SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

CHAPTER 3
ILLUMINATION

3.1 LIGHTING

Light is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which produces the visual sensation upon the
human eye. The sensation of color is due to the difference in wavelength of the light radiations.
White light, such as given by the sun, is composed of different colors each having different wavelengths.
These are:

0.300 – 0.436 micrometer -----------Violet

0.436 - 0.495 >> ------------Blue

0.495 - 0.566 >> -------------Green

0.566 - 0.589 >> --------------Yellow

0.589 - 0.627 >> ---------------Orange

0.627 - 0.780 >> ---------------Red

In general, light is an electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, x-rays etc. We can classify
electromagnetic waves as visible and invisible waves.

 Visible waves: daylight, radiations from candles and lamps.

 Invisible waves: x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves.

We know that, v = fλ (v is speed of light, f is frequency and, λ is wave length )

Angstrom unit (Ǻ): 1Ǻ = 10-8cm = 10-10m

λ of red light = 7500 Ǻ

λ of violet light = 4000 Ǻ

λ of blue light =5000 Ǻ

λ of yellow light =6500 Ǻ

Those colors of white light having wave lengths of less than 0.3 micro meter belongs to the
ultra violet range and those with wave lengths greater than 0.8 micro meter belong to the infrared range. The
visible spectrum ranges is from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers. Human eye is most sensitive to light having
wavelengths of about 0.555 micrometer in the green portion of the spectrum.

Maximum power of light is radiated when the wavelength is about 0.5 micrometer which is approximately the
wavelength at which the human eye is most sensitive.
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Illumination refers to the provision of sufficient lighting either by natural means (e.g. sun light)
or artificial light sources (e.g. electric lamps).

3.2 Terms used in Illumination

1. Luminous Flux: It is the total quantity of light energy radiated/ produced from a luminous body in the
form of light waves. It is measured in lumens. It is represented by symbol φ.
2. Luminous Intensity (I): It is the amount of luminous flux emitted by a source per unit solid angle. The
illuminating power of a light source. It is measured in candela or lumens per Steradians. i.e.
I = φ / ω,
1Candela = 1 Lumen / Steradians

Where, (ω) - the solid angle is measured in Steradians. It is the angle generated by the
surface passing through the light point in space and periphery of the area. It was denoted by ω. Solid
angle was given by the ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the distance
between the area and the point. I.e. A / r2 . Since the surface of a sphere has an area equal to 4πr2; and the
surface area of a Steradians is r2.

∴ Total angle of a sphere in Steradians, = 4πr2 / r2 = 4π Steradians

3. Illuminance (intensity of illumination) (E) - it is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit area
of the surface. Its unit depends upon the units in which area is measured. It is measured in lumens per
square meter or lux or meter candle. Mathematically,
E = φ/A
4. Luminous efficiency (k): a measure of unit lumens per watt (lm/W). It can be thought of as the
‘efficiency’ of the light source.
5. Luminance, L: The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the apparent area of the source
of light (or illuminated areas). The measured brightness of a surface.

L = I/A [cd/m2]

6. Coefficient of utilization: This is a factor showing the ratio of the lumens reaching on the working plane
to the total lumens generated by the source. It depends on the dimension of the room to be illuminated,
the reflectance of the walls, ceilings, and floors, the lamp output of reflectors and diffusers used and the
position of the lamp.
7. Maintenance Factor: The light obtained from a light source may be affected by
variables due to dire (obstacles, terrible), ageing of the lamp, e.t.c. The maintenance factor (MF) takes in
to account such effects.

3.3 Illumination Laws

There are two major laws:

1. Inverse square law

2. Cosine law
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

3.3.1 Inverse square law:

The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the distance between source

& surface, provided that the distance between the surface & the source is sufficiently
large so that the source can be regarded as a point source. This is known as Inverse square Law.

9A

4A
A
P

1d
2d
3d

Let, E1 be the illumination on surface A1,

E2 be the illumination on surface A2,
Since exactly the same luminous flux falls on A1 & A2 we can have the relation,
φ = E1A1= E2A2
E2 = E1A1/A2 = E1 (d1/d2)2

i.e., E ~ 1/d2, where d is the perpendicular distance from the light source.

