PHI 1101 Notes

- Philosopher tool box:

o Statements: True or are false
o Sets: If true = consistent, if false = inconsistent
o Arguments: if true = logically strong (inductively strong and deductively valid), if false =
logically weak (inductively weak and deductively invalid)
- Statements:
o Most basic concept of critical thinking
o Defined as: a statement is a sentence used to make a claim. Statements are capable of
being either true or false
o Logic calls statements assertions or propositions
o The property of being either true or false is what distinguishes statements from
sentences which are not capable of being either true or false. Instead sentences are
commands, questions and expressions of volition (wishes)
 Proposition: Socrates is a man.
 Command: Be a man, Socrates.
 Question: is Socrates a man?
 Expression of violation: Oh, that Socrates were a man.
o Concept -------- statement
o Property -------- true or false
- The truth about pyecraft H.G. Wells
- 2 Laws of Logic
o 1. The Law of Non-Contradiction
o 2. The Law of Excluded Middle or the Law of Bivalence
- Examples
o Socrates is a man (proposition)
o Socrates is not a man (Negation of the above proposition)
- Statements can be presented with symbols:
o Statements tend to be represented with letters such as: a,b,c, or p,qr
 Socrates is a man. (P)
 Socrates is not a man (not p or -p)
 Lassie is a do (p)
 Lassie is not a dog (not p/-p)
 Why can’t you say that the proposition is the not sentence???
- The Law of Non-contradiction
o states that it is impossible for both a proposition and its negation to be true at the same
time
o In other words: at one and the same time, one cannot truthfully both assert and deny
that something is the case
o One cannot assert both p and not p at the same time
o Contradictions (p and not p) cannot both be true
- The Law of excluded Middle or the Law of Bivalence
o States that every proposition must be either true or false
 o In other words: any middle position between truth and falsity is excluded
o It follows form this law that for any given proposition and its negation, one must be true
and the other false. If a proposition is true, its negation must be false. If a proposition is
false, its negation must be true.
o If “Socrates is a man” is true, then its negation “Socrates is not a man” must be false
o If p is true, not-p must be false
o If “lassie is a dog” is true, then “Lassie is not a dog” must be false
- Set of proposition:
o Propositions can be combined in groups or sets
 Socrates is mortal
 Socrates is a philosopher
 Lassie is a dog
 Lassie is brave
- Consistency
o While propositions are either true or false, set of propositions are consistent or
inconsistent
o Defined as – a set of propositions is consistent if and only if it is possible for all of the
propositions in that set to be true at the same time. In other words, a set of propositions
is consistent if these propositions do not contradict one another
o Examples: the following sets are inconsistent because they contain a contradiction (it is
not possible for their members to be true at the same time)
 S1: Socrates is mortal and Socrates is immortal
 S2: Socrates is mortal and Socrates is an Olympian God
o It is important to understand that consistency does not imply that all, or any of the
sentences in a consistent set are, in fact, true.
o Definition – a set of propsitions is consistent if and only if it is possible for all of the
propoistions in that set to be true at the same time. In other words, if the members of
the set do not contradict one another
o 2 false statements can be consistent. Ex:
 Socrates is immortal
 Socrates is an Olympian God
o To logically evaluate a set of propositions as consistent is only to see what it is possible
for them to be true at the same time, not that they are actually true
- Sets
o Concept ------- set
o Property ------- consistent or inconsistent
- Inference
o Sometimes our thoughts merely come to us one after another
o They are not really linked to one another
o Examples
 Socrates is a man
 Socrates went for a walk
 This is just a set of propositions
 Ollie is a cat
  Ollie is asleep
 This is just a set of propositions
o Suppose that I notice a particular relation, a logical relation between my thoughts
o I see that one thought provides support for another thought or makes it reasonable to
believe that another thought is true
o In this case, the second thought follows from the first thought. My thoughts no longer
simply come together, I actively link them
o Examples
 Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal
 We can see a logical relation between these propositions
 Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal
 Ollie was out all night. Ollie is tired.
 Ollie was out all night. Therefore, Ollie is tired
o The penny drops, so to speak, the light goes on
o We see a logical relation between thoughts
o We draw an inference
o Inference – a logical relationship between 2 thoughts
o How can we define this relationship?
 Defined as – inference is a relationship between two thoughts that occurs when
one thought supports or justifies or makes it reasonable to believe another
thought
o Inference indicators: since, thus implies, consequently, because, it follows that, given
that
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YkEMYLQF520
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T5QYTrDReTo

The more we know about different people, the better people we become because it allows us to better
understand one another