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TT F-718
T R A N S L A T I O N d. /
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’ ELECTRICITY OF CLOUDS
by I. M . Imyunitov, Y e , V. Chuburinu,
i and Yu. M. Shvurts
I

I 1,. ’ ,
I.
I” Press,
‘~Hydroi~2eteorologica
i Leningrad, 19 7 1
1

I N A T I O N A L AERONAUTICS A N D SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N WASHINGTON, D. C. JUNE 1972

i!
 TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

00b9054

NASA TT F-718

ELECTFUCITY OF CLOUDS

By I. M. Imyanitov, Ye. V. Chubarina,

and Ya. M. Shvarts

Translation of: ‘‘Elektrichestvo oblakov. ’’

Hydrometeorological P r e s s ,
Leningrad, 1971

--
For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151
$3.00
 ANNOTAT I O N

The e l e c t r i c i t y o f t h e c l o u d s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t s t h e i r e v o l u t i o n ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e development of thunderstorms and t h e f o r m a t i o n o f p r e c i p i -
tation. The p r o b a b i l i t y of l i g h t n i n g h i t t i n g a i r c r a f t and t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f
t h e a i r c r a f t ' s r a d i o communication and n a v i g a t i o n d e v i c e s are c l o s e l y connected
w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c i t y o f t h e clouds. I n t h e Brobdingnagian scale o f t h e atmos-
p h e r e , as compared w i t h t h e L i l l i p u t i a n s c a l e o f t h e l a b o r a t o r i e s , o u r i d e a s
developed i n d o o r s o f what i s p o s s i b l e and what i s n ' t b e g i n t o l o s e s e n s e . The
case of b a l l l i g h t n i n g can b e c i t e d as an example.

A t t h e s a m e t i m e , m e t e o r o l o g i s t s know v e r y l i t t l e about t h e e l e c t r i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c l o u d s , t h e i r ' ' e l e c t r i c a l n a t u r e , " e s p e c i a l l y modem i d e a s
and d a t a t h a t are n o t y e t p u b l i s h e d i n t h e w i d e l y s p r e a d l i t e r a t u r e .

The b o o k l e t " E l e c t r i c i t y of t h e Clouds" i s an a t t e m p t t o compile complete

d a t a on c l o u d s e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t o o u t l i n e modem knowledge on
t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of c l o u d s , t o d e s c r i b e t h e p r o c e s s e s which l e a d t o
t h e i r e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , methods d e v i s e d by man t o change t h e c l o u d s e l e c t r i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s and t o evaluate t h e i n f l u e n c e of cloud e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s on t h e i r
development

The book i s designed f o r m e t e r o l o g i s t s and o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s who are

i n t e r e s t e d i n atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y .

iii
 TABLE O F CONTENTS

PAGE
-

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I. ELECTRIC& CHARACTERISTICS OF CLOUDS 7

5 1. E l e c t r i c i t y i n S t r a t i f o r m Clouds 7
5 2. E l e c t r i c i t y of Convective Clouds Without Rain 23
5 3. E l e c t r i c i t y o f Cumulonimbus Clouds 27

CHAPTER 11. CAUSES LEADING TO THE ELECTRIFICATION OF CLOUDS 37

5 1. E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of P a r t i c l e s i n Clouds and
Precipitation 39
5 2. Accumulation of Space Charges i n Clouds 57
5 3. I n f l u e n c e of t h e E l e c t r i c a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
a Cloud on I t s Development 74

CHAPTER 111. POSSIBILITY OF CONTROLLING THE DEVELOPMENT

O F CLOUDS BY ELECTRICAL METHODS 85

5 1. I n f l u e n c e o f E l e c t r i c a l Methods on N o n e l e c t r i c a l
Cloud C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 86
9 2. Methods o f Changing t h e E l e c t r i c a l S t a t e of Clouds 97

CONCLUSIONS 107

REFERENCES 110

V
 INTRODUCTION

The dependence of mankind on t h e w e a t h e r , c o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r o p i n i o n , / 3*

-
i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e development of technology and i n d u s t r y . The cave man w a s
':I a b l e t o l i v e even w i t h o u t a l i g h t n i n g rod. The man o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
who e r e c t e d a l i g h t n i n g rod on h i s house d i d n o t have even a remote i d e a of
t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s which a r i s e i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , i n p r o t e c t i n g e l e c t r i c a l
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , e x t e n d i n g f o r many thousands o f k i l o m e t e r s , from thunder-
storms. Even a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , t h e r e w a s no r e a s o n t o
worry about t h e magnitude and n a t u r e of atmospheric r a d i o n o i s e .

The development of a new t e c h n i q u e f r e q u e n t l y s t i m u l a t e s i n t e r e s t i n

t h o s e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e atmosphere whose e x i s t e n c e w a s n o t even s u s p e c t e d .
Thus, i t h a s become n e c e s s a r y t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
of t h e atmosphere and atmospherics.

There h a s been a c o n s i d e r a b l e expansion of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e

atmosphere which meteorology must c o n s i d e r , m o n i t o r , measure, i n c l u d e i n
handbooks, d i s c u s s i n monographs and use i n w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g , which encom-
p a s s e s a c o n s t a n t l y expanding range of elements. The s u b j e c t of t h e p r e s e n t
volume - e l e c t r i c i t y of clouds - i s one o f t h e s e "new" a r e a s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , meteorology l i k e any s c i e n c e responds w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e

d e l a y t o t h e many q u e s t i o n s t h a t are posed. The e f f o r t t o relate a l l elemen-
t a r y forces t o electrical i n t e r a c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e p a s t century,
l e d t o t h e development o f ideas r e g a r d i n g t h e d e c i s i v e importance of e l e c t r i c i t y
i n clouds o r t h e development o f t h e l a t t e r - s p e c u l a t i v e i d e a s i n view of t h e
s c a r c i t y of t h e p o s i t i v e d a t a t h e n a v a i l a b l e . When i t became c l e a r a f t e r " e l e c -
t r i c a l i n t o x i c a t i o n " t h a t e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s could n o t e x p l a i n a l l p r o c e s s e s t h a t
_- _ _ - . . .
*
-. .. ..

Numbers i n t h e margin i n d i c a t e t h e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l f o r e i m text.

1
took p l a c e i n c l o u d s , d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e " s o b e r i n g up p r o c e s s " a c t u a l l y
e x i s t i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s between e l e c t r i c a l and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s were
discovered. P a p e r s w r i t t e n i n r e c e n t y e a r s have made i t p o s s i b l e t o g e t away
from t h i s extreme as w e l l .

S t u d i e s of cloud e l e c t r i c i t y , conducted a t a c o n s i d e r a b l y a c c e l e r a t e d
r a t e , are s t i m u l a t e d a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e by a number of problems which a r e -
I4
posed b o t h by m e t e o r o l o g i s t s and by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of o t h e r s p e c i a l t i e s . It
i s p o s s i b l e t o f o r m u l a t e f o u r groups of such problems ( t h i s arrangement is
s t i l l conditional) :

1. Problems d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s t u d y of atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y .
These i n c l u d e problems such as t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of mechanisms o f p a r t i c l e
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n i n clouds and t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of clouds as a whole, and
an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e r o l e of clouds i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of l o c a l and g l o b a l e l e c -
t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the atmosphere. The f i r s t problem i s a l s o important
f o r general physics. The second problem i s s t i l l o n l y one of t h e i n t e r n a l pro-
blems of atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y . It i s of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n conjunc-
t i o n w i t h work performed under t h e program o f t h e a t m o s p h e r i c - e l e c t r i c i t y
decade C1751.

2. Problems r e l a t e d t o t h e s t u d y of cloud p h y s i c s , t h e s t u d y of t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of a c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g p r o c e s s e s i n t h e clouds. These problems
i n c l u d e a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of t h e problems of how and t o what e x t e n t m i c r o - and
macro-processses i n t h e clouds a f f e c t t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d i t i o n of t h e l a t t e r ,
and a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r o l e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s i n the development and
breakup of c l o u d s ( f o r example, [ 4 4 , 4 9 , 1 2 3 1 ) .

Modern i n v e s t i g a t o r s know t h a t as c l o u d s develop - a l t h o u g h t h e under-

s t a n d i n g of cloud development s t i l l h a s n o t gone beyond t h e area of d e t e c t i o n
i n t h e measurement r e g i o n - t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s and t h e charges i n them
increase. T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n w a s d e t e c t e d r e c e n t l y i n an e f f o r t t o l i n k t h e -
I5

2
 "'f ScAcAsCs Ns
/
./ /'Cb (thunderstorm)
Cb (pre-thunderstorm)
Cb cong + Cb

to! ' " * u d' " ' l ' ( J ' 1'11111' ' -I

I IO io2 io3 IO^^^^^^^

F i g u r e 1. R e l a t i o n s h i p between the a v e r a g e
p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of
t h e atmosphere /E/ and t h e a v e r a g e r a d a r r e f l e c -
t i v i t y Z i n clouds of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . The
s m a i l c i r c l e (0) r e p r e s e n t s t h e
v a l u e of t h e r e f l e c t i v i t y i n C s , converted t o
t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t of i c e a t t h e m e a -
surement frequency i s approximately' f i v e t i m e s
less t h a n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of water.

average f i e l d i n t e n s i t y [ E ] i n c l o u d s of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s w i t h t h e average
radar r e f l e c t i o n i n them. F i g u r e 1, p l o t t e d a c c o r d i n g t o d a t a on c l o u d s ob-
s e r v e d i n t h e zone e x t e n d i n g from 50 t o 60" N , shows t h a t t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n -
s h i p between l o g z and l o g /E/ which i s n e a r l y l i n e a r [29]. It is c u r i o u s
t h a t t h e forms of c l o u d s on t h i s graph are a r r a n g e d i n " n a t u r a l " o r d e r . They
w e r e p l a c e d t h i s way by an a e r o l o g i s t who decided t o a r r a n g e t h e v a r i o u s
c l o u d s on a scale i n d i c a t i n g t h e comparative "degree of development" of clouds
from one t y p e t o a n o t h e r . T h i s sequence can b e e x p l a i n e d o n l y by t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e growth of a cloud e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d accompanies an i n c r e a s e i n t h e
number o f p a r t i c l e s and t h e i r s i z e , o r by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l charac-
t e r i s t i c s of clouds p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e change o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n and

3
 t h e s i z e of p a r t i c l e s . I f the f i r s t e x p l a n a t i o n i s c o r r e c t , the d a t a on
e l e c t r i c a l characteristics o f c l o u d s may b e v a l u a b l e t o m e t e o r o l o g i s t o n l y as
a m e a n s of d e t e r m i n i n g the s t a t e of c l o u d s [39, 831. I f t h e second explana-
t i o n is c o r r e c t , the s t u d y o f the e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clouds i s
unnecessary even f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p h y s i c s o f t h e i r development
( f o r example, C441).

3. Problems whose s o l u t i o n s t i m u l a t e s the development of o t h e r s c i e n c e s .

A b a s i c change i n t h e scale o f t h e p r o c e s s e s i n n a t u r e , i n comparison t o
t h o s e i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , may l e a d t o d e t e c t i o n of new p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s a n d
relationships. P o s s i b l e examples t h a t could b e c i t e d are t h e g i g a n t i c
electrodeless s p a r k d i s c h a r g e , l i g h t n i n g , and t h e m y s t e r i o u s b a l l l i g h t n i n g

4. Problems whose s o l u t i o n promotes t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s . These i n c l u d e

problems o f s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y on a i r c r a f t and p r e v e n t i o n of a i r c r a f t e n t e r i n g
thunderstorm zones, and problems connected w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e l e c t r i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e s e a r c h probes on t h e r e s u l t s of cloud c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
measurements, etc.

The need t o s o l v e t h e s e problems i n c r e a s e s e a c h y e a r . Thus, f o r example,

t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e of a i r c r a f t speed, expansion of t h e number o f a i r c r a f t i n
t h e world and t h e need t o f l y under a l l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s m a k e i t v e r y
i m p o r t a n t t o s o l v e problems o f s t a t i c e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f a i r c r a f t [ Z ] i n o r d e r
t o increase f l i g h t safety. I n f o r m a t i o n on p o s s i b l e damage t o an a i r c r a f t by
l i g h t n i n g must a l s o b e improved f o r t h e same purpose.

Without d w e l l i n g on o t h e r problems ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e such as a c l a r i f i -

c a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e cloud c o n d i t i o n and t h e i r shortwave
and longwave r a d i o emission [ 1 4 5 , 1741, whose s o l u t i o n i s v e r y u s e f u l i n t h e
development o f s a t e l l i t e meteorology), w e w i l l merely n o t e t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n s
of a l l of t h e s e problems a r e l a r g e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d and a r e based on measure-
ments of t h e macro- and m i c r o - e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clouds and on
concepts r e g a r d i n g elementary mechanisms o f c h a r g i n g and i n t e r a c t i o n o f cloud
particles.

4
 .. .. .. . . . . . .- ----

I
I
I
1

1 R e g a r d l e s s o f the importance of s t u d y i n g e l e c t r i c a l characteristics of

c l o u d s , u n t i l r e c e n t l y t h e r e w e r e no r e l i a b l e d a t a whatsoever on the e l e c t r i c a l
1

i
s t r u c t u r e of c l o u d s and t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . S u f f i c e i t t o say,
f o r example, t h a t even t h e fundamental work of Wilson 11701 and F r e n k e l ' [9]
i n t h e f i e l d o f e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c l o u d s w e r e based on h i g h l y
1
il
a r b i t r a r y assumptions r e g a r d i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s i n c l o u d s ,
! c h a r g e s i n them, etc. Even now, t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s t h a t e x i s t i n
r thunderstorm c l o u d s , f o r example, employed by v a r i o u s a u t h o r s , d i f f e r by
s e v e r a l o r d e r s of magnitude [5, 1161, w h i l e t h e s t r e n g t h s and c h a r g e s of
t h e f i e l d s i n them d i f f e r by an o r d e r o f magnitude [51, 116, 1401.

The concept o f " e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a cloud" i n c l u d e s t h e d e n s i t y

of t h e e l e c t r i c a l s p a c e c h a r g e , t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t ( s t r e n g t h ) of t h e elec-
t r i c a l f i e l d , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a i r i n t h e cloud and i n i t s
v i c i n i t y , t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e e l e c t r i c charges on t h e cloud and p r e c i -
p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s , t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e i o n s i n t h e cloud a i r , and t h e
d e n s i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t running through t h e cloud and n e a r i t . Some
of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e b a s i c ; o t h e r s are a r b i t r a r y . Thus, on t h e b a s i s
of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e
cloud and i t s v i c i n i t y , w e can determine how t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e space charge
i s d i s t r i b u t e d ( t h e f i r s t v a l u e i s more e a s i l y measured). On t h e b a s i s of t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e
a i r , and t h e f i e l d o f a i r movement v e l o c i t i e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of t h e atmosphere.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e a r e o n l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r o a d , a s f a r as u n d e r s t a n d i n g
cloud e l e c t r i c i t y i s concerned.

Only r e c e n t l y , by means of d i r e c t measurement i n c l o u d s , w a s i t p o s s i b l e

t o o b t a i n an i d e a of how t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s i n them a r e d i s t r i b u t e d , t o
p a r t l y s y s t e m a t i z e t h e s e d a t a , and a l s o t o o b t a i n some new i n f o r m a t i o n regard-
i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c h a r g e s on cloud p a r t i c l e s and t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n par-
t i c l e s , as w e l l as t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e air w i t h i n t h e c l o u d s .

5
C a l c u l a t i o n s of the p r o p e r t i e s of c l o u d s on t h e b a s i s o f d a t a from ground
measurements have n o t l e d (and - as has now become clear - could n o t have
led) t o correct results. It i s s t i l l i m p o s s i b l e t o f o r e c a s t e l e c t r i c a l
characteristics, s i n c e w e l a c k s u f f i c i e n t l y complete d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e physi-
c a l p r o c e s s e s of c h a r g i n g of i n d i v i d u a l cloud p a r t i c l e s and t h e e n t i r e cloud
as a whole. I n r e c e n t y e a r s , a c o n s i d e r a b l e s t e p forward h a s been made i n
t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f cloud p a r t i c l e s .
S t u d i e s o f t h e elementary mechanisms of p a r t i c l e c h a r g i n g are much fewer, b u t
are s t i l l going forward.

The d a t a which have been o b t a i n e d are c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n a r t i c l e s

which d e a l w i t h c e r t a i n d e t a i l s , and t h e r e f o r e o n l y s p e c i a l i s t s r e a d them.
The p r e s e n t b o o k l e t i s designed t o serve as an a i d i n b r e a c h i n g t h e gap be-
tween t h e concepts of narrow s p e c i a l i s t s r e g a r d i n g atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y
and t h e concepts of s p e c i a l i s t s i n o t h e r , a d m i t t e d l y r e l a t e d a r e a s r e g a r d i n g
cloud e l e c t r i c i t y . Such a gap unavoidably develops i n t h e development of any
s c i e n c e , b u t i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s when t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e s c i e n c e s
- let us s a y , of atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y and cloud p h y s i c s o r atmospheric
e l e c t r i c i t y and e l e c t r o c h e m i s t r y , etc. - is required f o r solving t h e b a s i c
problems mentioned i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n .

W e w i l l b e g i n w i t h a p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e a c t u a l material which we have

a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d i n g cloud e l e c t r i c i t y . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s material f o r
t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e d i v e r s e problems mentioned above w i l l become clear as t h e
d a t a are p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s .

6
 CHAPTER I

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS O F CLOUDS

5 1. E l e c t r i c i t y i n S t r a t i f o r m Clouds

The most e x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f s t r a t i f o r m
clouds have been performed i n t h e USSR. The overwhelming m a j o r i t y of d a t a
r e g a r d i n g t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t E of t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d of t h e atmosphere i n c l o u d s have been c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g v e r t i c a l soundings
of t h e atmosphere. The r e s u l t s of measurements of E have been averaged v e r t i -
c a l l y f o r a l a y e r 100 m t h i c k . The a i r c r a f t u s u a l l y travels i n a s p i r a l as i t
rises t o make t h e sounding, w i t h t h e average h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e a i r -
c r a f t b e i n g approximately 50-60 m / s e c and t h e v e r t i c a l rate of climb b e i n g
4-5 m / s e c . Hence, when a v e r a g i n g t h e f i e l d o v e r 100 m a l o n g t h e v e r t i c a l ,
t h e r e i s s i m u l t a n e o u s a v e r a g i n g a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l f o r a p a t h about 3 - 4 km
long, with t h e average along t h e h o r i z o n t a l i n c r e a s i n g w i t h a l t i t u d e , s i n c e
t h e rate of climb d e c r e a s e s a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s .

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , i t h a s become p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e s e d a t a [ 4 5 ] .
It h a s been found t h a t t h e combination o f a b s o l u t e v a l u e s o f /E/ i n t h e clouds
may be approximated s a t i s f a c t o r i l y by a l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y normal d i s t r i b u t i o n
(Figure 1.1). The p a r a m e t e r s of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f o r
v a r i o u s clouds (Table 1.1).

I n Table 1.1, on Graph N o . 1, w e have p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s u l t s of measure-

ments made i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f Leningrad, i n NO. 2 i n t h e Kiev a r e a ,

7
 F i g u r e 1.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of the poten-
t i a l g r a d i e n t of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n Ac, As, Ns, and Cb
c l o u d s , r e p r e s e n t e d on a l o g a r i t h m i c - p r o b a b i l i t y g r i d .

No. 3 i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Tashkent. The v a l u e s /E/ shown h e r e and i n

max
T a b l e 1.1 r e p r e s e n t a c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e of /E/ which i s encountered w i t h a pro-
The a c t u a l l y recorded l i m i t i n g v a l u e s of /E/ i n
b a b i l i t y of less t h a n 0.1%.
3
S t and S c clouds are approximately 2-3*103 V/m; A c , approximately 5.10 V/m;
3 3
As, approximately 20.10 V/m; Ns, approximately 40-10 V/m; Cb, approximately
3
280.10 V/m.

8
 TABLE 1.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DISTRIBZPTION O F THE
ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTHS I N VARIOUS CLOUDS

of

TABLE 1.2. DISTRIBUTION CHARAC- A s w e can see from Table 1.1,

TERISTICS /E/*, AVERAGED OVER THE t h e average v a l u e s of / E / i n clouds
ENTIRE CLOUD i n t h e i n d i c a t e d measurement a r e a s
a r e r e l a t i v e l y similar, and t h e r e i s
a somewhat g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e
c__-__ .. ___ -.
dispersion, while t h e extremal values
I
cloud- med of / E / a r e s t i l l more d i f f e r e n t . The

Sl 150 2 7
e x t r e m a l v a l u e s are e s p e c i a l l y h i g h
sc 100 1.7 6 i n clouds which produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n . /9
Ac GO 25 10.5
AS 130 -7 11.5 The v a l u e s of /E/max i n A s and N s i n
Ns 250 10 11

It i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e average p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t s i n i n d i v i -
d u a l clouds may d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h o s e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1.1. I n -
/ 10
9
T a b l e 1.2, w e have l i s t e d the d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r a m e t e r s o f /Eav/* - the poten-
t i a l g r a d i e n t o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , averaged o v e r the e n t i r e cloud -for
clouds o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s on the basis of measurement d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h e
v i c i n i t y of Leningrad. I n o t h e r words, t h i s table shows how much one cloud
can d i f f e r from a n o t h e r on the average. From a comparison of T a b l e s 1.1 and
1.2, w e can conclude t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t h e v a l u e s of /E/* averaged
o v e r t h e e n t i r e cloud and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f /E/ averaged o v e r 100 m e t e r -
l a y e r s do n o t d i f f e r markedly from one a n o t h e r . The s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e two
d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s l i n k e d e i t h e r t o t h e random n a t u r e o f t h e s e l e c t i o n and t h e
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s i z e o f the cloud volume t h a t w a s sounded, o r t o t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s t h a t w e r e o b t a i n e d (Tables 1.1 and 1.2) c h a r a c t e r i z e
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of one cloud and t h a t
of a n o t h e r ( i n one t h e r e are s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s , w h i l e t h o s e i n t h e
o t h e r are weak). Within one cloud, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g b o t h v e r y l a r g e
and v e r y s m a l l v a l u e s o f / E / i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e curve showing t h e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneity i n t h e c l o u d s (see F i g u r e 1.5) , about
which we s h a l l speak l a t e r . On the b a s i s of t h e experiment, w e can s t a t e t h a t
0 f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of / E / w i t h i n one cloud may b e c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n t n e
average given i n T a b l e s 1.1 and 1 . 2 , and amount t o 1.5-2 dB, b u t i n some
c l o u d s ( e s p e c i a l l y r a i n clouds) i t may b e of t h e same o r d e r as i n T a b l e s 1.1
and 1.2, and even h i g h e r .

Let US n o t e some o f the g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f e l e c t r i c a l -

/ 11
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e types of clouds. The e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y o f t h e
c l o u d s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n o u r case by t h e average a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of t h e e l e c t r i c
f i e l d s t r e n g t h i n them, i n c r e a s e s from one t y p e of cloud t o t h e n e x t i n
approximately t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r : S t , Sc, A c , As, N s , Cb.

As a rule, t h e e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y of t h e cloud ( F i g u r e 1 . 2 ) i n c r e a s e s
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g cloud thickness (d) and the extrema1 v a l u e s of t h e p o t e n t i a l
g r a d i e n t s of t h e f i e l d s i n t h e clouds i n c r e a s e p a r t i c u l a r l y markedly. This
i s worthy of a t t e n t i o n . The dependence of t h e cloud e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y on
t h i c k n e s s shows up much more c l e a r l y i n s o u t h e r n l a t i t u d e s t h a n i n n o r t h e r n

10
 ones [31. The e l e c t r i c a l -
112
a c t i v i t y o f clouds i n c r e a s e s
on t h e average from n o r t h e r n
Leningrad
l a t i t u d e s toward s o u t h e r n ones.
I f f V/m
T h i s may b e r e l a t e d t o a
4000 change i n t h e m i c r o p h y s i c a l
300 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c l o u d s
200 with l a t i t u d e . The e l e c t r i c a l
100/ c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clouds
change from w i n t e r t o summer,
as h a s a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d
out i n [3]. Usually, i n
w i n t e r t h e average and m a x i m u m
v a l u e s of t h e p o t e n t i a l gra-
d i e n t of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s E
as w e l l a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n
p o t e n t i a l s a t t h e cloud boun-
d a r i e s are less t h a n i n summer.
On t h e b a s i s o f measurements
of E , i t h a s been p o s s i b l e t o
determine t h e t y p i c a l vert i c a l
e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of clouds.
For purposes of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
by t y p e , and a l s o i n o r d e r t o
- compare t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c -
F i g u r e 1.2. AveLage (/E/av- curve No. 1)
and maximum (/E/" - curve N o . 2 ) t u r e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n curves
w i t h a l t i t u d e f o r t h e v a l u e of
p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t o f e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d as a
f u n c t i o n of t h e t h i c k n e s s (d) o f t h e c l o u d , E i n clouds have been calcu-
l a t e d f o r relative a l t i t u d e s
D/DO, where D i s t h e cloud
0
thickness. R a i n c l o u d s are
d i v i d e d i n t o p a r t s which are
l o c a t e d above the l e v e l of t h e
z e r o i s o t h e r m and below i t .

11
 16

I.?
8

c
L) 1_1 I ' 1 - u -
-120-60 -40 0 '0 80 I20 -100 0 :DO 290 300 4 0 0 E

F i g u r e 1 . 3 . T h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d E as a f u n c t i o n of reduced a l t i t u d e DID
0
i n s t r a t o c u m u l u s clouds w i t h a s p e c i f i c t y p e of
e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e and i n the absence of
clouds o f o t h e r t y p e s (Leningrad, 1958-1959).
P o l a r i z e d clouds: a - positively (72 c a s e s ) ;
b - negatively (20 cases);
Charged clouds: c - positively ( 3 8 cases) ;
d - negatively (10 cases).

I n F i g u r e 1 . 3 , as an example, w e have p l o t t e d f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c elec-

t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e s which are e n c o u n t e r e d i n warm stratus c l o u d s a t middle
l a t i t u d e s [3]. There are p o s i t i v e l y p o l a r i z e d clouds (2) which have a p o s i t i v e
charge i n t h e upper p a r t and a n e g a t i v e charge i n t h e lower p a r t , n e g a t i v e l y
p o l a r i z e d c l o u d s (+) whose charges are arranged i n t h e o p p o s i t e f a s h i o n , and
s i n g l y charged clouds [ b o t h p o s i t i v e l y (+) and n e g a t i v e l y ( - ) ] . Clouds of
l i m i t e d t h i c k n e s s a r e u s u a l l y s i n g l y charged. As a r u l e , t h i c k c l o u d s are /13
multicharged. This statement is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Table 1 . 3 . However, a s i m i l a r

12
 TABLE 1.3. AVERAGE THICKNESS (m) O F CLOUDS O F DIFFERENT
TYPES FOR VARIOUS ELECTRICAL STRUCTURES, LENINGRAD, 1958-1959

Doubly
Mult i - c h a r ged

st 200 200 450 4.50 700

SC 260 250 400 450 7OfJ
As 650 700 800 9(J0 1500
Ns 650 700 950 1600 2000

t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e h a s been o b t a i n e d f o r clouds of o t h e r t y p e s . It i s i m p o r t a n t
t h a t many o f t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s cannot be e x p l a i n e d by viewing the clouds as
p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t of t h e ionosphere and
t h e ground. I n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , many c l o u d s (even t h o s e w i t h o u t p r e c i p i t a t i o n )
a c t as e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t o r s . A similar c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i c k f o g s h a s been
determined e a r l i e r i n [ 69, 1181.

F i g u r e 1 . 4 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of an e l e c t r i -
cal f i e l d E w i t h a l t i t u d e i n n i m b o s t r a t u s clouds w i t h a mixed phase s t r u c t u r e ,
observed a t middle l a t i t u d e s . The m a x i m u m v a l u e s of /E/ are observed i n clouds
of mixed s t r u c t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e zone between t h e O - l O O C isotherms; i n
t h i s zone, t h e r e i s an i n t e n s i v e s e p a r a t i o n of charges. Beneath t h e cloud o r
i n t h e lower p a r t of i t , one o f t e n f i n d s areas of p o s i t i v e charges t h a t a r e /14
associated with precipitation. L e t u s r e c a l l once a g a i n t h a t b o t h t h e a v e r a g e
and t h e extrema1 v a l u e s of E i n such c l o u d s are h i g h e r t h a n i n clouds o f t h e
o t h e r types discussed. One f i n d s b o t h p o s i t i v e l y ( F i g u r e 1 . 4 ) as w e l l as
n e g a t i v e l y p o l a r i z e d c l o u d s [ 31.

On t h e b a s i s of t h e r e s u l t s o f measuring t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of t h e
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d o f t h e atmosphere, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e , by u s i n g t h e
P o i s s o n e q u a t i o n , t h e d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n p o f s p a c e c h a r g e s i n t h e clouds.

13
 F i g u r e 1.4. Reduced p a t h of p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t
E of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n N s clouds w i t h a mixed
structure .
1 - Leningrad, 1960-1962 (18 c a s e s ) ; 2 K i e v , 1960--
1963 (7 c a s e s ) ; 3 - Tashkent, 1960-1961 (10 c a s e s ) ;
E and v - lower and upper limits of t h e c l o u d s .

On t h e a v e r a g e , t h e d e n s i t y p of s p a c e charges i n s t r a t u s and s t r a t o c u m u l u s
3
c l o u d s i s on t h e o r d e r of 10-l' k/m (Table 1 . 4 ) .

TABLE 1.4. * RECIURRENCE (2) OF THE DENSITY VALUES OF SPACE

CHARGES I N Sc AND N s CLOUDS

clouds of t h e s e t y p e s are com-

paratively s m a l l . The e x t e n t o f the zones where t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t changes
by no more t h a n 20 - 30% o f t h e average v a l u e r a n g e s from 200-600 m.
-

14
r-

C o n s i d e r a b l e inhomogeneities of E - r e a c h i n g , l e t u s say, up t o 100% a r e

r a r e l y found. Electrical inhomogeneities i n clouds are c a l c u l a t e d as the r a t i o
of AE deviations from the a v e r a g e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d i n t h e s e l e c t e d area o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l p a t h t o t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e
lAE/EavI. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a l u e s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneities
i n c l o u d s i s e x p r e s s e d q u i t e w e l l by a normal l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n .
F i g u r e 1 . 5 shows t h a t t h e median v a l u e s o f t h e inhomogeneities i n t h e v a r i o u s
forms o f c l o u d s are similar, and amount t o about 20%. However, t h e s l o p e of
t h e curves d i f f e r s , i n d i c a t i n g a d i f f e r e n t p r o b a b i l i t y of e n c o u n t e r i n g
c o n s i d e r a b l e inhomogeneities i n c l o u d s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s .

I n T a b l e 1.5, w e have
p r e s e n t e d t h e v a l u e s IAE/E [
av med
(T) 100% and t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s
I AE/EavI max’ corresponding t o a n
encountering p r o b a b i l i t y less
t h a n 0.1%. Hence, i f w e f i n d
d e v i a t i o n s from t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e
o f E by 300% i n S c and N s once
o u t o f 1000 inhomogeneities, we
w i l l f i n d d e v i a t i o n s from t h e
average v a l u e s by 1500% i n Cb i n
one case o u t of a thousand. The /15
inhomogeneities occupy 50-60%
of t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y i n S c ,
F i g u r e 1.5. D i s t r i b u t i o n of v a l u e s o f and 70 -80% i n Ns. The a v e r a g e
e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneities AE. 100 Ea,
d e n s i t y of t h e s p a c e charge i n
i n c l o u d s of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s , p l o t t e d inhomogeneities f o r S t and S c
-
on a normal l o g a r i t h m i c g r i d .
clouds d i f f e r s i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
-
1 N s ; 2 - SC; 3 - Cb.
from t h e average d e n s i t y of t h e
space c h a r g e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e
e n t i r e cloud, w i t h h i g h e r v a l u e s f o r t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s p a c e charges
encountered i n s m a l l e r zones.

15
 The d e n s i t y o f t h e
TABLE 1.5.
s p a c e charge i n Ns may b e
significant. Thus, i n Ns
of clouds
w e f i n d v a l u e s o f p on t h e
sc 25 3.50
300 o r d e r of 10-l' C /m3 , and
Cb 15'JO
even lo-' C/m3. The proba-
b i l i t y of t h e appearance of
l p l of d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t y in
n i m b o s t r a t u s clouds i s
shown i n T a b l e 1.4.