Thus, the illumination of a surface varies inversely as the square of the distance from the light source.

3.3.2 Cosine Law

Cosine law states that, reflected energy from a small surface area in a particular direction is proportional to the
cosine of the angle between that direction and the surface normal.
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Ey = IcosӨ/h2 =I/ h2 at point y Ө =

b
cosӨ = h/d, d = h/cosӨ c

This method allows us to calculate the θ

illuminance with one or more lamps or with
reflection from surroundings.
I
Ex  cos  a
d2
I
Ex  2
cos 
This is Lambert’s
h cosine Law
 
 cos  
I
Ex  2 cos3 
h

Fig 31

Thus illumination depends not only on the perpendicular distance from the light source but also on the angle
that the light falls on the area to be illuminated.

Example: - A standard incandescent lamp having a luminous intensity of 100 cd in all directions gives an
illuminance of 40 lux at the surface of a bench vertically below the lamp. What distance is the lamp above
the bench?
Solution: -
I
E
d2
I 100
d   1.58m
E 40
Example: A 250W sodium-vapor street lamp emits a light of 22,500 cd and is situated 8m above the road.
Calculate the luminance.

a) Directly below the lamp

b) At a horizontal distance along the road of 6m.

Soln: Given I=22,500 cd,h=8m ,ox=6m

d=√ =10m

a) E= I*cosӨ/h2 but cosӨ=1 because Ө=0

E= 22,500*1/64=351.56 lm/m2
b) Ex=I*cosӨ/d2 and cosӨ=h/d=8/10=0.8
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Ex=22,500*0.8/100=180 lm/m2

Exercise: Two light sources each having a uniform intensity of 64,000 cd is mounted 8m high. If the
illumination midway between the lamps on ground level is same as the illumination level produced by one of
the lamp vertically below it, calculate the distance between the poles.

Example

Solution
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

3.4 Light source and application

Light is a form of energy, which is radiated or sent out from a source in a waveform. It is part of a whole
family of electromagnetic wave. Light sources can either be natural (sun) or artificial (e.g. electric
lamps). When an electric current passes through a fine metallic wire, heat is produced and the
temperature of the wire increases. At low temperature the wire radiates heat energy. As the temperature of the
wire increases due to heating, it radiates heat as well as light energy. Generally, electric lamps can be classified
in to:

a) Incandescent lamps

b) Discharge lamps.

3.4.1 Incandescent lamps

The incandescent lamp consists of a glass globe completely evacuated or gas filled and a fine wire known as
filament, which is heated to white heat by the passage of electric current. The filament of modern lamps is
normally made of tungsten since this material has a very high melting point (3400C) and can be manufactured
in the form of a suitably thin wire. The bulbs of smaller lamps are evacuated to prevent oxidization of the
filament. But, in many lamps, an inert gas such as argon is introduced. This enables the filament to
operate at a higher temperature without undue deterioration due to the evaporation, which tends to take place
in a vacuum.
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

The materials, which can be used as a filament are; carbon, osmium, tantalum and tungsten. These metals are
selected due to their high melting points.

The main advantages of incandescent lamp are:

a) The filament has a more compact formation.

b) Heat losses due to conviction currents in the gas are reduced, thus giving a higher
efficiency.

There are two types of incandescent lamps:

1. Vacuum lamps

 Air is evacuated from the glass bulb.

 Operates only up to around 20000 c.

2. Gas-filled

the glass bulb is filled with inert gases(Ne or Ar)

operates up to around 2500 c
 In gas-filled lamps, the bulb is so bright that it is given an opaque coating
internally.
 The light output of incandescent lamps is about 10 to 15 lm/W. Thus,
 a 25W incandescent lamp produces about 250 to 375 lm
 a 40W incandescent lamp produces about 400 to 600 lm
 a 60W IL produces about 600 to 900 lm
 The average lifetime of incandescent lamps is about 2000 hours when operating at rated voltage.
 An incandescent lamp gives out light at all frequencies including ‘DC’.
 Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages;
- Low efficiency and
- Colored light.

