Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Fault Analysis

Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Represent the entire power system in a single circuit based on pu values.
 Determine the sequence components for an unbalanced phasor system.
 Determine the fault current for Symmetrical Faults i.e. 3 phase faults.
 Determine the sequence currents and fault current for unsymmetrical faults.
 Determine the ratings of Circuit Breakers to be employed in the system.
 Understand the methods of Neutral Grounding.

Introduction
There can be abnormal conditions in the power system due to flashover of the lines initiated
by a lightning stroke or insulation failure or through accidental faulty operation. Fault
Analysis is done to predict the conditions existing in the system under faulty conditions so
that effective protection system can be designed. Protection system must be able to handle
large currents under faulty operation and isolate the faulty part from the system. Majority of
faults are unsymmetrical in nature that makes the system unbalanced and hence require
special tools for analysis like Symmetrical Components as discussed in this chapter.

Representation of Power System

Single Line Diagram

Power System can be represented in terms of Single Line Diagram which makes it more
readable. An example of such a Power System is given below,

By this method we can avoid representing each and every component by its equivalent
circuit. Otherwise, in a practical Power System consisting of 100’s of Transmission Lines, it
would be nearly impossible to read the topology of the Power System.
The equivalent circuit of each and every component used in Power System is given below,

Generator (G)
Generator can be modeled as a constant voltage source behind synchronous impedance
which consists of Armature Resistance and Synchronous Reactance.
Usually,  Xs  R  so we neglect the resistance of generator.

1
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Steady state model of synchronous generator is shown below,

If resistance is neglected then circuit model is shown below,

Transformer (T)
Magnetizing current & core loss are neglected. So, the shunt elements in equivalent circuit
are not shown.
V2 N2
Transformation ratio, k  or
V N1
1

If the entire circuit is referred to primary side then it looks like as shown in first circuit below
or if it is referred to secondary side then it looks like as shown in second circuit below,

The impedances on primary and secondary are given as,

2
N  Z
1 2
Z01  Z1  Z2 Z 
  N 1
2
 2 k
2
N
2
 2
Z02  Z2  Z1 2
 N 1   Z2  Z1 k

3
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Transmission line  Tx 
Usually The Transmission Lines are modeled using Nominal-π Model as shown below,

Most of the times, we neglect Shunt Admittances, so the model becomes

Synchronous Motor
The model for Synchronous Motor is similar to Synchronous Generator with slight
modifications as shown below,

Static Load
Static Load means Stationery Load which may consist of Resistors and Inductors,

During fault analysis, the static load can be neglected from the circuit whereas the dynamic
load especially Synchronous Motor must be considered in fault analysis.
The equivalent circuit for Single Line Diagram given below,
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

The equivalent circuit is,

Here numbers of loops to be solved are more (3) if current is represented in absolute
parameters. This number increases rapidly when we talk about practical power systems
consisting of 100’s of buses. The number of equations are more due to Transformers in the
Power System.
To avoid this we represent Network in PU. For basics of pu system refer Chapter-1.

Transformer in PU
Since, KVA rating on both sides of Transformer is same
V1I1  V2I2
V2 I1
  k (Transformation ratio)
V1 I2
Here, ‘1’ subscript represents the primary side of Transformer and ‘2’ subscript represents
secondary side of Transformer.
Base Values
The base MVA on both sides of Transformer is same but voltage and current bases are
different and are not independent on both the sides but are related by Transformation Ratio.
If primary side base voltage is V1 base

Secondary side base voltage is kV1 base

The current base on primary side= I1 base

I1 base
Current base on secondary side 
k

Primary base impedance= Z V1 base

1 base  I
1 base

V2 base kV1 base 2

Secondary base impedance= Z  I  I kZ
2 base
2 base 1 base
/k 1 base

Equivalent Impedance on Primary Side is,

Z01  Z2 
Z  k 
1 2
 
It can be expressed in pu as,
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

  Z1  Z2 / k 
2
Z01
pu  Z1 base 
 
Equivalent Impedance on secondary side is,


Z02  Z1k  Z2 
2

It can be expressed in pu as,

Z 2  Z1 / k
2
Z 2  Z1 / k
2
 
Z1  Z 2 / k
2
  
Z02 pu  
  k2Z1 base
Z2 base Z1 base


Z02 pu  Z01 pu
   
But Z1 pu  Z2 pu
   
So transformer coupling can be removed
Z01 pu  Z02 pu

Z2
Z01   Z1  ; Z02   Z2  Z1k
2
2
k
Z01   Z02 if k  1
The PU values on primary & secondary are so chosen that PU voltage are same &
transformation ratio of Transformer will become unity, so Transformer coupling factor k can
be removed.
Thus, the equivalent circuit for Power System shown in last example is,

Hence, one only one equation needs to be solved. Hence, number of network equation
reduces & analysis of network becomes easy.