I n F i g u r e 1.6, w e have p l o t t e d t h e c u r v e s f o r t h e r e c u r r e n c e o f t h e
dimensions of t h e e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneity zones i n clear w e a t h e r , and i n
clouds of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e dimensions o f t h e zones /16
of inhomogeneity are smaller i n clouds t h a n i n clear w e a t h e r , and i n clouds
which are more active ( N s ) t h e inhomogeneity zones are smaller t h a n i n Sc.
Thus, i n clear weather one most o f t e n e n c o u n t e r s zones measuring from 100 t o
500 m y i n S c - from 50 t o 400 m y and i n N s - from 50 t o 200 m. It i s neces-

',,
sary t o keep t h e f a c t i n mind t h a t t h e s e dimensions of t h e inhomogeneities are
l i n k e d i n a c e r t a i n f a s h i o n w i t h t h e measurement method. Inhomogeneities are
d e t e c t e d i f t h e measured element i n them ( i n t h i s case E) d i f f e r s by more t h a n
several p e r c e n t from t h e average v a l u e o f t h e element i n t h e measurement area.
As t h e inhomogeneity dimension i n t h i s c a s e , w e have adopted t h e d i s t a n c e be-
tween a d j a c e n t extrema of t h e f i e l d .

I n t h e i r p a p e r s , f o r e i g n i n v e s t i g a t o r s p r e s e n t i n d i v i d u a l d a t a on
measurements of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t e n s i t y i n clouds of t h e s e t y p e s . There-
f o r e , w e cannot speak of any k i n d of s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n of f o r e i g n d a t a . I n an
a t t e m p t t o t r a n s f e r t h e d a t a on E p r e s e n t e d i n a pamphlet, as o b t a i n e d by
I. M. Imyanitov and Y e . V. Chubarina, t o o t h e r geographic r e g i o n s o r t o use
them f o r c a l c u l a t i n g some p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e s e r e g i o n s , i t i s
n e c e s s a r y t o keep i n mind t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p (shown f o r example i n T a b l e 1.1
and mentioned i n t h e t e x t ) of t h e average parameters of E t o t h e p h y s i c a l ,
geographic c o n d i t i o n s of cloud formation.
16
 Y -
200 400 600 800 1000dL~

F i g u r e 1.6. Recurrence of s i z e s of zones

o f e l e c t r i c a l homogeneities.
1 - i n clear weather; 2 - i n Sc; 3 - in Ns.

I n measurements of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t E of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of
t h e atmosphere, c a r r i e d o u t f o r a r e l a t i v e l y l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e i n t h e moun-
t a i n s a t a l t i t u d e s a t which cloud f o r m a t i o n takes p l a c e [77, 1411, v a r i a b i l i t y
of E i n clouds and i n t h e i r v i c i n i t y was observed less than i n t h e a i r c r a f t
s t u d i e s of I . Imyanitov and Ye.V.Chubarina.The absence of s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n
r e g a r d i n g t h e q u a n t i t y and method o f a n a l y z i n g the m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d by t h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r s [77, 1411 does n o t g i v e us any i d e a of t h e cause of t h e d i f f e r -
e n c e s ¶ b u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y cannot b e excluded t h a t t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s i m i l a r i t y /17
of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s h a s something t o do w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s of
cloud f o r m a t i o n under mountainous c o n d i t i o n s .

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e m i c r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s and t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t E of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e clouds i s of
considerable i n t e r e s t i n conjunction with a search f o r t h e causative r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s between t h e p a r a m e t e r s c h a r a c t e r i a i n g t h e development of clouds and
t h e i r electrical characteristics.

17
 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e do n o t have s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e and unanimous r e s u l t s
i n t h i s connection. To s u p p o r t t h e f a c t t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e micro-
p h y s i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a c l o u d does e x i s t , w e can u s e
F i g u r e 1. D i r e c t s i m u l t a n e o u s measurement of w a t e r c o n t e n t , m i c r o s t r u c t u r e
and e l e c t r i c a l p a r a m e t e r s i n s t r a t i f o r m clouds are v e r y few i n number, and
t h e i r r e s u l t s are n o t i n agreement.

A n important electrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of clouds is t h e electrical

c o n d u c t i v i t y of the a i r i n them. The e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e c l o u d s
must be less t h a n i n t h e free atmosphere, due t o t h e c a p t u r e o f i o n s by t h e
drops.

Measurement of e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r i n clouds i s a compli-

c a t e d t a s k , s i n c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s o l v e many d i f f i c u l t methodological pro-
blems, and w e w i l l n o t d w e l l on t h i s t o p i c ( f o r example [l, 3 1 , 851). It i s
obvious why o n l y a few s u c h nieasurements have been made. As a r u l e , t h e mea-
surements are performed w i t h t h e a i d of a n i n e r t i a l a p p a r a t u s . Nothing i s
known r e g a r d i n g t h e characteristics of t h e change i n e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
i n the a i r i n i n d i v i d u a l p o r t i o n s of clouds.

Judging by the r e s u l t s o f measurements, t h e v a l u e s o f p o l a r c o n d u c t i v i t y

i n clouds are roughly e q u a l . Judging by t h e d a t a o f A l l e y and P h i l l i p s [ 9 2 ] ,
e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n clouds d e c r e a s e s by a f a c t o r of 3 t o 5,and i n some
c a s e s by a f a c t o r of 20, i n comparison t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n p u r e l y
a t m o s p h e r i c a i r a t t h e same l e v e l . According t o t h e d a t a of N . Krasnogorskaya,
i t d e c r e a s e s by approximately a f a c t o r of 3 [ 5 7 ] . Zachek [ 321, who c a r r i e d o u t
the f i r s t a i r c r a f t measurements of e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r i n t h i n
S t and Sc clouds by m e a n s of an a p p a r a t u s which reduced t h e e f f e c t of b a s i c
s o u r c e s of e r r o r i n measuring e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n c l o u d s , a l s o found a
r e d u c t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n comparison t o t h e v a l u e s i n p u r e a i r
by a f a c t o r of 3 t o 25.

18
 Using an improved a p p a r a t u s o f t h e t y p e d e s c r i b e d i n [33], equipped w i t h
an i n e r t i a l f i l t e r , a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o measure t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
o f t h e a i r from an a i r c r a f t i n dense S t and S c c l o u d s as w e l l as A s and N s
[30]. However, t h e s e a t t e m p t s have as y e t been u n s u c c e s s f u l due t o t h e consi-
d e r a b l e c h a r g i n g of t h e measuring e l e c t r o d e s of t h e a p p a r a t u s when s t r u c k by
d r o p l e t s , and t h e d i s c h a r g i n g of t h e e l e c t r o d e s when t h e d r o p l e t s s e p a r a t e
from them. It i s n o t clear t o what . e x t e n t t h i s s o u r c e of e r r o r may h a v e -
f 18
a f f e c t e d t h e measurement r e s u l t s i n t h e c i t e d works.

The e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r i n n i m b o s t r a t u s clouds h a s n o t
been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n d e t a i l . However, i n a work by N. Krasnogorskaya [ 5 7 ] i n
which t h e d a t a of e x t e n s i v e measurements of a i r e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y on
Mount E l b r u s are analyzed, t h e r e are no unusual f e a t u r e s i n t h e p a t t e r n of
e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e passage of r a i n clouds. W e can,
t h e r e f o r e , assume t h a t e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e s e clouds was t h e same as
i n s t r a t u s clouds, i . e . , somewhat less than t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n
t h e f r e e atmosphere a t the same level. It i s n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t o u t , however,
t h a t i n [ 5 7 ] t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r o d e charging on t h e measurement r e s u l t s
w a s n o t t a k e n i n t o account.

L e t us c o n s i d e r t h e e l e c t r i c a l m i c r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s t r a t u s ,
s t r a t o c u m u l u s , and n i m b o s t r a t u s c l o u d s . The charges of i n d i v i d u a l d r o p l e t s
have been i n v e s t i g a t e d by several a u t h o r s [92, 138, 163, 164, 58, 1 8 , 681.
Summaries of t h e r e s u l t s of measurements a r e p r e s e n t e d i n [56, 681. Data
s e l e c t e d from them and supplemented by d a t a from [58, 181 are r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 1.6.

It i s a p p a r e n t from T a b l e 1 . 6 t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f measurements performed

by d i f f e r e n t methods i n clouds formed i n v a r i o u s g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n s under
d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r q u i t e markedly from one a n o t h e r , even i n c l o u d s of
s i m i l a r types. The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s have n o t y e t been i n v e s t i g a t e d , b u t w e
cannot e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s caused by v a r i o u s con-
d i t i o n s o f cloud f o r m a t i o n , as w e l l as by t h e i r d i f f e r e n t rates of growth.

19
 The experiments o f A l l e y , P h i l l i p s and K i n z e r [92, 1381, f o r example, were
performed i n "young" clouds.

R e l a t i v e l y similar r e s u l t s w e r e o b t a i n e d b y A. Katsyka, G. P e t r o v and

Chiao Bo-lin [56] f o r c l o u d s , and by L. Makhotkin, V. Solov'yev [68] and
M. Akimov [18] f o r f o g s . According t o t h e i r d a t a , p o s i t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y
charged d r o p l e t s are encountered w i t h approximately e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y . The
measured charges w e r e found t o b e approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i r r a d i u s
q = kr.

I f r i s e x p r e s s e d i n microns and q i n e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e s , k = 10-20.

The d i f f e r e n c e of t h e spectrum of t h e p a r t i c l e c h a r g e s i n zones of inhomogeneity
from t h e average spectrum was n o t determined.

Data on t h e charge on s m a l l cloud d r o p l e t s i n c l o u d s producing p r e c i p i t a -

t i o n are i n c l u d e d i n Twomey's work [163]. He detected a rather s i g n i f i c a n t ,
overwhelmingly p o s i t i v e c h a r g i n g of t h e d r o p l e t s i n w a r m clouds and ( w i t h
approximately the same magnitude) predominantly n e g a t i v e c h a r g i n g of t h e drop-
l e t s i n clouds c o n t a i n i n g t h e s o l i d phase. H e e x p l a i n e d t h e l a t t e r e f f e c t by
n e g a t i v e charging of t h e growing i c e p a r t i c l e s when t h e y c o l l i d e d w i t h super-
cooled d r o p l e t s [14]. It i s n e c e s s a r y t o perform a d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s i n o r d e r
t o g e t a c l e a r i d e a of t h e i n t e n s i t y of f i n e p a r t i c l e c h a r g i n g i n n i m b o s t r a t u s /19
clouds. Obviously, i t can b e s i g n i f i c a n t . The charge on i n d i v i d u a l p r e c i p i -
t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s f a l l i n g from n i m b o s t r a t u s clouds , a c c o r d i n g t o measurements
made a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e E a r t h , i s e q u a l t o 3.10
- 14- 3 - 1 0-13 [5, 19, 841.
With a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of approximately 100 p a r t i c l e s p e r m3 and a p r e c i p i t a t i o n
rate of approximately 1 m p e r second, w e could e x p e c t t h a t t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y
of t h e clouds would r e a c h lo-' - 10
-10
A/m
2
.
However, t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n
c u r r e n t s from n i m b o s t r a t u s clouds a t middle l a t i t u d e s are e q u a l o n l y t o
2
5.10-12 - 5*10-'l A/m [ 5 ] . T h i s h a s t o do w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e number of
p o s i t i v e l y charged d r o p l e t s i s n e a r l y e q u a l t o t h e number o f n e g a t i v e l y
charged p a r t i c l e s and, as was n o t e d by Y e . Federov [ 8 4 ] , t h e v a l u e s of t h e

20
 TABLE 1.6. AVERAGE DROPLET CHARGE (ABSOLUTE VALUES) I N ELEMENTARY
CHARGES (1 ELEMENTARY CHARGE APPROXIMATELY EQUALS 1.6-10-19 C )
. -__ -.

Measurement Radius of d r o p l e t s , microns

Sourct conditions D e t a i l s of measurement

2 5 8 10
~ _-
_ . .-

[561 Fogs a 20 74
b 18 67
181 Fogs a, i 28 59
E561 S t and S c S l o p e of E l b r u s
19 48
28 68

[561 S t and S c A i r c r a f t measurements

a, f 25 94
[561 S t and S c A e r o s t a t i c measurements

a> g 36 96

1581 Sc, w a r m A i r c r a f t measurements

a , f , i (( j 90 100
2 30 700
(
1921 Orographic Mountains ( C a l i f o r n i a )

11381 S t and S c 5 7

[ 163 1 S t and S c Mountains (Tasmania)

warm and
supercooled n - 200
Cb w i t h
thunderstorms Mountains ( C a l i f o r n i a ) - 270
1

a - -
d r o p l e t s w i t h E a s u r e a b l e charges; b all d r o p l e t s ;
d - -
s l i g h t l y e l e c t r i f i e d clouds; e highly e i e c t r i f i e d clouds;
f - d e v i c e o f G. P e t r o v [74]; g - d e v i c e of A. S e r g i y e v a (Katsyka) [Sl];
j - zones where t h e r e w a s e q u i p r o b a b l e e x i s t e n c e of charged d r o p l e t s o f
b o t h p o l a r i t i e s ; k - zones where d r o p l e t s w e r e charged p r i m a r i l y nega-
-
t i v e l y ; 1 r e s u l t s of measurements [92, 1381 summarized i n [56];
m - s m a l l number of measurements; n - c l o u d s w i t h p r e c i p i t a t i o n and
without p r e c i p i t a t i o n .

21
 average and maximum c h a r g e s of t h e p o s i t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y charged d r o p l e t s
increase and d e c r e a s e simultaneo.usly, i.e. , the p r e c i p i t a t i o n does n o t remove
much of a c h a r g e even i n i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of the cloud.

The charges on p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s i n s o u t h e r n l a t i t u d e s are g r e a t e r

t h a n t h o s e g i v e n by T. Takahashi and .K. I s o n o [157]. For example, t h e maximum
v a l u e f o r t h e c h a r g e on drops of r a i n a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e E a r t h and i n c l o u d s
w a s found t o b e approximately 3.10
12
C.
- The c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of t h e p r e c i p - /20
i t a t i o n from s t r a t u s clouds i s h i g h e r i n s o u t h e r n l a t i t u d e s [151]. Obviously,
b o t h t h e charges and t h e f i e l d i n t h e c l o u d s i n s o u t h e r n l a t i t u d e s must b e
h i g h e r t h a n i n c l o u d s of middle l a t i t u d e s (1) .
I t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i f t h e d a t a on t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
i n t e n s i t y , space c h a r g e s , e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r and charges on
t h e p a r t i c l e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s , i n clouds w e r e added
f o r t h e l a s t 10 t o 20 y e a r s , d a t a on t h e magnitude of t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t s
w i l l b e seen t o have i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e end of t h e l a s t c e n t u r y . These mea-
surements have n o t c o n t r i b u t e d much t o t h e knowledge of t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c -
t u r e of c l o u d s . According t o t h e d a t a on p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t s , even w i t h
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e t e r r e s t r i a l measurements of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , i t h a s
n o t been p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e c l o u d s w i t h
s u f f i c i e n t completeness, a l t h o u g h u n q u e s t i o n a b l y , i n many cases i n v o l v i n g non-
thunderstorm clouds , t h e f a l l i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t may determine t h e t o t a l
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e c l o u d s ( s e e , f o r example, [ 1 3 7 ] ) . The estimates o f
Wilson [170] , which showed t h a t n o t o n l y t h e magnitude of t h e charge b u t a l s o
t h e s i g n can change when drops of p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l from a cloud, e x p l a i n e d
t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a t t e m p t s a t t e r r e s t r i a l measurement of t h e charge and
t h e c u r r e n t of t h e d r o p l e t s t o r e s t o r e t h e p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e cloud.

(l)The t r a n s p o s i t i o n of d a t a on e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s above thunderstorm c l o u d s

d e r i v e d o v e r a l i m i t e d r e g i o n t o t h e e n t i r e g l o b e , w i t h a l l ensuing con-
sequences, and a b s o l u t i z a t i o n of measurements f o r c l o u d s developing under
v e r y s p e c i f i c mountain c o n d i t i o n s w i l l serve as an i l l u s t r a t i o n as t o how
much e x t r a p o l a t i o n of any s p e c i a l d a t a on s p e c i f i c c l o u d s f o r t h e proper-
t i e s of c l o u d s of a l l t y p e s h a s become a r o u t i n e procedure i n atmospheric
e l e c t r i c i t y [141].

22
 Measurements [42] made d i r e c t l y b e n e a t h A s and Cs from which p r e c i p i t a t i o n
w a s f a l l i n g showed t h a t t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e c h a r g e i n t h e c l o u d s may
-11
b e on t h e o r d e r of 1 0 C.

According t o d a t a on the e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y , e l e c t r i c a l con-

d u c i v i t y of t h e a i r X and t h e exchange c o e f f i c i e n t k, w e can estimate t h e t o t a l
e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t o f t h e "leakage" o f c h a r g e s from t h e cloud e l e c t r i c
dipole. The c u r r e n t d e n s i t y j i s made up of t h e d e n s i t y of t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y
2 2
c u r r e n t XE and t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e c u r r e n t of t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n k/41r 3 E/az ,
where z i s t h e v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e .F o r A s and N s c l o u d s , t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y
-11 2
of c o n d u c t i v i t y i s on t h e o r d e r of LO A/m , w h i l e t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of
d i f f u s i o n i s o f t h e same o r d e r o r even less. Hence, t h e i n t e r n a l c u r r e n t den-
s i t y o f t h e "leakage" of cloud c h a r g e s i n n i m b o s t r a t u s c l o u d s w i l l n o t exceed
several u n i t s , A/m2. I n i n d i v i d u a l c l o u d s , t h i s v a l u e may b e s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y higher.

A s f o l l o w s from t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s o f
measuring t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n c l o u d s and t h e d a t a d e r i v e d from t h e s e
r e s u l t s concerning t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s p a c e c h a r g e i n clouds a r e gen-
/21
e r a l i z e d t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t and f o r a c e r t a i n g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n .
Data
on o t h e r e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have a fragmentary n a t u r e t o a l a r g e
extent.

5 2. E l e c t r i c i t y of ConvectLve Clouds Without Rain

The e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s w i t h o u t r a i n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d
on t h e b a s i s of s t u d i e s a t moderate l a t i t u d e s of approximately 140 l a r g e cumu-
l u s clouds r a n g i n g i n h e i g h t from 1500 t o 4000 m [SS] , as w e l l a s o r d i n a r y
cumulus clouds [34].

The e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of a c o n v e c t i v e cloud i s shown i n s c h e m a t i c form

i n F i g u r e 1.7. Cumulus congestus c l o u d s , l i k e cumulus c l o u d s , c o n t a i n two
b a s i c charges. A t the t o p , as a r u l e (75% of t h e c a s e s ) , i s t h e p o s i t i v e
charge, which t a k e s up t h e e n t i r e upper p a r t of t h e cloud, w h i l e t h e n e g a t i v e

23
 charge i s a t t h e bottom. The a v e r a g e
space charge d e n s i t y p i n t h e s e
areas is small; i n 50% of t h e cases it
amounts t o 3 ~ 1 0 - l ~ 6.10-11- C/m3, but
cases have been found i n which p >
3*10-10 C/m
3
.
The p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t
E of t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t h e c l o u d s ,
formed by t h e a v e r a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
t h e s p a c e c h a r g e s , i n 50% of t h e cases
does n o t exceed +500 V/m, b u t sometimes
can exceed s e v e r a l thousands of v o l t s
per meter. I n cumulus (Cu), approxi-
mately t h e same f i e l d v a l u e s are found.
A g a i n s t the background of t h e s e b a s i c ,
F i g u r e 1.7. E l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
r e l a t i v e l y low s p a c e c h a r g e s , n e g a t i v e
a c o n v e c t i v e cloud.
and p o s i t i v e s p a c e c h a r g e s of h i g h
d e n s i t y are l o c a t e d c h a o t i c a l l y i n
t h e cloud. I n 75% of t h e c a s e s , t h e s e
charges exceed 6 - 1 0
-11
C/m
2
. Space charges have been found which r e a c h up t o
9 2
3to7-10 C/m ; areas occupied by t h e charges e x t e n d , i t i s t r u e , no more t h a n
50 m. On t h e a v e r a g e , zones of e x t r e m a l c h a r g e s have dimensions r a n g i n g from
t e n s t o hundreds of meters. The most p r o b a b l e s i z e f o r zones of inhomogeneity
i s about 150 m ( F i g u r e 1.8). The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s i z e s of t h e s e zones i s
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d e s c r i b e d by a normal l o g a r i t h m i c law [41]. High charges are
u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h small zones. The p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t E i n t h e s e zones
exceeds 1000 V/m i n 50% of t h e c a s e s , exceeds 10,000 V/m i n 2% of t h e c a s e s ,
and i s more t h a n 20,000 V/m i n 0.1% of t h e c a s e s ( a c c o r d i n g t o d a t a from
e x t r a p o l a t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e ) .

The spectrum of t h e s i z e s of t h e inhomogeneity zones i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o

t h e spectrum o f t h e zone dimensions where t h e e l e c t r i c a l charge of t h e a i r c r a f t
changes, as w e l l as t h e spectrum of t h e flows i n c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s , determined
on t h e b a s i s of d a t a from an a i r c r a f t a c c e l e r o g r a p h and a l o w - i n e r t i a

24
 thermometer [35]. I n t h e s e same
zones, a s i n d i c a t e d by measurements o f
an a i r c r a f t e l e c t r i c a l charge made as
e a r l y as 1954 -1955, t h e v a l u e of
which i n c r e a s e s w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n
t h e number o f cloud p a r t i c l e s , t h e r e
can b e a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t change i n
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n -nd s i z e o f the
cloud p a r t i c l e s . G. P e t r o v [ 751 n o t e s
i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e e x i s t e n c e of areas
of s i m i l a r l y charged p a r t i c l e s , w h i l e

F i g u r e 1.8. Recurrence o f zone N. Vul'fson and A. Laktionov [28] have

s i z e s w i t h extrema1 c h a r g e s i n demonstrated t h e e x i s t e n c e o f areas
cumulus c o n g e s t u s c l o u d s ( 1 ) ,
thunderstorm c l o u d s i n s t a g e s o f w i t h drop r a d i i g r e a t e r than n i n e
r i p e n e s s (2) and decay ( 3 ) . microns a g a i n s t a background of "voids"
where t h e s e d r o p s do n o t e x i s t .

There i s no n o t i c e a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s p a c e charges i n -
123
cumulus and cumulus congestus c l o u d s as t h e y develop. I n clouds which e x i s t
f o r l o n g e r than 1000 seconds, t h e s e space c h a r g
- e s can b e s e e n . The rate of
s p a c e charge accumulation r e a c h e s 3- 3
t o 3 ~ 1 O - l C/m
~ p e r second [ 351.

The e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y X i n cumulus c l o u d s i s measured e p i s o d i c a l l y

n e a r t h e ground [92]. I n d i v i d u a l a i r c r a f t measurements have a l s o been per-
formed of t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a i r i n s l i g h t l y developed cumulus
c l o u d s [30]. The i n e r t i a of t h e a p p a r a t u s h a s made i t p o s s i b l e t o estimate
i t only as an a v e r a g e v a l u e . On t h e a v e r a g e , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n
Cu i s several t i m e s less t h a n t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n a pure atmosphere.
Measurements of h i n Cu are s u b j e c t t o t h e same measurement e r r o r s as i n
s t r a t u s clouds.

I
The drop c h a r g e s i n cumulus c l o u d s are a t least t h e same as t h o s e i n
s t r a t i f o r m c l o u d s (see T a b l e 1.6), b u t w e do n o t h a v e more complete d a t a on
t h e charge of t h e p a r t i c l e s i n them.
25
 F i g u r e 1.9. Recurrence of l i n e a r dimensions of
a i r flows (I), zones of extrema o f a i r c r a f t
c h a r g e s (2), f i e l d i n t e n s i t y ( 3 ) and t e m p e r a t u r e ( 4 ) .

S i n c e t h e g r a d i e n t of a v e r a g e d e n s i t y o f s p a c e c h a r g e s i n cumulus con-
g e s t u s clouds i s of the same o r d e r of magnitude as i n n i m b o s t r a t u s c l o u d s ,
w h i l e t h e exchange c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e former i s o n e o r d e r h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e /24
l a t t e r , t h e l e a k a g e c u r r e n t of t h e "cloud g e n e r a t o r " , which i s l i n k e d ( i n
a d d i t i o n t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r ) t o t h e t u r b u l e n t movements
i n c l o u d s , w i l l b e one o r d e r of magnitude h i g h e r i n cumulus and cumulus con-
g e s t u s clouds t h a n i n n i m b o s t r a t u s . On the a v e r a g e , t h e y may b e e s t i m a t e d
t o b e 10"O A/m
2
. General o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l measurements i n
s t r a t u s clouds ( S e c t i o n 1) are almost completely devoted t o t h e r e s u l t s of
measurements i n cumulus c l o u d s .

26
 I 3. E l e c t r i c i t y o-f-Cu@si&us Clouds

S t u d i e s o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f thunders,torm clouds began l o n g

b e f o r e the development o f methods t o measure t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t e n -
sity o f t h e atmosphere aboard a i r c r a f t . The r e s u l t s of these s t u d i e s , ob-
t a i n e d on t h e b a s i s of measurements o f t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
c l o u d s by means o f sondes and changes i n t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of t h e electri-
c a l f i e l d o f t h e atmosphere a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h , are g e n e r a l l y w e l l -
known. They have been p r e s e n t e d i n a number of monographs, f o r example i n 1743.

I n g e n e r a l , t h e e l e c t r i c s t r u c t u r e of cumulonimbus clouds l a r g e l y resembles

t h e p i c t u r e shown i n F i g u r e 1.7. However, t h e b a s i c charges i n them a r e g r e a t
and v e r y d i s t i n c t i n comparison t o the charges i n Cu c o n g e s t u s . The
d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a t h i r d , low area o f p o s i t i v e c h a r g e s con-
n e c t e d w i t h t h e r a i n area. I n t h i s r e g a r d , t h e y have a c e r t a i n formal
s i m i l a r i t y t o s t r a t o n i m b u s clouds.

The arrangement of b a s i c c h a r g e s i n thunderstorm clouds i s o b v i o u s l y

s i m i l a r t o t h a t o b t a i n e d by Simpson e t a l . [149, 1501.

Workman w r i t e s : "It appears most l i k e l y t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l charges are

formed i n t h e a r e a from -5" and p o s s i b l y up t o -2o0C,and t h a t t h e i n i t i a l pro-
cess o f charge s e p a r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e from t h e -5" C l e v e l t o t h e v e r y t o p of
t h e cloud. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e r e i s an area o f r e l a t i v e l y c o n c e n t r a t e d
n e g a t i v e charges which e x t e n d s upward f o r 1-2 km and even f u r t h e r i n i s o l a t e d
cases. Approximately 1-7 km above t h i s r e g i o n i s an area o f more d i f f u s e
p o s i t i v e charges." 1271.

R e a l clouds (even i n a s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) may d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

from t h e c l a s s i c a l model i n F i g u r e 1.10. In addition t o the characteristic
f e a t u r e of cumulus c l o u d s - the existence of numerous areas of "secondary"

27
 (both p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e ) c h a r g e s ,
which are s m a l l e r t h a n the b a s i c c h a r g e s
8 - -it s h o u l d a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t that
7 - under v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l geographic con-
6 -
d i t i o n s the a v e r a g e b a s i c charges o f
5 -
4-
t h e clouds may d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y .

3 - The s t r u c t u r e of a thunderstorm cloud

2- may change markedly i n t h e course o f
r - i t s development. Clouds are found
whose p o l a r i z a t i o n i s o p p o s i t e t o t h a t
shown i n F i g u r e 1.10.
F i g u r e 1.10. E l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
t h u n d e r s t o r m clouds.
L e t u s examine t h e s e f e a t u r e s o f t h e
clouds i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . T a b l e 1.7
shows d a t a on t h e more o r less t y p i c a l
e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s ( 2 ) o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s
on t h e b a s i s of ground and a i r c r a f t o b s e r v a t i o n s .

TABLE 1.7. ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE OF THUNDERSTORM CLOUDS

Average Charge on D i s t a n c e between

cloud, C b a s i c c h a r g e s , ki Source

cloud, C. km

60-50 N. &5 23 ',5

50 N. 72 24 3
3s N. 234 39 6
35 s. 2co 40 5

(2)Although c l a s s i c a l a e r o l o g y combines r a i n and thunderstorm clouds under

t h e g e n e r a l h e a d i n g o f "cumulonimbus", i n atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y (whose
methods r e a d i l y s e p a r a t e thunderstorm clouds from t h e m a s s o f cumulonimbus
c l o u d s ) a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s made between t h e s e two d i f f e r e n t forms. The
development of an o b s e r v a t i o n method w i l l m a k e i t p o s s i b l e f o r a l l meteor-
o l o g i s t s t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e thunderstorm c l o u d s from r a i n c l o u d s , and s o w e
are u s i n g d i f f e r e n t names f o r t h e s e t y p e s of clouds.
28
 I n t h e t h i r d l i n e o f T a b l e 1.7, we have i n c l u d e d t h e d a t a by 0. G i s h and
G . White. Characteristic of t h e s e d a t a i s t h e f a c t t h a t they w e r e obtained
from r e s u l t s of measuring t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t o f
t h e atmospheric e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d above thunderstorm clouds. I n contrast t o
t h e d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n of c l o u d e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e s on t h e b a s i s o f measurement
d a t a o f E w i t h i n them, used f o r p l o t t i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
stratus c l o u d s , h e r e t h e charge d i s t r i b u t i o n w a s c a l c u l a t e d from d a t a on t h e
measurement o f E d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t o f an a i r c r a f t above a thunderstorm cloud.
Problems of t h i s k i n d , g e n e r a l l y speaking, are i n c o r r e c t problems. The s i t u a -
t i o n i s complicated by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e medium i n which t h e s p a c e c h a r g e s a r e
l o c a t e d i s a conductor, s o t h a t i t s e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i s n o t c o n s t a n t .
I n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e b a s i c charges of /26
t h e cloud, t h e a u t h o r s had t o e s t a b l i s h t h e number o f c h a r g e s and t h e a l t i t u d e
a t which t h e s e c h a r g e s are l o c a t e d . The e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e medium
w a s a l s o n o t taken i n t o account.

E x t e n s i v e measurements of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
of t h e atmosphere above thunderstorm c l o u d s have been performed i n t h e USSR.
A t o t a l of approximately 300 c l o u d s w e r e s t u d i e d . Due t o t h e fact t h a t t h r e e
components o f t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t w e r e measured s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ( i n a
C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e system l i n k e d w i t h t h e a i r c r a f t ) , i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r -
mine a l s o t h e b a s i c cloud c h a r g e s and t h e i r p o s i t i o n , assuming t h a t t h e i r
number w a s e q u a l t o two. The averaged r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are p r e s e n t e d
i n t h e f i r s t l i n e of Table 1.7. It must b e k e p t i n mind t h a t t h e b a s i c c h a r g e s
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c l o u d s i n t h i s r e g i o n may d i f f e r by o n e o r d e r o f magnitude
from t h o s e given i n T a b l e 1.7.

Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t made a number o f s u c c e s s i v e p a s s e s

o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e same cloud, w e w e r e a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t , as t h e cloud
developed, t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e l a t t e r undergoes c o n s i d e r a b l e
change [5]. Many cases w e r e observed when i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e ( c l o u d develop-
ment) t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t s above t h e t o p o f t h e cloud w e r e p o s i t i v e , and
o n l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e second s t a g e ( t h e s t a g e o f m a t u r i t y ) w a s t h e r e a

29
I

s h i f t t o negative g r a d i e n t s , i.e., t h e cloud assumed a n e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e l i k e

t h e one which i s u s u a l l y g i v e n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . It s t i l l remains t o be d e t e r -
mined whether o r n o t t h i s t y p e o f change i n cloud p o l a r i t y i n t h e c o u r s e of de-
velopment i s t y p i c a l of a l l thunderstorm c l o u d s i n t h e middle l a t i t u d e s o r whe-
t h e r t h i s i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e m a r j o i t y of c l o u d s a t any l a t i t u d e . The
change of t h e f i e l d d i r e c t i o n w i t h t i m e above t h e c l o u d may b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
upward desplacement of t h e c e n t e r of t h e n e g a t i v e c h a r g e produced by t h e r i s i n g
a i r c u r r e n t d u r i n g t h e cloud development s t a g e and t h e displacement of t h i s
c e n t e r downward a t t h e s t a g e of m a t u r i t y , when t h e r i s i n g c u r r e n t s l a c k e n s and
descending c u r r e n t s develop. The changes i n t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t above
thunder clouds d u r i n g active f o r m a t i o n of canopies w a s observed by B. Vonegat /27
e t a l . [166]. The a c t u a l p r o c e s s may b e more complex ( s e e Chapter 11).

The average v a l u e s of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t w i t h i n t h e active p o r t i o n

5
of thunderclouds are e q u a l t o (1t o 2 ) x 10 V/m. However, f o r t h e b e g i n n i n g
of thundercloud development, t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t must b e (1t o 2) x lo6 V/m.
Consequently, such g r a d i e n t s must develop i n i n d i v i d u a l inhomogeneities even
f o r a s h o r t s p a c e of t i m e .

S i g n i f i c a n t i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s do e x i s t i n t h u n d e r s t o r m clouds. Judging by
t h e change i n t h e charge on an a i r c r a f t i n i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s , c o n c e n t r a t i o n and
s i z e of cloud p a r t i c l e s i n them d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e average. The
average s i z e of t h e inhomogeneity zones i n a c t i v e thunderstorm clouds i s e q u a l
t o 200 - 400 m and e x t e n d s t o 400-600 m ( F i g u r e 1 . 8 ) .

