What create wind?

As the sun shines on the earth different parts of the land

CE 248 - Behavior of plastic design and sea heat at different speeds. This results in high and
of steel structures low pressure areas and leads to the lift and fall of air
passes across the entire globe. Due to the angle of the
earth while rotating the majority of the heat falls upon the
Topic: Wind Loads middle of the world (equator) and much less towards the
ice caps of the northern and southern hemisphere this
means that as the warm air rises on the equator the cold
Tony Yang air is pulled in from the ice caps. This spreads the warmth
University of California, Berkeley across the globe and results in moving air patterns.

What wind loads? Wind velocity vs. height

• Wind is air in motion. Structure deflects or stops the • Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural
wind, converting the wind’s kinetic energy into height.
potential energy of pressure, thus create wind
loads.

• The intensity of the wind pressure depends on:

Shape of structure.
Angle of the induce wind.
Velocity of air.
Density of air.
Stiffness of structure.

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Air flow Air flow

• The more the air is streamed, the less the reaction force
exerted by the structure.

Courtesy of Structural analysis 3rd edition by Aslam Kassimali

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Dynamic effects of wind Dynamic Resonance
• Vortex shedding • Equation of motions
As wind moved at constant speed and suddenly the
air particle are stopped by the surface friction. mu + cu + ku = p sin (ωt )
Small mass of the restrained air will periodically
break off and created the process of vortex ⇒ u ss ( t ) = u0 sin (ωt − φ )
shedding. The change in velocity causes the change
in pressure and creates excitation to the structure. P k c
Let ust ,0 = , ωn = ,ζ =
• Resonance k m 2ωn
u0 1
⇒ Rd = =
mu + cu + ku = p sin (ω t ) ust ,0 2
⎡1 − (ω / ωn ) ⎤ + ⎡ 2ζ (ω / ωn ) ⎤ 2
2

⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

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Dynamic Resonance Tacoma narrows bridge

10
ζ= 0.05

9 ζ= 0.1
ζ= 0.2
ζ= 0.5
8 ζ= 0.75
ζ= 1
7

6
Rd

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
ω / ωn

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Ways to prevent resonance Code provision

• Spoilers • Wind load
ASCE 7-02 Section 6 (pg 23)

Courtesy of Structural analysis 6th edition by R.C. Hibbeler

• Dampers

• Modify the natural period of the structure to be away

from the resonance.

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Analysis Procedures Analytical Procedure
• Static: Wind force is replaced by equivalent static force. 6.5.1 Scope. A building or other structure whose design
1. Simplified procedure: ASCE 7-02 Section 6.4 wind loads are determined in accordance with this
2. Analytical procedure: ASCE 7-02 Section 6.5 section shall meet all of the following conditions:

• Dynamic: Real time air pressure testing. 1. The building or other structure is a regular-shaped
1. Wind tunnel procedure. ASCE 7-02 Section 6.6 building or structure as defined in Section 6.2.

2. The building or other structure does not have

response characteristics making it subject to across
wind loading, vortex shedding, instability due to
galloping or flutter; or does not have a site location
for which channeling effects or buffeting in the
wake of upwind obstructions warrant special
consideration.
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Bernoulli equation for fluid flow Code provision

1  2 • ASCE 7-02 Equation 6-15 (pg 31)
• q= ρV q = 0.00256 K Z K Zt K dV 2 I
2
• Where q is the static wind pressure • Where K Z is the velocity pressure exposure factor

ρ is the mass density of air K Zt is the topographic effect factor

V is the wind velocity K d is the wind directionality factor

1  2 I is the importance factor

• ⇒q= ρ V = 0.00256 V 2 [psf]
2
V [mph]
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Velocity pressure exposure factor Velocity pressure exposure factor

• Accounts for influence of both height above ground and • For 15 ft < z < zg
exposure factor.
K z = 2.01( z / z g )
2 /α

• Exposure Categories Zg [ft] α

Urban, suburban and wooded area. The B 1200 7
terrain must prevail in the upwind direction • For z < 15 ft
for a distance of 2630 ft or 10 time the
K z = 2.01(15 / z g )
2 /α
structure height, which ever is greater
Applies to all building not in B or D C 900 9.5
Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces D 700 11.5
outside hurricane prone area. The terrain • ASCE 7-02 Table 6-3 (pg 75)
must prevail in the upwind direction for a
distance of 5000 ft or 10 time the structure
height, which ever is greater

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Topographic effect factor Wind direction factor
• To account for greater wind speed if structure is located • The factor accounts for two effects:
on a hill. 1) reduced the possibility of maximum winds
coming from any direction and
• ASCE 7-02 Section 6.5.7 (pg 29)
2) reduced the probability of maximum pressure
• ASCE 7-02 Figure 6-4 (pg 47) coefficient occurring for any given wind direction.

K Zt = (1 + K1 K 2 K 3 ) • ASCE 7-02 Table 6.4 (pg 76)

2

• Only used with the load combination shown in ASCE 7-

02 Section 2.4.2 and Section 2.4.3.

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Basic wind speed Importance Factor

• ASCE 7-02 Figure 6-1 (pg 36) • ASCE 7-02 Table 6.1 (pg 73)

• Measured by anemometer located 33 ft above the

ground in open terrain and represents the wind speed
that have 2% probability of exceeding in any given
year.

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Design wind pressure Gust effect

• ASCE 7-02 Figure 6-6 (pg 50) • Accounts for loading effect on wind turbulence on
structures.

• p = qz , h G C p − qh G C pi • Rigid structure (T < 1 sec) :

G = 0.85

• G = gust effect factor • Flexible structure or dynamic sensitive structure:

⎛ 1 + 1.7 I g 2Q 2 + g 2 R 2 ⎞
• Cp = external pressure coefficient
G f = 0.925 ⎜ ⎟
Z Q R

⎜ 1 + 1.7 g v I Z ⎟
• Cpi = internal pressure coefficient ⎝ ⎠
• ASCE 7-02 Section 6.5.8.2 (pg 30) for more
details

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Pressure coefficients Design force
• ASCE 7-02 Figure 6-6, 6-7 and 6-8 (pg 51 ~ 53). • F=pxA

• Design wind force resisting system ASCE 7-02 Figure

6-9 (pg 54)

• Design for signs

F = qz G C f Af

Where Cf = net force coefficient. See ASCE 7-02

Figure 6-18 to 6-22 (pg 68 ~ pg 72)

• Minimum horizontal wind pressure for design building =

10 psf
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Wind tunnel test Photos of damage structures

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Tall Buildings

Question?

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