Representation of Power System in pu

 A universal MVA base is chosen for entire Power System.
 Power System is divided into various sections based on Transformers like in above
example we had three loops so three sections are defined.
 Voltage base of one section is assumed and other voltage bases are determined based on
Transformation Ratio of different Transformers.
 All impedances are expressed in pu based on the base value defined in their particular
section.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Solved Examples

Problem: Draw reactance diagram for the system whose Single Line Diagram is given below,
Gen-1 30MVA, 10.5kV, x’’=1.6Ω
Gen-2 15MVA, 6.6kV, x’’=1.2Ω
Gen-3 25MVA, 6.6kV, x’’=0.56Ω
T1 15MVA, 11/33kV, x=15.2Ω/ph on HT side
T2 15MVA, 33/11kV, x=15.2Ω/ph on HT side
TL  20.5 Ω/ph
LA  40MW, 11kV, 0.9pf lag
LB  40MW, 6.6kV, 0.85 pf lag

Solution: Assuming System MVA Base = 30 MVA

Base Voltage in Generator 1 section = 11kV
33
Base Voltage in Transmission Line section = 11=33kV
11
11
Base Voltage in Generator 2 section=  33=11kV
33
Computing per unit impedances of each element, Z(pu)  Z()  Sbase
2
V 
base
30
G1: 1.6  =0.3967 pu
11
2

30
G2 : 1.2  =0.2975 pu
11
2

30
G3 : 0.56  =0.1388 pu
11
2

Since, Transformer impedance is referred on High Voltage side so we will use Secondary
Base for T1 and primary base for T2 i.e. base values in Transmission Line section of power
system.
30
T1, T2 : 15.2  =0.4187 pu
33
2
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

30
TL : 20.5  =0.5647 pu
33
2

Based on these values if we interconnect the impedances to form reactance diagram, it looks
like,

Note: We have neglected the static loads as is done for the case of Fault Analysis.

Problem: Draw Reactance Diagram for the system shown below,

The ratings of various components are,

Gen-1 10kVA, 2400V, x’’=0.2 pu
Gen-2 20kVA, 2400V, x’’=0.2 pu
Motor 25kVA, 4 kV
T1 40kVA, 2400/9600V, x=0.1 pu
T2 80kVA, 10/5kV, x=0.1 pu
TL  50+j200 Ω/ph
Choose system base MVA= 100 MVA and base voltage for G1 to be 2400V.
Solution: If base voltage of generator section is 2400V
9600
Then base voltage of Transmission Line section is  2400=9600 V
2400
10000
Base Voltage for Motor Section is  9600=4800 V
5000
2
Computing per unit impedances of each element, Z(pu)  Z(pu)
V
old 2

Snew


new old
V 
new
Sold
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

2400 
2

100
 2pu
G1: 0.2  2

2400 
10
2
2400
G2: 0.2   2
 100
 1pu
2400 20

For Transformers we need to take care to choose both old and new base on same side of
Transformer i.e. either primary or secondary.
2

T1: 0.1 2400  100  0.25pu

2
2400 40

5000 
2
100
T2: 0.1   0.136pu
4800 80
2

Since, Transmission Line Impedance is given in ohms we can directly convert it to pu using
base values as,
100 103
TL : 50  j200   0.054  j0.217pu
9600 
2

The reactance diagram looks like as shown below,

Symmetrical components
In a balance system, analysis can be done on a single phase basis. The knowledge of voltage
and current in one phase is sufficient to determine the voltages and current in other two
phases. But when the system is unbalanced, the voltages, currents and the phase impedance
are in general unequal. Unbalanced system operation can result due to unsymmetrical fault,
ex. line to line fault, double line to ground or single line to ground. Unbalanced operation
may also result when loads are unbalanced three phase voltages and currents are
transformed into three sets of balanced voltages and currents called symmetrical
components.
If the currents and voltages are related by constant impedances, the system is said to be
linear and the principle of super position applies. The voltage response of the linear system
to the unbalanced currents can be determined by considering the separate responses of the
individual elements to the symmetrical components of the currents. The system elements of
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

interest are the machines, transformers, transmission lines and loads connected to delta or
star configurations.

For unbalanced 3-phase system, analysis becomes very difficult

In unbalanced system loop equations are coupled

Van  IaRa  IbRb  Vbn  0

Vbn  IbRb  IcRc  Vcn  0

Van  IaRa  IcRc  Vcn  0

To analyze unbalanced system, symmetrical component method is used based on

‘Fortesque’s Theorem’

Fortesque’s Theorem
In an unbalanced set of phasors the system may be resolved in (n-1) balanced system for
different phase sequence & one zero phase sequence.
This is applicable for only voltage & currents.