A t average d e n s i t y v a l u e s f o r t h e s p a c e charge i n thunderclouds of

3 to30*10'10 C/m 3 , a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r charge d e n s i t y may develop i n
-8 -7 3
inhomogeneities, above 10 and even 10 C/m .
I t s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e x t e r n a l s i m i l a r i t y o f
t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of cumulus and thunderstorm c l o u d s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e v a l u e s of t h e i r c h a r g e s and f i e l d s are s o g r e a t t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e

30
t o v i e w t h e former as a model of t h e l a t t e r o r even as a s t a g e of charge
accumulation f o r t h u n d e r s t o r m p r o c e s s e s . S i n c e t h e t i m e of t r a n s i t i o n from
t h e Cu c o n g e s t u s s t a g e t o t h e Cb amounts t o o n l y a few minutes i n a l l , o n l y
powerful e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n mechanisms t h a t arise i n t h e Cb s t a g e can l e a d t o
t h e appearance of o b s e r v a b l e c h a r g e s .

J. Latham and C. Stow performed r a t h e r complete i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e

e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of l a r g e c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s i n 1965 -1967 [124] : the
i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d E, t h e hydrometeor c h a r g e Q, t h e water
content o f t h e c l o u d , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
of s m a l l and l a r g e hydrometeors. They found t h a t t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e s of E and
Q o c c u r i n clouds i n which t h e r e i s an overwhelming number of p a r t i c l e s w i t h
a complex s t r u c t u r e , c o n s i s t i n g of a c h a i n of f r o z e n supercooled d r o p l e t s and
i c e c r y s t a l s , and ice c r y s t a l s i n a l a r g e amount of supercooled w a t e r . In
c l o u d s which c o n s i s t almost completely of p u r e w a t e r , E i s s m a l l , w h i l e i n
ice clouds i t i s h i g h .

Highly s i g n i f i c a n t d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d on t h e e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n s i d e
thunderstorm clouds and on t h e e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n s i d e them.

Back a t t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y , Wilson [169] n o t i c e d t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l

f i e l d i n t e n s i t y , which changes s h a r p l y immediately a f t e r a l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e ,
i s r e s t o r e d r e l a t i v e l y slowly t o i t s i n i t i a l value. The c u r v e of r e s t o r a t i o n /28
followed t h e e x p o n e n t i a l l a w , and t h e r e l a x a t i o n t i m e c o n s t a n t was s e v e r a l
seconds. Assuming t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
i n t e n s i t y w a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n rates of f a l l of d i f f e r e n t l y charged p a r t i -
c l e s forming t h e b a s i c c h a r g e of t h e c l o u d , Wilson p o s t u l a t e d a mechanism
which would p r e v e n t l i n e a r growth of t h e f i e l d . H e proposed c h a t t h e i n c r e a s e
i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t e n s i t y i n t h e cloud r e d u c e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n f a l l
r a t e s i n d i f f e r e n t l y charged p a r t i c l e s . When t h e r a t e s a r e e q u a l , which
o c c u r s i n a f i e l d w i t h a v o l t a g e c l o s e t o a breakdown v o l t a g e , approximately
5
3-10 V/m, t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e cloud ceases t o grow.

31
 TABLE 1.8. ELECTRICAL CURRENTS ABOVE THUNDERSTORM CLOUDS

I Area o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n

European t e r r i t o r y of t h e USSR
t
-
-
--I
Average
current
values, A

0.1 0.21
Maximum
current
values, A

1.4
Source

C e n t r a l USA
F l o r i d a (USA)

However, d i r e c t measurements i n c l o u d s , showing t h a t t h e f i e l d does n o t exceed /=

5
10 V/m on t h e a v e r a g e , have f o r c e d a reexamination o f Wilson's e x p l a n a t i o n .
The assumption of h i g h e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r [97] i n t h e v i c i n i t y
of t h e measuring i n s t r u m e n t on t h e ground, (which w a s used t o e x p l a i n t h e
s h o r t r e l a x a t i o n t i m e of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d f o l l o w i n g a l i g h t n i n g stroke)
turned out t o be i n c o r r e c t . The t h e o r y of Tamura [131] could n o t b e used t o
e x p l a i n t h e observed r e l a x a t i o n t i m e , which views t h e r e s t o r a t i o n curves of
t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d as a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e t r a n s i t o r y p r o c e s s of charge d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i n a t h u n d e r s t o r m cloud f o l l o w i n g l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e t o t h e e q u i l -
i b r i u m d i s t r i b u t i o n which i s d i c t a t e d by t h e l a w s o f a s t a t i o n a r y f i e l d . It
w a s n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t [27, 1 0 2 , 103, 104, 1321 t h e viewpoint t h a t w a s
e x p r e s s e d i n 1956 [36] t h a t t h e r e l a x a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i s connected
to p r o c e s s e s i n s i d e t h e cloud and t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of h i g h , e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l
conductivity i n it. E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n s i d e t h e cloud may b e l i n k e d
b o t h t o t h e ohmic c o n d u c t i v i t y and t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y produced by t u r b u l e n c e
and convective movements.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t h a s n o t been p o s s i b l e t h u s f a r t o measure r e l i a b l y t h e
electrical conductivity i n s i d e clouds. The o n l y r e s u l t s , which w e r e o b t a i n e d
by Evans [loll w i t h t h e a i d of s p e c i a l sondes and which showed h i g h v a l u e s of
ohmic e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , cannot y e t b e c o n s i d e r e d s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e ,

32
I
since it is not lear how Evans excluded the i f l u e n c e of c o n v e c t i o n c u r r e t s
flowing o v e r t h e measuring e l e c t r o d e s and t h e c u r r e n t s r e l a t e d t o e l e c t r o s t a t i c
charges on these e l e c t r o d e s .

S t u d i e s made i n t h e free atmosphere o f t h e t i m e c u r v e of changes i n t h e

p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t , f o l l o w i n g immediately a f t e r a l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e , showed
t h a t t h e ohmic and t u r b u l e n t e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t i e s i n s i d e a cloud are
v e r y g r e a t [116, 531. For t h e most p r o b a b l e r e l a x a t i o n t i m e of t h e f i e l d ,
approximately 1-3 seconds, t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e cloud i s
about two o r d e r s o f magnitude h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n a p u r e atmosphere
approximately a t t h e level of t h e s t o r m cloud c e n t e r . Hence, c o l o s s a l
e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s develop i n s i d e t h e c l o u d s , which must b e supplemented by t h e 129
e l e c t r i c a l machinery of t h e t h u n d e r s t o r m i n o r d e r t h a t l i g h t n i n g may develop
i n t h e cloud.

Methods of i s o l a t i n g t h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s which a r e made by t h e t u r b u l e n t ,

c o n v e c t i v e and ohmic c o n d u c t i v i t i e s from t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a have n o t y e t
been d e v i s e d , s o t h a t t h e method of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f cloud
t u r b u l e n c e on t h e b a s i s of o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d following a discharge i s n o t y e t c l e a r . The development of a p p r o p r i a t e
methods w i l l p r o v i d e t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w i t h a t o o l t h a t w i l l a l l o w him t o
diagnose t h e i n t e r n a l s t a t e of clouds w i t h t h e a i d o f a p p a r a t u s l o c a t e d o u t s i d e
them.

It i s c l e a r t h a t , i f t h e e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n s i d e a cloud are n o t c o n s t a n t ,
t h e y must b e c a l c u l a t e d i n some way f o r p r e d i c t i n g thunderstorms.

T o e v a l u a t e t h e i n t e n s i t y of c h a r g i n g i n c l o u d s , as w e l l as t h e i r r o l e
i n t h e c r e a t i o n and maintenance of a charge on t h e g r o u n d , , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o
know t h e c u r r e n t s which are flowing o u t s i d e t h e c l o u d , above and below i t .
Under average s t a t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n s , when t h e cloud charges do n o t change
s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t s flowing under t h e cloud ( i n c l u d i n g t h e a v e r a g e

33
 l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t ) are e q u a l t o the c u r r e n t above t h e cloud. A summary o f
d a t a on t h e e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s above t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s , c a l c u l a t e d on t h e
b a s i s of d a t a from t h e measurements of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t
above them and d a t a on t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r , i s shown i n
Table 1.8.

The e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s above t h u n d e r s t o r m clouds have been measured i n

o n l y a few g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n s . There i s a g e n e r a l tendency f o r t h e c u r r e n t
t o i n c r e a s e above t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s toward t h e s o u t h . W e have by no means
enough d a t a i n o r d e r t o e x t e n d them, a s i s o f t e n done, t o more l a r g e r
r e g i o n s and t o use them f o r j u d g i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n made by thunderstorms t o
t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e ground. Measurements o f e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s
above thunderstorms i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s , and p r i m a r i l y i n t h e t r o p i c s , may h e l p
t o s o l v e t h i s problem, as w e l l as t o determine t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e world-
wide thunderstorm f o c i t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e ground. This, i n t u r n ,
c o u l d t u m o u t t o b e v e r y v a l u a b l e i n s o l v i n g t h e problem of u s i n g d a t a on
atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y as i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e t r o p i c a l (and perhaps g e n e r a l )
c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e atmosphere. W e cannot a f f o r d going i n t o d e t a i l on
t h i s problem w i t h i n t h e framework of t h i s b o o k l e t . L e t us r e c a l l t h a t modem
estimates o f t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e c h a r g i n g p r o c e s s e s of c l o u d s [87, 881 and
t h e r o l e of t h u n d e r s t o r m clouds i n t h e c h a r g i n g of t h e ground are b a s e d on t h e
assumption t h a t t h e c u r r e n t above an i n d i v i d u a l t h u n d e r s t o r m cloud and w i t h i n
i t i s e q u a l t o 0.5 - 1 A.The e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t w i t h i n t h e cloud
2
b e i n g on t h e o r d e r of 0 . 1 A/km , t h e charge g e n e r a t i o n r a t e must b e 0.1-1
2
C/km /second.

Turning t o t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of a t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d , l e t us n o t e 130
--
t h a t we have p r a c t i c a l l y no e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on the c h a r g e of cloud p a r t i c l e s
i n thunderstorm clouds. W e have o n l y t h e measurements o f B. P h i l l i p s and
B. K i n t s e r ( s e e Table 1.6), which i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e charges on cloud p a r t i c l e s
are h i g h .

34
 .- . . . - .. __ ~ ~ .. . ... .. . .. . ___ ... ,

According t o t h e measurement r e s u l t s [42, 111, 1561 we s t i l l are

unable t o p u t t o g e t h e r a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of c h a r g e d i s t r i b u t i o n on
t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s i n thunderstorms and r a i n clouds and d i r e c t l y
above them. W e know t h a t there are e x t e n s i v e cloud zones where p a r t i c l e s are
charged s i m i l a r l y . The c h a r g e s on t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s i n t h u n d e r s t o r m
-11
and r a i n c l o u d s are h i g h and amount t o 10 - 10-l' C. According t o the d a t a
i n [ 261 ( t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s ) , t h e y sometimes r e a c h b o r d e r l i n e v a l u e s .
Thus,
-10
J. Latham and S . Stow [124] found that the h i g h e s t charges (up t o 3-10 C)
are e x h i b i t e d by complexly s t r u c t u r e d p a r t i c l e s ( s e e page 27)
*. According t o
t h e i r measurements , b o t h p o s i t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y charged hydrometeors have
been found a t a l l levels w i t h i n c l o u d s , b u t t h e relative number of t h e former
i n c r e a s e w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n a i r t e m p e r a t u r e .

I f w e can c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n from r e s u l t s
of d i r e c t measurements of t h e charge on cloud p a r t i c l e s i n thunderstorms [ 5 7 ,
70, 71, 7 2 1 , i t w i l l b e found t o b e g r e a t and t o reach 0 . 1 A/km
2
. However, a
s l i g h t c u r r e n t r e a c h e s t h e ground. According t o a s u r v e y o f d a t a p u b l i s h e d
by B. Mason [ S I , t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of thunderstorms i s
2 -2 2
nearly A/km , a l t h o u g h i t may r e a c h 10 A/km o r even more f o r i n d i v i d u a l
thunderstorms, i . e . , t h e c u r r e n t from p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n clouds i s much g r e a t e r
t h a n t h e c u r r e n t which flows o u t s i d e them. Obviously, t h i s h a s something t o
do w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e cloud p r e c i -
p i t a t i o n goes t o compensate f o r e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n them.

I n c l o s i n g o u r s u r v e y of modem d a t a on t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of
c l o u d s , l e t us n o t e t h a t r e c e n t s t u d i e s have made i t p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n s y s t e -
m a t i c d a t a f o r s e v e r a l p h y s i c a l geographic a r e a s on t h e m a c r o e l e c t r i c s t r u c t u r e
of clouds and t h e i n t e n s i t y of p r o c e s s e s i n c l o u d s , and h a s r e v e a l e d i n c e r t a i n
a r e a s of clouds a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and i n average v a l u e s . The s t u d i e s have a l s o made i t p o s s i b l e t o g a t h e r
i n f o r m a t i o n on m i c r o e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f
t h e a i r i n i n d i v i d u a l c l o u d s i n c e r t a i n areas. I t h a s become clear t h a t clouds
_____ ___ __
* -

T r a n s l a t o r ' s Note: T h i s i s found on page 30.

35
o f s i m i l a r t y p e s may d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s under
d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l geographic c o n d i t i o n s . Even i n a g i v e n r e g i o n , t h e proper-
t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l c l o u d s are v e r y d i f f e r e n t , and i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y t h e
s t a t i s t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s when t h e y are combined, i n o r d e r t o make meaningful
comparisons o f t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e cloud p r o p e r t i e s i n t i m e and space. In
p a r t i c u l a r , i t is impossible t o " s t i c k together", as i s n e c e s s a r y t o do today,
i d e a s r e g a r d i n g c l o u d s on t h e b a s i s o f measurements o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e c t r i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n d i f f e r e n t c l o u d s , developing under d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l and
geographic c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s u c c e s s e s which have been
achieved, w e must r e c o g n i z e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c i t y of thunderstorm c l o u d s ,
l i k e t h e e l e c t r i c i t y o f c l o u d s of o t h e r t y p e s , h a s n o t been a d e q u a t e l y s t u d i e d .
Extremely l i t t l e h a s been done i n t h e f i e l d of c o l l e c t i n g combined material
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b o t h t h e macro- and t h e micro-physical e l e c t r i c a l
and n o n e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i n d i v i d u a l c l o u d s . However, i t seems
t o us t h a t i t i s only on t h e b a s i s of such measurements t h a t one can proceed
from a d e s c r i p t i v e t o a p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e of t h e development of c l o u d s , d u r i n g
whose l i f e t i m e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e , as f o r
example, N s , Cu cong, and Cb. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t complex s t u d i e s o f
t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of clouds of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h y s i c a l geographic
r e g i o n s , i n combination w i t h s t u d i e s of o t h e r p h y s i c a l cloud c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a complete p i c t u r e of t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e and t h e f a c t o r s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r development.

36
!I

CHAPTER I1

CAUSES LEADING TO THE ELECTRIFICATION OF CLOUDS

L e t us determine how t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c l o u d s arise. /32

T h i s i s n o t a new problem, and b e g i n n i n g w i t h M. V. Lomonosov, t h e a u t h o r of
t h e f i r s t t h e o r y e x p l a i n i n g the development o f cloud e l e c t r i c i t y , i n v e s t i g a t o r s
have been f r y i n g t o answer i t . L a b o r a t o r y and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s have made
i t p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h an a r r a y of w a t e r and i c e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n mechan-
i s m s and t o s u g g e s t a host of t h e o r i e s and hypotheses e x p l a i n i n g e l e c t r i f i -
c a t i o n of clouds based on t h e s e mechanisms. The m a j o r i t y o f t h e o r i e s , hypo-
t h e s e s and schemes, a l t h o u g h t h e y are v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g , appeared a t a t i m e
when t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clouds were not known, and consequent
comparison w i t h f a c t s h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o e x p l a i n
t h e phenomena t h a t w e r e observed i n t h e atmosphere. The s c o p e and i n t e n t
of t h i s book w i l l n o t a l l o w us t o c o n s i d e r t h e h i s t o r y of t h e problem i n
detail. W e w i l l l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o modem t h e o r i e s and views, a l t h o u g h t h e y
are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i n c a p a b l e of r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r u e s i t u a t i o n .

I n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r , an a t t e m p t h a s been made t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n s

of how cloud p a r t i c l e s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s become charged, how macro-
e l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f clouds develop , how t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a f f e c t
t h e development of c l o u d s , and f i n a l l y how p r o b a b l e i t i s t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clouds and t h e i r development are c o n t r o l l e d by e l e c t r i c a l
factors.

The e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of clouds develops as t h e r e s u l t o f i n t e r a c t i o n

of two groups o f p r o c e s s e s . The f i r s t i n c l u d e s t h o s e which r e i n f o r c e t h e

37

I I II I IIII I I l l I II I 111 I I I II III11111111111111111111111.IIIIII 111 I I 1 I1 I 1 I 1 I 1111 1111 11, I1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I I 11111 I111111111

e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of clouds. They i n c l u d e p r i m a r i l y t h o s e p r o c e s s e s which l e a d
t o a n accumulation of c h a r g e s on the cloud and p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s , as
w e l l as t h e p r o c e s s e s that l e a d t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n i n t h e c l o u d s of masses o f
p a r t i c l e s charged w i t h d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r i c a l s i g n s , o r t o t h e accumulation of
charges of one s i g n o r a n o t h e r i n the cloud.

The second group i n c l u d e s t h o s e p r o c e s s e s t h a t p r e v e n t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n

of t h e clouds. Accumulation of charges on an i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e i s l i m i t e d ,
s i n c e t h e y a r e l o s t due t o e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r i n t h e s p a c e
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p a r t i c l e , as w e l l a s c o l l i s i o n s w i t h o t h e r p a r t i c l e s t h a t have
t h e o p p o s i t e s i g n on t h e i r charges o r are r e l a t i v e l y weakly charged. Accumu- -
/33
l a t i o n of s p a c e charges i n a cloud and growth of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s i n t h e
e n t i r e volume are b o t h c o u n t e r a c t e d by t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t s t h a t flow t o-., .
t h e charged areas and c u r r e n t s formed by a i r movements, i . e . , electrical
c u r r e n t s o f t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n and convection. It i s obvious t h a t t h e more
active t h e f i r s t group of p r o c e s s e s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e charges t h a t w i l l develop
on t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s . The l a r g e r t h e s e p a r t i c l e s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r a t e
of s e p a r a t i o n i n s p a c e of t h e d i f f e r e n t l y charged p a r t i c l e s and t h e g r e a t e r
t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s t h a t w i l l develop i n t h e clouds. The more a c u t e t h e
second group of p r o c e s s e s , t h e s m a l l e r t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s t h a t w i l l be g e n e r a t e d
by t h e clouds. Q u a s i s t a t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of t h e
clouds a r e o b v i o u s l y a c h i e v e d w i t h e q u a l r a t e s of accumulation and t h e l o s s of
charges formed by t h e two groups of p r o c e s s e s . Predominance of t h e f i r s t group
of p r o c e s s e s o v e r t h e second l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of
t h e cloud; dominance of t h e second over t h e f i r s t l e a d s t o a l o s s of e l e c t r i -
fication. It i s obvious t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of n a t u r a l e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , a s w e l l
a s t h a t which develops d u r i n g a c t i v e exposures, i s determined by t h e r a t i o of
t h e two groups of p r o c e s s e s .

It must b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t b o t h groups of p r o c e s s e s are c l o s e l y related

However, f o r t h e s a k e of s i m p l i c i t y , w e w i l l view t h e p r o c e s s e s of charge
accumulation on t h e p a r t i c l e s s e p a r a t e l y from t h e p r o c e s s e s o f accumulation
i n t h e clouds.
 9 1. E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f P a r t i c l e s i n Clouds and P r e c i p i t a t i o n

With all of t h e d i v e r s i t y i n t h e p a r t i c l e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n mechanisms,

t h e y can b e d i v i d e d i n t o two b a s k classes:

1. E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c a p t u r e o f a i r ions by p a r t i c l e s .

2. E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h exchange o f c h a r g e s between p a r t i c l e s
(developing e i t h e r f o l l o w i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n of c o n t a c t between them o r a f t e r
their disintegration).

Both k i n d s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n can t a k e p l a c e i n d i f f e r e n t ways i n t h e

p r e s e n c e and absence of an e x t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d .
t .

E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n associat-e-d wi-th c a p t u r e -of a i r -ions- by p a r t i c l e s . Let

us c o n s i d e r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e f i r s t t y p e of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n . This
t y p e of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n can a r i s e i f t h e f l u x e s of p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a i r
i o n s o n t o t h e p a r t i c l e a r e n o t e q u a l when t h e y have a z e r o charge. The r e a s o n
f o r t h e i n e q u a l i t y may b e , f i r s t of a l l , a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and a d i f -
f e r e n t m o b i l i t y o f t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e a i r i o n s , and secondly, a d i f f e r -
e n t a b i l i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e of t h e given t y p e t o c a p t u r e a i r i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t
polarities. I n a d d i t i o n , e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of a p a r t i c l e a l s o t a k e s p l a c e /34
because t h e p r o c e s s of c a p t u r e o f t h e a i r i o n i t s e l f by t h e p a r t i c l e h a s a
random n a t u r e . The c o n d i t i o n s of e q u i l i b r i u m a r i s e a t a s p e c i f i c d i s t r i b u -
t i o n of charges on t h e p a r t i c l e s . A l l of t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n mechanisms t h a t
have been measured are combined u n e r t h e common h e a d i n g of t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n
d i f f u s i o n process. T h i s p r o c e s s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n h a s been s t u d i e d i n g r e a t -
e s t d e t a i l t h e o r e t i c a l l y , w i t h a number of s i m p l i f y i n g s u g g e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g
t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e p a r t i c l e - a r i n t e r f a c e and on t h e uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n
of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a i r i o n s i n space n e a r t h e p a r t i c l e ( f o r example,
[80, 86, 1121).

39
 A g e n e r a l form o f the e x p r e s s i o n d e s c r i b i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c l e s
h a v i n g t h e c a p a c i t a n c e C y on t h e basis o f t h e number o f e l e m e n t a r y charges x
on a p a r t i c l e , i s g i v e n , f o r example, by Yu. S. Sedunov [ 8 0 ] :

where v ( x ) is t h e number of p a r t i c l e s having x e l e m e n t a r y c h a r g e s , vo i s t h e

t o t a l number of p a r t i c l e s , e i s the v a l u e of t h e e l e m e n t a r y charge, P i s t h e
number of charges o f t h e a i r i o n , k i s Boltzmann’s c o n s t a n t , T i s a b s o l u t e
t e m p e r a t u r e , n+, u+ and n - , u- are t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and m o b i l i t y of t h e
p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e a i r i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Yu. S. Sedunov d i d nat t a k e t h e d i f f e r e n t - - ” a f f i n i t y ” of t h e p a r t i c l e s

t o a i r i o n s of d i f f e r e n t p o l a r i t y i n t o a c c o u n t , b u t i t s e e m s from g e n e r a l con-
s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t t h i s is e a s y t o do t h e o r e t i c a l l y , by i n t r o d u c i n g under t h e
s i g n of zn a c o e f f i c i e n t y which i n d i c a t e s t h e r e l a t i v e c a p t u r e a b i l i t y of
a i r i o n s of d i f f e r e n t p o l a r i t i e s by p a r t i c l e s of a g i v e n type.

The v a l i d i t y o f E q u a t i o n (2.1) was checked under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s

i n a h i g h l y i o n i z e d volume of a i r t h a t had been s p e c i a l l y p u r i f i e d p r i o r t o
t h e formation of f o g , f o r example, by Gann [113]. H e showed t h a t c h a r g i n g
of micron s i z e p a r t i c l e s f o l l o w s t h e law (2.1). However, t h e
numerous measurements of p a r t i c l e charges i n s t r a t u s c l o u d s and f o g s t h a t have
been performed p r i m a r i l y by S o v i e t i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( s e e T a b l e 1.6) have shown
t h a t , even i n t h o s e cases when a symmetrical charge i s observed (n
+’ u
+ Q
Q n - , u-) ,
t h e a b s o l u t e average v a l u e s ( r a d i u s r = 2-10 microns) i s approximately
an o r d e r of magnitude l a r g e r t h a n t h e ones p r e d i c t e d by t h e o r y , although t h e
l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n v ( x ) which i s observed i n p r a c t i c e i s t h e same as t h a t
p r e d i c t e d by t h e o r y [80, 86, 1121. I n o t h e r words, the d i s p e r s i o n u of t h e
observed d i s t r i b u t i o n v (x) , r = c o n s t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e t h e o r e t i -
c a l l y predicted value u
2
.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e dependence of [;fl on r as p r e d i c t e d

40
!I
1'18
by t h e o r y h a s t h e form 1x1 = a&, w h i l e t h e observed r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e /35
range r = 2-10 microns 1x1 = b r , where a and b are c o n s t a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s .

I n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e d i f f i c u l t y of e x p l a i n i n g t h e observed l a r g e
1x1 i n f o g p a r t i c l e s , L. M. Levin [ 4 ] , a p p l y i n g t h e t h e o r y of random wandering
t o t h e problem of t h e charge accumulation on t h e s e p a r t i c l e s and s u g g e s t i n g
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o a g u l a t i o n o f s i m i l a r l y charged p a r t i c l e s i n t h e m i c r o n s i z e
r a n g e , p o i n t e d o u t a method of expanding t h e d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e c h a r g e d i s t r i -
b u t i o n on p a r t i c l e s , and hence, a method o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e average a b s o l u t e
charge on t h e p a r t i c l e s .

However, a g r e a t d e a l o f t i m e i s r e q u i r e d f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s t a t i o n a r y
d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e charges, i . e . , f o r obtaining t h e c a l c u l a t e d values of U.

A s a matter of f a c t , t h e d e l i v e r y of i o n s i n t o t h e atmosphere i s l i m i t e d
(approximately t e n p a i r s o f i o n s a r e formed i n t h e t r o p o s p h e r e i n 1 c c p e r
s e c o n d ) , w h i l e t h e consumption o f i o n s f o r d i f f u s i o n random charging i s g r e a t
due t o t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y of c a p t u r e by t h e p a r t i c l e s o f b o t h posi-
t i v e and n e g a t i v e i o n s . T h i s was c l e a r l y demonstrated by L. S. Mordovina [ 7 0 ]
who continued t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f L. M. Levin and performed new c a l c u l a t i o n s
f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g s t a t i o n a r y charge d i s t r i -
bution. She showed t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s t a t i o n a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n of
charges on p a r t i c l e s a t t h e v a l u e s o f 0 observed i n p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e s s e v e r a l
h o u r s , w h i l e i n r e a l i t y such a d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i v e l y q u i c k l y .

Hence, t h e r e are no t h e o r i e s a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e which e x p l a i n t h e

charging of p a r t i c l e s i n t h e " s i m p l e s t " t y p e s of c l o u d s ( s t r a t u s ) and i n fogs.
The known t h e o r i e s of c h a r g i n g of n a t u r a l cloud and f o g p a r t i c l e s of micron
s i z e are i n s u f f i c i e n t .

The s t u d y o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s of f o g s
and clouds i s incomplete, and a d d i t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s
are n e c e s s a r y .

41
 T h e e x i s t e n c e of the selective a b i l i t y o f f o g o r cloud p a r t i c l e s t o
c a p t u r e a i r i o n s of d i f f e r e n t p o l a r i t i e s which w a s proposed by Y a . I. F r e n k e l '
[ 9 ] h a s n o t y e t been e x p e r i m e n t a l l y confirmed. The i d e a s e x p r e s s e d a l o n g t h i s
l i n e are p r e l i m i n a r y i n n a t u r e and r e q u i r e d e t a i l e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y . It
would b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o perform d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t measurement o f e l e c t r i c a l
c h a r g e s of i n d i v i d u a l c o n d e n s a t i o n n u c l e i , on which p a r t i c l e s o f f o g o r c l o u d s
form. W e are unable t o d w e l l i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l on problems o f d i f f u s i o n charg-
i n g of p a r t i c l e s of micron s i z e w i t h i n t h e framework of t h i s b r o c h u r e , and
r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o t h e o r i g i n a l works 1 4 , 67, 68, 1051.

Charges on cloud p a r t i c l e s measuring 10-100 microns i n r a d i u s have b a r e l y

been measured. However, i t i s p r e c i s e l y i n t h i s s i z e r a n g e t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e from c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l c h a r g e s on s m a l l p a r t i c l e s t o r a t h e r
l a r g e c h a r g e s on p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s . The v a l u e s of t h e c h a r g e s on t h e -
I36
p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d completely by t h e d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y .

When t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s f a l l i n an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , c o n d i t i o n s
are formed f o r t h e c h a r g i n g o f t h e p a r t i c l e s , a mechanism which w a s proposed
by Wilson [170] and worked o u t t h e o r e t i c a l l y by Chalmers and Whipple [14] and
by Drukarev [61]. The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e flows of a i r i o n s of d i f f e r e n t p o l a r -
i t i e s on a drop develops due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s p e e d s o f the drops and t h e
flows of i o n s of one p o l a r i t y , moving the f i e l d , are combined and, o f
another p o l a r i t y , s u b t r a c t e d . The v a l u e of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m change i n q, i n
t h i s case i s determined by t h e m o b i l i t y of t h e i o n s of one o r a n o t h e r , the
rate of f a l l of the d r o p , and t h e magnitude of t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t E o f t h e
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e atmosphere.

The charging of r a i n d r o p s , when t h e i r rate of f a l l i s g r e a t i n comparison

t o t h e rate of i o n movement and w i t h e q u a l p o l a r e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t i e s , i s

where E i s t h e d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t of t h e medium and r i s the r a d i u s of t h e

0
raindrop.
42
 _.._......-..
-...---.-...... . I

T h i s mechanism may b e employed i n a number of cases t o e x p l a i n t h e

c h a r g i n g o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n d r o p l e t s i n s t r o n g f i e l d s under r a i n c l o u d s , and
a l s o the o v e r c h a r g i n g o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s when t h e y f a l l i n an e l e c t r i -
c a l f i e l d b e n e a t h t h e clouds, e s p e c i a l l y t h e above-mentioned lack o f agreement
between t h e c a l c u l a t e d flow o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e clouds and t h a t measured
on t h e ground.

The i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g t h e d i f f u s i o n mechanism i n i t s p r e s e n t form

t o e x p l a i n c h a r g e s o f the observed magnitude on f o g and cloud p a r t i c l e s of
micron s i z e and t h e complete i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x p l a i n i n g i t by t h e development
of l a r g e e l e c t r i c a l charges on l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s , i n c l u d i n g f o g p a r t i c l e s , h a s
made i t n e c e s s a r y t o seek o t h e r mechanisms f o r t h e c h a r g i n g of hydrometeors.

E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s o f L l o u d s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n , i n v o l v i n g
exchange of c h a r g e s between p a r t i c l e s . Numerous l a b o r a t o r y experiments have
shown t h a t d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e c o n t a c t between p a r t i c l e s of w a t e r and i c e i n
any combination (water-ice , i c e - i c e , water-water) o r d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e p a r t i -
cles l e a d s t o t h e development o f c h a r g e s on the p a r t i c l e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e i n
t h i s event. The f i r s t s t u d i e s i n t h i s area d e s c r i b e d i t more phenomeno-
logically than physically, t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which e l e c t r i f i -
c a t i o n took p l a c e when d r o p l e t s o r snowflakes w e r e d e s t r o y e d ( b a l l o e f f e c t ) ,
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n when t h e d r o p l e t s s t r u c k a c o l d , i c y , rough s u r f a c e , when t h e y
s t r u c k a c o l d s u r f a c e , when t h e d r o p l e t s s t r u c k a l a y e r of r i m e , and the
growth of r i m e ( f o r example, [5]). Almost e a c h one of t h e s e s t u d i e s of t h e
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s w a s accompanied by a t h e o r y of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n f o r /37
b o t h t h e p a r t i c l e s of t h e clouds and p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a s w e l l as t h e c l o u d s as
a whole, based on a s i m i l a r mechanism. The s t u d i e s of e l e c t r i c a l and micro-
p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l o u d s made i t p o s s i b l e t o l i m i t t o some d e g r e e
the u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e mechanisms. It became c l e a r , f o r example,
t h a t t h e b a l l o e f f e c t of w a t e r d r o p l e t s may o n l y take p l a c e i n v e r y l a r g e drops
of p r e c i p i t a t i o n (mainly from cumulonimbus c l o u d s ) . The impact of d r o p s on a
l a y e r of r i m e is p o s s i b l e o n l y i n s p e c i f i c r a r e c o n d i t i o n s when r e l a t i v e l y

43
 l a r g e d r o p l e t s develop i n a cloud where the v e l o c i t y o f the v e i c i c a l c u r r e n t s
is s m a l l ; etc. It w a s p o s s i b l e t o compare t h e s t r u c t u r e of e l e c t r i c a l charges
i n clouds w i t h a s t r u c t u r e which would have developed under the i n f l u e n c e o f
a c e r t a i n m e c h a n i s m , and t h e e l e c t r i c a l e f f i c i e n c y of v a r i o u s e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n
mechanisms w a s compared w i t h a c t u a l l y observed rates o f e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n (see,
f o r example, [5, 4 6 , 47, 501). As a r e s u l t , the number o f mechanisms which
could b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of c l o u d s d e c r e a s e d s h a r p l y from
several dozen t o less t h a n t e n .