B Discharge lamps.
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 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

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


Fig Low pressure Sodium vapour lamp

Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):

Certain materials, such as calcium phosphate, emit visible light whenever they absorb ultra-violet light. This
phenomenon is known as fluorescence and may be used to produce a very efficient type of lamp. If a tube of a
discharge lamp containing mercury vapour is coated internally with an even layer of fluorescent material a
considerable proportion of the ultra-violet light caused by the discharge is converted into useful visible light.

Low- pressure mercury vapour lamp consists of:

 Glass tube filled with mercury vapour at low pressure.

 Is provided with two electrodes coated with electron emissive material.
 The inner wall of the tube is coated with fluorescent powder which transforms
Ultraviolet radiation in to visible radiation or light.
 The light output of a fluorescent lamp is 70 lm/w and has an average life of about 7500 hrs.
 The application includes lighting of shops, homes, factories, streets, ships, transport (buses and trains),
e.t.c.
 Using these tubes is quite possible to achieve high lighting intensity without excessive
temperature rise and, owing to the nature of light sources; the danger of glare is minimized.
 The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumens per watt, which is about three times the efficiency
of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp.

Fluorescent tubes are available in different sizes:

 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018


When the supply is switched on, the circuit is completed via: the choke, first lamp element, starter switch,

second lamp element and the neutral. The elements, which are coated in oxide, become warm and the oxide

coating emits some electrons and the gas ionizes at the ends of the tube (this helps the main ionization

process). The starter contacts (usually of the bimetallic type) separate, owing to the current passing through

them, and the choke is open circuited. As we have seen, breaking an inductive circuit causes high voltages to

appear across the breaking contacts, and energy is released in the form of an arc. In this case, however, there is

an easier way for the energy to dissipate – via the gas, and the high voltage appears across the ends of the tube.

When the gas if fully ionized, the choke limits the current to a predetermined value, and the light emitted,

which is mostly ultraviolet, is made visible by the fluorescent powder coating. The radio interference

suppression capacitor is usually located in the starter. The PF correction capacitor is part of the control

circuitry common to all fluorescent lighting installations.

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






 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018



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





Starters

Three methods are commonly available for starting the discharge in a fluorescent tube: the thermal start, the
glow start and the quick start.

 Thermal type start: The thermal type starter switch has two contacts mounted on bi-metal strips, a small
heating coil being fitted very close to the bi-metal strips but with no electrical contact between them. The
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

contacts are normally closed so that the main supply is first switched ON and the full heating current
passes through the lamp electrodes. The current also flows through the starter heater and so warms the bi-
metal strips. After a short period of time, the bi-metal strips warm sufficiently to bend and open the
contacts, thus striking the lamp. As long as the lamp remains lighting, current flows through the starter
heater keeping the contacts apart. A small capacitor is often connected in parallel with the starter
switch contacts to suppress radio interference.

Fig. Thermal type starter

 Glow type start: The glow type starter switch consists of a small bulb filled with inert gas (Argon,
helium) and containing two contacts, one of which is mounted on a bi-metal strip. The contacts are
normally open so that when the main supply is firs switched on full main voltage is applied to the starter
contacts. This causes a glow discharge, which warms the bi-metal strip making it to bend and close the
starter contacts. The closing of the starter contacts allows full heating current to pass through the lamp
electrodes and also extinguish the glow discharge. After a short time, the bi-metal strip cools
sufficiently to open the circuit thus striking the lamp. As long as the lamp remains a light, the voltage
applied to the starter is insufficient to initiate a glow discharge and so the starter contacts remains
open until the next starting operation. A small capacitor is often connected in parallel with the
starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Stages in striking of a fluorescent tube, using glow-type starter switch

(a) Contacts snap open, causing arc to strike between electrodes

(b) Glow discharge between bimetal contacts

(c) Bimetal heated; contacts close, bimetal then cools

Quick start or Instant type start:-

In the case of quick start or instant start, starting is achieved by the use of autotransformer and an

earthed metal strip in close proximity to the tube. When the supply is switched on, mains voltage appears

across the end of the tube, and the small part of the winding at each end of the transformer energizes the

filaments, which heat up. The difference in potential between the electrodes and the earthed

strip causes ionization, which spreads along the tube.

