Optics

Study of Nature & Properties of light

Properties Justification Branch

1 Light travels in a straight line § Reflection Geometrical

“Newton’s theory” § Refraction Optics
§ Dispersion

2 Light has a wave nature § Interference Wave Optics

“Huygen’s theory” § Diffraction
§ Polarization

3 Light when interacts with matter, § LASER Quantum

energy is either released or § Non-linear Optics
absorbed in the form of packets effects
of energy known as Photons
E=nh𝜈
PPT slides presented by: Dr. Pragati sharma
“Plank’s Quantum theory” Applied Physics-I
1
 I(1) Interference Unit-I
Contents
Introduction, Huygen’s principle,
Superposition of waves, Intensity of resultant wave, Numerical
Theory of fringes, Path difference D, Phase difference d, Fringe width, Numerical

Displacement in the fringe system, Numerical

White light fringes, Significance of white light fringes Numerical

Types of Interference & sources associated with types of Interference

Interference via division of wave front*,
v Fresnel’s Bi-Prism, Numerical
Interference via division of amplitude*,
v Parallel thin film, Numerical
v wedge shaped film, Numerical
v Newton’s rings, Numerical
* along with the applications of Interference

1 Quiz and 1 Assignment 2

Contents covered in Lecture 1 & Tutorial
• Huygen’s principle for the propagation of light
• Introduction to Interference
• Superposition of waves → Cause of Interference
v Conditions for Sustained interference
v Path difference, Phase difference,
v Resultant intensity at a point I, Imax, Imin, and Iav, Numerical
• Theory of fringes:
v Fringe width, Angular fringe width, Numerical
v Conditions for observable interference
• Shape of interference fringes
3
Huygen’s principle for the propagation of light

Postulate 1 Each point on a wave front (primary wave front) acts

as a source of secondary wavelets, which travel in all directions
with the velocity of light in that medium.

Primary
Wave front

secondary
Wave front

Postulate 2 The surface touching these secondary wavelets

tangentially in the forward direction gives a new wave front, called
a secondary wave front at that instant. 4
Interference
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐
Maxima
𝒚𝟏 Minima

Maxima

Minima
𝒚𝟐
Maxima

Interference is the Superposition of two or more coherent waves.

i.e. when two or more light waves of same frequency, having same
or constant phase difference superpose each other, the light energy
is redistributed in such way that alternate bright & dark bands
appear without violating the law of conservation of energy. 5
The resultant amplitude at a point & at any time is the algebraic
sum of amplitude of individual wave. At points where Crest of one
wave falls on Crest of another wave, the resultant intensity is
maximum. This is known as Constructive interference. At points
where Crest of one wave falls on Trough of another wave, the
resultant intensity is minimum. This is known as Destructive
interference.

Path difference and Phase difference: For a path difference of ∆

between the waves, the phase difference is given by
2π
𝛿= ∆
*
The resultant intensity at a point is Max or Min depends on the
value of phase difference between the participating waves. 6
Interference
Cause: Superposition of two or more coherent waves
Effect: appearance od dark and bright bands of equal intensity

Conditions for Sustained interference

1. Two sources must be coherent i.e. they must emit waves of
same frequency, having same phase or maintains a constant
phase difference b/n them over a distance & time.