Balanced sets of components

Positive sequence components
0
It is consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 in
phase and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors.
Va  Vb1  Vc1

1
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Negative sequence components

0
It consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 in
phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.
Va   Vc2
 Vb2
2

Zero sequence components

It consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from
each other.
Va0  Vb0  Vc0


Unbalanced Quantities
Va  Positive sequence = Va1 , Vb1 , Vc1
Vb  Negative sequence = Va2 , Vb2 , Vc2
Vc  Zero sequence = Va0 , Vb0 , Vc0

Va  Va1  Va2  Va0

Vb  Vb1  Vb2  Vb0

Vc  Vc1  Vc2 

Vc0

Phase shift operator (α)

Operator ‘α’ is used to indicate the phase displacement
0 j1200
  1120  e
 0 0

2  12400  e j240  e j120

3 0
  1360  10

2 0 0
1      1  1120  1240  0
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

2
Vb1   Va1 , Vc1  Va1 , Vb0  Va0
2
Vb2  Va2 , Vc2   Va2 , Vc0  Va0

For voltages
Va  1 12 1  Va0 
V  1   
 b    V a1 
1   V 
2
V   a2
c
    
V   A V 
abc 012

 a    a 
Va0  1 1 1  Va 
V  1 1 V
2
 
 Va1     b
 a2 3 1 2    Vc 

  

 Va012    A1   V abc 

     

For currents

Ia 1 21 1  Ia0 

I  1   
 b  2  I a1 
I  1    Ia2 
c
    
Iabc    A I012 
a   a 
Ia0  1 1 1  Ia 
  1 2  
I a1   3 1    Ib 
 I   1 2    I 
 a2    c 

 aI012    A 1   Iabc 
     

The sum of three line voltages is always zero & hence zero sequence component of line

voltage is always
1 zero.
V  V  V  V   0

3
ab 0ab bc ca 

The sum of line currents in a 3 , 4 wire system is equal to current in neutral wire.

1 1
I  I  I  I   I
a0 a b c n
3 3
For 3 , 3 wire system (neutral is not grounded)
Ia0  0 In  0
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

If the system is unbalanced then both +ve and –ve sequence components will exist. If the

sum of voltage and current is non-zero then there is an existence of zero sequence
components.

Power in Symmetrical components

For abc sequence,
 a* 
V  II
T *
abc Vabc  I  V V
S  a *
 c  b
   abc  b
 I* 
c
abc * * *
S VI VI VI
a a b b c

Relation between actual quantities and sequence quantities

Vabc   A V012 and abc
I   A I012 
 a     a  a  a
abc 012 T 012 T * *
S  V   A   A  I 
 a      a 

T * 1 12 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
A A  1    2   3 0 1 0
 2 1   
1  
 1 
2
 0 0 1
    
T * T *
S
abc
 V012  3I I012   3 V012  I012 
 a  a   a   a 
abc * * *
S  3 V I  V I  V I 
a1 a1 a2 a2 a0 a0

abc
S  3S012
The disadvantage with these symmetrical components is that the transformation matrix A

is not power invariant or is not orthogonal or unitary.

Solved Examples

Problem: A delta connected balanced resistive load is connected across an unbalanced 3 

supply as shown. With currents specified in lines A & B. Find symmetrical components of line
currents?
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Solution: In Delta Connection sum of line currents is always zero. Therefore,

IA  IB  IC  0
IC   IA  IB    1030  15  60   18.02153.69 A
0

Positive Sequence Component of Line Current is given by,

1
2 0

I  I  I   I  1030 +1120 15  60  1 120 18.02153.69 
A1 A B C
3
0
IA1  1442 A
Negative Sequence Component of Line Current is given by,
1
2 0

I  I   I  I  1030 +1 120 15  60  1120 18.02153.69 
A1 A B C
3
0
IA2  4.66 111.75 A
Since, sum of line currents is zero,
IA0  0

Problem: The sequence voltages of an unbalanced 3 phase system are given as

V1=0.87 p.u. ; V2=-0.57 p.u. ; V0=-0.3 p.u.
Calculate phase voltages Va, Vb, Vc on a voltage base of 11kV (L-L)

Solution: Va  Va1  Va2  Va0  0 p.u.

2 0
Vb  Va0   Va2  Va0  1.325  109.84 p.u.
2 0
Vc  Va0  Va2   Va0  1.325109.84 p.u.

Phase voltages in kV

Va=0 ; 11 0 11 0
  1.325  109.84 kV ; V   1.325109.84 kV
Vb 3
c
3
0 0
Vab  Va  Vb  0  1.325  109.84 =1.32570.2 p.u.
0 0 0
Vbc  Vb  Vc  1.325  109.84  1.325109.84 = 2.49  90 p.u.
0 0
Vca  Vc  Va  1.325109.84  0 = 1.325109.84 p.u.