An i n c r e a s i n g amount of a t t e n t i o n h a s begun t o b e f o c u s s e d on t h e p h y s i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s and i t s agreement w i t h condi-
t i o n s t h a t a c t u a l l y e x i s t i n clouds.

T h e o r i e s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n must e x p l a i n how c h a r g e s Q are s t o r e d on pre-

c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s which f r e q u e n t l y a r e many t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c h a r g e s
q c r e a t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l a c t s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n . Data f o r Q and q t a k e n from
several a u t h o r s a r e l i s t e d i n Table 2.1. The c h a r g e s on t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n par-
t i c l e s w e r e measured under n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , w h i l e t h e q v a l u e w a s o b t a i n e d
under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s . There i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
c h a r g e s a p p e a r i n g on t h e p a r t i c l e s a t a s i n g l e c o n t a c t and t h e c h a r g e s on t h e
p a r t i c l e s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n . I n t h e case of e x p l o s i o n s of f r e e z i n g p a r t i c l e s ,
l a r g e c h a r g e s ( s e e below) may appear on t h e remnant o f t h e p a r t i c l e , b u t t h e y
are less i n magnitude t h a n t h e c h a r g e s on t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s i n thun-
derstorms. L e t u s d i r e c t o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n of t h e
r e s u l t s of l a b o r a t o r y experiemnts as p r e s e n t e d i n Table 2.1, a l t h o u g h a n evalu-
a t i o n of t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s l i e s o u t s i d e t h e framework of t h i s work.

It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of the
p a r t i c l e s o f w a r m c l o u d s , s i n c e i t w a s unclear u n t i l r e c e n t l y what t h e primary
p r o c e s s e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s w e r e , b e s i d e s c a p t u r e of i o n s from the a i r
(obviously i n s u f f i c i e n t l y p o w e r f u l ) . A t t h e same t i m e , however, t h e p r o c e s s e s
of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n a r e sometimes q u i t e i n t e n s i v e , SO t h a t i n p u r e w a r m clouds
thunderstorms may develop, a l t h o u g h under a d m i t t e d l y v e r y s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s
t h a t r a r e l y develop.

44
 The f a i l u r e of agreement which w e n o t e d between t h e charges i s reduced
t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e degree (and even d i s a p p e a r s ) i f w e v i e w t h e accumulation of
charges on p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s as an e f f e c t produced by t h e c o l l e c t i v e
Ii a c t i o n of cloud p a r t i c l e s on a p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e .

TABLE 2.1. CHARGES ON PARTICLES OF PRECIPITATION (Q) AND CHARGES -

I38
DEVELOPING ON PARTICLES
(9) UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS ( 1 0 - l ~E
_ _ - -

4
Q
Pbsolute
Experimental falue f o r
Source conditions 1 particle

On t h e ground
Artificial hail :5, 19, 0.6-6 4-25 11-40
stone: 84 1
i n a flow of s u p e r
cooled p a r t i c l e s 1.5 1-9 9-20 18-60
i n a flow of i c e
crystals
20-50 microns L. 5*10-'
I n t h e cloud
Formation of r 1111 k and - 300-
c r y s t a l s with 3000
f r e e z i n g of t h e
s u r f a c e i n a streti
of droplets: 1.2'10-2
with f r e e z i n g of
the surface 7 d3 1421 k and - 100

Explosion of
f r e e z i n g droplet;
l i m i t i n g values 20-270
average ab s o l u t e
values 'L 10

45
 I f w e d i v e r g e from the phenomenological a s p e c t o f t h e problem, t h e
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n upon r u p t u r e of the c o n t a c t between t w o p a r t i c l e s is determined
by t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r chemical p o t e n t i a l and t h e charge t h a t i s
s e p a r a t e d on c o n t a c t ,

where V i s t h e c o n t a c t p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e f o r a g i v e n form o f charge

1,2
carrier, C i s t h e c a p a c i t a n c e between t h e p a r t i c l e s a t t h e moment o f r c p t u r e
1,2
of t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t between them, t i s t h e c o n t a c t t i m e of t h e p a r t i c l e s ,
and T i s t h e r e l a x a t i o n t i m e determined by t h e d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t E and t h e
r
e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of the p a r t i c l e s X
ry
. ..

The value V may b e determined by t h e t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t as i s set

192
f o r t h i n the t h e o r y of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s by Mason [ 5 ] . Mason f e e l s
t h a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p r o t o n s H+ i n t h e c o l d p a r t s of an i c i c l e o r h a i l
s t o n e becomes l a r g e , and t h e c o n t a c t between the warm and c o l d p a r t s l e a d s t o
a p o s i t i v e charge on the l a t t e r . T h e value of Vmay develop due t o t h e
1,2
c o n t a c t of d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s , i n which, f o r example, t h e m o b i l i t y of i o n s OH-
+
of H a n d t h e a c t i v a t i o n energy of t h e i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t [158]. Due t o t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n of p a r t i c l e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and m o b i l i t y o f d i s l o c a t i o n s and d e f e c t s [159], owing t o c o n t a c t
between materials of d i f f e r e n t chemical composition (which may take p l a c e
i n warm c l o u d s ) , a combination of these f a c t o r s may b e e f f e c t i v e ( f o r
example, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n phases and d i f f e r e n t chemical composition; the
e f f e c t of E . Workman and S. Reynolds [172, 1731, e t c . ) .

L e t us r e c a l l t h a t Workman and Reynolds [172] and R i b e i r a [ 1 4 3 ] s t u d i e d /39

a v e r y powerful p r o c e s s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n which m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f under

46
l a b o r a t o r y conditions i n p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s during t h e f r e e z i n g process a t
t h e boundary o f a n ice-water i n t e r f a c e c o n t a i n i n g weak s o l u t i o n s of e l e c t r o -
l y t e s ; t h e p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s exceeded hundreds of v o l t s . I n clouds, i n
a d d i t i o n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y , which t h e y i n i t i a l l y d i s c u s s e d [ 1 7 2 ] , of s e p a r a -
t i o n o f w a t e r from a c o l d h a i l s t o n e , (which f e l l i n t h e s u p e r c o o l e d area of
t h e c l o u d ) , t h e mechanism of s e p a r a t i o n of supercooled d r o p l e t s d u r i n g f r e e z i q g
of t h e i r s u r f a c e a l s o became p o s s i b l e . T h i s mechanism was s t u d i e d i n l a b o r a -
t o r y experiments by L. G. Kachurin e t a l . [54, 211, B. Mason and J. Maybank
[128], and a l s o i n d e t a i l by Hutchinson and S c o t t [154]. T h i s mechanism
t u r n e d o u t t o b e s t r o n g enough, even f o r t h o s e i n t e n s i v e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n pro-
c e s s e s which t a k e p l a c e i n thunderstorms ( s e e , f o r example, [21, 501).

A t f i r s t g l a n c e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s r e l a t e d
w i t h t h i s mechanism does n o t t a k e p l a c e i n t h e way d e s c r i b e d by Equation
(2.3). cannot exceed 1-2 v o l t s , w h i l e i n t h e
I t i s obvious t h a t V
1,2
Vorkman and Reynolds e f f e c t between i c e and w a t e r p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s devel-
oped which reached hundreds o f v o l t s . I n r e a l i t y , however, as shown i n
[43], d u r i n g t h i s e f f e c t a d i f f e r e n c e i n p o t e n t i a l V is established a t the
1,2
w a t e r - i c e i n t e r f a c e , w h i l e t h e magnitude of t h e c h a r g e s developed on b o t h
s i d e s of t h e boundary i s e q u a l t o q , t h e c a p a c i t a n c e of t h e d u a l l a y e r t h a t
7
forms a t t h e f i r s t moment i s g r e a t and amounts t o approximately C = 10 cm
1
p e r 1cm2 s u r f a c e f o r t h e i n t e r f a c e . A s a r e s u l t of t h e continuous movement of
t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n f r o n t , t h e charges t h a t are formed s e p a r a t e from one
3 4
a n o t h e r a t t h e d i s t a n c e a t which t h e c a p a c i t a n c e f a l l s t o C 2 = 1 0 t o 1 0 cm.
I f t h e charge q d i d n o t l e a k away, t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t developed i n p o t e n t i a l
between t h e two phases would b e e q u a l t o Vlim= v1,2 (
c1/c2)= (10
3 4
10 1 VlY2' -
In r e a l i t y , V i s less t h a n the i n d i c a t e d v a l u e of Vlim due t o t h e l e a k a g e
current.

I n a q u a s i s t a t i o n a r y s t a t e of the p r o c e s s ( w i t h a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y of
t h e i n t e r f a c e between t h e two p h a s e s ) , t h e l e a k a g e c u r r e n t compensates a t a
c e r t a i n p o t e n t i a l V f o r t h e c u r r e n t which tries t o e s t a b l i s h a c o n t a c t
difference i n potentials V on the moving i n t e r f a c e .
192

47
 !

1 W e can assume t h a t Equation (2.3) d e s c r i b e s a l l the known cases of

i
I
charge exchange between n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s .
iE

A l a r g e p a r t i c l e which receives a charge q a t t h e f i r s t c o l l i s i o n will

inlcrease i t s c h a r g e c o l l i s i o n w i t h o t h e r p a r t i c l e s s i m i l a r t o t h e f i r s t .
I f a p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e w i t h r a d i u s R c o l l i d e s w i t h uniform cloud p a r t i c l e s
w i t h a r a d i u s r, t h e l i m i t i n g p o t e n t i a l Vlim and the l i m i t i n g charge Q to
lim
which i t may b e charged are g i v e n by a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i s v a l i d f o r R >> 1: -
140
[37, 381

where A i s a c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e o r d e r of s e v e r a l u n i t s ( 3 - 8). Hence, e x c e s s i v e

c o l l i s i o n s can l e a d ( w i t h any of the c o n s i d e r e d mechanisms f o r e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n
upon r u p t u r e of c o n t a c t ) t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n i t i a l charge. If
w e i n t r o d u c e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t P , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the c h a r g e r a t i o a c q u i r e d by
t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s f o l l o w i n g a number of c o n t a c t s , t o t h e one which
i t a c q u i r e s upon breakage of t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a c t P = Q/q, t h e v a l u e of P can
6
reach v a l u e s of lo5 t o 10 and even more. I n t h i s case, t h e l a c k o f agreement
d i s a p p e a r s between t h e magnitude of t h e charges measured on t h e d r o p l e t s of
p r e c i p i t a t i o n and i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y (Table 2 . 1 ) .

Under real c o n d i t i o n s , the p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s may c o l l i d e w i t h cloud

p a r t i c l e s which have chemical p o t e n t i a l s b o t h h i g h e r and lower t h a n t h o s e of
t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s ; t h e number of c o l l i s i o n s may t u r n o u t t o b e i n s u f -
f i c i e n t f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e t h r e s h o l d charge. It i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o keep i n
mind t h e p o r t i o n of t h e c h a r g e on the p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s may l e a k o f f due
t o t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y of the a i r A.

I n t h e s e cases, t h e change of t h e c h a r g e on the l a r g e p a r t i c l e w i t h t i m e

t i s g i v e n by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p [ 1 0 4 ] :

48
 = Nqav- Nf3Q - 4 d Q ,

where N is t h e number of c o l l i s i o n s o f a l a r g e p a r t i c l e w i t h s m a l l ones,

qav
is t h e average v a l u e of t h e t r a n s f e r r e d charge a t one c o l l i s i o n , determined by
t h e spectrum of t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f s m a l l p a r t i c l e s , B i s the amount of t h e
charge which is t r a n s f e r r e d from the l a r g e p a r t i c l e t o t h e s m a l l one due t o
t h e c o l l e c t o r e f f e c t ( f o r R >> r , B << 1). I f w e assume t h a t the c o l l i d i n g
p a r t i c l e s a r e s p h e r e s , w e w i l l have

and i n t h i s c a s e , t h e v a l u e P = Q
av
/ q a v can r e a c h s e v e r a l o r d e r s o f magnitude.

W e could s u g g e s t , a s proposed by L. Mordovina [ 701, t h a t q = 4, is a

c e r t a i n f l u c t u a t i n g v a l u e determined by several s t a t i s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of
/41
cloud p a r t i c l e s . Then, i f t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e charges 61 acquired i n indi-
v i d u a l c o l l i s i o n s i s given by t h e v a l u e a2 (assuming a Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
q
q ) , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n W (Q) of t h e charges on t h e p a r t i c l e s o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n
w i l l b e given by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

(2.7)

where 0 = 0 /2B and Qav = qav/B

Q s
From t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , w e can draw s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s . If,
d u r i n g t h e c o l l i s i o n s of l a r g e and s m a l l p a r t i c l e s , t h e former a c q u i r e charges
of e q u a l s i g n w i t h e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y (completely symmetrical d i s t r i b u t i o n

qav = 0) , t h e n Qav w i l l e q u a l 0 as w e l l ( F i g u r e 2.1, a) , b u t the a c t u a l charges

on t h e p a r t i c l e s and the clouds as w e l l as the p r e c i p i t a t i o n may b e v e r y
significant. T h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h i s mechanism and t h e one o f random

49
 c h a r g i n g that takes p l a c e d u r i n g
c a p t u r e of i o n s by d r o p l e t s c o n s i s t s
i n the f a c t t h a t here e a c h c o n t a c t
i n v o l v e s t r a n s m i s s i o n of a charge of
several t e n s o r even hundreds of ele-
mentary c h a r g e s . Therefore, t h e t i m e
r e q u i r e d f o r d e v e l o p i n g l a r g e charges
becomes comparable t o t h a t which i s
r e a l l y observed i n a cloud. This
case, by t h e way, i s a p p a r e n t l y ob-
served frequently i n warm stratonimbus
c l o u d s , when t h e charges on p r e c i p i t a -
t i o n p a r t i c l e s r e a c h (on t h e average)
v a l u e s of 3.lO-I4 - 3*10-15 C y b u t
t h e c u r r e n t which i s t r a n s m i t t e d by
c3
t h e m i s c l o s e t o 0 , s o t h a t simultan-
e o u s l y the numbers of b o t h p o s i t i v e l y
and n e g a t i v e l y charged d r o p l e t s of
p r e c i p i t a t i o n w i l l change. The average
charge of cloud p a r t i c l e s a l s o a p p e a r s
A< t o b e e q u a l t o 0, s i n c e p o s i t i v e l y
-3 -2 1( r e l -
and n e g a t i v e l y charged p a r t i c l e s w i l l
b e encountered w i t h e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y .
F i g u r e 2.1. Diagram i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e
change i n the charge on p a r t i c l e s
w i t h c ont a ct c h a r g i n g . > 0,
I f t h e t r a n s m i t t e d charge q
av
t h e n Qav > 0 ( F i g u r e 2.1, b) and w e
ij - charge t r a n s f e r r e d on c o n t a c t ;
-
Q - e q u i v a l e n t charge;
w i l l encounter i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n
- b o t h p o s i t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y charged
J - e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of
precipitation p a r t i c l e s , b u t t h e number of t h e former
( o r i n any case, t h e i r t o t a l charge)
w i l l b e g r e a t e r than t h e l a t t e r , and
a positive precipitation current w i l l
flow from t h e cloud. T h e cloud

50
p a r t i c l e s t h e n assume on the a v e r a g e a n e g a t i v e charge, a l t h o u g h b o t h p o s i -
t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y charged p a r t i c l e s w i l l be found. 0, t h e n Qav <
If ‘av
< 0, and t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s charged p r i m a r i l y n e g a t i v e l y ( F i g u r e 2.1, c ) ,
w h i l e t h e cloud p a r t i c l e s are charged p o s i t i v e l y .

T h i s c h a r g i n g p r o c e s s may o p e r a t e , o b v i o u s l y , i n clouds with a s o l i d

phase, mixed s t r u c t u r e and i n p u r e l y w a r m clouds. Its r e a l i z a t i o n depends on
three p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s : (a) d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical charac-
teristics o f t h e cloud p a r t i c l e s and e s p e c i a l l y t h e p a r t i c l e s o f clouds and
p r e c i p i t a t i o n ; (b) t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s e p a r a t i o n o f c o l l i d i n g o r r u p t u r i n g
p a r t i c l e s i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e cloud and ( c ) d i f f e r e n c e s i n
t e m p e r a t u r e between t h e s e p a r a t i n g p a r t i c l e s .

As w e have a l r e a d y mentioned, l a c k of s i m i l a r i t y between t h e p h y s i c a l /42

and chemical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e p a r a t i n g p a r t i c l e s may b e l i n k e d b o t h t o a
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r phase composition and chemical composition, as w e l l as
( i n t h e case o f c r y s t a l l i n e c l o u d s ) a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of t h e c r y s t a l s u r f a c e s . It i s obvious t h a t c h a r g i n g of
macrospaces i n t h e cloud w i l l b e e f f e c t i v e i f t h e r e is some s y s t e m a t i c d i f f e r -
ence i n t h e dimensions ( o r p a r a c h u t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) o f p a r t i c l e s o f a
s i n g l e phase o r a given chemical composition, e t c .

The e f f e c t of a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d on t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s may
be n o t i c e a b l e e i t h e r i n areas where t h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , o r i n
t h o s e c a s e s when t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e f i e l d l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t r i f i c a -
tion -a p r o c e s s involved i n t h e avalanche growth of t h e f i e l d [ 4 4 ] . Finally,
a c e r t a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c l e s and e s p e c i a l l y
t h e s p a c e s may b e made by t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l of t h e c o l l i d i n g par-
ticles.

It i s n e c e s s a r y , however, t o n o t e t h a t a l l of t h e f a c t o r s which w e have

d i s c u s s e d may a f f e c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n a t t h e s a m e t i m e and mask t h e e f f e c t of
individual factors. Thus, when e v a l u a t i n g t h e e f f e c t of t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e a c t i o n
of t h e f i r s t two f a c t o r s w a s found t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l e , and i t produced e l e c t r i -
51
f i c a t i o n e f f e c t s t h a t exceeded t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t e m p e r a t u r e by several o r d e r s
o f magnitude. The d i f f i c u l t y i n i s o l a t i n g t h e s e effects i n p u r e form e x p l a i n s
e v i d e n t l y t h e l a c k of c o o r d i n a t i o n - and even c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n - the data
o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s who s t u d i e d t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f snow l a k e s
and i c i c l e s , when t h e c h a r g e s t h a t develop on them under a p p a r e n t l y uniform
c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r e d i n s i g n i n v a r i o u s experiments and by f a c t o r s of 10-100
i n terms of magnitude. A change i n t h e c o n d i t i o n s c a u s i n g a n i n c r e a s e i n elec- /43
t r i f i c a t i o n i n some experiments l e a d s t o i t s r e d u c t i o n i n o t h e r s . The c h a r g e s
t h a t develop i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t p a r t i c l e s are shown i n Table 2.1. If there is
any kind of s y s t e m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p a r t i c l e s t h a t
f a l l w i t h d i f f e r e n t s p e e d s , t h e p a r t i c l e s w i t h a given r a t e of f a l l may be
charged w i t h one e l e c t r i c a l s i g n , w h i l e t h o s e f a l l i n g a t a n o t h e r r a t e w i l l b e
charged w i t h t h e o t h e r . Thus, i t may t u r n o u t t h a t p a r t i c l e s of c l o u d s and
f o g s are charged d i f f e r e n t l y .

I n p u r e l y w a r m clouds, the v a l u e V w i l l depend on t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n

1,2
t h e chemical composition o f t h e c o l l i d i n g p a r t i c l e s and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e i r temperature. In some cases, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o have c a p t u r e o f s u r f a c e -
active s u b s t a n c e s ( s u r f a c t a n t s ) by the d r o p s , s u b s t a n c e s t h a t w e r e f o r m e r l y nonex-
i s t e n t i n n a t u r e , and may t h e r e f o r e l e a d t o t h e development of h i g h v a l u e s o f

%,2.

It i s u n c l e a r whether o r n o t d r o p l e t s could develop under n a t u r a l condi-

t i o n s whose chemical composition d i f f e r e d f o r p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e s ,
i.e. , whether i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o have an e v e n t t h a t would l e a d , as w e have
s a i d , t o s e p a r a t i o n of t h e charged macrovolumes. According t o t h e d a t a i n
t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( f o r example, [lOl) , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of i m p u r i t i e s i n s m a l l -
3
drop and large-drop areas can d i f f e r on t h e average by as much as 102-10 ,
which would n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d to VIy2 100 mV [ 3 8 ] . However, no one h a s y e t
attempted t o f i n d o u t how much d i f f e r e n c e t h e r e i s between t h e chemical compo-
s i t i o n of s m a l l and l a r g e d r o p l e t s i n the s a m e area o f t h e cloud. Even less
i n v e s t i g a t e d i s t h e s i t u a t i o n of how much t h e chemical composition of t h e
individualdroplets differs. The d i f f e r e n c e between the t e m p e r a t u r e s of t h e
c o l l i d i n g d r o p l e t s may l e a d t o V < 1 mV.
1,2 -
52
 The c o n d i t i o n s under which i t i s p o s s i b l e t o have s e p a r a t i o n of t h e
p a r t i c l e s f o l l o w i n g c o n t a c t i n c l o u d s w i t h d i f f e r e n t phase composition are
different.

I n clouds,or t h e i r p a r t s c o n t a i n i n g a s o l i d phase, t h e p a r t i c l e s s e p a r -
a t e a f t e r c o l l i s i o n , i n any c a s e i n t h e b a s i c mass. I n mixed clouds w i t h
thawing of h a i l , i n v o l v i n g "explosions" of s u p e r cooled d r o p l e t s , the sepa--
r a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s i s c e r t a i n b u t ( a s i n pure d r o p l e t clouds) t h e
f a t e of t h e c o l l i d i n g d r o p l e t s i n them h a s n o t been c l a r i f i e d . It i s s u g g e s t e d
t h a t a p o r t i o n of t h e d r o p l e t s i n v o l v e d i n such c o l l i s i o n s may rebound [79, 82,
108, 1141. A. D. Solov'yev [ 8 2 ] produced c r i t e r i a f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e proba-
b i l i t y of a t o m i z a t i o n of uncharged d r o p l e t s d u r i n g c o l l i s i o n , merging, and
reflection. However, no d e f i n i t e c r i t e r i a have been o b t a i n e d t h u s f a r which
would make i t p o s s i b l e t o e v a l u a t e t h e r o l e of t h e a i r l a y e r between t h e c o l -
l i d i n g p a r t i c l e s i n terms of e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e i r merging, a l t h o u g h i t s
influence is great. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e drop merging i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d which develops i n t h e s p a c e between t h e drops. /44
As t h i s f i e l d i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
c o a g u l a t i o n [95, 1 1 7 , 1251. The e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e space may develop due
t o t h e charges of t h e d r o p s themselves and due t o t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d . Hence,
as t h e charge on t h e drops i n c r e a s e s and t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n t h e s p a c e
charges i n t h e c l o u d , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n s of t h e d r o p l e t s
w i l l d e c r e a s e , and t h i s means t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a d e c r e a s e i n t h e e f f e c t i v e -
n e s s of t h e c o n t a c t mechanisms of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n . However, even i f only 5 t o
10% of t h e d r o p l e t s undergo e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n s , t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e con-
t a c t mechanisms of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n w i l l be h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ; t h u s , t h e v a l u e s
5
of P may r e a c h up t o lo3 - 10 [71]. It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e c o n t a c t
c h a r g i n g p r o c e s s may a l s o t a k e p l a c e i n t h e absence of mechanical c o n t a c t . The
p a r t i c l e s may exchange charges i f t h e p o i n t s of t h e i r s u r f a c e s are l o c a t e d a t
a d i s t a n c e of approximately 10
-7
- 10-6 cm. As t h e charge on t h e p a r t i c l e
grows, t h i s d i s t a n c e w i l l become l a r g e r .

The i n t e r a c t i o n of p a r t i c l e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l and chemical

p r o p e r t i e s may, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , as p o i n t e d o u t by V. Y a . Nikandrov [ 721,

53
o c c u r even w i t h o u t c o n t a c t , b u t i n t h i s case t h e rate of t h e p r o c e s s w i l l b e
determined by t h e number of charge carriers i n t h e a i r , i . e . , by the air
conductivity .
The number o f c h a r g e s t h a t develop upon c o n t a c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n may b e
c o n s i d e r a b l y a f f e c t e d by a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d . The mechanism of t h i s e f f e c t
i s shown i n F i g u r e 2.2. Drop 1 w i t h r a d i u s R i s f a l l i n g i n a n e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d with a p o e t n t i a l E
a'
-
t h e d e n s i t y of t h e induced c h a r g e a t some p o i n t i
3
on t h e drop i s e q u a l t o ei = Eacosa. If a s m a l l drop (2 o r 3 ) w i t h r a d i u s
r comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h drop 1 o r i s a t a d i s t a n c e from i t a t which c h a r g e
exchange i s p o s s i b l e , i t w i l l a c q u i r e a c h a r g e

where A i s a c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t which depends on t h e r a t i o of t h e drop r a d i i ,

t h e t i m e of t h e i r c o l l i s i o n , and p r e s s u r e .

The l i m i t i n g charge which a l a r g e d r o p l e t may a c q u i r e due t o t h i s p r o c e s s ,

as i n t h e case of t h e a c t i o n of t h e Wilson mechanism, i s

If s m a l l drops (2) s e p a r a t e from t h e lower p a r t of drop 1, t h e y w i l l -

/45
accumulate a charge on drop 1 whose f i e l d w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e o r i g i n a l one, which,
i n t u m , w i l l r a i s e t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h i s mechanism. The i n c r e a s e w i l l l a s t
u n t i l t h e f i e l d is a b l e t o p r e v e n t a s e p a r a t i o n of s m a l l drops.

I f t h e s m a l l drops (3) s e p a r a t e i n t h e upper p a r t of drop 1, t h e o r i g i n a l

f i e l d w i l l d e c r e a s e , and t h e mechanism w i l l t e n d t o weaken t h i s e f f e c t .

I n b o t h cases, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e p r o c e s s i n c r e a s e s w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n
t h e number o f e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n s w i t h small d r o p l e t s . Thus, depending on i n
what p a r t of t h e l a r g e drop t h e e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n w i t h t h e s m a l l d r o p l e t s takes

54
 p l a c e , t h i s mechanism w i l l l e a d e i t h e r

7
I / I I& 3
t o an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o r a d e t e r i o r -
a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
particles.

E l s t e r and G e i t e l [loo] , s u g g e s t -
i n g t h a t t h e e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n s take
p l a c e i n t h e lower p a r t of t h e drop,
f e l t t h i s mechanism t o b e b a s i c i n t h e

I e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f clouds. A t the
p r e s e n t t i m e , t h i s same mechanism i s
b e i n g s t u d i e d by S a r t o r and h i s asso-
F i g u r e 2.2. Diagram of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n
on c o n t a c t i n an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d . c i a t e s 11461. However, t h e l a c k of
s u f f i c i e n t knowledge about c o l l i s i o n s
between s m a l l d r o p l e t s and l a r g e ones
does n o t a l l o w us t o determine r e l i a b l y
a t t h i s t i m e even t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h i s mechanism o p e r a t e s : w e do n o t know
i f i t i n c r e a s e s t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c l e s , o r weakens i t .

I n comparison w i t h t h e c o n t a c t mechanism d e s c r i b e d above, t h e removal of

induced c h a r g e s i s less pronounced i n weak f i e l d s and cloud p a r t i c l e s whose
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e n o t v e r y uniform. I f t h e charge of t h e p a r t i c l e according
t o ( 2 . 3 ) i s r e p r e s e n t e d by ql, and a c c o r d i n g t o Formula (2.8) by q 2 we w i l l have

(2.10)

where 6 i s t h e d i s t a n c e a t which t h e l a r g e and s m a l l p a r t i c l e s cease t o

exchange charges.

-6
I f t h e f i e l d s and t h e charges are n o t very h i g h , 6 < 1 0 c m and a r e i n any
-3
case < cm. If V = 10 V, i . e . ,V i s a v e r y small v a l u e , t h e n i t
1,2 1,2
i s only i n f i e l d s w i t h an i n t e n s i t y 2 ~ ~ O V- / c m~ t h~a t oq1/q2
~ becomes e q u a l

55
t o 1. Accordingly, t h e r a t i o of t h e l i m i t i n g charges of the l a r g e d r o p l e t s i s
Q,/Q, = V1,,/rE0, i.e., w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e s h e of t h e s m a l l p a r t i c l e s ,
t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e in t h e r o l e of t h e f i e l d i n t h e cloud as f a r as t h e p a r t i c l e
c h a r g i n g is concerned.

I n s t r o n g f i e l d s and a t h i g h c h a r g e s , where 6 may r e a c h v a l u e s of s e v e r a l

microns, c o n t a c t c h a r g i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d may
become b a s i c .
Hence, t h e c o n t a c t mechanisms of p a r t i c l e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n may m a n i f e s t i n
a l l forms of c l o u d s a l t h o u g h t h e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s d i f f e r s under d i f f e r e n t con-
d i t i o n s (Table 2 . 2 ) . The s t r o n g e s t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s w i l l take -
/46
p l a c e i n clouds w i t h a mixed s t r u c t u r e , producing i n t e n s i v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
Charging of p a r t i c l e s i n t h e s e clouds w i l l d e c r e a s e w i t h a d e c r e a s e i n t h e i r
d e n s i t y and t h i c k n e s s ; i n p u r e l y c r y s t a l l i n e and p u r e l y w a r m clouds i t w i l l be
weaker t h a n i n clouds w i t h a mixed s t r u c t u r e . The charges on t h e p a r t i c l e s
w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g inhomogeneity of t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical pro-
p e r t i e s of t h e p a r t i c l e s , and w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e d e n s i t y and t h i c k n e s s of
t h e clouds.

TABLE 2.2. CONDITIONS FOR ELECTRIFICATION OF PARTICLES I N CLOUDS

OF DIFFERENT TYPES

P r i n c i p a l mechanism Conditions f o r e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of
of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n cloud p a r t i c l e s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n by Value
of cloud p a r t i c l e s c o n t a c t mechanisms
Of
Type of
cloud Contact Probability Mass of pcharges
article
p o t en t i a l of e l a s t i c cloud p a r t i -
difference c o l l i s i o n s c l e s having
charges

2 4 1 3
Note: (+)I The mechknism i s rei l i l y a p p a r e n t ; (-) The mechanism i s n o t r e a d i l y
a p p a r e n t ; 1 - low v a l u e ; 2 - average v a l u e ; 3 - l a r g e v a l u e ; ( t ) w a r m c l o u d s ;
( c ) c l o u d s w i t h mixed s t r u c t i r e .
56
 d
I

§ 2. Accumulation 3 f Space Charges i n Clouds

-~

The e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of clouds as a whole (accumulation i n them o f consi-

d e r a b l e e l e c t r i c a l s p a c e charges) r e q u i r e s , f i r s t of a l l , t h e development o f
e l e c t r i c charges on t h e cloud p a r t i c l e s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n , and s e c o n d l y , t h e
o c c u r r e n c e o v e r a l a r g e a r e a of a cloud of p a r t i c l e s t h a t c a r r y p r i m a r i l y c h a r g e s
of one s i g n o r a n o t h e r . For development of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t h a t t h e p r o c e s s e s of t h e f i r s t group, promoting e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , dominate t h e
p r o c e s s e s of the second group, which s u p p r e s s i t . With e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e
two groups o f p r o c e s s e s , a q u a s i s t a t i o n a r y e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e develops i n
t h e cloud.

The c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e p a r t i c l e charges accumulation were d i s c u s s e d i n

t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , s o t h a t w e w i l l dwell o n l y on t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e
development of u n i p o l a r l y charged p a r t i c l e s and volumes of a i r . I f w e ignore
s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s p a c e charges i n a l l t h e clouds w i l l arise under t h e
i n f l u e n c e of t h r e e f a c t o r s :

1. S e p a r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t l y charged p a r t i c l e s i n an e x t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l /47
field.

2. S e p a r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t l y charged p a r t i c l e s , e x h i b i t i n g d i f f e r e n t
aerodynamic r e s i s t a n c e s i n a f i e l d of g r a v i t y . I f t h e r a t e of f a l l of t h e
e q u a l l y charged p a r t i c l e s d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y ( f o r example, t h e rates. of f a l l
of p a r t i c l e s of clouds and p r e c i p i t a t i o n ) , t h e charge s e p a r a t i o n rate i n t h e
cloud may culminate i n t h e appearance of an excess charge throughout t h e e n t i r e
cloud f o l l o w i n g t h e f a l l of t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n and t h e development of an e x c e s s
charge i n t h e atmosphere, a f t e r t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s reach t h e s u r f a c e
of t h e ground.