2. & should continuously emit waves of same frequency,

otherwise the maxima & minima will change with time
3. If interfering waves are polarized, the state of polarization
must be same
7
Superposition of two waves : (Theory of Interference)
Consider the superposition of two light waves of same frequency ω,
having a constant phase difference δ between them. Let a1 & a2
represent their amplitudes and 𝑦. & 𝑦/ as the displacement
between these waves at any instant ‘t’
𝑦. = 𝑎. sin 𝜔𝑡 -------- (1)
𝑦/ = 𝑎/ sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 -------- (2)
From the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement is
𝑦 = 𝑦. + 𝑦/
𝑦 = a. sin 𝜔𝑡 + a/ sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 -------- (3)
𝑦 = a. sin 𝜔𝑡 + a/ sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝛿 + a/ cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝛿
𝑦 = a. + a/ cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑡 + a/ sin 𝛿 cos 𝜔𝑡
Let a. + a/ cos 𝛿 =Rcos θ and a/ sin 𝛿 =Rsin θ
-------- (4) -------- (5) 8
 𝑦 = R cos θ sin 𝜔𝑡 + R sin θ cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑦 = R sin 𝜔𝑡 cos θ + cos 𝜔𝑡 sin θ
𝑦 = R sin ωt+𝜃 --------- (6)
R is resultant amplitude, obtained by Squaring & adding eq.(4 & 5)
R= a. / + a/ / + 2a. a/ cos 𝛿 -------- (7)
R/ = a. / + a/ / + 2a. a/ cos 𝛿 -------- (7)
Resultant Intensity is given by I=R/ ; I. =a. / and I/ =a/ /
I = a. / + a/ / + 2a. a/ cos 𝛿 -------- (8)
I = I. + I/ + 2 I. I/ cos 𝛿
The resultant intensity at a point is Max or Min depends on the
value of phase difference δ between the participating waves.
2π
or the path difference ∆ between the waves 𝛿 = ∆
* 9
Ø Resultant Intensity is Maximum when cos δ=1 i.e.
when phase difference is δ=2nπ; n=0,1,2,3,….
Imax =I. + I/ + 2 I. I/
/
Imax = I. + I/ --------- (9)
This is known as Constructive interference
Ø Resultant Intensity is Minimum when cos δ= − 1 i.e.
when phase difference is δ= 2n+1 π; n=0,1,2,3,….
Imax = I. + I/ − 2 I. I/
/
Imin = I. − I/ --------- (10)
This is known as Destructive interference
ImaxCImin
Average Intensity: Iav = = I. +I/ 10
/
Conclusion: Overall energy of the system remains constant.
Whatever energy disappears at minima actually appears at maxima,
i.e. part of energy is transferred from the position of minimum to
the position of maximum. Thus in the phenomena of Interference
there is No violation in the law of conservation of energy.
/
for δ =2nπ Imax = I. + I/

/
for δ= 2n+1 π Imin = I. − I/

In general the average intensity is given by

MN MN
∫O J KL ∫O JP CJM C/ JP JM QRS L KL
Iav = MN = MN --------- (11)
∫O KL ∫O KL 11
Special case:When two interfering waves are of same amplitudes

I = a. / + a/ / + 2a. a/ cos 𝛿
For a. = a/ = aT the resultant intensity I at a point is given by
I = 2aT / + 2aT / cos 𝛿 where aT / = IT
I = 2 IT + 2 IT cos 𝛿
I = 2 IT 1 + cos 𝛿
/
I = 4 IT cos/ δ/2
I = 4 IT cos/ δ/2
Imax = 4 IT Imax = 4 IT
Imin = 0 Iav= 2 IT
Imax = 2 IT Imin = 0
12
Ex: Find the ratio of intensity at the center of a bright fringe to the intensity
at a point one-quarter of the distance between two fringes from the center.

4IT 4IT
Sol: For I. ≅ I/ =IT
The resultant intensity at a point is
π
I = 2IT 1 + cos 𝛿 0 / 2π

IYZ T = Intensity at the center of a bright fringe

IYZ T = 4IT
IYZ ./[ = Intensity at ¼ distance b/n two fringes from the center
IYZ \// = 2IT
J]^ O [JO
Hence the ratio is = = 2∶1
J]^ P/_ /JO
13
Ex: Find the resultant superposition of two waves
y. = 2.0 sin ωt & y/ = 5.0 sin ωt + 30°
Sol: y = y. + y/ = R sin ωt+θ
Where R= a. / + a/ / + 2a. a/ cos δ = 6.8
YM Shi L
and θ=tang. = 21.55°
YP + YM QRS L

y = 6.8 sin ωt + 21.55°

Ex: Two waves of same frequency having a phase difference of 60° and
amplitudes 1.00 and 2.00, interfere at a point. What is the resultant
amplitude?
Ans: Ramp=2.65units 14
Solve: Two coherent sources whose intensity ratio is 64∶1 produce
interference fringes. Deduce the ratio of maximum to minimum intensity.
M M
Jk]l JP C JM o[C . pC. M p.
Ans: = M = M = =
Jkmn JP g JM o[g . pg. M [q