Line voltages in kV

Va 11 0 11 0
11 0
  1.32570.2 kV ; Vbc   2.49  90 kV ;  1.325109.84 kV
b
3 3 Vca= 3

Problem: An unbalance system is having sequence components as

V1= 1.2 p.u. ; V2=-0.4 p.u. ; V0=-0.1 p.u. ; I0=I1=I2=3-j4 p.u.
What is the power consumed by phase a, on a base of 100MVA
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Solution: 0
I0  I1  I2  3  j4  5  53.13 p.u.
abc * * *
S  3 V I  V I  V I 
a1 a1 a2 a2 a0 a0

abc 0 0 0 0
S  3 0.1 553.13  1.2 553.13  0.4 553.13   10.553.13 p.u.
abc 100 0 0
S   10.553.13 MVA  35053.13 MVA /phase
3
Pa  350cos53.13  210MW and Qa  350sin53.13  280 MVAR

Sequence Network

Electrical equipment or components offer impedance to flow of current when potential is

applied. The impedance offered to the flow of positive sequence is called positive sequence
impedance Z1. The impedance offered to the flow of negative sequence currents is called
negative sequence impedance Z2. When zero sequence flow through components of power
system the impedance offered is called zero sequence impedance Z 0.

Star connected winding with neutral grounding

Zn  Neutral grounding impedance

All 3  winding are symmetrical & identical


Ia  Ia0  Ia1  Ia2

Ib  Ib0  Ib1  Ib2

Ic  Ic0  Ic1  Ic2

Ia, Ib, Ic are unbalanced currents
Va, Vb, Vc are unbalanced voltages

Neutral current,
In  Ia  Ib  Ic

In  3Ia0

Positive sequence network

Consider abc sequence
Neutral voltage Vn  InZn  0
Ia1 V V V
 Za1 ; Ib1  Zb1 ; Ic1  Zc1
1 1 1
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

System is balanced, so per phase analysis is sufficient



Va1  Ia1Z1

Negative sequence network

Consider abc sequence
Neutral voltage Vn  InZn  0

Ia2 V
 ; Ib2  ; Ic2  Zc2
Va2 Vb2
Z Z
2 2 2

System is balanced, so per phase analysis is sufficient



Va2  Ia2 Z2

Zero sequence networks

Consider abc sequence

Ia0 V V
 ; Ib0  Zb0 ; Ic0  Zc0
Va0
Z
0 0 0

In  3Ia0
Vn  3Ia0 Zn
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

System is balanced, so per phase analysis is sufficient


Va0   Ia0 Z 0  3Ia0

Zn  Va0  Ia0  Z 0 

3Zn 

Star connected winding isolated from neutral

If neutral is isolated from ground i.e. Zn  

Positive & negative sequence network are constructed w.r.t. neutral because
 Vn  0 for
+ve & -ve sequence quantities.
Zero sequence network is constructed w.r.t. ground because Vn  0 for zero sequence

quantities.
The nature of neutral grounding will affect only zero sequence network.


Ia0  0

For solid grounding  Zn  0 (effective


grounding) Only zero sequence affect will affect

Delta connected winding

Consider abc sequence

Ia  Ica  Iab
Ib  Iab  Ibc

Ic  Ibc  Ica
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Iab  Iab0  Iab1  Iab2

Ibc  Ibc0  Ibc1  Ibc2

Ica  Ica0  Ica1  Ica2

Ia  Ica  Iab   Ica1  Iab1    Ica2  Iab2 

So, no zero sequence current in line of  -winding but zero sequence current can exist in

phase of  -winding

Star grounded  -winding will provide closed path for zero sequence currents whereas

star ungrounded winding will not provide any closed path for zero sequence currents.
In star grounded network, zero sequence currents can flow in both phase & line.


Sequence network for alternators

Star connected alternator

Consider an unloaded synchronous generator with a neutral to ground connection through
an impedance Zn. Let a fault occur at its terminal which causes currents I a, Ib, Ic to flow
through its phase a, b & respectively. The generated phase voltages are E a, Eb & Ec . Current
In flows through the neutral impedance Zn.

Windings are symmetrical




Kp , of each winding is same
Kd
 Va , Vb , are unbalanced terminal voltage

Vc
Inducted emf Ea ,Eb ,Ec are balanced

 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

0
As rotor rotates in a single direction and windings are displaced in space by 120 so the

emf induced are balanced and always positive sequence, there are no negative or zero
sequence induced emf.
Ea1  Eb1  Ec1  Ea

Ea2  Eb2  Ec2  0

Ea0  Eb0  Ec0  0

Positive sequence network

The field mmf is always along d-axis, so reactance


Z1  jX d Subtransient 
Z1  jXd  transient 

Z1  jXd Steady state 

If fault occurs at no-load, terminal voltage is used as at no-load V t
 but under