3. The t r a n s f e r t o t h e cloud ( o r removal from i t ) of charged a i r w i t h

a i r flows due t o c o n v e c t i v e movements.

57
 The f o u r t h p o s s i b l e method of c h a r g e accumulation i n clouds ( t h e i r
t r a n s f e r t o t h e cloud due t o t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n i n t h e atmosphere) i s n o t
r e a l i z e d , s i n c e t h e d e n s i t y g r a d i e n t of t h e s p a c e c h a r g e s a t t h e cloud bounda-
r i e s i s such t h a t i t l e a d s o n l y t o l o s s o f c h a r g e s from t h e c l o u d s .

The p r o c e s s e s which reduce t h e l e v e l of t h e s p a c e c h a r g e s i n a cloud

are l i n k e d t o f o u r f a c t o r s

1. The development of c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t s b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e

. t h e cloud.

2. T u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n , which weakens t h e r a t e of s e p a r a t i o n of t h e
c h a r g e s i n t h e cloud i t s e l f and removes t h e c h a r g e beyond t h e l i m i t s of t h e
cloud.
3. The e f f e c t of the f o r c e of g r a v i t y , under whose i n f l u e n c e t h e s p a c e
charges t h a t accumulate on t h e p a r t i c l e s may b e c a r r i e d beyond t h e limits o f
t h e cloud.

4. Convective movements t h a t v e n t i l a t e t h e cloud.

L e t us see how t h e two groups of p r o c e s s e s act i n t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f

i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s of clouds.

Formation of t h e electrical s t r u c t u r e of stratus and s t r a t o c u m u l u s clouds.

The e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e clouds would appear t o b e most n a t u r a l l y l i n k e d
w i t h t h e s e p a r a t i o n of charges i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e atmosphere, devel-
oping i n poorly v e n t i l a t e d cloud layers. With an o r d i n a r y p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n
o f t h e f i e l d i n the atmosphere, the upper p a r t of t h e cloud must b e charged
p o s i t i v e l y and t h e lower p a r t n e g a t i v e l y . As a matter of f a c t , i n o r d e r t o
achieve s t a t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r the flow of v e r t i c a l e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i n
t h e atmosphere, i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y i n the c l o u d s t o b e
e q u a l t o the c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o u t s i d e them, i . e . , t o f u l l f i l l t h e following
conditions:

58
 - E X = E X
- 0 0 2 2 (2.11)

where E and XU, E and Xo, E and X are t h e v a l u e s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t

U 0 2 2
o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e atmosphere and t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y a t t h e upper
l i m i t o f t h e cloud, i n t h e cloud, and a t i t s lower l i m i t . The d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
i n t h e f i e l d a t t h e l i m i t s o f t h e cloud are c r e a t e d by a s p a c e charge t h a t con-
c e n t r a t e s a t t h e boundaries. The e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n s i d e t h e cloud -
/48
o r f o g i s l e s s t h a n t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n p u r e atmosphere, s i n c e
t h e p a r t i c l e s of fog o r p r e c i p i t a t i o n a c t i v e l y c a p t u r e i o n s from t h e a i r .
T h i s f a c t i s supported e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by d i r e c t measurements i n c l o u d s and
f o g s [69, 32, 301.

Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e atmosphere
increases with a l t i t u d e (A 7 h Z ) , E U must b e less t h a n E 2’ and t h e cloud as
U
a whole must a c q u i r e a p o s i t i v e charge when t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d of t h e atmosphere i s normal. I n a similar manner, w e can e x p l a i n t h e
u n i p o l a r charge of fogs.

More d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f E i n t h e cloud and n e a r i t

may b e gained i f w e use f o r o u r s o l u t i o n t h e i o n i z a t i o n - r e c o m b i n a t i o n e q u a t i o n
i n i t s s i m p l i f i e d form [69], u s i n g f i x e d v a l u e s of A Xz, and EU, assuming
UY
a f i x e d m i c r o s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e cloud, and c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o s s i b l e development
of c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e cloud. However, t h e quali-
t a t i v e p i c t u r e of t h e cloud charging need n o t be changed.

The system which i s s u g g e s t e d and r e p r e s e n t s t h e cloud as a p a s s i v e

resistance connected i n series w i t h a r e s i s t a n c e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e atmosphere
may e x p l a i n t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e f i e l d i n t h e clouds w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i r
d e n s i t y , and u n i p o l a r c h a r g i n g of t h e cloud w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n
X and h Z . But t h i s system cannot e x p l a i n t h e effects observed i n many
U
instances. I n many cases [ 3 ] , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t w i t h i n

59
t h e c l o u d s does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e g r a d i e n t i n t h e atmos-
p h e r e , and t h e p o l a r i t y o f t h e t o t a l c l o u d charge i s o p p o s i t e t o t h a t which
was predicted. Moreover, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p o t e n t i a l s a t t h e upper and
lower limits o f t h e c l o u d s f r e q u e n t l y exceeds t h e drop i n p o t e n t i a l i n t h e p u r e
atmosphere. In t h e s e cases, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o assume t h a t even s l i g h t l y
active clouds ( i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l s e n s e ) - f o r example, s t r a t i f o r m clouds -
do n o t produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n and do n o t a c t merely as p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e s b u t
as e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t o r s . The power o f t h e s e g e n e r a t o r s compensates f o r l o s s e s
which are c r e a t e d by t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t s and t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t o f
t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n , whose d e n s i t y i s about 1 0
-2
A/m 2 .
The r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e -
n e s s of each g e n e r a t o r i n t h e cloud i n s p e c i f i c cases may b e e s t a b l i s h e d by
measurements of t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y and t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e
c l o u d s and i n t h e i r v i c i n i t y . It i s s t i l l n o t clear how t h e s e g e n e r a t o r s
operate. The answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e development
o f s t u d i e s on t h e c h a r g i n g of drops, c o n d u c t i v i t y , and f i e l d s i n clouds.

Hence, even i n a p p a r e n t l y "simple" c l o u d s , t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t l e a d t o

t h e i r e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n have n o t y e t been completely e x p l a i n e d .

Formation of e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of s t r a t o n i m b u s c l o u d s . The c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c o u t l i n e s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of s t r a t o n i m b u s c l o u d s may be ex- /49
p l a i n e d i n g e n e r a l o u t l i n e s i f w e assume t h e diagram d e s c r i b e d i n [ 3 ] . Ac-
c o r d i n g t o t h i s system, charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l s from i n i t i a l l y n e u t r a l l y
charged c l o u d s . A s t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l s , a c h a r g e of t h e o p p o s i t e s i g n
accumulates i n t h e c l o u d s ( i f p o s i t i v e l y charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l s , a neg-
a t i v e c h a r g e i s accumulated, and v i c e v e r s a ) . Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e
f i e l d of t h i s c h a r g e , i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e cloud and above i t , and a l s o
b e n e a t h t h e c l o u d , charges of t h e o p p o s i t e s i g n accumulate, forming t h e ob-
s e r v e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e p o l a r i z e d cloud. The s p a c e c h a r g e of t h e p r e c i p i t a -
t i o n s u p e r p o s e s t h e s p a c e charge formed by t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t below
t h e cloud. The g e n e r a t o r o f t h e e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e s e areas of t h e cloud i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s f a l l i n g under t h e i n f l u e n c e of
t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y . The s e p a r a t i o n of t h e c h a r g e s i n t h e cloud p r e v e n t s
e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y and t u r b u l e n t mixing. The e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n t h e
c l o u d are determined by t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s e f a c t o r s .

60
 These l o s s e s m u s t a l s o b e made up by the e l e c t r i c a l "generator" which
a c h i e v e s a s t a t i o n a r y state i n t h e cloud. For a model of a p o s i t i v e l y p o l a r -
i z e d cloud (Chapter I ) , t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t d e n s i t y i s assumed n o t t o
-11 2
exceed 10 A/m ; t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of d i f f u s i o n is approximately e q u a l t o
t h e same v a l u e .This means t h a t t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of t h e l o s s e s i n t h e cloud
w i l l n o t exceed 2-10
-11
A/m
2
.
The power o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t o r o p e r a t i n g
-5
i n t h e c l o u d is v e r y l o w and e q u a l s 4-10 W/m2, or 40W /h2.
It c o n s t i t u t e s
a small p a r t of t h e power given o f f by t h e f a l l i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n . W e should
keep i n mind, however, t h a t t h e f i g u r e s given h e r e a p p l y t o a t y p i c a l cloud,
and i n i n d i v i d u a l c l o u d s o r p a r t s o f them b o t h t h e c u r r e n t and power may exceed
t h e i n d i c a t e d v a l u e s by 1 o r 2 and even 3 o r d e r s of magnitude. W e can a l s o
expect t h a t n e a r t h e Equator, where t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t s c o n s i d e r a b l y
exceed t h e v a l u e s given i n [1511, e l e c t r i c a l charges i n t h e clouds are much
g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e given.

The system which w e d e s c r i b e d above c l a r i f i e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

t h e m a c r o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s t r a t o c u m u l u s c l o u d s , and vrobably , t h e h i g h s t r a t u s
clouds t h a t produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n . It m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t o estimate t h e e x t e n t
t o which t h e changes i n t h e c u r r e n t o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n , c o n d u c t i v i t y , and cloud
t u r b u l e n c e might a f f e c t t h e i r s t r u c t u r e , and t h e magnitude o f t h e f i e l d s i n
them.

Changes by a f a c t o r of n i n t h e magnitude of t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t i n
t h e s t a t i o n a r y s t a t e a l s o change t h e magnitude o f t h e accumulated charges i n
t h e cloud by a f a c t o r o f n. A r e d u c t i o n of t h e e f f e c t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y by a
f a c t o r of m w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e accumulation o f c h a r g e s by a f a c t o r of m. With
an i n c r e a s e i n t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t and t h e number of drops, w e can a l s o e x p e c t
an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of charged p a r t i c l e s , and, as w e n o t e d e a r l i e r , a
d e c r e a s e i n t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y , which promotes an i n c r e a s e i n t h e charges and
f i e l d s i n d e n s e r clouds. The same e f f e c t ( a l l o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g e q u a l ) /50
may b e expected w i t h a d e c r e a s e i n cloud t u r b u l e n c e . A t t h e i n d i c a t e d varia-
t i o n s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t d e n s i t y and t h e e f f e c t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y , w e can

61
 e x p e c t t h a t i n i n d i v i d u a l clouds o r p a r t s of them t h e c h a r g e s and t h e f i e l d s
w i l l change by more t h a n lo3 t i m e s i n comparison t o t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e s
( P i gure 1.1) .
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , on the b a s i s of d a t a on t h e spectrum of drops i n
c l o u d s and t h e i r phase s t a t e , t h e t h i c k n e s s e s of c l o u d s o r t h e i r rates of
development, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n . For
such a c a l c u l a t i o n , i t would b e n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e t h e c h a r g e s of t h e
d r o p s and t h e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s . There i s no e f f e c t i v e t h e o r y which would
make i t p o s s i b l e t o do t h i s . G e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t w e r e given i n t h e
p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n ( s e e T a b l e 2.2) c l a r i f y why t h e c h a r g e s are g r e a t e r i n t h e
t h i c k e s t clouds t h a n i n t h i n ones, and t h e charges are g r e a t e r i n clouds w i t h
mixed s t r u c t u r e t h a n i n w a r m clouds. A number of a u t h o r s have s t u d i e d t h e
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s i n s t r a t o n i m b u s c l o u d s ( f o r example, [14]), b u t
t h e r e s u l t s of such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s t i l l do n o t a l l o w us t o p r o g r e s s f u r t h e r
with these findings .
The s o l u t i o n of t h e complete problem of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of n i m b o s t r a t u s
c l o u d s (as, i n d e e d , f o r clouds of o t h e r t y p e s ) w i l l r e q u i r e a d e t a i l e d s t u d y
of t h e microphysics of t h e s e c l o u d s , b o t h i n n a t u r e and i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , as
w e l l as t h e development of a t h e o r y which w i l l t a k e i n t o account t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p between t h e macro- and t h e micro-processes. W e s h a l l r e t u r n again t o t h e
problem of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c a l and o t h e r
p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clouds.

Formation of t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e of cumulus and cumulus congestus

clouds. According t o t h e s p e c t r a l composition of t h e p a r t i c l e s , cumulus and
cumulus congestus c l o u d s do n o t d i f f e r v e r y markedly from stratus and nimbo-
s t r a t u s c l o u d s ; l i k e t h e l a t t e r , c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s do n o t produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
E l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s , however, d i f f e r markedly from
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s t r a t i f o r m c l o u d s , which do n o t produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s l a r g e l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of c o n v e c t i v e
c l o u d s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of s t r a t i f o r m c l o u d s , w i l l n o t

62
have t i m e t o produce a q u a i s i s t a t i o n a r y state. The formation o f b a s i c charges
of c o n v e c t i v e clouds may b e r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t of an external f i e l d , as
w a s t h e c a s e i n s t r a t u s c l o u d s , b u t t h e c u r r e n t I = (E X ) w i l l flow c o n t i n -
a a u
uously i n t o t h e cloud as i t develops. Even i f t h e t o p o f t h e cloud ceases t o
rise, t h e i n t e n s i v e convection i n i t w i l l c a r r y away t h e s t o r e d charge, pre-
v e n t i n g i t s growth a t t h e limits o f t h e cloud [35]. Another r e a s o n f o r t h e
accumulation of s p a c e charges i n a cloud may b e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u g g e s t i o n
of Grene [ l o g , 1101 and d i s c u s s e d i n our t i m e by B. Vonnegat [26] and R. S t o r e b
[153], a c u r r e n t of a i r r i s i n g from t h e g r o u n d , i n which a c o n v e c t i v e cloud
develops. The a i r a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e ground, due t o t h e e l e c t r o d e e f f e c t , -
151
u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s a p o s i t i v e space charge. R i s i n g w i t h t h e j e t of a i r , t h i s
charge e n t e r s t h e cloud, which c a p t u r e s i t l i k e a f i l t e r , s t o r i n g t h e p o s i t i v e
charge i n t h i s f a s h i o n . T h i s charge c r e a t e s a f i e l d which, due t o t h e conduc-
t i v i t y of t h e atmosphere, a t t r a c t s charges of o p p o s i t e s i g n t o t h e e x t e r n a l
limits of t h e cloud.

Both o f t h e e f f e c t s c o n s i d e r e d may b e e x p l a i n e d more o r less s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

as t h e q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t of t h e i n i t i a l f o r m a t i o n of t h e b a s i c charges of a
conductive cloud. Rough estimates of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s e mechanisms,
w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of ohmic and c o n v e c t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y , do
n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e v a l u e s observed f o r t h e charges [35]. However, more d e t a i l e d
t r e a t m e n t s d e s c r i b i n g e l e c t r i c a l p r o c e s s e s which l e a d t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e of
b a s i c charges of c o n v e c t i v e clouds n o t producing p r e c i p i t a t i o n do n o t e x i s t .

The p i c t u r e of t h e f o r m a t i o n of l a r g e s p a c e charges o f b o t h s i g n s ,
s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e e n t i r e volume of t h e cloud, i s even less c l e a r . W e know
t h e s e c h a r g e s a r e formed i n c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s t h a t p e n e t r a t e t h e c l o u d . We

can assume t h a t an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i s played i n t h e formation of t h e charges by

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e spectrum of t h e drops i n t h e streams o f c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s ,
i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e spectrum i n s t r a t i f o r m c l o u d s , i s n o t s t a t i o n a r y f o r each
given level, which l e a d s t o r a p i d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e spectrum. However,
even a q u a l i t a t i v e system f o r the f o r m a t i o n of macro- and m i c r o p h y s i c a l charges

63
s c a t t e r e d i n the cloud has n o t y e t been worked o u t . It a p p e a r s promising t o
w e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y d e s c r i b e d above f o r e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c l e s l i n k e d
w i t h t h e i r c o n t a c t s and the d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical p r o p e r t i e s
of c o l l i d i n g p a r t i c l e s . Thus, w i t h a r a p i d rise of t h e stream, t h e p a r t i c l e s
a t i t s l i m i t s , " t r e s p a s s i n g " i n t o the r e l a t i v e l y f i x e d areas o f t h e cloud,
may have a chemical composition and t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e which are
i n h e r e n t l y found i n t h e o l d " i n h a b i t a n t s " of t h e level a f a c t o r , which must
i n c r e a s e t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n i n t h e zones p e n e t r a t e d by t h e streams i n t h e
cloud. It may be t h a t a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n may be provided
by t h e e f f e c t d i s c u s s e d by V. Nikandrov [72] , related t o a d i f f e r e n t rate of
e v a p o r a t i o n of p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e i o n s by s o l u t i o n s .

What w e s a i d e a r l i e r about t h e n e c e s s i t y of e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s f o r
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e o r i e s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n a p p l i e s completely t o t h e non-rain
c o n v e c t i v e clouds.

Before moving on t o an e v a l u a t i o n of t h e f o r m a t i o n o f cumulonimbus c l o u d s ,

l e t us recall that the charges t h a t accumulate a t t h e s t a g e of l a r g e c o n v e c t i v e
c l o u d s m a k e up a n e g l i g i b l e p a r t of t h e charges t h a t are s t o r e d a t t h e s t a g e
o f cumulonimbus clouds, and from t h i s viewpoint Cu cong do n o t p r e p a r e t h e Cb
stage. The o p p o s i t e viewpoint, t h e one h e l d by B. Vonnegut [26] who f e l t t h a t
t h e charge accumulated by t h e cloud as a f i l t e r i n t h e Cu cong s t a g e also
creates t h e charges i n t h e Cb, i s proven by t h e measurements of charges i n
Cu cong [83, 351. A t t h e same t i m e , however, w e w i l l see l a t e r on t h a t t h e
development of zones w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e f i e l d s i n Cu cong may p l a y a r o l e i n
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c l e s f o r a t r a n s i t i o n t o Cb.

Formation of t h e eleczlrical s t r u c t u r e of cumulonimbus c l o u d s . By comparing

t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of cumulonimbus clouds w i t h t h o s e of t h e clouds d i s c u s s e d
e a r l i e r , we can d i s c o v e r t h e common f e a t u r e s which t h e former s h a r e , b o t h w i t h
n i m b o s t r a t u s clouds (presence of charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n , c o e x i s t e n c e of s o l i d
and l i q u i d phases of w a t e r ) , as w e l l as w i t h cumulus congestus clouds ( v i o l e n t

64
convection, zones of c o n s i d e r a b l e e l e c t r i c a l and o t h e r m i c r o p h y s i c a l inhomo-
geneities). I n a d d i t i o n , a t l e a s t t h e f i r s t and t h i r d of t h e t h r e e s t a g e s of
development of t h e cloud o c c u r i n a n o n s t a t i o n a r y mode, w h i l e i n t h e second
( t h e s t a g e of m a t u r i t y ) t h e s t a t i o n a r y n a t u r e o f t h e mode i n thunderstorm
clouds i s c o n t i n u o u s l y d i s r u p t e d by l i g h t n i n g .

A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of thunderstorm c l o u d s i s t h e p r e s e n c e of two
b a s i c electrical charges i n t h e cloud: t h e r e l a t i v e l y small, u s u a l l y p o s i t i v e
charge b e n e a t h i t and s m a l l c h a r g e s s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e c l o u d , which
develop c o n s i d e r a b l e l o c a l f i e l d s by v i r t u e of t h e i r h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n . This
s t r u c t u r e ( s e e F i g u r e s 1 . 7 and 1.10) i s made up from t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e cumu-
l u s congestus cloud i n several ( f i v e o r more) minutes. I n o t h e r words, t h e
p r o c e s s of development and s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c h a r g e s i n t h e cloud ("organized
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n " ) i s u n u s u a l l y powerful, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e e f f e c t i v e con-
d u c t i v i t y i n clouds and consequently t h e l o s s o f c h a r g e s , i s very high.

W e can assume t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of cumulonimbus clouds t h a t h a s been

observed h a s t o do t o a l a r g e e x t e n t w i t h t h e release o f charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n
- the e x i s t e n c e of l a r g e areas of u n i p o l a r l y charged p a r t i c l e s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n
i n t h e cloud and observed d i r e c t l y b e n e a t h them i n a i r c r a f t measurements [ 4 2 ]
(we should r e c a l l t h a t ground measurements of c h a r g e s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n cannot
be d e t e c t e d due t o o v e r c h a r g i n g o f t h e drops i n such a r e a s ) . I n t h i s case,
t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r g e s of t h e clouds i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e may b e produced due t o
t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t l y charged l a r g e and s m a l l p a r t i c l e s ( F i g u r e 2 . 3 ) .
I f t h e p o s i t i v e p a r t i c l e s move r e l a t i v e t o t h e s m a l l ones through t h e active
volume of t h e cloud, an e l e c t r i c a l moment of t h e cloud M
0
w i l l develop ( i f w e /53
d i s r e g a r d s c a t t e r i n g of t h e f i e l d a t t h e edges of a p l a n e c a p a c i t o r ) shown i n
F i g u r e 2 3 [116]:

M, = j:,ltST
( 1 - e-L) 9

where j, i s t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f l a r g e p a r t i c l e s , h i s t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e
cloud i n which charge s e p a r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , S i s t h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n

65
 of the s e p a r a t i o n area of the charges,
T i s t h e r e l a x a t i o n t i m e of the p r o c e s s
I - + - $ - + - I i n the cloud, determined by the e f f e c -
h (I + - + - + - +p=o
tive c o n d u c t i v i t y X i n t h e active
I - + - + - + - ef f
I zone: T = €/Aeff, E is the d i e l e c t r i c
constant.

This e q u a t i o n c o r r e c t l y r e f l e c t s
F i g u r e 2.3. Formation of e l e c t r i c a l l y
p o l a r i z e d cloud. t h e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e cloud when t h e
Q+ and Q- = e l e c t r i c a l charges accumu- p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e l a t t e r are n o t a
l a t e d i n the upper and lower p a r t s f u n c t i o n of t i m e .
o f t h e cloud.

Obviously the p r o c e s s e s of charge

formation i n shower and t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s have much i n common, b u t f o r p u r e l y
p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s more a t t e n t i o n h a s been devoted t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of b a s i c
e l e c t r i c a l charges i n thunderstorms. They were d i s c u s s e d more o r less i n d e t a i l
i n [5, 141. A common f e a t u r e of t h e overwhelming m a j o r i t y o f them i s t h e f a c t
t h a t elementary e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n arises as t h e r e s u l t of the a c t i o n of c o n t a c t
phenomena, i n which l a r g e p a r t i c l e s are charged n e g a t i v e l y and t h e s m a l l ones
p o s i t i v e l y , b u t t h e d e t a i l s of t h e p r o c e s s e s d i f f e r i n d i f f e r e n t mechanisms.
The s e p a r a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c l e s of e q u a l s i z e takes p l a c e under t h e i n f l u e n c e
of g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s .

L e t u s b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e t h e mechanisms which are a p p a r e n t l y most a c t i v e ,

and t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e s
and t h e a l t i t u d e s a t which thunderstorm c l o u d s o c c u r , as w e l l as t h e d e f i n i t e
l o c a l i z a t i o n of areas i n which c h a r g e s are produced w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e z e r o
i s o t h e r m (-5, -20’ C) . The r a t i o s between t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h i s r e g i o n and
t h e h e i g h t s of t h e bottom and t o p of t h e c o n v e c t i v e cloud have a c r i t i c a l
e f f e c t on a thunderstorm a c t i v i t y , on t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e r o l e p l a y e d by p r e c i p i -
t a t i o n and t h e i c e phase i n t h e c r e a t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s f o r the appearance of
l i g h t n i n g , and on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e n e g a t i v e charge on t h e cloud i s n o t removed
by p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , Y e . Vorkman [ 2 7 ] proposed the f o l l o w i n g system

66
f o r formation of t h e b a s i c cloud charges. Two p r o c e s s e s may b e active. They
are formation of w e t h a i l s t o n e s , and s e p a r a t i o n of w a t e r from them, and t h e
c o l l i s i o n of r e l a t i v e l y d r y and c o l d ice p a r t i c l e s w i t h drops of s u p e r c o o l e d
w a t e r , leading t o p a r t i a l f r e e z i n g of t h e d r o p l e t s , subsequent e x p l o s i o n and
s h a t t e r i n g of t h e w a t e r . The f i n e p a r t i c l e s of w a t e r which explode and s c a t t e r
are p o s i t i v e l y charged, as r e q u i r e d by t h e mechanism of Workman and Reynolds.
Both p r o c e s s e s can t a k e p l a c e i n a zone where t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s grow
due t o t h e formation o f a s o l i d phase i n them. I n t h e zone where t h e growth of /54
t h e s o l i d phase of t h e p r e c e i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s ceases and m e l t i n g b e g i n s ,
c o l l i s i o n s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s w i t h cloud p a r t i c l e s l e a d s t o " s p i l l i n g "
of t h e n e g a t i v e c h a r g e , c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e m o i s t s u r f a c e . Soon a l a r g e p a r t
of t h e c h a r g e t r a n s f e r s t o t h e s m a l l d r o p l e t s of w a t e r which a r e c a r r i e d up-
ward by r i s i n g c u r r e n t s . The r i s i n g d r o p l e t s w i l l i n t e r a c t w i t h o t h e r i c e
p a r t i c l e s , which have a l r e a d y a c q u i r e d t h e i r c h a r g e s due t o t h e mechanisms
d e s c r i b e d above. Hence, a c a s c a d e p r o c e s s o p e r a t e s , a s t h e r e s u l t of which a
c h a r g e i s b u i l t up i n t h e n e g a t i v e l y charged a r e a by t h e f a l l i n g i c i c l e s . The
p r e c i p i t a t i o n does n o t c a r r y away a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r g e from t h e c l o u d . The
lower p o s i t i v e charge of t h e cloud i s formed as t h e r e s u l t of i n t e n s i v e
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of l a r g e d r o p l e t s i n powerful e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s ( f o r example,
[135]). More d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h i s mechanism may b e found i n
[ 2 7 , 1 7 2 , 1731. Latham and Stow, who measured t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e
c h a r g e of l a r g e and r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p a r t i c l e s d i r e c t l y i n v a r i o u s c o n v e c t i v e
c l o u d s , and a l s o observed t h e shape of t h e i c e p a r t i c l e s , reached t h e con-
c l u s i o n t h a t t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n h a s t o do p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e i n d u c t i o n
mechanism of J . S a r t o r [79] and t h e Raynolds-Brook mechanism [ 1 4 , 142, 221
which o p e r a t e s d u r i n g t h e c o l l i s i o n s of i c e c r y s t a l s w i t h g r a u p e l p a r t i c l e s .

L . G . Kachurin [54] f e e l s t h a t t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n which t a k e s p l a c e

d u r i n g t h e e x p l o s i o n s of d r o p l e t s i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r g e s of
t h e thunderstorm cloud t o b e formed and m a i n t a i n e d w i t h t h e same l o s s e s t h a t
t a k e p l a c e i n t h e cloud.

67
 W e can assume [116] t h a t , i n g e n e r a l o u t l i n e s , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
p r i n c i p a l c h a r g e s i n cumulonimbus c l o u d s , r e g a r d l e s s of what t h e mechanism of
c h a r g i n g the i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s may b e , i s similar t o the c h a r g i n g of nimbo-
s t r a t u s clouds, b u t w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t s t a t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n s are n o t
a c h i e v e d i n cumulonimbus c l o u d s . However, on t h e whole, i t i s charged nega-
t i v e l y , due t o t h e p o s i t i v e l y charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n , w h i l e i n i t s upper p a r t
(due t o t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r r e n t s ) a p o s i t i v e c h a r g e i s s t o r e d .

This c h a r g i n g system i s shown i n F i g u r e 2.4.

F i g u r e 2.4. Charging of cumulonimbus cloud ( a c -

c o r d i n g t o I . Imyanitov) .
a, b y c y d = successive s t a g e s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n .

A l l of t h e c h a r g i n g mechanisms which we have d i s c u s s e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e

method f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e f i e l d s i g n r e v e r s a l above cumulonimbus clouds i n t h e
c o u r s e of t h e i r development ( t r a n s f e r of n e g a t i v e l y charged p r e c i p i t a t i o n par-
t i c l e s by a powerful c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t t o t h e upper p a r t o f t h e cloud d u r i n g
t h e f i r s t s t a g e of i t s development [ 5 2 ] , o r t h e f a l l of p o s i t i v e l y charged
p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t t h i s s t a g e ) , are h y p o t h e t i c a l t o some d e g r e e , s i n c e w e l a c k
s u f f i c i e n t d a t a on t h e microphysics and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n
clouds. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e development of i d e a s r e g a r d i n g t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n
of thunderstorm clouds i s v a l u a b l e n o t o n l y from t h e c o g n i t i v e s t a n d p o i n t ,

68
s
i
Ei b u t p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e development of methods f o r i n f l u e n c i n g thunderstorms. /55

Measurement o f e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n c l o u d s i n c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h t h e measurements o f a e r o l o g i c a l and m i c r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s been
and s t i l l is one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t problems. i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of cloud
e l e c t r i c i t y [13].

The accumulation o f s p a c e charges i n a cloud i s h i n d e r e d by l o s s e s . Until

r e c e n t l y , i t w a s f e l t t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s t h a t flow above thunderstorm
clouds are approximately e q u a l t o t h e c u r r e n t s i n t h e c l o u d s . I n 1956, a n o t h e r
viewpoint w a s e x p r e s s e d , and i n 1965, E. J. Workman [ 2 7 ] s t a t e d t h a t a thunder-
s t o r m cloud must b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a n e l e c t r i c a l machine w i t h very poor i n -
sulation. It i s n a t u r a l t h a t e l e c t r i c a l charges may be l o s t due t o t h e e l e c t r i -
c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e medium. D i r e c t measurements of e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
i n thunderstorm clouds could n o t be performed u n t i l r e c e n t l y , b u t measurement
o f t h e f i e l d r e l a x a t i o n t i m e f o l l o w i n g a s t r o k e of l i g h t n i n g showed t h a t t h e
e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e a c t i v e p a r t of t h e thunderstorm cloud
i s s e v e r a l t e n s o f t i m e s h i g h e r than t h a t i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g atmosphere, and can
change from one cloud t o a n o t h e r . Consequently, t h e change i n t h e magnitude
of t h e charge on cumulonimbus c l o u d s may a l s o change n o t i c e a b l y f o r t h e s a m e
reason. The r e a s o n f o r such g r e a t e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i s n o t c l e a r , b u t
may have something t o do w i t h i n c r e a s e d i o n i z a t i o n i n t h e a c t i v e p a r t of t h e
cloud, and t h e r e f o r e i s reduced t o ohmic c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n c i d e n t a l l y , i n cumulo-
nimbus c l o u d s , i n c o n t r a s t t o N s , an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of p a r t i c l e s may
l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y . Increased e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l
c o n d u c t i v i t y may b e a consequence of h i g h t u r b u l e n c e and d i v e r g e n c e of v e r t i c a l
a i r f l o w s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y may have a n o n e l e c t r i c a l o r i g i n . However, r e g a r d l e s s
of what t h e s p e c i f i c mechanism may have been f o r f o r m a t i o n o f c o n d u c t i v i t y i n
t h e cloud, i t i s c l e a r t h a t i t s changes can c o n t r o l t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e
thunderstorm p r o c e s s i n t h e cloud. I n a cloud w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y weak e l e c t r i c a l
precipitation current, thunderstorm phenomena may a r i s e i f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y /56
i s low. On t h e o t h e r hand, thunderstorm phenomena may n o t develop i f t h e con-
d u c t i v i t y i s h i g h i n a c l o u d w i t h s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n c u r r e n t s [1161.

69

I
 F a i l u r e t o p r e d i c t thunderstorms i n a number o f cases may h a v e t o do w i t h
f a i l u r e t o c o n s i d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of cloud c o n d u c t i v i t y . Difficulties i n
p r e d i c t i n g n i g h t t i m e thunderstorms , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e development of
thunderstorms above w a t e r , l a t i t u d i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of thunderstorm
development, e t c . , may b e l a r g e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e magnitude of t h e e l e c t r i c a l
l o s s e s i n t h e c l o u d s and t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y . W e know f o r example
(Table 2 . 3 ) t h a t , as w e move toward t h e e q u a t o r , t h e minimun t h i c k n e s s of t h e
c l o u d s which can produce thunderstorm phenomena i n c r e a s e s [116]. It would
a p p e a r t h a t , as w e move toward t h e e q u a t o r , the p o s s i b i l i t y of thunderstorms
becomes g r e a t e r due t o t h e g r e a t e r i n f l u x of h e a t and m o i s t u r e . While i n t h e
n o r t h thunderstorm phenomena w i l l develop i n a cloud w i t h a g i v e n t h i c k n e s s ,
t h e y w i l l appear w i t h more l i k e l i h o o d when t h i s cloud moves toward t h e e q u a t o r .
I n r e a l i t y , (Table 2 . 3 ) , t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t i s observed. As a cloud moves
toward lower l a t i t u d e s , thunderstorm phenomena arise i n i t o n l y i f t h e clouds
are t h i c k , and g r e a t e r c u r r e n t s flow i n them and h i g h e r charges develop t h a n
at higher l a t i t u d e s . The i n c r e a s e i n t h e maximum t h i c k n e s s o f clouds which
produce l i g h t n i n g , as one moves toward t h e e q u a t o r , u s u a l l y h a s t o do w i t h an
accompanying i n c r e a s e i n t h e l e v e l of t h e z e r o i s o t h e r m , s i n c e i t i s f e l t t h a t ,
f o r accumulation of c h a r g e s , development of an i c e p h a s e i s n e c e s s a r y . The
d a t a i n Table 2 . 3 , however, i n d i c a t e t h a t , as t h e l a t i t u d e d e c r e a s e s , t h e
t h i c k n e s s of t h e s u p e r c o o l e d p a r t o f t h e cloud i n c r e a s e s . I n o t h e r words,
merely an i n c r e a s e i n t h e z e r o i s o t h e r m would b e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e
growth t h a t i s n o t e d i n t h e minimum t h i c k n e s s e s of thunderstorm c l o u d s .