 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Fig. Quick type starter

Stroboscopic Effect

The disadvantage of fluorescent lamp is that, as the alternating discharge current passes through zero twice
every cycle, the light produced tend to flicker at twice of main frequency, although this effect is not
noticeable to the eye, machinery rotating at certain speed may appear to be stationary or
moving more slowly than it really is. This is known as the stroboscopic effect and is obviously a
cause of danger in situations such as workshops where rotating machinery is in use.

If a three-phase supply is available the stroboscopic effect can be minimized by connecting lamps to alternate
phases. As the lamps in the circuit attains their maximum and minimum values, the light output in sequence
of overall illumination is kept practically constant thereby keeping the stroboscopic effect to a minimum.

PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES

A good lighting system should produce uniform illumination of not less than the required
value. It should be free from glare and hard shadows. In fact attempt should be made to have quality of light as
close to day light as possible.

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as: -

1. Direct light: - the most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this scheme more than 90% of
total light flux is made to fall directly on the working plane with the help of deep reflectors. Though it
is more efficient but causes hard shadows and glare. It is mainly used for industrial and general out-
door lighting.
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

2. Semi-direct lighting: - in this lighting scheme 60-90% of the total light flux is made to fall down
wards directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors. The remaining light is used to illuminate the
ceiling and walls. Such a lighting scheme is best suited to rooms with high ceiling where there is a
high level of uniformity of illumination is desired. Besides, this scheme avoids glare, it also improves
the efficiency of the system with reference to the working plane.
3. Semi indirect lighting: -in this scheme 60-90% of total light flux is thrown up wards to the ceiling
for reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly except for some
absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme has soft shadows and is glare free. It is mainly used for
indoor decoration purpose.
4. Indirect lighting scheme: - in this scheme more than 90% of total light flux is thrown
upwards the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflector. In this scheme the glare
is reduced to minimum. The resulting illumination is soft and more diffused. The shadows are less
prominent and the appearance of the room is much improved. It is used for decoration purpose in
cinemas, theatres and hotels etc. and in areas where troublesome shadows are produced if direct
light in lighting is employed.
5. General lighting: - in this scheme lamps made of diffusing glass are used, which
gives nearly equal illumination in all directions. All fittings may be reduced to five basic
types according to their light distribution

3.5 Design of lighting schemes

The lighting scheme should be such that it should provide,

1. Adequate illumination
2. Light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible

3. Light of suitable color.

4. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible

a) Illumination level: - In order to see the details of the things that surround us, the light source has to
illuminate them very well in order the objects take the necessary brightness. For each type of work there is
a range of brightness most favorable to output in terms of quality and quantity. Level of illumination,
which gives necessary brightness to objects depends upon:

i. The size of the object and distance of the observer.

 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

ii. Contrast between the object and background. Greater the contrast greater will be the
illumination required to distinguish the object properly.
iii. The speed of the object - Speedy object requires more illumination.
iv. Duration of gazing - Object seen for long duration of time require more illumination.

b) Uniformity of Illumination: - It has been found that visual performance is best if the range of brightness
within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1, which can be achieved by employing general lighting in
addition to localized lighting. Otherwise due to the frequent accommodation of pupil or iris of the
eye, fatigue is caused and it creates psychological felling of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.

c) Color of light: - The appearance of the body color entirely depends upon the color of the incident light. In
general the composition of the light should be such that the color appears natural.