Ef 
loaded condition we use Ef
Per phase electrical equivalent circuit

Va1  Ea1  Ia1Z1

Negative sequence network

No negative sequence induced emf


When negative current flows in stator, a magnetic field is set which rotates in opposite

direction to rotor. So it has twice the synchronous speed w.r.t. rotor. So there is a double
frequency induced emf in the rotor causing for double frequency currents and the rotor
will be over heated.
The air gap or reluctance offered by negative sequence flux is not constant so negative

sequence reactance of the alternator will be changing continuously in between d axis & q
axis reactance’s, so negative sequence impedance of alternator can be taken as

 Xd2  Xq
2   
Z j
 
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Generally,
For salient pole alternator X    X   => Z  Z
d q 2 1

For cylindrical rotor alternator, Xd  and Z1  Z2

X'd
Per phase electrical equivalent circuit

Va2  Z2Ia2

Zero sequence networks

Zero sequence currents flowing in stator windings produce mmfs which are in time phase
 0
but space displaced by 120
Sinusoidal space mmf produced by each of the three stator windings at any instant at a

point on the axis of the stator would be zero.
No armature reaction flux effect on main field. So stator is presented with only leakage

reactance
Z0  jXl leakage reactance

Z0  Z2  Z1

Va0  Ia0  Z 0  3Zn 

Delta connected alternator

Convert delta connection into star and remaining analysis will be same as star connected
alternator.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Positive sequence circuit

Va Ea1 Ia1 Z1
1  
3 3

Negative sequence circuit

Ia2 Z2
V

Zero sequence circuit

Va0  0

Sequence network for transformer

In power transformers, the core losses and magnetizing current are on the order of 1% of

rated value and hence magnetizing branch is neglected.
 Transformer is represented by equivalent series leakage reactance. Transformer is a static

device and if phase sequence is changed, leakage impedance will not change. Therefore,
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

positive, negative and zero sequence impedances are same and equal to leakage impedance
of the transformer
ZT1  ZT2  ZT0  jXl
Xl  Leakage reactance of the transformer windings.
The positive & negative sequence networks are independent on nature of winding, nature

of grounding used, flow of zero sequence currents.

Positive sequence network

Negative sequence network

Zero sequence network

The zero sequence impedance and the equivalent circuit for zero sequence currents

depends upon the neutral point and its ground connection.
Series switch will be operated if the winding nature is star and shunt switch will be

operated if winding nature in delta
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Circuit connection of some of the common transformers

1.

2.

3.

4.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

5.

6.

7.

8.

Or
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

9.

10.

11.

12.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

13.

14.

Sequence networks for Transmission Line

Transmission line is a static device and hence the phase sequence has no effect on the
impedance because currents and voltages encounter the same geometry of the line.
Therefore positive and negative sequence impedance of the transmission line are equal i.e.
Z1=Z2
For Balanced 3 phase transmission line

Zaa , Zbb , Zcc  Self-impedance of transmission line

Zab , Zbc , Zca  Mutual impedance between lines
Assuming that transmission line is symmetrical or transposed
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Zaa  Zbb  Zc  Zs Say

Zab  Zbc  Zca  Zm Say

Voltage drop in conductor-a
Va  Va  IaZaa  Ib Zab  Ic Zac

Va  ZsIa  ZmIb  ZmIc    (1)

Voltage drop in conductor-b
Vb  Vb  Vb  ZmIa  Z s Ib  ZmIc    (2)
Voltage drop in conductor-c
Vc  Vc  Vc  ZmIa  ZmIb  ZsIc    (3)
 a   Z s Zm
V Zm  Ia 
V  Z Z Z  
 b  m s m  I b 

 V   Z Z Z s   Ic 
 c   m m
 Vabc    Zabc   Iabc       (4)
     

 Iabc    A   I012 
     
 Vabc    A  V012 
     
012
 A   V    Z abc   A   I012 
       

 V012    A 1   Z abc   A  I012 

         
Z012 
 

1 1 1 Zm Z m  1 1 1  Zs  2Zm 0 0 
Z
1s 2  
Z012     Z Z  2   0 Z Z 0
Z 1   

1  3  m s m    s m 
2
1 
2
   Z m Z m Zs  Z s  Z m 
  1
   
 0 0
 

Va0   Zs  2Zm  Ia0

Va1   Zs  Zm  Ia1

Va2   Zs  Zm  Ia2

Positive sequence network

 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Negative sequence network

Zero sequence network

For transmission line

Z1  Z 2  Z s  Zm
Z0  Zs  2Zm

Z0  Z1 or Z2
Generally
Z0  2.5Z1to 3.5Z1
Typical value
Z0  3Z1

The zero sequence currents are in phase and flow through the line conductors only if a

return conductor is provided.
If the mutual impedances in between transmission line are not same then positive,

negative & zero sequence network coupled together, at the time there is no advantage
obtained from symmetrical components. Symmetrical components give the advantage in
analysis of balanced network unbalanced voltages and currents.