We can assume t h a t t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n t u r b u l e n c e and convection i n

c l o u d s which move toward lower l a t i t u d e s , i . e . , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n t h e
e f f e c t of c o n d u c t i v i t y . Then t h e accumulation of e l e c t r i c a l charges i n t h e
clouds becomes more d i f f i c u l t . The cloud must c o n t a i n more d r o p s , and t h e /57
drops themselves m u s t r e a c h l a r g e r s i z e s and accumulate l a r g e r c h a r g e s i n o r d e r
t o create s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e s p a c e charges. But t h i s r e q u i r e s h i g h v e l o c i t y
of v e r t i c a l c u r r e n t s i n t h e cloud, and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s e s .

70
 TABLE 2.3

Minimum t h i c k -
n e s s of clouds Aver age
A r e a studied f o d n g thun- a1t i t u d e Source
derstorm is0 t herm
phenomena w i t h Oo C y m
90% p r o b a b i l i t y
m

Leningrad 5100 3000

Cape Mirotomissaki 7500 4900
(Japan9
F l o r i d a (USA) 7900 4400
New D e l h i ( I n d i a ) 9400 5600
Poona ( I n d i a )

The c o n v e c t i o n dependence of t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e danger o f thunder-

s t o r m s Y, one of whose components i s t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e upper l i m i t
of t h e c l o u d , w a s n o t e d by Y e . M. Sal'man, S. B. Gashina and L. I. Kuznetsova
[78]. According t o t h e i r d a t a , t h e r e i s a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between Y and
t h e i n s t a b i l i t y energy E c h a r a c t e r i z i n g convection. This r e l a t i o n s h i p has t h e
form Y = aE + b.

I f t h e e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n t h e clouds d e c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y - i . e . , if
t h e r e i s a d e c r e a s e i n c o n d u c t i v i t y - thunderstorm phenomena may arise, even
i n systems w i t h v e r y s m a l l e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s i n which a t t e n u a t e d e l e c t r i f i -
c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s are t a k i n g p l a c e .

Thus, f o r example, w e can e x p l a i n t h e appearance of l i g h t n i n g i n warm

c l o u d s [93, 1301. A s a r u l e , thunderstorms of t h i s k i n d are observed n e a r
w a t e r d u r i n g t h e evening h o u r s , i . e . , when w e can e x p e c t reduced t u r b u l e n c e .

71
 A v e r y v a l u a b l e mans of s t u d y i n g the l o s s e s i n c l o u d s i s the measurement
of t h e f i e l d r e l a x a t i o n t i m e f o l l o w i n g l i g h t n i n g . W e can e x p e c t d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e r e l a x a t i o n t i m e of t h e f i e l d o f thunderstorms which arise i n c l o u d s of
mixed s t r u c t u r e and i n warm clouds.

The r e a s o n s f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of p a r t i c l e charges have been d i s c u s s e d i n

S e c t i o n 1 i n g e n e r a l form. A more c o n c r e t e a n a l y s i s i s p r e c l u d e d by the
following: F i r s t l y , as w e have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t o u r knowledge of
the microphysics o f p r o c e s s e s i n thunderstorm clouds i s a b s o l u t e l y i n s u f f i c i e n t .
Consequently, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o t e s t t h e agreement of s p e c i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l
systems w i t h t h e a c t u a l s t a t e of t h e clouds. Secondly, as w e s h a l l demonstrate
l a t e r on, e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n thunderstorm c l o u d s , which are d e t e r -
mined by t h e i r m i c r o p h y s i c s , may themselves have an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e
m i c r o p h y s i c a l s t a t e , and consequently, may c o n t r o l macroprocesses i n t h e
clouds.

L e t u s merely n o t e t h a t t h e mechanism of c o n t a c t s u c c e s s i v e e l e c t r i f i -
c a t i o n [ 3 8 , 711 i s s u f f i c i e n t l y e f f e c t i v e , s o t h a t i t can e x p l a i n s p a c e charges
b o t h i n mixed and even i n w a r m cumulonimbus clouds.

A s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of cumulonimbus clouds i s t h e p r e s e n c e of l a r g e
s p a c e charges i n t h e zones of inhomogeneity which are s c a t t e r e d through t h e
e n t i r e volume of t h e cloud. The appearance of t h e s e zones, as i n t h e c a s e of
cumulus congestus c l o u d s , i s a g a i n r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e of r i s i n g and
descending movements, a l t h o u g h i n t h i s case, i t i s n o t clear why l a r g e space
charges develop i n t h e flow zones. W e can only assume t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f p a r t i c l e s and charges a t a given l e v e l a cloud w i t h o u t flows r a p i d l y
t a k e s on a q u a s i s t a t i o n a r y n a t u r e , i n which t h e development o f t h e cloud - /58
a change i n t h e s p e c t r a of t h e p a r t i c l e dimensions and charges - s t o p s , i . e . ,
t h e e n t r o p y of t h e system i n c r e a s e s i n t e n s i v e l y . T h e appearance o f flows
i n t h e cloud - which t r a n s p o r t charged p a r t i c l e s ( w i t h s p e c t r a of p a r t i c l e
dimensions and charges e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a given l e v e l ) t o some o t h e r l e v e l , f o r
which t h e s e s p e c t r a are n o t s t a t i o n a r y , w i t h s p e c t r a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n which

72
accompanies t h i s p r o c e s s - l e a d s t o a d e c r e a s e i n the e n t r o p y o f t h e system
and a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e cloud development.

L e t us d i s c u s s t h e r o l e of inhomogeneities i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of l i g h t n i n g
i n t h e cloud. The f i e l d i n t e n s i t y which i s produced by t h e b a s i c
charges i n t h e cloud i s t o o s m a l l t o g e n e r a t e thunderstorm d i s c h a r g e s . In
inhomogeneities, a f i e l d i n t e n s i t y could develop (although b r i e f l y ) s u f f i c i e n t
t o s t a r t t h e d i s c h a r g e , whose development i s maintained by t h e b a s i c c h a r g e s
s t o r e d by t h e c l o u d . I n c l o u d s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of inhomogeneities
i n c r e a s e s w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n t e n s i t y o f convection and w i t h t h e growth
of t u r b u l e n c e . Hence, on t h e one hand, t h e t u r b u l e n t streams i n t h e cloud
p r e v e n t t h e development o f thunderstorm phenomena, s i n c e t h e y promote d i s s i p a -
t i o n of t h e b a s i c charges of t h e thunderstorm cloud. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e y
promote t h e development of l i g h t n i n g , which c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e formation o f
e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneities i n t h e cloud. Another f a c t o r may b e r e l a t e d t o
t h i s d u a l r o l e of c o n v e c t i o n and t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e cloud which c o m p l i c a t e s t h e
p r e d i c t i o n of t h u n d e r s t o r m phenomena, e s p e c i a l l y i n " a t y p i c a l " c o n d i t i o n s
(thunderstorms o v e r w a t e r , n i g h t t i m e thunderstorms, w i n t e r t h u n d e r s t o r m s ) .

W e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t i n many cases h i g h e l e c t r i c a l b a s i c charges can e x i s t

i n clouds which are s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n thunderstorm d i s c h a r g e s ; a t t h e
same t i m e , t h e inhomogeneities t h a t are n e c e s s a r y f o r i t s i n i t i a t i o n may be
absent. I n t h o s e clouds which develop a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s i n w i n t e r , e a r l y
s p r i n g and l a t e f a l l , t h e r e i s u s u a l l y no t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n of l a r g e -
d r o p l e t p r e c i p i t a t i o n ; t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s e clouds may b e 1-2 kilometers
a t most. The e n t r y i n t o such c l o u d s of an e l e c t r i c a l l y charged a i r c r a f t which
can p l a y t h e r o l e o f an e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneity ( i t can b e g i n an e l e c t r i c a l
d i s c h a r g e ) l e a d s t o t h e development o f l i g h t n i n g , which s t r i k e s t h e a i r c r a f t
121.

I n thunderstorm clouds , a c o r r e l a t i o n between n o n e l e c t r i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l

p r o c e s s e s i s most c l e a r l y e v i d e n t ; f o r example, t h e i n t e n s i t y o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n
and convection w i t h e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of clouds. The d i s c l o s u r e of t h e s e

73
 r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h e i r n a t u r e i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e f o r methods of
d i a g n o s i s and p h y s i c s of c l o u d s . It h a s a l r e a d y been n o t e d t h a t such a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c l o u d p r o c e s s e s as t h e i n t e n s i t y o f the e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n
i t s v i c i n i t y is a n i n d i c a t o r o f t h e development o f t h e c l o u d i n t h e n a t u r a l
s t a t e and of a cloud which i s s u b j e c t e d t o active i n f l u e n c e s [ 3 9 , 8 3 , 1161.
The i n f l u e n c e of t u r b u l e n c e on t h e development of l i g h t n i n g , e t c . , has a l s o
been d i s c u s s e d .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e s t i l l do n o t have a complete q u a l i t a t i v e p i c t u r e of
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e n o n e l e c t r i c a l and electrical processes in
cumulonimbus c l o u d s , n o t t o mention t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a s p e c t o f t h e phenomena.
The p o s s i b i l i t y of disclosing t h e c a u s a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p of e l e c t r i c a l and
n o n e l e c t r i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n c l o u d s i s b a s e d on answers t o q u e s t i o n s of how
m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n clouds a f f e c t e l e c t r i c a l o n e s , and how t h e l a t t e r
a f f e c t n o n e l e c t r i c a l p r o c e s s e s and phenomena. C u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n which makes
i t p o s s i b l e t o answer t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n has been g i v e n above. L e t us t r y t o
answer t h e second q u e s t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s answer may
a l s o b e extended t o p r o c e s s e s which take p l a c e i n o t h e r t h a n cumulonimbus
clouds.

5 3. I n f l u e n c e o f t h e E l e c t r i c a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a
Cloud on i t s Development

The most d i s r u p t i v e i n t e n s i v e showers and t h e cloud which d i s a p p e a r s

w i t h o u t a t r a c e i n good w e a t h e r owe t h e i r e x i s t e n c e and t h e i r e n t i r e h i s t o r y
t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n . The c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e of t h e e f f e c t s i n t h e cloud
u n q u e s t i o n a b l y c o m p l i c a t e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e changes i n i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i -
cles. W e have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e charges on p a r t i c l e s
i s accompanied by a growth i n t h e f i e l d of t h e c l o u d , e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i n c r e a s e
of charges. Subsequent c o l l i s i o n s of p a r t i c l e s l e a d t o accumulation of c h a r g e s
on them. L. Levin and Yu. Sedunov [65] state: 'I.. . In recent years, there
h a s been a gap i n t h e s t u d y of m i c r o p h y s i c a l phenomena i n c l o u d s . The emphasis
h a s s h i f t e d from a s t u d y of elementary p r o c e s s e s t o a s t u d y of t h e b e h a v i o r

74
of an a g g r e g a t e of d r o p l e t s ..., and a need h a s a r i s e n t o reduce t h e
problems o f f o r m a t i o n of p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o a mathematical model
o f t h e phenomena and a s o l u t i o n of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e system o f e q u a t i o n s . "
D e s p i t e t h e accuracy of t h i s s t a t e m e n t of t h e problem, w e m u s t n o t e w i t h r e g r e t
t h a t i t cannot b e s o l v e d i n a form which i s s u i t a b l e f o r p r a c t i c a l u s e i f w e
do n o t know the c o n s t a n t s o f the kinetics o f t h e development and growth of
cloud p a r t i c l e s and t h e c o n s t a n t s of t h e p a i r e d i n t e r a c t i o n s between them.
Hence, t h e problem o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n clouds merely e x t e n d s , b u t
does n o t r e p l a c e , t h e problem o f elementary p r o c e s s e s .

Under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s , a g r e a t many p r o c e s s e s have been s t u d i e d i n

which e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s i n f l u e n c e t h e development of p a r t i c l e s . The c h a r g e s
-6
on drops w i t h a r a d i u s of less than 10 cm i n f l u e n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n s of con-
d e n s a t i o n of vapor on them [ 8 ] . I n s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s , drops may b e
e l o n g a t e d and broken up [121, 1221. Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s , -
/60
t h e c o n d i t i o n s of c o l l i s i o n and f u s i o n of p a r t i c l e s of clouds and p r e c i p i t a t i o n
change. Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on p a r t i c l e s , t h e r e i s i n -
c r e a s e d growth o f h o a r , and t h e e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s a f f e c t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
f r e e z i n g o f t h e drops t o some degree [139, 106, 1291. The r o l e of m a c r o e f f e c t s
may b e g r e a t . It has been shown i n q u a l i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e s t h a t e l e c t r i c a l
f o r c e s may i n f l u e n c e t h e t i m e t h e drops remain i n t h e c l o u d , and t h e r e b y may
promote i t s growth. The p a r t i c l e s which are charged n e a r t h e l i g h t n i n g channel
and s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e cloud may l e a d t o a v e r y r a p i d growth of t h e drops
i n t h e cloud [121]. F i n a l l y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o have a complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f
e l e c t r i c a l and n o n e l e c t r i c a l p r o c e s s e s w i t h t h e p r e s c e n c e of feedback between
them. Thus, t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s i n t h e cloud depend on t h e number and c h a r g e s
of t h e p a r t i c l e s , and t h e p a r t i c l e s which are d e s t r o y e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
are e l e c t r i f i e d : t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of c o a g u l a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e s t h a t are
formed i s a f f e c t e d by t h e i r charge. The e x p l o s i o n o f a f r e e z i n g drop i s accom- .
panied by e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e fragments t h a t f l y o u t i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . At
t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e s e fragments, s t r i k i n g s u p e r c o o l e d d r o p l e t s , t r i g g e r a series
of new e x p l o s i o n s , e t c . , which l e a d s t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a f i e l d i n t h e cloud

75
which a f f e c t s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f r e e z i n g . To s o l v e the problems concerning
t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l characteristics on t h e " n o n e l e c t r i c a l " p r o c e s s e s
i n c l o u d s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y , f i r s t of a l l , t o select - from t h e e n t i r e collec-
t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t s - t h a t e f f e c t which can take p l a c e i n clouds o f
a l l types. Secondly, i t is n e c e s s a r y t o determine t h e c o n s t a n t s of t h e k i n e t i c s
of t h e development and i n t e r a c t i o n of cloud p a r t i c l e s , and t h e i r v a l u e s must
be compared w i t h t h e c o n s t a n t s which act i n t h e absence o f e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s .
F i n a l l y , i n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , w e must determine t h e rates a t which t h e p r o c e s s
t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e clouds. To s o l v e t h e f i r s t problem, a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i s
p l a y e d by t h e comparison of e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on cloud e l e c t r i c i t y w i t h t h e
d a t a from l a b o r a t o r y and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s of t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l
f o r c e s on t h e c o n d i t i o n s of p a r t i c l e development , i n c l u d i n g t h e i r p a i r e d
interactions.

L e t us d i s c u s s t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on t h e b e h a v i o r of
p a r t i c l e s i n clouds. I n many c a s e s w e cannot e x p l a i n the phenomena which are
observed w i t h o u t i n t r o d u c i n g any a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s . L e t us r e c a l l , f o r
example, t h a t c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s develop s o r a p i d l y t h a t o n l y c o a g u l a t i o n of
t h e cloud d r o p l e t s can i n s u r e t h e r e q u i r e d rate of growth of t h e d r o p l e t s ; a t
t h e same t i m e , however, ( a c c o r d i n g t o Hocking [ 1 1 5 ] ) , drops w i t h a r a d i u s less
t h a n 19 microns cannot c o l l i d e ( a c c o r d i n g t o Davis and S a r t o r [ 9 8 ] , t h e c o e f f i -
c i e n t of t h e i r c o a g u l a t i o n s [ F i g u r e 2.51 i s v e r y s m a l l ) , while t h e condensation
growth of d r o p l e t s t o a r a d i u s which exceeds t h e r a d i u s o f t h e f o r b i d d e n coagu-
l a t i o n r e q u i r e s a much g r e a t e r t i m e than t h e time n e c e s s a r y f o r cloud develop-
ment. Without d w e l l i n g on t h e v a r i o u s assumptions t o e x p l a i n t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,
w e w i l l o n l y n o t e t h a t t h e appearance of charges on d r o p l e t s and e l e c t r i c a l /61
f i e l d s i s a b l e t o remove t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i f t h e f o r b i d d e n c o a g u l a t i o n a r e a
i s s h i f t e d toward s m a l l d r o p l e t s . Moore and Vonnegut [134] observed an i n t e n -
sive f a l l of p r e c i p i t a t i o n from h i g h l y e l e c t r i f i e d c l o u d s a v e r y s h o r t t i m e
a f t e r t h e development of a r a d a r echo from t h e cloud. They e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e d r o p l e t s i n t h e s e clouds was 4-10 times
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s assumed f o r n o n e l e c t r i f i e d c l o u d s . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s

76
 o f t h e c a p t u r e , m i g h t have changed due t o t h e
i n c r e a s e of t h e r e l a t i v e c a p t u r e c r o s s s e c t i o n
( c o l l i s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ) and an i n c r e a s e i n
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of merging d u r i n g c o l l i s i o n s .

I n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on t h e
p-r?bab-ility of p a r t i c l e c o l l i s i o n s . Calcula-
t i o n s of t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s
on t h e c o l l i s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of d r o p l e t s w e r e
performed by Levin [ 4 , 641, Levin and Sedunov
[ 661, Krasnogorskaya [ 59, 601 , Semonin [ 1481,

F i g u r e 2.5. C o e f f i c i e n t of Davis and S a r t o r [98], S a r t o r and M i l l e r [ 1 4 6 ] ,

c o l l i s i o n E of two uncharged and o t h e r s . From t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s , i n
drops i n t h e absence o f an
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , a c c o r d i n g-
p a r t i c u l a r , i t follows t h a t t h e electrical
t o [1351. f o r c e s have l i t t l e i f any i n f l u e n c e on t h e c o l l i -
A1 - r a d i u s of l a r g e drop; s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of drops w i t h a d i a m e t e r
A2 - r a d i u s of smaller d r o p ; g r e a t e r than 50 microns. The c o l l i s i o n c o e f f i -
1 - a c c o r d i n g t o [135]; c i e n t of d r o p l e t s w i t h a d i a m e t e r l e s s t h a n
2 - according t o [ 1 3 4 ] .
Numbers above c u r v e s : 10 microns (with t h e appearance of e l e c t r i c a l
A v a l u e s , i n microns. charges which are found i n a l l forms of clouds)
1
i s much g r e a t e r t h a n z e r o . The i n f l u e n c e o f
e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on t h e c o l l i s i o n of l a r g e r cloud p a r t i c l e s i s connected w i t h
t h e appearance of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s w i t h an i n t e n s i t y g r e a t e r t h a n lo4 V/m,
a n d / o r charges on p a r t i c l e s w i t h more t h a n 1000 elementary c h a r g e s . The e f f e c t
of e l e c t r i c a l charges may b e i n c r e a s e d i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t of t u r b u l e n t -
e l e c t r i c a l coagulation [66]. T h i s mechanism becomes e f f e c t i v e when t h e charges
on t h e drops exceed t h e observed average v a l u e s 3 t o 1 0 t i m e s .

It f o l l o w s from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f N. V. Krasnogorskaya [59, 601, f o r

example, t h a t i f t h e c o l l i s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f two uncharged p a r t i c l e s w i t h
r a d i i of 1 5 and 20 microns e q u a l s 0 . 8 i n t h e absence of a f i e l d , t h e n i n v e r t i -
5 6
cal f i e l d s w i t h i n t e n s i t i e s of 2 x lo5, 6 x 1 0 and 10 V/m,the c o e f f i c i e n t s
o f c a p t u r e w i l l b e e q u a l t o 1.6, 5.2 and 8.4, respectively. For uncharged

77
 d r o p l e t s w i t h r a d i i o f 6 and 8 microns, t h e c a p t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t is e q u a l t o -
I62
z e r o i n t h e absence of a f i e l d , and 1 and 4 i n f i e l d s w i t h i n t e n s i t i e s of
5 x 104 and 105 V/m, respectively. The appearance of c h a r g e s o f corresponding
s i g n s o n t h e d r o p l e t s may f u r t h e r increase t h e c a p t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t .

W e have a l r e a d y mentioned e a r l i e r t h a t i n clouds of d i f f e r e n t forms zones

w i t h d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f p r o b a b i l i t y may develop i n which an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
exceeds t h e average many t i m e s .

I f such a p r o b a b i l i t y i s low i n t h e c a s e of S t and S c c l o u d s , t h e n i n t h e

c a s e of N s a t middle l a t i t u d e s a f i e l d w i t h a n i n t e n s i t y of more t h a n 10,000 V/m
i s found i n 0.1% o f t h e t o t a l volume, w h i l e i n cumulus c o n g e s t u s clouds and
cumulonimbus clouds t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e n c o u n t e r i n g a f i e l d w i t h an i n t e n s i t y
of more t h a n 10,000 v/m is greater.

I n t h e s e zones of i n c r e a s e d f i e l d s and l a r g e s p a c e c h a r g e s , drops w i l l

most l i k e l y b e found whose charges are many t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e average
charges of d r o p l e t s . The f i e l d s and charges t h a t develop i n t h e s e zones
are s u f f i c i e n t t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e c o l l i s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e cloud
p a r t i c l e s (Figure 2.6). It i s s t r i k i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e more i n t e n s i v e t h e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t f a l l s from t h e cloud, t h e f a s t e r t h e development of t h e
cloud takes p l a c e and t h e more l i k e l y i t i s t h a t w e w i l l f i n d i n i t e l e c t r i c a l l y /Fj3
a c t i v e zones, i n which t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may i n t e n s i f y coag-
ulation significantly. I f i n F i g u r e 1 t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e average i n t e n s i t y
of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d w i t h t h e r a d a r echo of t h e clouds h a s no p h y s i c a l
b a s i s , t h e question then a r i s e s : is i t p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e development of the
cloud i n v o l v e s n o t o n l y t h e a v e r a g e f i e l d s whose magnitude u s u a l l y is s m a l l ,
b u t a l s o t h e f i e l d s which d i f f e r s h a r p l y from t h e a v e r a g e , which are u s u a l l y
encountered more f r e q u e n t l y , t h e l a r g e r are t h e a v e r a g e f i e l d s ? L e t us recall
6 7
t h a t o u t of 10 t o 1 0 cloud d r o p l e t s , only one becomes r a i n . How does t h i s
happen? One a l t e r n a t i v e i s p o s s i b l e : e i t h e r t h e r a i n d r o p s develop as very
s m a l l p r o b a b l e c o l o s s a l f l u c t u a t i o n s produced by average c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e x i s t
i n t h e cloud and are g e n e r a t e d w i t h e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y a t any p o i n t i n t h e cloud
 a t a given l e v e l , o r t h e s e d r o p s develop
b
i n cloud zones whose c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r
g r e a t l y from average c o n d i t i o n s - i n
- 30
unusual n u r s e r i e s o f r a i n d r o p s , mani-
’O f e s t e d as a p a r t i c u l a r small f l u c t u a t i o n
30
- 30 a g a i n s t a background t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l y
exceeds t h e average. I f t h e second
system i s v a l i d , t h e n r a p i d development
of c o n v e c t i v e clouds and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
I
of t h e cloud p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t e n s i t y t o
f04 \
.
I t h e electrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
clouds becomes clear.

F i g u r e 2.6. I n t e n s i t y of c o l l i s i o n s
P = E (U - U ) i n cm/sec, e q u a l
1 2
t o t h e product of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
of c o l l i s i o n by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e f a l l rates o f t h e p a r t i c l e s , a s
a f u n c t i o n of t h e charge on
p a r t i c l e s and t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1351.
16
1 - E = 0 , Q = Q, = 8 - 1 0 C;
1 d i f f e r many t i m e s from t h e average.
C
As s t r a n g e a s i t seems, c u r r e n t
knowledge of cloud p h y s i c s does n o t
l e a d t o a s o l u t i o n of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e .
Current knowledge of t h e p r o c e s s e s i n
clouds i s based on average cloud char-
acteristics. It may b e t h a t t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered by t h e t h e o r y
of p r e c i p i t a t i o n may b e l i n k e d t o t h i s
s i t u a t i o n t o a l a r g e e x t e n t ; on t h e
b a s i s of average v a l u e s , t h i s theory
must e x p l a i n t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s which

2 - E = 3 . 3 ~ 1 0V/m,
~ Q, =-Q, = But i s F t p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e

= 8-10-16 c; p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a

5 genius by i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e m e n t a l
3 - E = 3.3.10 V/m, Q, = Q, = 0;
c a p a c i t i e s , l e t u s s a y , of a thousand
4 - E = Q = Q, = 0. p e o p l e who show up f o r examination?
I n f a c t , a l l of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t
w e have about t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

79
 the s p e c t r a o f d r o p l e t s i n c l o u d s a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d w a s o b t a i n e d from an
3
analysis o f 1-10 m of c l o u d air. T h e r e f o r e , there is no p o s s i b i l i t y o f
e x p l a i n i n g t h e characteristics of a spectrum i n p a r t i c u l a r zones o f clouds.
Even when s u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y h a s o c c u r r e d , i n v e s t i g a t o r s have overlooked it.
The a u t h o r s o f [119] s t u d i e d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w a t e r c o n t e n t i n c l o u d s , and,
a l t h o u g h t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t spectrum h a s a d e f i n i t e tendency t o cover t h e r e g i o n
of h i g h e r v a l u e s , t h e a u t h o r [119] approximates i t by a Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n .

A t t h e same t i m e , however, t h e increase i n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e ,

of p r e c i p i t a t i o n o r t h e appearance of r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p a r t i c l e s i n a s m a l l
volume o f cloud h a s been t e s t e d q u i t e r e l i a b l y . L e t us r e c a l l t h a t , d u r i n g
active i n f l u e n c e s on t h e cloud, t h e r e a g e n t i n i t i a l l y f a l l s o n l y i n t o a s m a l l
p a r t of t h e cloud, amounting t o 10-I5 - of i t s volume [Sa]. Therefore,
t h e v e r s i o n of growth o f cloud d r o p l e t s from which t h e r a i n d r o p s later grow
i s very p r o b a b l e i n zones of t h e cloud w i t h s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s .

Obviously, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o have f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s of t h e /64

small-scale inhomogeneities of t h e space charge and t h e measurements of t h e
spectrum of dimensions and c h a r g e s of i n d i v i d u a l drops i n s u c h inhomogeneities.
It i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t of s m a l l zones of p r e f e r r e d coagula-
t i o n on t h e development of t h e cloud as a whole, s o as t o r e a c h a s o l u t i o n of
t h e problem r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on t h e non-
e l e c t r i c a l processes i n clouds. I t should b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a s t u d y of t h e
r e a s o n s f o r t h e development o f such e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneities , even when t h e y
have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e development of c l o u d s , i s i m p o r t a n t f o r a n under-
s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s e s of cloud e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n .

A l l of t h e g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e x p r e s s e d r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s s i b l e a c t i o n
o f e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are based on i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e o r e t i c a l l y
determined c o l l i s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s of two charged p a r t i c l e s , f a l l i n g i n t o an
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d and w i t h o u t i t . However, such c a l c u l a t i o n s are performed f o r
an i d e a l i z e d case of two s o l i d s p h e r e s . I n a d d i t i o n , as w e can see from [ 3 6 ] ,
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s may be s u b j e c t t o e r r o r s due t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i t s e l f .

80
 T h e r e f o r e , i t i s e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g t o check e x p e r i m e n t a l l y the r e s u l t s o f
the theoretical calculations. The n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s must b e modelled s u f f i -
ciently well. Thus f a r , experiments s t u d y i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of charged p a r t i -
cles i n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s and w i t h o u t them, modelling n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s s u f f i -
c i e n t l y w e l l , have n o t been performed. T h i s i s a problem f o r t h e f u t u r e .

Effect
-_ _ of e l e c t.r_
i c a l f o r c e s .on t h e p - r b a b l e merging o f c o l l i d i n u a r t i c l e s .
C o l l i s i o n of p a r t i c l e s i n clouds does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o t h e i r merging.
I f n p a r t i c l e s o u t of n p a r t i c l e s t h a t c o l l i d e w i t h a p a r t i c l e - t a r g e t merge
0
w i t h i t , t h e merging e f f e c t i v e n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t k2 = n/no, t h e c o a g u l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t of p a r t i c l e s i s k
* k k where k i s a c o e f f i c i e n t which charac-
1 2 1
t e r i z e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of c o l l i s i o n .

Aganin [ 1 7 ] , on t h e b a s i s o f experiments of Rayleigh, n o t e d t h a t n o t e v e r y

c o l l i s i o n between d r o p l e t s o r a g a i n s t a f l a t s u r f a c e l e a d s t o merging. He d i d
show, however, t h a t under t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
of merging i n c r e a s e s . Aganin proposed t h a t , i n a s t r o n g f i e l d which develops
when d r o p l e t s come c l o s e t o g e t h e r , a s m a l l tongue which j o i n s t h e drops comes
o u t of one o f them and (depending on t h e r e l a t i v e rates of f a l l of t h e d r o p s ,
t h e s i z e s and c h a r g e s , as w e l l as t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e external f i e l d ) t h e
neck which i s formed e i t h e r l e a d s t o a merger o r b r e a k s o f f . Later on, t h i s
assumption was confirmed by c a l c u l a t i o n s and experiments ( s e e s u r v e y s [ 8 2 , 121,
123, 1311). It w a s demonstrated i n [121, 1231 t h a t a p r o t u b e r a n c e develops on
one of t h e merging charged p a r t i c l e s ( o r drops merging i n t h e f i e l d ) , d i r e c t e d
toward t h e approaching drop. It i s mentioned i n t h e survey [ 1 2 3 ] t h a t t h e /65
i n s t a b i l i t y which develops under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s u s u a l l y accompanied by
e j e c t i o n of a t h i n stream o f w a t e r , corresponding t o t h e t h e o r y of Aganin,
which i s d i r e c t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e f i e l d and s t r i k e s t h e a d j a c e n t drop.
I f , as w a s s u g g e s t e d by many a u t h o r s [82, 1 1 7 , 1251, a t h i n f i l m of a i r p r e v e n t s
t h e merging o f t h e d r o p s , t h e stream which is e j e c t e d i n t o t h e f i e l d may over-
come t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s f i l m . As a matter of f a c t , a s was shown by A l l a n and
- -. ~. .

*T r a n s l a t o r ' s Note: Missing symbol i n o r i g i n a l text.

81

I
Mason [91], and l a t e r by o t h e r s [ 8 2 ] , t h e a v e r a g e d u r a t i o n of d r o p s t h a t
c o l l i d e i n an i n s u l a t i n g l i q u i d d e c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y i f t h e d r o p l e t s are
charged o r are i n an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d . They have a t t r i b u t e d t h i s e f f e c t t o a
t h i n n i n g of t h e f i l m which d i v i d e s t h e l i q u i d s t h r o u g h the a c t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l
f o r c e s ; i t i s more l i k e l y t h a t t h i s e f f e c t can b e e x p l a i n e d by the u n i f y i n g
a c t i o n of the stream e j e c t e d by t h e f i e l d .