d) Shadows: - In lighting installation, formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue and are
undesirable. However a certain amount of shadow is desired as it helps to give shapes to solid objects and
make them easily recognized. But there is one exception to these i.e. in drawing offices, where we are to
see flat surfaces. Hard and long shadow can be avoided by:

i) Raising a large number of luminaries mounted at a height not less than 2.5m.
ii) By using wide surface of light - using globes or indirect lighting system.

e) Glare: - Glare is generally produced by very bright sources of light, which emit light
directly or at very low angle towards the viewer. This causes the person to neglect the
other surrounding objects, as they appear darker and is a major cause of road accidents. Glare is also
caused by highly polished surfaces when the angels are incorrect. This also tends to damage retina of the
eye. Glare may be direct or indirect. Motorcar headlights produces direct glare.

In designing a good lighting scheme which fulfills the above requirements, , we have to consider

i. The intensity of illumination required

ii. The selection of the required lamps and fittings

iii. The size of the room

 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

iv. The conditions under which the illumination is used etc. The following are some of the
conditions that should be considered when the illuminations are used:

 Utilization Factor (ηβ) - the whole light radiated by the lamps doesn’t reach the working
plane. The ratio of lumens reaching the working plane to the total light given out by the lamp or lamps,
when the installation is new, is known as utilization factor or coefficient of utilization. The
value of utilization factor depends upon :
ii) The mounting height of lamps
iii) Area to be illuminated
iv) Type of lighting scheme
v) Color of the surrounding, etc.
 Spacing Luminaries: - correct spacing is of great importance to provide uniform illumination
over the whole area. The ratio of the horizontal spacing between rows to the height of the
luminaries above the working plane, called space to height ratio, depends quite on luminous output,
type of lighting scheme and on the extent of candlepower distribution curve of the
luminaries. Mounting height is largely governed by the type of the building and type of lighting scheme
employed

 Color of Surrounding Walls:- the illumination in a room depends upon the light reflected from walls and
ceilings. White walls and ceilings reflect more light as compared to colored ones.
 Maintenance Factor - as we are to continue to use the installation, the illumination produced considerably
decreases due to ageing of the lamps and accumulation of dusts on the lamps, reflectors, ceiling and walls.
Its value is more if there is much as the ageing problem increases, etc. The value is mostly ranges between
0.8 and 1. The other term used is depreciation factor, which is merely the inverse of the maintenance factor.
Its value is more than unity.

3.6 Methods of lightning calculation

In order to estimate the number and the type of light fittings required to suit a particular environment, it is
necessary to know what level of luminance is required, the area to be illuminated, the maintenance factor and
the coefficient of utilization, and the efficiency of the lamps to be used. A number of methods have been
employed for lighting calculations among which may be mentioned:

1. Watts per square meter method

2. Lumen or Light flux method
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Watts per Square Meter method: - applicable for rough calculations. It consists in making an allowance of
watts per square meter of area to be illuminated accordingly to the illumination desired on the assumption of
the average figure of an overall efficiency of the system. According to NEC 220- standard illumination
is about 3 watt per ft2.

Example: - A house has an external dimension of 30ft by 50ft. If an 80w fluorescent lamps, and 220V
supply is used, determine the size of the service wire and the number of lamps required.
Solution:
A = 30ft X 50ft
= 1500ft2
Total wattage required = 1500 X 3w
= 4500w
⇒ 4.5Kw
No of lamps required = 4.5Kw/80w
= 56.1
⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w
Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V
= 20.5A
Therefore, the size of the cable will be conductor if there is no any correction factor.

Lumen or Light flux method: - it is the most advisable method to be used. Lumens' reaching the working
plane is calculated as:

Required Level of

Illumination in the room =

OR

Required Level of

Illumination in the room = /

OR
 SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018

Required Level of

Illumination in the room =

Where, E – Required Illumination level

N  n    CF
Thus,
E N – no of fixtures
A
n – no of lamp /fixture

A - Working surface area in m2

E A
N
n    CF φ - Luminous flux of one lamp in lm

CF - Correction factor; (Utilization

factor x Maintenance Factor)

Examples
SOEEC EPCE Program 3rd Year Electrical Design Of building PCE 3304 2018