Solved Examples

Problem: A 25MVA, 11KV, 3  synchronous generator has a sub-transient reactance of

20%. The generator supplies 2 motor over a TL with transformer at both ends. The motor
have rated KVA of 15 & 7.5 MVA, both 10KV with 25% sub transient reactance. Both
transformer have 30MVA, 10.8/121KV, se ries reactance of line=100Ω
 Y con
necti
on
with
leak
age
reac
tanc
e of
10%
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Draw all sequence networks. Assume equal positive, negative and zero sequence impedances
for all components.

Solution: Base MVA = 25MVA and Base voltage = 11kV

Positive sequence network
121  11
Base voltage of line  123.24kV
10.8
 
25
XL  j100    j0.164 p.u.
123.24 2 
 
2
 25   10.8 
XT  j0.1     j0.0805 p.u.
 30 11
   
2
 25   10 
 j0.3443 p.u.
Xm1  0.25   
  15  11
2
 25   10   j0.6887 p.u.
Xm2  0.25   
  7.5 
11
Xg  j0.2 p.u.
Negative sequence network

Zero sequence network

 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Problem: A 3-phase transmission line is shown in figure:

Voltage drop across the transmission line is given by the following equation:
 a   Zs Zm Zm  ia 
V
V  Z Z Z  
 b  m s m  i b 

 V   Z Z   
 c   m m Z s   ic 
Shunt capacitance of the line can be neglect. If the line has positive sequence impedance of
15  and zero sequence in impedance of 48, then the values of Zs and Zm will be

Solution: If Zs & Zm be the self & mutual impedances of a line respectively

Positive sequence impedance = Zs  Zm = 15
Zero sequence impedance = Zs+ 2Zm = 48
 Zm = 11, Zs = 26

Problem: For the network shown in figure the zero sequence reactance’s in p.u. are
indicated. The zero sequence driving point reactance of the node 3 is

Solution: The zero sequence per unit reactance diagram of the given single line diagram is
as shown in figure.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Zero sequence driving point reactance at node 3 is

Xeq 0.2  0.2

  0.1P.u
0.2  0.2

Problem: A three-phase alternator generating unbalanced voltages is connected to an

unbalanced load through a 3- phase transmission line as shown in figure. The neutral of the
alternator and the star point of the load are solidly grounded. The phase voltages of the
alternator are Ea = 10 0oV, Eb = 10   90oV, Ec = 10  120o V. The positive sequence
component of the load current is

Solution: As both sides of the circuit are grounded we can take each branch is considered
as one circuit
Ea
I 10  00
Xa  0
 5  90 A
a Eb j2
I  10  900 0
b   3.33  180 A
Xb j3
Ec
I 10 1200 0
Xc   2.530 A
c
j4
1
Positive sequence current, I1 =
(Ia + α Ib + α2 Ic)
3
1
I1 =
3  0 0 0 0
5  90 1120  3.33  180  1 240  2.5 30
0
 3.510  81
0

 
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Problem: Three identical star connected resistors of 1.0 p.u. are connected to an unbalanced
3 phase supply. The load neutral is isolated. The symmetrical components of the line
voltages in p.u. Calculations are with the respective base values, the phase to neutral
sequence voltages are?

Solution: Given the per unit line voltages

Vab1  X1 , Vab2  Y2

Where Van1, Vbn1, Vcn1, are +ve sequence phase voltages & Van2, Vbn2, Vcn2 are ve sequence
phase voltages
Vab1, Vab2 are +ve sequence & ve sequence Line voltages respectively
From the above phase or diagrams
0
Line voltage Leads phase voltage by 30 in +ve sequence,
0
Line voltage Lags phase voltage by 30 in ve sequence

 
Van1  X   300 , V
1 an2 
Y 2  30
0


Here X & Y are in per unit system hence are same for line & phase values

Fault Analysis

Balanced three phase faults may be analyzed using an equivalent single phase circuit. With
asymmetrical three phase faults, the use of symmetrical components help to reduce the
complexity of the calculations.

Fault analysis is usually carried out in per-unit quantities (similar to percentage quantities) as
they give solutions which are somewhat consistent over different voltage and power ratings,
and operate on values of the order of unity.

Two types of fault

1. Shunt type Fault/short circuit fault
2. Series type Fault/open conductor fault
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Types of short circuit faults

a) Phase to ground / Line to ground (LG) fault
b) Phase to phase / Line to line (LL) fault
c) Phase to phase to ground / Line to line to ground (LLG) fault
d) 3-phase fault/ LLL fault
e) 3-phase to ground fault/ LLLG

(a), (b), (c) are unsymmetrical or unbalanced fault

(d), (e) are symmetrical and balanced fault

Types of open conductor fault (over voltage)

a) One open conductor fault
b) Two conductor open fault

Assumptions in Short Circuit Fault Analysis

Generator represented as constant voltage source behind sub transient reactance.