I d e a s r e g a r d i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f merging w e r e s u p p o r t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by many a u t h o r s . T e l f o r d and Thom-
dyke [161] observed t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f merging of c o l l i d i n g , noncharged
p a r t i c l e s w i t h a r a d i u s o f 30 - 35 microns w a s e q u a l t o z e r o i n t h e absence of
an e x t e r n a l f i e l d and g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n t e n s i t y of
5
an a p p l i e d v e r t i c a l f i e l d , b e g i n n i n g w i t h lo5 t o 3 x 10 V/m. Woods [171]
showed t h a t t h e merging e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f e q u a l l y charged d r o p l e t s of s i m i l a r
s i z e s ( r a d i u s less t h a n 40 microns) i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e
charge above t h e t h r e s h o l d v a l u e of 1.5 x C. I f the drops were charged
w i t h t h e same s i g n , t h e y would n o t merge. Goyer e t a l . [108], i n v e s t i g a t i n g
c o l l i s i o n s o f d r o p l e t s w i t h r a d i i o f 100 and 600 microns i n a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d ,
found t h a t t h e merger c o e f f i c i e n t changed from 0 . 3 t o 0.9 w i t h a change i n t h e
i n t e n s i t y of t h e external f i e l d from 0 t o 3000 V/m. Unfortunately, t h e r e s u l t s
which w e r e o b t a i n e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s , l i k e t h o s e of a number o f o t h e r s , w e r e
o b t a i n e d under c o n d i t i o n s t h a t could n o t b e compared and w e r e q u a l i t a t i v e l y
i n a c c u r a t e when a p p l i e d t o c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e x i s t i n c l o u d s . But t h e q u a l i t a -
t i v e p i c t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n zones of cloud e l e c t r i c a l inhomogeneities t h e r e
must b e a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e merger of c o l l i d i n g d r o p l e t s , a n d t h e
coagulation c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l increase.

I n s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
s o l i d p a r t i c l e combinations as w e l l . According t o t h e d a t a o f Latham and
Saunders [123, 1471, t h e c o a g u l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of i c e c r y s t a l s w i t h an i c e
s p h e r e i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l
4
f i e l d above t h e t h r e s h o l d v a l u e of 5 x 10 V/m. According t o t h e d a t a i n [123],

82

-__ . . .. .... .
 5
an i n c r e a s e i n t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y from lo5 t o 3 x 10 V/m l e d t o an i n c r e a s e
i n t h e m a s s o f t h e i c e s p h e r e c o l l i d i n g w i t h the ice c r y s t a l s , changing from
10 t o 100%. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the c a p t u r e o f crystals took p l a c e i n a
t e m p e r a t u r e range up t o -50" C, w h i l e i n t h e absence of a f i e l d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s
below -25' C c a p t u r e of crystals became n e g l i g i b l y small. L e t us recall t h a t /66
i n a l l forms o f s u p e r c o o l e d clouds which produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e
5
t o e n c o u n t e r a f i e l d i n t e n s i t y which exceeds 5 x lo4 and even 1 0 V/m.

I n f l u e n c e of elect-rical f o r c e s qn. f r e e z i n g of s u p e r c o o l e d d r o p l e t s . In
many works, i t h a s been shown t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f d r o p l e t f r e e z i n g depends
on t h e magnitude o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d . Pruppacher [139] s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e
i n c r e a s e i n t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o b a b i l i t y i s connected w i t h t h e p e n e t r a t i o n
of c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n n u c l e i i n t o w a t e r . These n u c l e i e i t h e r develop d u r i n g d i s -
charge i n an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d o r e x i s t i n t h e a i r s u r r o u n d i n g a d r o p l e t and
are t r a n s f e r r e d t o i t by e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s i d e a , Loeb
[123] s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e f r e e z i n g b e g i n s i f t h e e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s are g r e a t
enough t o b r e a k down t h e s u r f a c e of t h e d r o p l e t and t o draw from i t f i l a m e n t s
of w a t e r about cm thick. Water f o r m a t i o n s of such s i z e , most l i k e l y
o r i e n t e d a l o n g t h e p o l e , are l i q u i d c r y s t a l s which can a c t as c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
nuclei. Recent i n v e s t i g a t i o n s [123] have shown t h a t t h e viewpoint o f Loeb i s
justified. G a b a r a s h v i l i and K a r t s i v a d z e [ 1061 n o t e d t h a t t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e i n d i f f e r e n t ways i n p o s i t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y charged
droplets. A s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o b a b i l i t y i s pro-
duced w i t h a f i e l d i n t e n s i t y a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e drop approximately e q u a l t o
6
10 V/m. T h i s f i e l d i n t e n s i t y may a l s o develop w i t h l a r g e c h a r g e s of t h e
d r o p l e t s when t h e d r o p l e t s converge i n e x t e r n a l f i e l d s , o r when d r o p l e t s which
have r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l charges converge i n zones o f cloud inhomogeneities - o r
merely i n t h e i r e x t e r n a l f i e l d . A drop i n t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e i n
t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i s most e f f e c t i v e a t t h e lowest t e m p e r a t u r e s .

Hence, i n the s u p e r c o o l e d zone of c l o u d s and i n zones of e l e c t r i c a l inhomo-

g e n e i t i e s , e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s can c o n s i d e r a b l y a c c e l e r a t e t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
p r o c e s s , which w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n the condensation

83
p r o c e s s e s o f d r o p l e t growth, i n c r e a s i n g c o a g u l a t i o n i n t u r n . T h i s process
may b e accompanied by a growth of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e c l o u d , which
w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s , as l o n g as t h e growth of
t h e f i e l d i s n o t l i m i t e d by t h e f a c t o r s d i s c u s s e d above.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e s t i l l do n o t have a s a t i s f a c t o r y t h e o r y o r i n f o r m a t i o n
about t h e s t a t e o f c l o u d s which would make i t p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e b o t h
t h e c o n s t a n t s which c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e k i n e t i c s o f t h e growth o f i n d i v i d u a l
p a r t i c l e s ( s e v e r a l estimates of t h i s k i n d have been s e t f o r t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
s e c t i o n ) as w e l l as t h e development o f t h e e n t i r e cloud.

It i s clear from t h e above, however, t h a t s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s must be

based p a r t i c u l a r l y on i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g e l e c t r i c i t y i n c l o u d s , i n v o l v i n g
b o t h t h e average c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of inhomo-
g e n e i t y zones.

84
 CHAPTER I11

POSSIBILITY OF CONTROLLING THE DEVELOPMENT O F CLOUDS

BY ELECTRICAL METHODS

As w e p o i n t e d o u t i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , i d e a s r e g a r d i n g t h e e f f e c t -
I67

of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s on t h e development of clouds were e x p r e s s e d a l o n g t i m e

ago, and i t i s no s u r p r i s e t h a t i n t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y
experiments w e r e conducted b o t h i n t h e USSR and t h e USA [ 2 4 , 251 concerning
t h e i n f l u e n c e on clouds o f s e e d i n g w i t h e l e c t r i f i e d sand. However, t h e e x p e r i -
ments d i d n o t y i e l d any p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s , and w e r e t h e r e f o r e suspended.

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h g e n e r a l expansion of s t u d i e s on
i n f l u e n c i n g c l o u d s , t h e r e h a s been a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r e s t i n u s i n g
e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s t o i n f l u e n c e clouds and f o g s . There are even r e p o r t s on
a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l t h e p r o c e s s e s of cloud e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g p r o c e s s e s
t h a t l e a d t o thunderstorms [ 1 2 ] . However, no d e f i n i t e r e s u l t s t h a t could b e
used t o f o r m u l a t e any k i n d of p r a c t i c a l recommendations w e r e o b t a i n e d [ g o ] .
T h e r e f o r e , w e w i l l l i m i t o u r s e l v e s t o p r e s e n t i n g p h y s i c a l i d e a s which may b e
used as t h e b a s i s o f mechanisms f o r a c t i n g on t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n clouds
o r changes i n t h e development o f c l o u d s , u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l methods, and w e w i l l
a l s o d i s c u s s b r i e f l y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n . W e must keep i n
mind t h a t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u s i n g t h e methods which w i l l b e
d i s c u s s e d below i n p r a c t i c e , w e can s i g n i f i c a n t l y c l a r i f y t h e mechanism of
cloud development.

85
 91. I n f l u e n c e of E l e c t r i c a l Methods on N o n e l e c t r i c a l
Cloud C h a r a c t e r i s t i - c s

I n Chapter 11, w e s a w how e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s could a f f e c t t h e p a t t e r n of

n a t u r a l cloud development. It i s obvious t h a t w e s h o u l d t r y t o f i n d o u t how
and i n what f a s h i o n w e c o u l d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n f l u e n c e t h e development of c l o u d s -
/68
by changing t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of modern t e c h n i c a l pos-
sibilities. The p r o c e s s of cloud o r f o g development may b e d i v i d e d roughly
i n t o two s t a g e s . I n t h e f i r s t s t a g e , t h e r e i s f o r m a t i o n of cloud p a r t i c l e s
w i t h condensation o r s u b l i m a t i o n of w a t e r v a p o r , and t h e r e i s e v a p o r a t i o n of
t h e p a r t i c l e s t h a t a r e formed, which impedes t h e former. I n t h e second s t a g e ,
t h e cloud p a r t i c l e s grow and change i n t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s , e i t h e r as t h e
r e s u l t of d i r e c t c o a g u l a t i o n o r due t o t h e i r i n t e n s i v e growth w i t h p a r t i a l
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , which i s accompanied by v i g o r o u s d i s t i l l a t i o n of t h e v a p o r ,
w i t h l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s b e i n g changed t o s o l i d ones and w i t h subsequent coagu-
lation. The i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e and number of p a r t i c l e s i s c o u n t e r a c t e d by t h e
e v a p o r a t i o n of cloud p a r t i c l e s o r t h e i r f a l l from t h e cloud.

I t i s obvious t h a t , by f o r c i n g t h e f i r s t elements of t h e p r o c e s s e s , i t
w i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o s u c c e e d w i t h what i s c a l l e d cloud development and by
s t i m u l a t i n g t h e second elements of t h e p r o c e s s , t h e breakdown of t h e c l o u d .

U s e of e l e c t r i c a l methods t o i n f l u e n c e condensati0.n p r o c e s s e s . Since t h e

t i m e of Thompson ( f o r example, [ 8 ] ) , i t h a s been known t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e of
an e l e c t r i c a l charge q on a p a r t i c l e w i t h a r a d i u s r reduces t h e vapor p r e s s u r e
above i t . T h i s r e d u c t i o n i s p r o p o r t i o n a l i n t h e f i r s t approximation t o
q2/r4. The magnitude of t h i s r e d u c t i o n f o r p a r t i c l e s measuring more t h a n

cm microns) i s s o s m a l l t h a t i t can b e used f o r s t i m u l a t i n g conden-

s a t i o n p r o c e s s e s o n l y by a c t i v a t i o n of condensation n u c l e i which a l r e a d y e x i s t .
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e number of n u c l e i s u f f i c i e n t f o r cloud f o r m a t i o n u s u a l l y
exists i n t h e atmosphere ( s e e , f o r example, [ 6 ] ) . Hence, t h i s method may f i n d
v e r y l i m i t e d use i n zones where t h e r e are a e r o s o l s b u t t h e r e are i n s u f f i c i e n t
condensation n u c l e i .

I n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l methods on t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n

86
clouds. It w a s mentioned i n Chapter I1 t h a t t h e development of a n e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d on t h e s u r f a c e o f a p a r t i c l e i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
due t o t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e f r e e z i n g p o i n t [139, 106, 1291. The v a l u e s of
6
t h e r e q u i r e d f i e l d i n t e n s i t y i n t h i s case are i n excess of 10 V/m. Hence,
t h e r e i s a t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n f l u e n c i n g the development of
s u p e r c o o l e d clouds.

There are two ways of p u t t i n g t h e s e methods i n t o p r a c t i c e . F i r s t of a l l ,

a s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d can b e c r e a t e d i n a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e cloud. It
i s n e c e s s a r y t o keep i n mind, however, t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f r e e z i n g depends
n o t only on t h e s i z e of t h e active f i e l d , b u t a l s o on t h e t i m e of i t s a p p l i c a -
tion. Hence, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r a n a i r c r a f t o r a r o c k e t t o p a s s through t h e
cloud, c a u s i n g a s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d , and t h e r e b y t o i n f l u e n c e a r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e volume o f t h e cloud. T h i s v e r s i o n of t h e method i s t h e r e f o r e t e c h n i c a l l y /69
d i f f i c u l t t o accomplish. However, i n t h o s e c a s e s when s t r o n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s
are formed as t h e r e s u l t of some i n f l u e n c e on a s u p e r c o o l e d p o r t i o n of t h e
c l o u d , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c l e s may be i n c l u d e d
i n t h e i n t e g r a l e f f e c t of t h e action.

A second way of i n f l u e n c i n g t h e cloud i s s t r o n g c h a r g i n g of t h e p a r t i c l e s

of s u p e r c o o l e d clouds. T h i s t y p e o f c h a r g i n g can b e accomplished i n s e v e r a l
ways. For example, a body which creates a corona d i s c h a r g e can be passed through
t h e cloud o r t h e cloud can b e charged w i t h an i o n f l u x running from t h e s u r f a c e
of t h e Earth [ 9 6 ] . The drops may a l s o b e charged w i t h a n o n e l e c t r i c a l i n f l u e n c e
on t h e c l o u d s , and t h u s make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o che t o t a l e f f e c t o f t h e
treatment.

I t i s n e c e s s a r y , however, t o keep i n mind t h a t i n t h o s e c a s e s when t h e

a c t i o n l e a d s t o a rough r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e s i z e of t h e c l o u d p a r t i c l e s i n t h e
s u p e r c o o l e d cloud o r f o g , t h e r e are powerful r i v a l s t o t h i s method. Known
methods o f i n f l u e n c i n g s u p e r c o o l e d clouds by i n j e c t i n g dry i c e o r s u b s t a n c e s
t h a t are isomorphic t o i c e are q u i t e s i m p l e and e f f e c t i v e , s o t h a t i n t h e n e a r
f u t u r e the e l e c t r i c a l methods w i l l no l o n g e r b e a s o u r c e of c o m p e t i t i o n f o r

87
 them. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l i d , s i n c e i n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e from 0 t o
-5" C (where the e x i s t i n g methods are u n s u i t e d ) even t h e e l e c t r i c a l method
must b e r a t e d v e r y i n e f f e c t i v e .

I n f l u e n c e of ele-ctrical methods on the c o a g u l a t i o n of particles i n clouds.

It i s t e c h n i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o change t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a warm c l o u d , by a l t e r i n g
i n i t s l a r g e volumes t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c o l l i s i o n and c o a g u l a t i o n o f d r o p s ,
and producing i n i t a l o n g - a c t i n g , powerful e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d w i t h an i n t e n s i t y
o f approximately lo4 - 5
10 V/m. Such a t t e m p t s have been made i n f o g s , making
use of t h e f a c t t h a t a zone of powerful e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s can b e c r e a t e d on
t h e p a t h of a n a d v e c t i v e f o g , and i n a r a d i a t i o n a l f o g i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s h i f t
t h e s o u r c e of t h e f i e l d r e l a t i v e l y slowly. The a c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d
on t h e c o a g u l a t i o n p r o c e s s e s may a l s o b e a byproduct of n o n e l e c t r i c a l methods.

The i n f l u e n c e o f e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p a r t i c l e s on t h e coagula-
t i o n c o n d i t i o n s may b e used n o t only f o r d i s p e r s i n g , b u t a l s o f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n
o f fogs. If t h e d r o p l e t s of f o g are charged i n t h e same f a s h i o n , t h e n , as w e
n o t i c e d e a r l i e r , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e i r c o a g u l a t i o n i s reduced. It i s neces-
s a r y t o n o t e , however, that t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d t h a t d e v e l o p s throughout t h e
cloud may a g a i n l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c o a g u l a t i o n of t h e
d r o p l e t s as t h e l a t t e r grows.

S t i m u l a t i o n o f r a i n may be achieved w i t h g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s through

i n c r e a s i n g c o a g u l a t i o n by i n t r o d u c i n g p a r t i c l e s of charged water o r o t h e r
r e a g e n t s i n t o t h e upper p a r t of t h e cloud. L e t us l o o k i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l a t -
/ 70
t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h i s method.

Engagement o f p a r t i c l e s i n a cloud may b e achieved by s t i m u l a t i n g

g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o a g u l a t i o n through t h e t r a n s p o r t of p a r t i c l e s o f noncharged
atomized water i n t o t h e upper p a r t of t h e cloud. However, t h e i n i t i a l r a d i u s
R o f t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s must be g r e a t , on t h e o r d e r of 30 microns, because
0
o n l y w i t h r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s a r e this s i z e can the c a p t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t E of
cloud p a r t i c l e s ( r a d i u s 6-10 microns) have a t a n g i b l e v a l u e (Table 3.1)
[661
88
x
1
Due t o the l a r g e v a l u e of R
0'
TABLE 3.1. VAZUES OF COEFFICIENT OF
t h e consumption of r e a g e n t i s v e r y
COLLISION FOR DROPS WITH RADIUS R AND r
high. Reducing the initial size of
WITH y = 1 . 7 - ~ 1 - POISE,
~ 3
p = 1 g/cm ,
-7 t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s and making- i t
g = 980 cm/secL
p o s s i b l e f o r them t o i n c r e a s e i n s i z e
to R more r a p i d l y i s a l s o t h e pur-
0
.- -
- pose of u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s i n

I
R U

llR
I
p. I
I
= I
I
20
methods of t h i s k i n d . The l a t t e r
may b e achieved by a s h a r p i n c r e a s e

0.2 0,019 - - i n t h e capture c o e f f i c i e n t E f o r t h e

0.03 -
0.3
0,4 0.28 <
- 10-4
10-4
c a p t u r e of c l o u d p a r t i c l e s by t h e
0.6 0.65

i t a h i g h e l e c t r i c a l charge.

A p a r t i c l e t h a t c a r r i e s a charge w i l l g r a d u a l l y l o s e i t , due t o t h e e l e c -
t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t i m e d u r i n g which a r e a g e n t
p a r t i c l e w i l l r e a c h a r a d i u s R i s much s h o r t e r t h a n t h e t i m e i n which a s i g -
0
n i f i c a n t f r a c t i o n o f t h e charge i s l o s t . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n on t h e t i m e o f
r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e growth i s an i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e method u s i n g
e l e c t r i c a l charges.

Table 3.2 p r e s e n t s t h e v a l u e s o f t h e t i m e T d u r i n g which a charge on a

p a r t i c l e w i l l be reduced by approximately a f a c t o r o f 3 i f t h e p a r t i c l e i s i n
a c l o u d l e s s atmosphere.

TABLE 3.2. TIME (T) REQUIRED FOR CHARGE ON PARTICLES

TO DECREASE APPROXIMATELY BY A FACTOR O F 3 I F THE PARTICLE
I S I N A CLOUDLESS ATJ9DSPHERE.

89

I
 In clouds, t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a i r i s several t i m e s less /71
t h a n i n t h e atmosphere a t t h e same level, s o that the l o s s t i m e f o r t h e charge
i s correspondingly g r e a t e r . Thus, f o r example, T may b e about 1000 seconds
a t an a l t i t u d e o f 3 - 5 k i l o m e t e r s i n clouds.

Hence, i n about 1000 seconds, a p a r t i c l e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o a cloud w i l l

i n c r e a s e t o s u c h a s i z e a t which t h e mechanism of g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o a g u l a t i o n w i l l
b e g i n t o act e f f e c t i v e l y .

L e t us see how t h i s requirement is s a t i s f i e d .

The growth o f r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e may b e c a l c u l a t e d by g e n e r a l methods, The

l a t t e r are p r e s e n t e d i n monographs by B. Mason [5] and N. S. S h i s h k i n [ll],
s u b s t i t u t i n g E e q u a l f (R, r , Q , q ) , where R and r are t h e r a d i i o f t h e par-
t i c l e s of t h e r e a g e n t and t h e c l o u d , and Q and q are t h e i r c h a r g e s . When t h e
r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e i s dropped i n t o a d r o p - l i k e cloud i n which t h e r e are no ascend-
i n g c u r r e n t s and where w e can d i s r e g a r d t h e a c t i o n of t u r b u l e n c e on t h e p r o c e s s i n
i n q u e s t i o n , t h e t i m e f o r a p a r t i c l e t o i n c r e a s e from t h e i n i t i a l r a d i u s R to
1
R i s determined by t h e e x p r e s s i o n
-0-

t = 3 fS
RI
m
dR

Ef (r)r3( VR - w r ) d r
9

where f ( r ) - i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of cloud p a r t i c l e s by s i z e and

V and vr - are t h e rates of f a l l o f t h e r e a g e n t and cloud p a r t i c l e s .
r

A s o l u t i o n of t h i s t y p e e n c o u n t e r s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s . F i r s t of
a l l , w e do n o t know f u n c t i o n E i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l form. The numerical c a l c u l a -
t i o n s of E have been performed by several a u t h o r s [59, 6 0 , 6 4 , 6 6 , 98, 148,
etc.] f o r s p e c i a l cases, and a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e i s a need f o r an e x p e r i m e n t a l
v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . However, even i f i t w e r e

90
 - .. .. ..

I-

p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t i n some f a s h i o n , t h e assumption made r e g a r d i n g t h e

absence of t u r b u l e n c e and a s c e n d i n g c u r r e n t s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
of t h e p a r t i c l e s which have s m a l l rates of f a l l (1-10 cm p e r sec) would
make t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a v e r y rough approximation t o r e a l i t y . In
f a c t , rough estimates o f t h i s k i n d are v a l u a b l e o n l y f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e pros-
p e c t s f o r c o n t i n u i n g work i n a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n .

C a l c u l a t i o n of t is c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e d i f w e assume t h a t t h e cloud
i n t o which t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e i s thrown i s monodispersed, and t h e r a t e
of f a l l of t h e p a r t i c l e s is c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o Stokes: V = k 2 , where k
i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y , and r i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e p a r t i c l e .
I n t h i s case

(3.3) /72

I n t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s , p i s t h e d e n s i t y of t h e w a t e r i n t h e c l o u d , W i s
t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t of t h e c l o u d , Ci i s t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e of t h e c a p t u r e c o e f f i -
c i e n t f o r t h e c a p t u r e of cloud p a r t i c l e s by t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s which v a r y
i n s i z e from R
i t o Ri+l.

*
A f t e r t a k i n g t h e i n t e g r a l , we o b t a i n a f o r m u l a for c a l c u l a t i o n of A t i '

(3.4)

L e t us estimate t h e growth time f o r a r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e ( i n c r e a s e i n

r a d i u s from 1 0 t o 30 m i c r o n s ) , i f a r e a g e n t i s dropped i n t o a monodispersed
cloud w i t h a p a r t i c l e r a d i u s of 7 microns. I n t h e range of R = 10 t o 20 microns,
under t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e is charged a t t h e i n i t i a l moment

91
of t i m e (R = 10 microns) t o a c e r t a i n l i m i t i n g charge (i.e., t h e charge a t
which breakdown o f t h e a i r on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e drop b e g i n s ) t h e value of
t h e c a p t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t changes from several t e n t h s c f a u n i t t o u n i t s , and
i n t h e range R 20 t o 30 microns - from several u n i t s t o t e n t h s of a u n i t
[59, 6 6 , 60, 98, 1481. I n accordance w i t h t h i s , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t i s per-
formed f o r El = 50, 25, 5 and E2 = 5, 2.5, 0.5. The results of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3.3, where t h e v a l u e s of t a r e rounded o f f t o
hundreds of seconds.

TABLE 3.3. GROWTH TIME FOR REAGENT P A R T I C L E F A L L I N G FREELY

I N A CLOUD TO I N C R E A S E FROM R1 = 10 MICRONS TO R2 =
= 20 MLCRONS AND FROM R2 = 20 MICRONS T O R3 = 30 MICRONS
AS A FUNCTION O F E AND W.

W
R - 10-20 p J R-20-30 p
sec
-
0,3 50 200 5 400 600
2s 300 2.s 800 1100
5 1500 0.5 4Ooo 5500
0.5 50 100 5 200 300
25 200 2.5 500 700
5 900 0,5 2400 3300
1 50 50 5 100
25 100 23 200
5 500 0.5 1200
2 50 20 5 Eo 100
25 50 2.5 1co 200
5 200 0,5 600 800

The v a l u e of t h e c a p t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t E i s l a r g e l y dependent on t h e charge /73

on t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s and t h e r a t i o of t h e s i z e s of c l o u d and r e a g e n t par-
ticles. R e l a t i v e l y small changes i n t h i s parameter may l e a d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e
r e d u c t i o n of E (Table 3.4) and a s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n A t , which n u l l i f i e s t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e a c t i o n . T h i s i s why t h e u s e of e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s i n warm
clouds encounters considerable t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . However, t h e c a l c u l a -
t i o n r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t i t is advantageous t o look f o r p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s

92
 3
f o r u s i n g t h e s e methods on w a r m c l o u d s , having a w a t e r c o n t e n t of about 1 g/m
o r more.

TABLE 3.4. CAPTURE COEFFICIENT E AS A FUNCTION

OF 5;'r; Q; q = 0 [ 5 8 a ] ; R1 = 10 MICRONS.

- -_ ... ._. __
r-2 811
r:: 6?J 7,235 53,17

L e t us determine t h e amount of r e a g e n t r e q u i r e d f o r e f f e c t i v e e l u t i o n of
a cloud. With t h e same d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c a p t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e c o n d i t i o n
f o r t o t a l e l u t i o n of a cloud may be w r i t t e n a s follows:

2
where n - i s t h e number of r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s i n 1 c m ; R - i s t h e p a r t i c l e
radius.

L e t us assume t h a t t h e r e i s a s t r a t i f o r m w a r m cloud w i t h a t h i c k n e s s
Z = 2 k m , h a v i n g a w a t e r c o n t e n t o f 1 g/m 3 .
The t e n t a t i v e v a l u e of E i s 0.5
when r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s w i t h a r a d i u s 30-100 microns i n t e r a c t w i t h p a r t i c l e s
having a r a d i u s o f 6 t o 8 microns (Table A . 3 i n [ 5 ] ) . The growth o f t h e r e a g e n t
p a r t i c l e r a d i u s i s e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e formula

Assuming t h a t t h e growth of t h e r e a g e n t p a r t i c l e s from 10 t o 30 microns

t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n a s m a l l area of t h e cloud h e i g h t , w e w i l l f i n d t h a t AR
e q u a l s 200 microns, a f t e r s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e assumed v a l u e s of 2, E, W, P i n
Formula (3.6) .
93
 L e t us d i s c u s s t h e problem of a c h i e v i n g complete e l u t i o n of t h e cloud
= 1.5 km.
from an a l t i t u d e of Z' A t t h i s l a t i t u d e , R = 60 microns, and i f
4
E = 0.5, n = 2.6 x 10 cm
-2
.
The r e a g e n t consumption a t p = 1 g/cm3 i s about
1 gr/m
2
. I f t h i s is done from an a i r c r a f t moving a t a rate of 300 km/hour, /74
and t h e w i d t h of t h e E r o n t a l e f f e c t i s 50 m y t h e n i n 1 second i t w i l l b e
p o s s i b l e t o s e e d an area a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o 4000 m
2
.
Hence, when t r e a t i n g
a cloud w i t h t h i s w a t e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e f o r 1 second, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o
d i s c h a r g e 4 kg of r e a g e n t broken down i n t o d r o p l e t s w i t h a r a d i u s of 10 microns,
charged t o t h e i r l i m i t . For d r o p l e t s w i t h a r a d i u s of 10 microns, t h e
l i m i t i n g charge i s about 3 x C. S i n c e t h e t o t a l number of charged par-
t i c l e s must b e about t h e c u r r e n t which charges t h e p a r t i c l e s m u s t be
about 3 x A. It i s obvious t h a t , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e
r e a g e n t consumption, t h e method under c o n s i d e r a t i o n may o n l y b e used i n s p e c i a l
s i t u a t i o n s when t h e r e is a s e v e r e need t o remove a c l o u d cover above c e r t a i n
areas. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e are a l s o o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s ( s e e below). It s h o u l d
b e k e p t i n mind t h a t t h e cloud i s a p r o c e s s which f r e q u e n t l y i s u n s t a b l e , and
whose d i r e c t i o n may o f t e n b e changed by r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e methods. The f a l l
of p r e c i p i t a t i o n , f o r example, changes t h e a i r f l o w s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e
cloud t o some d e g r e e , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t r a n s p o r t of m o i s t u r e , e t c . Therefore,
s t i m u l a t i o n of p r e c i p i t a t i o n may cause f u r t h e r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . An e v a l u a t i o n o f
t h e s e consequences, however, exceeds Che framework of the c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d
above. I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e r e s u l t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o keep i n mind t h e i n c r e a s e
i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s , b o t h average and extreme, and t h e charges on t h e
p a r t i c l e s t h a t develop i n t h e c l o u d s f o l l o w i n g t h e b e g i n n i n g of p r e c i p i t a t i o n
as w e l l as t h e i n f l u e n c e of e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t h e enlargement of
particles.

The t r e a t m e n t of a warm cumulus cloud l e n d s i t s e l f t o c . a l c u l a t i o n t o a

s t i l l lesser degree. Convective c l o u d s r e p r e s e n t such an u n s t a b l e c o l l o i d a l
system t h a t only a s l i g h t i n t e r v e n t i o n i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d d u r i n g t h e i r n a t u r a l
development i n o r d e r t o produce p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Obviously, t h e u s e of electri-
c a l l y charged w a t e r s p r a y o r e l e c t r i c a l l y charged , g i a n t h y g r o s c o p i c conden-
s a t i o n n u c l e i i s more e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e u s e of uncharged r e a g e n t s .

94
 E v e r y t h i n g w e have s a i d above concerning t h e t r e a t m e n t o f warm c l o u d s
t h e o r e t i c a l l y a p p l i e s t o t r e a t i n g warm fogs. However, due t o the reduced
t h i c k n e s s o f f o g s , t h e r e a g e n t consumption f o r s e e d i n g them must b e g r e a t e r .
An unusual i d e a about r e d u c i n g t h e consumption of r e a g e n t and i n c r e a s i n g i t s
e f f e c t i v e n e s s w a s proposed by A. D. Solov'yev [761. H e recommends t h a t e l e c t r i -
f i e d bubbles be used as a r e a g e n t , similar t o o r d i n a r y soap bubbles. The use
of these b u b b l e s , s i m i l a r t o o r d i n a r y soap bubbles be used a s a r e a g e n t . The u s e
c o n s i d e r a b l y reduce t h e amount of r e a g e n t r e q u i r e d f o r e l u t i o n . NO r e p o r t s
on t h e r e s u l t s of u s i n g t h i s method i n p r a c t i c e w e r e given.

L e t us examine t h e r e s u l t s of e x p e r i m e n t a l tests o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s . -
/ 75

I n c r e a s i n g t h e a c t i o n of e l e c t r i f i e d d r o p l e t s of r e a g e n t s i n comparison
t o n o n e l e c t r i f i e d ones w a s mentioned by N. Vager [ 2 3 ] , whJ s t u d i e d t h e d i s p e r s a l
of a r t i f i c i a l fog i n chambers.

E l e c t r i f i e d drops used f o r d i s p e r s i n g f o g s have been employed i n l a b o r a -

t o r y experiments by L. Demon and M. Vadell [99, 1651. The r e s u l t s o f t h e i r
experiments w e r e q u a l i t a t i v e l y t h e same as t h o s e o b t a i n e d by N . Vager.

L. Demon [99] a t t e m p t e d t o d i s p e r s e fog under n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s by

u s i n g h i g h l y e l e c t r i f i e d d r o p l e t s g e n e r a t e d by s p r a y e r s mounted on t h e ground
and a l s o t o s c a t t e r w a r m cumulus c l o u d s i n good weather by s c a t t e r i n g e l e c t r i -
f i e d d r o p l e t s g e n e r a t e d by s p r a y e r s aboard an a i r c r a f t . H i s experiments w e r e
not successful. I n t h e f i r s t c a s e , as h e reportls, t h e corona d i s c h a r g e s from
p o i n t e d o b j e c t s , e x c i t e d by t h e s p a c e charge of t h e d r o p l e t s , d i s c h a r g e d them
t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , which p r e v e n t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n o f t h e d r o p l e t s
on t h e fog. A similar phenomenon w a s observed aboard t h e a i r c r a f t , b u t t h e
s c a t t e r i n g of t h e d r o p l e t s from t h e a i r c r a f t w a s h i n d e r e d by e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s
which developed between t h e a i r c r a f t (which a c q u i r e d a charge due t o e j e c t i o n
of a cloud o f charged d r o p l e t s ) and t h i s cloud o f d r o p l e t s . The r e s u l t s of
t h e work o f L. Demon o b v i o u s l y m u s t b e k e p t i n mind when o r g a n i z i n g similar
experiments.

95

I
 Attempts have been made t o d i s p e r s e f o g by p r e c i p i t a t i n g i t i n a n a r t i -
f i c i a l l y produced e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d [12], as w e l l as by s t i m u l a t i n g t h e merging
of f o g d r o p l e t s as t h e y move n e a r a h i g h - v o l t a g e w i r e 112J.-
No i n f o r m a t i o n is g i v e n r e g a r d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f tests o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s .

There are r e p o r t s d e s c r i b i n g a test t o d i s p e r s e f o g by means of a d e v i c e

c o n s i s t i n g of a n y l o n n e t mounted on a t r u c k . A p p a r e n t l y , the d r o p l e t s of f o g
s t r i k e t h e n e t as t h e vehicle moves along. The d r o p l e t s are s t r o n g l y e l e c t r i -
f i e d , and t h e p r o c e s s of e l e c t r o s t a t i c c o a g u l a t i o n b e g i n s w i t h subsequent
p r e c i p i t a t i o n of t h e d r o p l e t s .