Solve: If 𝐼. & 𝐼/ are the intensities of two coherent sources. Show that
Jk]l gJkmn / s JP
= where α=
Jk]l CJkmn .Cs JM
in the interference pattern produced by two coherent sources

Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves; Light waves,
radio waves, acoustic waves, surface water waves or matter waves. 15
Theory of Fringes
Obtain the positions of bright and dark fringes and
Show that the fringe width is independent of order

(X-d)

2d
(X+d)

Consider two coherent sources S1 & S2 emitting waves of

wavelength λ. Let 2d is the distance b/n two coherent sources S1 &
S2, D the distance between screen & coherent sources and △ is the
path difference b/n two waves reaching at point P on the screen
given by △= S2P − S1P 16
Where
S2P = D / + x+d / .// (X-d)

/ .//
x+d 2d
S2P =D 1 + --------(1) (X+d)
x

/ .//
x+d
Expanding 1 + binomially
x

And since D≫ x ± d , higher powers can be neglected

M
. x+d
S2P =D+ ------(1)
/ x
Similarly for S1P:
M
. xgd
S1P =D+ ------(2)
/ x 17
 △= S2P − S2P
. 4𝑑 𝓍
△=
/ x
/}𝓍
△= ----------- (3)
x

To find the Position of bright and Dark fringe:

From the condition for bright fringe
△=nλ n=0,1,2,…
/}𝓍
=nλ
x
Position of bright fringe
• x*
(𝓍n)bright= ------- (4)
/}
18
 From the condition for dark fringe
*
△=(2n+1) n=0,1,2,…
/
/}𝓍 *
=(2n+1)
x /
Position of dark fringe
/•C. x*
(𝓍n)Dark= ------- (5)
/(/})

Fringe width is the distance between consecutive bright fringe

(or dark fringe). If 𝓍n & 𝓍n+1 represents the distance of nth and
(n+1)th, bright fringe from the origin O, then
• x*
W=𝓍n+1− 𝓍n from eq. (4), 𝓍n=
/}
•‚
W= ----------------------(6)
/K 19
• Fringe width is independent of the order ‘n’. Thus all fringes are of
same width.
• If separation between coherent sources (2d) is large, fringe width
will be small & fringes will not be superbly visible
/K
• using λ= W , the wavelength λ of light can be determined, if
•
W, D and 2d are known.

Angular Fringe width:

arc
θW =
radius θW W
W •‚
θW = =
• • /K D
λ
θW =
/} 20
Conditions for Observable interference
1. Apart from the requirement of coherent sources, the
participating waves must have equal or nearly equal
amplitudes to have a good contrast.
2. To have a single interference pattern, source should be
monochromatic
3. Separation between two coherent sources (2d) must be small,
to have distinctly visible maxima or minima.
4. Distance between source and screen (D) should be
reasonable. Too large distance reduces the intensity while too
small distance makes maxima & minima quite close
5. Coherent source must be narrow in case of interference via
division of wave front (to prevent uniform illumination)
21
Ex: In an interference experiment the angular width of a fringe
formed on a distant screen is 0.1°. The wavelength of light used is
600nm.What is the spacing betweena the slits?

\
Sol: given θW =0.1° = 0.1° = 1.74×10−3 rad;
.pT
λ= 600nm=6×10g… m
‚
From 2d= Spacing between slits comes out to be
†‡
o×.Tˆ‰
2d= Angular Fringe width:
..…[×.TˆŠ
2d = 3.4×10−4m λ
θW =
2d = 0.34mm /}

22
Shape of interference fringes: ‘Hyperbolic’

•‚
W=
/K

As D, the distance between the sources and the screen increases,

fringe width increases. Each fringe will be the locus of point x
for which S2X−S1x=constant, which is the equation of hyperbola
with S2 & S1 as foci.
23