Currents carried by shunt elements if transmission line such as shunt capacitor will be

neglected.
The current carried by this load under short circuit fault condition is neglected.

Fault analysis is generally done under no-load condition such that pre fault voltage is

maximum fault current is high.
At the instant of fault, synchronous machine is rotating at N s, voltage applied to the

synchronous motor is zero & kinetic energy in rotor is non-zero at this instant as a field
excitation is given for rotor the kinetic energy continuous to get converted to electrical
energy such that there is a circulation of fault current from synchronous motor to fault
element.
As field excitation for induction motor is absent, so induction motor does not circulate

any fault current.
The variation in speed of alternator is neglected such that frequency will be maintained

constant

Aim of Fault Analysis

To design protective switch gear such as relay settings & circuit breaker capacity.

Relay setting = always done on basis of minimum fault current. (LG fault)

Circuit Breaker (CB) capacity= always done on basis on highest severe fault. (LLLG Fault)


Order of severity in increasing order

LG- Least severe fault
LL
LLG
LLL
LLLG-Highest severe fault
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Severity of fault is decided on basis of power delivering on fault

Occurrence of SC fault
LG-70%
LL-15%
LLG-10%
LLL & LLLG-5%

Causes of Short Circuit Fault

1. Falling tree branch on lines
2. In Transmission Lines, due to surges or other high voltage transients an arc may develop
around the insulator which will bypass the insulator and conduct current from
Transmission Line to ground through the tower. This is known as Arcing Fault.

3. In bus bar, due to high dielectric strength there is no arching fault.

Transient on a Transmission Line

Before fault system is at no load condition



Equivalent circuit
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

v(t)  Vm sint  =switching angle


KVL for loop
dif (t)
v(t)  Ri (t)  L
f
dt
dif (t) R Vm sint  
 i (t)  (a)
f
dt L L
Solution of eq. (a)
i  iss  itr.
Where iss  Steady state current
itr.  Transient current

Steady state part of fault current iss

Vm sint  
iss(t)  R  jL
Vm
is (t)  sint    
Z
Z  and 1  L 
2
  tan
R  
R
  
2

Transient part
L2 of fault current itr.
Rt /L
itr.(t)  k e

Resultant current carried by line

Vm
sint    (b)
Rt/L
i (t)  k e 
f 1
Z
Initial conditions
   
At t  0 ,i f(0 )  0 and t  0 ,i (0 )  0
From eq. (b)
Vm
sin  
 0
if (0 )  k1e 
Z

Vm Vm
k 1  sin     sin   
Z
Put the value of k1 in eq. (b)
 Vm Rt/L
Vm
i (t)  e sin(  )  sin(t    )
f
Z Z
DC offset current AC steady state fault currnet
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

DC Transient & exponential decay

Assume   

DC offset current decays due to resistance of the line.

Steady State Fault Current

Vm
is (t)  
sin t    
Z 

Sub Transient period: 1-2 cycles

Transient Period: 2-5 cycles (decided by L/R of line )
Steady state starts from instant of t=5L/R

Initial Symmetrical RMS fault current or Steady state RMS fault current
V
ISym.  m  VRMS
2 Z

Z
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Asymmetrical RMS fault current

IAsy.  RMS DC component   RMS AC 2

 component
m
e  )
sin(
Rt/L
22
2 Z
V 2

IAsy.  V m 
Z 


V 2
IAsy.  m
e Rt/L
sin( 
Z 1
IAsy.
)  2

ISym.  2 e sin(2 Rt/L

1
 ) 
2

Maximum Momentary fault current (Im)

It is the maximum value of current during sub transient period
At t  
Vm 2Vm
Imm Vm  sin(    )  sin(  )
 sin( 
Z Z
) Z
Rt/L
The decay in transient current Xis neglected so, e  1  L 
1 0
Generally in transmission line is very high i.e.   tan  90
 
R R
 
2Vm
Im  cos()
Z
m

For maximum Imm 0

=0
,

Imm
max  [doubling effect ]
2Vm
Z
Im  2  steady state value of peak current

Practically, Im 2V
 Zm

If switching at    , then there are no transient in the network


Short Circuit model of synchronous Machine
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Steady state synchronous impedance


Xs=Xl + Xa
Xa= represents reduction in induced emf in the alternator or reduction in terminal voltage

of alternator.
Before occurrence of SC fault terminals of alternator there is some air gap flux, at the

instant of fault occurrence. According to constant flux linkage theorem, flux will not be
changed. But rotor accelerates so there is a relative velocity between flux & rotor so emf
is induced in field & damper winding.
Flux produced by damper winding & field winding aid with main field such that these

fluxes will counteract the demagnetizing effect, as time progress the damper winding &
field winding fluxes reduces (exponential) & the resultant flux will come to steady state
value which is less compared to the flux at the instant of short circuit fault.
Time constant of damper winding is less compared to field winding i.e. damper winding

flux reaches to zero first before transient field flux.