W e would l i k e t o mention one more method of c h a r g i n g cloud d r o p l e t s i n

o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e c o a g u l a t i o n , which w a s done i n A u s t r a l i a . An a i r c r a f t
c a r r i e d a l o n g t a i l made of w i r e s t h a t produced a corona which w a s supposed
t o charge t h e d r o p l e t s w i t h subsequent growth of t h e l a t t e r t o t h e s i z e of
precipitation particles. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e experiments w e r e n o t completed.

Q u i t e r e c e n t l y , u s i n g l o n g corona-producing l i n e s mounted on t h e ground,

an a t t e m p t w a s made t o a l t e r t h e c o a g u l a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s by a r t i f i c i a l c h a r g i n g
of cumulus c l o u d s [96]. Apparently, i t w a s e x p e c t e d t h a t the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
d r o p l e t s merging i n t h e clouds would b e i n c r e a s e d , and t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n would
increase a f t e r this. The amount of p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t f e l l on t h e leeward and /76
windward s i d e s of t h e corona-producing l i n e s w a s measured. No d i f f e r e n c e s
c o u l d b e found, a l t h o u g h t h e d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t o f t h e elec-
t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e atmosphere on t h e ground w a s measured a t a d i s t a n c e of
10 km on t h e leeward s i d e of t h e l i n e . Here an i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a d a r r e f l e c -
t i v i t y w a s found. The a u t h o r s of [96] s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c h a r g i n g of t h e d r o p l e t s
promoted t h e i r c o a g u l a t i o n and t h e appearance of l a r g e d r o p l e t s i n t h e c l o u d s ,
b u t t h e i r premature p r e c i p i t a t i o n s t o p p e d t h e growth o f t h e clouds.

Hence, w e s t i l l do n o t have any r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e r e s u l t s of

t r e a t i n g w a r m c l o u d s o r f o g under n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s ,

96
and t h e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s of t h e experiments are c o n f i n e d t o a series of suc-
c e s s f u l l a b o r a t o r y tests. However, the p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e methods
i s being subjected t o considerable study.

§ 2. Metho-ds o f C h s i n g t h e Electrical- S t a t e of Clouds

Experiments on changing t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of c l o u d s have a t l e a s t f o u r

purposes. F i r s t of a l l , t h e y can b e used t o s t u d y t h e p h y s i c s of t h e cloud
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of t h e clouds t o o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Secondly, t h e y n o t only a l l o w improved
w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g , b u t a l s o make i t p o s s i b l e t o e v a l u a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r
development of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e i n clouds as a n a i r c r a f t o r l i g h t e r - t h a n - a i r
v e h i c l e i s p a s s i n g through them, e t c . I n i h e t h i r d p l a c e , t h e y can h e l p
p r o t e c t p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e o b j e c t s on t h e ground a g a i n s t thunderstorms
( f o r e s t s , a s p h a l t , l a k e s , r e g i o n s where e x p l o s i o n s are b e i n g set o f f , e t c . ) .
I n t h e f o u r t h p l a c e , i n t h e d i s t a n t f u t u r e t h e y may serve f o r removing from
t h e atmosphere p o l l u t i o n .

E x i s t i n g methods of changing t h e s t a t e of c l o u d s can b e d i v i d e d i n t o

two classes: e l e c t r i c a l and n o n e l e c t r i c a l .

E l e c t r i c a l methods can b e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o two groups: a c t i v e and p a s s i v e .

The f i r s t group c o n s i s t s of methods i n which e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e s a r e
i n t r o d u c e d i n some f a s h i o n ; t h e second consists of methods i n which t h e
e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s are a l t e r e d i n some f a s h i o n , s o t h a t a t a given i n t e n s i t y
t h e cloud e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s l e a d s t o a change i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of
the latter.

It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o use t h i s method of g e n e r a t i n g u n i p o l a r c u r r e n t s
by means of corona-producing e l e c t r o d e s t o c h a r g e clouds [96, 1671. The s p a c e
c h a r g e which i s produced as t h e r e s u l t o f corona-production is carried i n t o
the cloud by a s c e n d i n g a i r c u r r e n t s . When the a p p a r a t u s i s i n s t a l l e d i n the

97
mountains, t h e s p a c e charge may b e i n j e c t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o the cloud. The -
I77
d r o p l e t s of t h e cloud, which act l i k e a f i l t e r , c a p t u r e t h e s p a c e charge from
t h e incoming a i r .

I n o r d e r t h a t t h e s p a c e charges from t h e a p p a r a t u s may e n t e r t h e cloud,

and t h a t the c u r r e n t d e n s i t y c h a r g i n g t h e l a t t e r may b e s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t ,
t h e a p p a r a t u s must e i t h e r b e designed as t o cover a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e s u r f a c e ,
o r e r e c t a d e v i c e f o r aiming t h e charged stream, o r f i n a l l y , t h e equipment
must b e placed d i r e c t l y i n t h e cloud.

I n t h e experiments performed by t h e Leningrad I n s t i t u t e of Experimental

Meteorology i n t h e mid-1930’s under t h e d i r e c t i o n - a n d w i t h t h e par-
t i c i p a t i o n of s. N. Tokmachev, V. V. B a z i l e v i c h , B. V. K i r y u k h i n , V. Y a .
Nikandrov e t al. c201, i t was p o s s i b l e t o e f f e c t i v e l y
c h a r g e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e volumes of fog, mounting t h e corona-producing e l e c t r o d e s
d i r e c t l y i n t h e fog. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s a l s o observed t h e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t of
such charging on t h e c o a g u l a t i o n of f o g d r o p l e t s . I n many cases, t h e y observed
-
p r e c i p i t a t i o n of d r o p l e t s and d i s p e r s a l of f o g w i t h i n a r a d i u s of 20 m from
their installation. It i s n e c e s s a r y t o mention t h e p i o n e e r i n g n a t u r e of t h i s
work c a r r i e d o u t by t h e Leningrad I n s t i t u t e of Experimental Meteorology, b o t h
i n connection w i t h t h e i d e a s proposed f o r t r e a t i n g n a t u r a l f o g s and i n
connection w i t h t h e methods employed.

The e f f e c t of corona-producing l i n e s on t h e f o g c h a r g i n g w a s a l s o
mentioned by J. Chalmers [14], who e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t f o g on t h e windward s i d e
o f a h i g h - v o l t a g e l i n e w a s i n t e n s i v e l y charged, a l t h o u g h t h e d i s t a n c e from
t h e l i n e w a s several k i l o m e t e r s .

Apparatus f o r a r t i f i c i a l c h a r g i n g of clouds w a s developed by B. Vonnegut

and C. Muir. I n one o f t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e y used a w i r e 0.025 c m i n dia-
meter, 7 km l o n g , on which t h e y produced a charge of 25 kV. The corona-
producing c u r r e n t from t h e w i r e reached 1-2 mA and depended on t h e d i r e c t i o n

98
and force of t h e wind. A t a d i s t a n c e of 8 km from the l i n e , t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d on t h e ground, due t o t h e charges g e n e r a t e d by t h e l i n e , s t i l l had a
s i g n which w a s o p p o s i t e t o t h e normal f i e l d .

Vonnegut and Muir c o n s i d e r e d i t p o s s i b l e t o u s e t h i s a p p a r a t u s t o regu-

l a t e t h e t h u n d e r s t o r m danger of a cloud by changing i t s i n i t i a l charge. They
suggested t h a t organized e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n - i.e., t h e o n l y p r o c e s s of electri-
f i c a t i o n mentioned t h u s f a r , a f f e c t i n g t h e e n t i r e cloud as a whole - would
b e g i n i n t h e Cu and Cu cong s t a g e s . On t h e b a s i s of t h i s s t a t e m e n t , t h e t h e o r y ,
known by t h e name of t h e c o n v e c t i v e mechanism of cloud e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , w a s
s u b j e c t e d t o s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m a t t h e T h i r d Conference on Atmospheric E l e c -
t r i c i t y i n Montres [13], and a t t h e p r e s e n t time cannot b e c o n s i d e r e d as h a v i n g
any f o u n d a t i o n a t a l l . The s t u d i e s mentioned above which w e r e conducted a t
t h e Main P h y s i c a l Observatory [ 39, 831, showed t h a t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of c l o u d s
a t t h e Cu o r Cu cong s t a g e had l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e appearance of c h a r g e s /78
i n t h e Cb s t a g e . However, t h e r e s u l t s of t h e experiments performed by
Vonnegut and Muir s u p p o r t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a r t i f i c i a l e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of
clouds.

For a more e f f e c t i v e t r a n s p o r t of t h e s p a c e charge i n t o t h e c l o u d ,

S. Colgate used an enormous p o l y e t h y l e n e t u b e , 350 m long, k e p t s t r a i g h t and
s u p p o r t e d by a flow of charged a i r , which w a s pumped i n by a v e r y powerful
f a n [161].

The c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t of t h e cloud which w a s produced by t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

a p p a r a t u s reached 1 rnA, i . e . , i t w a s e q u a l t o a "good weather" c u r r e n t ,
flowing i n t o an area of about 1000 km
2
.
C u r r e n t s of a p p r e c i a b l e magnitude may a l s o f l o w into a cloud from e l e c t r o d e s
t h a t are r a i s e d i n t o t h e cloud on c a p t i v e b a l l o o n s . I n t h i s case, t h e s o u r c e
powering t h e e l e c t r o d e s may b e t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of t h e atmosphere. The
c u r r e n t which flows from such an a p p a r a t u s w i l l depend b o t h on t h e a p p l i e d
v o l t a g e and on t h e speed of t h e a i r c u r r e n t blowing o v e r t h e e l e c t r o d e s .

99
 L e t us l o o k at t h e e x i s t i n g p a s s i v e methods of changing t h e e l e c t r i c a l
s t a t e of clouds.

G. Wakeman [168] s u g g e s t e d r e d u c i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y of a thunder-

s t o r m cloud and even p r e v e n t i n g t h e development of l i g h t n i n g i n i t by increas-
i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n t h e cloud. For t h i s purpose, h e s u g g e s t e d t h a t
a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f n e e d l e s b e thrown i n t o a cloud i n which c o n s i d e r a b l e elec-
t r i c a l f i e l d s had a l r e a d y developed ( i n p a r t i c u l a r , h e wanted t o use c h a f f
and s t r a w ) . On e n t e r i n g a s t r o n g f i e l d , the n e e d l e s b e g i n t o g i v e o f f a
corona, which i n c r e a s e s the e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a i r and, t h e r e f o r e ,
reduces t h e i n t e n s i t y of charge accumulation i n t h e cloud, r e d u c i n g t h e
p rob a b i l i t y of 1i g h t n i n g g e n e r a t i o n .

I n d i v i d u a l s h a r p n e e d l e s 10 cm l o n g b e g i n t o g i v e o f f a corona i n a
f i e l d w i t h a s t r e n g t h o f 2.5-30 kV/m. I n a 70 k V / m f i e l d , t h e corona c u r r e n t
-4
i n c r e a s e s t o 10 A. I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t a thunderstorm d i s c h a r g e , i t is
n e c e s s a r y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e s t i m a t e s of H . Kasemir [120], t h a t t h e c u r r e n t of
t h e corona produced by a l l of t h e n e e d l e s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e cloud amount t o
6
about 1 A. I n t h e o p i n i o n of Kasemir, t h i s would r e q u i r e t h a t about 10
4 3
n e e d l e s b e thrown i n t o a small cloud (1 n e e d l e f o r a volume o f 10 m ) . Since
5000 n e e d l e s weigh about 1 kg, i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o throw about 200 kg o f
needles (straws). It s h o u l d be mentioned t h a t estimates o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f t h e s e n e e d l e s used by Wakeman and Kasemir are c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r e s t i m a t e d .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e y d i d n o t take t h e f a c t i n t o account t h a t t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y
i n thunderstorm clouds i s h i g h . For e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n , a l l of t h e n e e d l e s
would have t o produce (as w e have s e e n ) a c u r r e n t , n o t of 1 A , b u t about 100 A,
8
i . e . , one would need, n o t lo6, b u t 10 n e e d l e s w i t h a t o t a l weight o f about
20,000 kg. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s of t h e s e p a p e r s f a i l e d t o t a k e i n t o
account t h e l o s s e s of i o n s producing c o n d u c t i v i t y d u r i n g t h e i r c a p t u r e by d r o p l e t s
and t h e r o l e of t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e cloud, d i s p l a c i n g t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e
charges g e n e r a t e d by t h e n e e d l e s (we should r e c a l l t h a t one n e e d l e 10 c m l o n g /79
4 3
i s needed f o r a volume of about lo3 - 10 m ) , as w e l l as t h e r o l e o f

100

... . . . , I
recombination o f i o n s , r e d u c i n g t h e number of i o n s producing c o n d u c t i v i t y .
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e number of n e e d l e s s t i l l f u r t h e r and
t h e t o t a l weight r e q u i r e d f o r e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t could r e a c h 100 t o n s o r more.

The experiments of K a s e m i r i n t r e a t i n g clouds have n o t y e t l e d t o any

d e f i n i t e r e s u l t s [120].

By p r o d u c i n g i n s t a n t a n e o u s e l o n g a t e d areas above t h e zone of h i g h conduc-

t i v i t y b e n e a t h t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s , i t h a s been p o s s i b l e t o produce and d i r e c t
l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e s a l o n g them. I n p a r t i c u l a r , l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e s have been
observed i n h i g h (up t o 100 m) w a t e r columns r a i s e d by powerful e x p l o s i o n s and
i n long w i r e s c a r r i e d by r o c k e t s [ 7 3 ] .

W e mentioned e a r l i e r t h a t a charged a i r c r a f t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s

may provoke a l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e i n a cloud [ 2 ] .

Thus f a r , w e have been t a l k i n g about clouds. But w e cannot omit t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y of c l e a n i n g t h e atmosphere of p o l l u t a n t s by e l e c t r i c a l means.
Small uncharged p a r t i c l e s o f p o l l u t i o n s e t t l e on t h e ground under t h e f o r c e
o f g r a v i t y . However, when t h e r e i s one elementary charge on a p a r t i c l e mea-
-6
s u r i n g 10 cm, l o c a t e d i n an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d w i t h an i n t e n s i t y of E = 1 V / c m
(normal v a l u e f o r t h e f i e l d s t r e n g t h of t h e atmosphere a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
ground), t h e r a t i o of t h e f o r c e s of g r a v i t y t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s mg/eE
-3
amounts t o 10 .
T h i s means t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s might p l a y
an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p u r i f y i n g t h e atmosphere o f c o n t a m i n a t i n g i m p u r i t i e s i n
some f a s h i o n . I n d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s problem, V. S h a e f f e r [162] n o t e d t h a t i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o s t i m u l a t e p u r i f i c a t i o n of t h e atmosphere by a r t i f i c i a l l y charg-
i n g i n some f a s h i o n t h e i n d u s t r i a l n u c l e i t h a t e n t e r t h e atmosphere. Their
danger ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o t h e r problems which e x i s t ) l i e s i n o v e r s e e d i n g
t h e atmosphere w i t h condensation n u c l e i , which consequently may l e a d t o t h e
appearance of drought.

101
 Nonelectric-al- methods. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l e c t r i c a l and o t h e r pro-
cesses i n clouds h a s made i t p o s s i b l e t o change t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of c l o u d s
by t r e a t i n g them w i t h c e r t a i n r e a g e n t s such as carbon d i o x i d e , s u r f a c t a n c s , sub-
s t a n c e s which are s i m i l a r t o i c e , etc. I f p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l s as t h e r e s u l t of
t h i s t r e a t m e n t , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c l o u d s w i l l b e more pro-
nounced, b u t i f t h e cloud b r e a k s up a f t e r b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o t h i s t r e a t m e n t ,
t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e clouds w i l l become less pronounced.

For example, l e t us look a t F i g u r e 3.1, i n which w e have shown t h e

change i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d of a cumulus c o n g e s t u s cloud a f t e r t r e a t m e n t -
180
w i t h s e v e r a l kg of s o l i d carbon d i o x i d e [ 4 0 ] . As w e can see, o n l y a few
minutes a f t e r t h i s , t h e p r o c e s s of o r g a n i z e d e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n h a s begun i n t h e
cloud, c o i n c i d i n g i n t i m e w i t h t h e development of l a r g e d r o p l e t s i n t h e cloud.

E , ~/m-i02 a , rl
F i g u r e 3 . 2 shows t h e r e s u l t s of
measuring t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t of an
e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e atmosphere i n
b)
rzo t h e v i c i n i t y of a cumulus c a n g e s t u s
80 cloud b e f o r e and a f t e r t r e a t m e n t w i t h
40
0 i o d i n e compounds o f l e a d and s i l v e r i n
-40 a p y r o t e c h n i c a l composition, which
-80
-720 l e d t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n [83]. Organized
600 1200 IBOON
electrification took p l a c e 1 4 minutes
F i g u r e 3.1. P o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t E of a f t e r t h e seeding.
a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n cumulus con-
g e s t u s cloud b e f o r e t r e a t m e n t ( a )
and a f t e r t r e a t m e n t (b) I n 1969, t h e problem o f c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e t h u n d e r s t o r m danger o f c l o u d s w a s
c o n s i d e r e d by Stow [155]. He f e e l s t h a t
excessive s e e d i n g w i t h ice-forming
r e a g e n t s i n l a r g e c o n v e c t i v e c l o u d s , which are i n a development s t a g e p r e c e d i n g
t h e s t a g e o f m a t u r i t y , may p r e v e n t o r reduce t h e e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y of t h e
cloud f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s : f i r s t of a l l , t h e c o n v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s which

102
 -
,'t 20 f i e l d of the atmosphere a f t e r
t r e a t i n g Cu cong. A r e a of
i n f l u e n c e : 125 km SE of T a l l i n ,
1 4 August 1969; f l i g h t a l t i t u d e
.-11)-
-
-4 -
14
4.7 km, a i r s p e e d approximately 240
km/hr. I, 11, 111, IV, V - numbers
-8 of p a s s e s of t h e a i r c r a f t above t h e
Ill, 8- 7 cloud a l o n g t h e same c o u r s e w i t h
c- b e a r i n g s $, $ +180'

Abscissa: d i s t a n c e from cloud.

11- 0 Treatment performed when c r o s s i n g

On t h e right s i d e o f t h e graph i s
t h e t i m e ( i n m i n u t e s ) , counted from
I - -4 t h e t i m e of t r e a t m e n t . Arrow shows
-41
- - d i r e c t i o n of a i r c r a f t movement.

a r e caused by t h e l i b e r a t i o n of l a t e n t h e a t d u r i n g f r e e z i n g o f t h e s u p e r c o o l e d
d r o p l e t s may cause t h e appearance of t u r b u l e n c e , as t h e r e s u l t of which f r e s h
c o l d b a t c h e s of a i r w i l l e n t e r t h e cloud and p r e v e n t i t s growth, and consequently
w i l l p r e v e n t t h e change of t h e cumulus congestus cloud i n t o a thunderstorm
cloud. Secondly, e x c e s s i v e s e e d i n g l e a d s t o a s h a r p decrease i n t h e amount of
s u p e r c o o l e d w a t e r i n t h e cloud, which w i l l reduce t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f one of
t h e p r i n c i p a l ( i n t h e a u t h o r ' s o p i n i o n ) mechanisms f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f thun-
d e r s t o r m e l e c t r i c i t y - e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n caused by t h e c o l l i s i o n of ice c r y s t a l s
with h a i l . I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , t h e s i z e of t h e p a r t i c l e s i s reduced, and SO

i s t h e i r d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e cloud. On t h e one hand, t h i s w i l l reduce t h e proba-

b i l i t y o f f r e e z i n g d r o p l e t s e x p l o d i n g , and t h e r e b y reduce t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
t h e t r e a t m e n t , accompanying the d r o p l e t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n m e c h a n i s m . On t h e o t h e r
hand, i t w i l l reduce t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c o l l i s i o n o f cloud p a r t i c l e s due t o
which t h e i n d u c t i o n mechanism of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e impeded.

103
 I n this system of t r e a t i n g c l o u d s that are l i k e l y t o t u r n i n t o t h u n d e r -
/81
clouds, r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e apparent effectiveness, there are s t i l l a number o f
weak p o i n t s . F i r s t of a l l , t h e r e are no c r i t e r i a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g whether a
c l o u d is i n danger of t u r n i n g i n t o a t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d , and i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y
i m p o s s i b l e t o treat a l l " s u s p i c i o u s " clouds t h a t might t u r n i n t o thunderstorms.
Secondly, clouds which are i n the s t a g e of t r a n s i t i o n from Cu cong t o Cb are
u s u a l l y p a r t of such a powerful d e v e l o p i n g system t h a t i t i s v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c a l
as t o whether i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a r t i f i c i a l l y change t h e dynamics of cloud devel-
opment by s u c h measures. New q u a n t i t i e s of h e a t and m o i s t u r e which are accu-
mulated r a p i d l y may n u l l i f y t h e i n h i b i t i o n of cloud development produced by t h e
methods of Stow. Problems of r e g u l a t i n g t h e thunderstorm danger of cumulus
congestus clouds r e q u i r e f u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l t r e a t m e n t .

The experiments o f L. B a t t a n [ 9 4 ] , i n which t h e i d e a o f s e e d i n g c o n v e c t i v e

clouds w i t h s i l v e r i o d i d e w a s employed, d i d n o t l e a d t o any d e f i n i t e r e s u l t s .

Another group o f methods f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of clouds

i s based on a change i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of cloud p a r t i c l e s
and p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i c l e s . If e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n depends t o a l a r g e degree
on t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical composition o f t h e p a r t i c l e s , n e g l i g i b l e changes
i n t h e composition of t h e p a r t i c l e s o r t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e i r s u r f a c e s may /82
have a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on cloud e l e c t r i c i t y .

Thus, one of t h e powerful e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n mechanisms, as w e p o i n t e d o u t

i n Chapter 11, i s t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f charges d u r i n g f r e e z i n g o f w a t e r ( t h e
Workman-Reynolds mechanism, which t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g t h e e x p l o s i o n of f r e e z i n g
s u p e r c o o l e d d r o p l e t s , i n t h e s e p a r a t i o n of water from m e l t i n g h a i l , e t c . ) .
U s u a l l y , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e t y p e of i m p u r i t y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e w a t e r , t h i s k i n d
of s e p a r a t i o n m e a n s t h a t t h e i c e p a r t i c l e s are charged n e g a t i v e l y , and water
p a r t i c l e s are charged p o s i t i v e l y . Only one i m p u r i t y (ammonium) h a s t h e o p p o s i t e
effect. E. Workman [ 2 7 ] s u g g e s t s t h a t , by adding ammonium t o t h e cloud, t h e
s i g n of t h e cloud d i p o l e could be r e v e r s e d . I t i s obvious t h a t by choosing

104
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e q u a n t i t y of ammonia one could t r y t o a c h i e v e t h e absence of
a p p r e c i a b l e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s i n a cumulonimbus cloud. It would t h e n be neces-
s a r y t o s o l v e the v e r y d i f f i c u l t problem of mixing the r e a g e n t m a t e r i a l w i t h
t h e cloud w a t e r , and i n t h e c o r r e c t l y s e l e c t e d p r o p o r t i o n s .

I n a similar f a s h i o n , one could t r y t o change t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n

c o n d i t i o n s of c l o u d s ( a s proposed by L. G. Kachurin e t a l . [ 5 5 ] ) by t r e a t i n g
t h e chemical composition of t h e d r o p l e t s i n t h e zone where t h e y can explode
when supercooled. According t o t h e d a t a i n t h i s p a p e r , e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of
e x p l o d i n g d r o p l e t s depends t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e pH of t h e w a t e r ; i t d e c r e a s e s
w i t h d e v i a t i o n of t h e pH t o e i t h e r s i d e from c e r t a i n optimum v a l u e s . Consequently,
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a c i d s o r a l k a l i s (when t h e p r o c e s s i n q u e s t i o n i s active enough)
c o u l d change t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t a t e of t h e cloud i f , of c o u r s e , i t i s known how
t o add t h e n e c e s s a r y s u b s t a n c e s t o t h e drops. The q u a n t i t y r e q u i r e d f o r t h e
cloud w i l l n o t exceed t e n s of k i l o g r a m s . I n any c a s e , experiments o f t h i s
k i n d w i l l make i t p o s s i b l e t o determine whether o r n o t t h i s mechanism does i n
f a c t p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f c l o u d s . It i s l i k e l y
t h a t t h i s k i n d of r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a l s o v a l i d f o r t h e e f f e c t of c o n d u c t i v i t y of
f r e e z i n g w a t e r ; i t s r e d u c t i o n o r i n c r e a s e , r e l a t i v e t o c e r t a i n optimum v a l u e s ,
may a l s o l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e i n t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e exploding d r o p l e t s .

I n t r o d u c t i o n of s u r f a c t a n t s i n t o a cloud can a l s o change t h e i n t e n s i t y of

t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s , a l t h o u g h t h e s i g n of such a change i s d i f f i c u l t
t o guess i n advance.

Table 3.5 shows s u g g e s t e d methods of a c t i v e t r e a t m e n t of t h e e l e c t r i c a l

s t a t e of c l o u d s , which we have g a t h e r e d from t h e d a t a and t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

I n concluding t h i s s u r v e y of i d e a s on c o n t r o l l i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y
of clouds and a c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g c l o u d s u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s , w e must
stress t h e r e l a t i v e abundance of i d e a s i n t h i s area, and t h e almost complete
absence of t h e i r t e c h n i c a l implementation. A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , when many

105
 TABLE 3.5

electrical s t a t e
of clouds

/ '

t
I
Methods changing Methods Methods changing
i n t e n s i t y of e l e c t r i c a l state
electrification elect r i cal l y
L.

E f f e c t on
f a l l of electrification
by changing dischar es ionization,
p r o p e r t i e s of a r t i f i c i a l trigger-
particles

Change i n pE ,Change i n
i Charging of
j p a r t i c l e s of
(ice-water) *' chemical
potential ,

Adding ammonia
(ice-water) iSalts, acids,
 o t h e r problems o f a c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g n a t u r e have n o t b e e n s o l v e d , active
t r e a t m e n t s have n o t been i n c l u d e d i n the a r s e n a l o f o r d i n a r y t e c h n i c a l a v a i l a b l e
means, and man is g e n e r a l l y a d a p t i n g h i m s e l f t o the weather r a t h e r t h a n chang-
i n g i t , t h e s e gaps are not v e r y n o t i c e a b l e and sometimes a p p e a r unimportant
a g a i n s t the background of the tremendous technical achievements made i n r e c e n t
years. However, i n a s h o r t t i m e , a c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g n a t u r e w i l l become
v i t a l l y necessary.

However, t h e q u a n t i t y o f materials b e i n g d i s c h a r g e d by m a n i n t o the

atmosphere i s i n c r e a s i n g ominously. A l k a l i s and a c i d s , s a l t s and o r g a n i c com-
pounds are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y f r e q u e n t and i n c r e a s i n g l y abundant i n t h e
water of clouds. I f the e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f c l o u d s r e a l l y depends on a n e g l i -
g i b l e q u a n t i t y o f chemical i m p u r i t i e s , thunderstorm c h a r t s may change s i g n i f i -
cantly i n connection w i t h i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y . P r e d i c t i o n o f t h e s e changes
and r e g u l a t i o n of them s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as u r g e n t t a s k s . Arz a r s e n a l of
i d e a s and methods must be d e v i s e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t o h e l p s o l v e new problems
o f a c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g and r e g u l a t i n g t h e consequences of i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y
An i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h i s r e g a r d is p l a y e d by methods o f r e g u l a t i n g c l o u d
e l e c t r i c i t y and e l e c t r i c a l methods of i n f l u e n c i n g c l o u d s .

CONCLUSION S

Data o b t a i n e d r e c e n t l y , p r e s e n t e d i n a b r i e f and c a t e g o r i c a l way which i s

n e c e s s i t a t e d by a s h o r t s u r v e y , have p e r m i t t e d some p r o g r e s s t o b e made i n
s o l v i n g t h e problems mentioned i n t h e foreword. A s i s u s u a l l y t h e case, t h e
i n c r e a s e i n knowledge h a s made i t p o s s i b l e t o d e v i a t e from many s c h e m a t i c
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , t h e main advantage of which h a s been s i m p l i c i t y . The frame-
work of o u r e f f o r t s h a s been t o l i m i t o u r s e l v e s o n l y t o c e r t a i n problems which
touch d i r e c t l y on problems of atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n clouds and t h e i r a t m o s p h e r i c - e l e c t r i c a l
characteristics.

107

I
 I n many cases, s t u d i e s have l e d t o a p p a r e n t l y p a r a d o x i c a l r e s u l t s . It
w a s unexpected that a l l forms of c l o u d s are g e n e r a t o r s o f e l e c t r i c i t y . Non-
t h u n d e r s t o r m c l o u d s , occupying l a r g e areas, may make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n
on t h e whole t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d i n t h e atmosphere. It
w a s a l s o unexpected t h a t t h e a v e r a g e c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g o v e r thunderstorm c l o u d s
would d i f f e r by one o r d e r of magnitude i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . L e t us r e c a l l
t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e c u r r e n t balance f o r t h e e n t i r e e a r t h , a c c o r d i n g
t o Wilson's system, o b t a i n e d from d a t a by 0. Gish, and J. White, C. S t u r g i s ,
e t c . , w e r e based on t h e i d e a t h a t t h e c u r r e n t from a s i n g l e thunderstorm is
about 0.5-1 A. Even w i t h t h i s assumption, i t w a s found t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i n
thunderstorms i s s c a r c e l y adequate t o compensate f o r "good weather" c u r r e n t s .
According t o t h e r e s u l t s o f o u r s t u d i e s , c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e middle l a t i t u d e s , 185
t h e c u r r e n t i n a t h u n d e r s t o r m amounts t o about 0.1-0.2 A i n all. It i s
obvious t h a t , f o r a c o r r e c t p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t b a l a n c e , i t i s neces-
s a r y t o know t h e t h u n d e r s t o r m characteristics i n v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l - g e o g r a p h i c
regions. It i s most l i k e l y that the e f f e c t of the u n d e r l y i n g s u r f a c e ( f o r
example, v a r i o u s t e r r i t o r i e s and a q u a t o r i a ) i n t r o d u c e s as much d i v e r s i t y i n t o
thunderstorm a c t i v i t y as does t h e change i n l a t i t u d e . Hence, d u r i n g t h e coming
atmospheric e l e c t r i c a l decade, we must s o l v e , f i r s t of a l l , t h e problem o f
g e n e r a t i o n of e l e c t r i c i t y by clouds of a l l t y p e s i n v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l and geo-
graphical regions. T h i s problem may b e s o l v e d through e x t e n s i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
cooperation.

I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o change s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e i d e a s o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s
r e g a r d i n g t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n mechanisms i n clouds i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
c l a r i f i c a t i o n of t h e mechanism f o r charge g e n e r a t i o n i n s t r a t i f o r m c l o u d s ,
which i s u n r e l a t e d t o the c a p t u r e of a i r i o n s , and i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e
observed e f f e c t of c o l o s s a l e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s i n t h u n d e r s t o r m clouds due t o
t h e unexpectedly h i g h e f f e c t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n them. Hence, several elemen-
t a r y e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , whose a c t i o n h a s u s u a l l y been used t o e x p l a i n
thunderstorm e l e c t r i c i t y , are n o t e f f e c t i v e enough t o produce t h e p r o c e s s e s
t h a t take p l a c e i n t h u n d e r s t o m . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine a number of

108
i d e a s i n v o l v e d i n a t m o s p h e r i c e l e c t r i c i t y and t h e e x i s t e n c e o f b o t h p o s i t i v e
and n e g a t i v e p o l a r i z a t i o n of a l l t y p e s of clouds. I d e a s r e g a r d i n g t h e impor-
tant r o l e o f f l u c t u a t i o n s ( b o t h e l e c t r i c a l and o t h e r w i s e ) are v i t a l f o r an
understanding of cloud evolution.

I n concluding t h i s s u r v e y , w e would l i k e t o mention t h a t we have t r i e d

t o set f o r t h only t h e b a s i c f a c t s which are o f i n t e r e s t f o r s t u d y i n g t h e prob-
lems of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l e c t r i c a l and n o n e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of c l o u d s , paying s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of clouds.
W e have i n t e n t i o n a l l y o m i t t e d c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
phenomena, s i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a d i s c u s s i o n would have c o n s i d e r a b l y
complicated t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e b a s i c c o n t e n t s of t h e work, and would have
c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d i t s scope. I n t h o s e works, which have been c i t e d i n
t h i s s u r v e y , t h e r e a d e r w i l l f i n d t h e viewpoints of v a r i o u s a u t h o r s concerning
t h e problems d i s c u s s e d . I n many c a s e s , however, w e have l i m i t e d o u r s e l v e s t o
a p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s of d i s c u s s i o n s . W e f e e l t h a t i n t h i s form t h e
work can be viewed as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e problems mentioned e a r l i e r , and
w e hope t h a t i t w i l l t u r n o u t t o be v a l u a b l e f o r r e s e a r c h e r s on cloud p h y s i c s .

109
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