1.5 Ω and its’ voltage is 1.5v, then we can get 1A (I=V/R =
1.5/1.5=1A)So the power is 1w .Likewise it can supply this power for approximately 2 hours
(t= Energy/Power=3.9wh/1.5w=2.6)

This can be applicable only when the current and voltage across the battery are constants.

Page
21
Formula to estimate the transmitter range

Example circuit

Calculate the field strength

E=
√ 30 Pt Sometimes you should include the E=V×I
d gain (G) of the transmitting antenna.
P=VIt or P=Et
E=field strength (v/m) 30 pt ×G
E= √ E=efficiency (w) P=power (J)
Pt =power (J) d

d =distance (m)

Using this formula we can turn it into this;

d=
√ 30 pt
E

So first let’s find out a way to calculate the power.

P = vIcos θ All these equations can be used to

find out the power of the circuit but
P=I2z
in this case we will use the second
v2 equation.
P=
2

P=I2z

P=power

I=current

Z=impedance

As we can see in all of these equations have the value of voltage or current. So according to second
equation first we should find the emitter current. To do this first measure the voltage across the
emitter and resistor.( Actually A/C and D/C current are completely different but in this case we don’t
consider it because the D/C and A/C currant values are close.)So we got that the voltage across the
emitter and 470 ohm resistor as VE=2.99v

Next use the ohm rule to find out the emitter currant.

V E 2.99
IE= = =6.362mA
R E 0.47 k

Page
22
E means emitter.

Page
23
Now we should find the impedance (A/C resistance)

L
Z=
CR

Z=impedance (ohms)

L=inductance (Henrys)

C=capacitance (Farads)

R=resistance of the coil (ohms)

L 0.15 × 106
Z= = =100 k
CR 15 ×1012 ×0.1

Now we can get a simplify form of the circuit according to the resistance.

We haven’t the real impedance yet because we should add the capacitors’ impedance to this value.
So we found that the 3.3pF capacitor has an impedance of 450Ω at 107.2MHz.
According to the simplify form of the circuit
Hence the whole impedance will be, 40k//100k//
now the tank circuit and collector impedance
1 1
+
40 100
=0.3 } or resistance act like a parallel circuit. So we
can use the module that we use to find the
total resistance in a parallel circuit.

450+470+0.3 = 891.3Ω

So the total impedance will be 891.3

Then the power can be calculated like following.

P=I2Z

P = 6.36×10-3×891.3 = 0.036 w

Finally we can get the distance.

d=
√ 30 pt
E

d=
√ 30 × 0.036 = 20600m
50 ×106

So distance we got is 20600m but this is true if the whole input energy of the transmitter is
transmitted. Unfortunately that’s not practical .The whole energy is not transmitted because most of

Page
24
the power wasted or lose some ways such as heat…etc.So only 30% of power reach to the receiver
antenna. However among these 30% of energy only small amount of power is taken by telescopic
antennas. It’s about 1% to 2% of energy. So the real transmitter range or distance will be like this
one.

2
20600 × = 206 m
100

If the receiver uses a greater sensivity than 50µV/m then it may be heard over a greater distance and
less if the receiver has lower sensivity.

Ferris Transmission Formula

Calculating the how much power is received by the receiver

PT PT G T G R C 2 PT G T G R λ 2
P R= 2
GT A ER P R= 2
P R= 2
4π R (4 πRf ) (4 πR)

P R=power (w)

PT =power density of the plane wave (w/m 2)

G T = gain of the antenna

A ER=effective aperture or effective area

C=speed of light

λ =wave length

If the antennas are not polarization matched the above power should be multiplied by polarization
loss factor(PLF).

(PLF) P T G T GR λ2
P R= 2
( 4 πR)

Page
25
To do list…..

Finding the field strength of an antenna

Finding the field strength of a signal

Finding the maximum output voltage of a voltage multiplier circuit

Finding the capacitance of a capacitor serial and a parallel

Finding the meaning of mono and stereo

(When you will join two books consider its’ page side)

”Advances are made by answering questions. Discoveries are made by questioning answers.”
Bernhard Haisch, Astrophysicist

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26