Sub- Transient Period

Both Damper winding flux & transient flux is field winding present.

d- axis sub transient reactance of alternator X  X 1

 
1 1 1
d l

Xf Xdw Xa
Sub transient period will exist up to the time whenever the transient flux in the damper

winding becomes zero.

Transient Period
It starts from the instant when damper winding flux becomes zero.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

1
d- axis transient reactance of alternator Xd   1 1

Xl 
Xa Xf
Transient period exists up to the time whenever transient field flux becomes zero.


Steady state Period

Stars from the instant when the transient field flux becomes zero

d- axis transient reactance of alternator Xd  Xl  Xa


Positive sequence reactance’s in different periods Xd  Xd  X d


RMS value of Sub- Transient Fault Current Eg (ph)

 If 
Xd
Eg (ph)
RMS value of Transient Fault Current I 
 f
RMS value of Steady Sate Fault current

X Eg (ph)
 If 
X
d
d
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Hence, reactance varies continuously with time whereas we have discretized it and divided it
into three levels.
The decay in symmetrical fault current is due to increase in reactance as time passes.

Short Circuit Fault Effects

Under steady state condition Pm  Pe


Speed of machine is synchronous speed

During fault Pe decreases, Pa = Pm - increases & rotor accelerates, so speed of

Pe
alternator increases.
So, frequency of system increases.

Power factor of the system decreases.

 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

3-Ф Fault or LLL Fault or Symmetrical Fault or Balanced Fault

Since the fault is symmetrical it means the 3-phase systems is balanced, so there are no

negative or zero sequence currents are present.
Hence, we deal only with positive sequence quantities.


Before fault
System is at no load
Ia  Ib  Ic  0
Va ,Vb , Vc are balanced voltages

During fault
Ia  Ib  Ic  0
Neutral current I  I  I  I  0
n a b c
0
Ia  Ia 0 ; Ib  Ib   120
0 0
; Ic  Ic 120 0
And I  I  Ic
a b

Vn  InZn  0

Symmetrical components for currents

Ia0  1 1 1  Ia 
  1 2  
Ia1   3 1    Ib 
 I   1 2    I 
 a2 1   c 
I   III  0

 3 
a0 a b c
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

1
I   I   I  2 I   I  I
 
a1 a b c a a
3
1
I   I  2 I   I   0
 
a2 a b c
3

Symmetrical components for voltages

Va0  1 1 1  Va 
  1 2  
Va1   3 1    Vb 
 V   1 2    Vc 
 a2  
Va  IaZf ; V  I Z ; V  I Z
1 b b f c c f
V  V VV 0 
a0
3  a b c
1 2
V   V  V   V   I Z
a1 a b c af
3
1 2
V   V   V  V   0
a2 a b c
3

If the system is under balanced condition


before fault occurrence, the negative sequence
and zero sequence pre-fault voltages are zero.
In that case only positive sequence network will
exists in LLL or symmetrical fault.

Sequence network connection

If  Ia1
E
 Z a Z
1 eq. f

Short Circuit MVA

* * *
SCMVA  3 Ea1Ia1  Ea2Ia2  Ea0Ia0 
Ea2 & values are zero during fault analysis as emf cannot be induced in negative or zero
Ea0
sequence.
* *
SCMVA 3E I 2Ea E

S CMVA 
a1 a1  a
*
 1 eq. Z

Z 3a
ZE1e
2
q

Zf
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

In p.u. values
Ea  1pu
3
SCMVA  p.u.
Zeq  Zf
All impedances are in p.u.
Base MVA 3  
In actual value SCMVA 
| Z1 eq.  Zf |pu
 If Zf=0 then neutral and ground are at same potential

Vn  InZn  0
 Va=0, Vb  0, Vc  0

3-Ф to ground Fault or LLLG Fault

If Zf=0 in LLL fault then LLL fault is similar to LLLG fault.

Selection of Circuit Breakers

1. Circuit breaker is selected on the basis of most severe fault which is symmetrical SC fault.
2. Two important ratings
 Rated momentary current
 Rated symmetrical interrupting current.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

3. Momentary current (rms) is calculated by multiplying the current by a factor of 1.6 to

account for DC offset current.
4. Symmetrical current be interrupted is computed by using sub-transient reactance for
synchronous generator & transient reactions of synchronous.
Induction motors are neglected

Speed multiplying factor

8 cycles or slower 1.0
5cycles 1.1
3cucyles 1.2
2cycles 1.4

5. If SC(MVA)>500, then each factor is increased by 0.1

Solved Examples

Problem: A 25 MVA, 11 kV generator what

X d =20% is connected through a transformer,
line & a transformer to a bus that supplies three identical motors. Each motor has X d =25%,
& Xd =30% on a base of 5MVA, 6.6kV. Three phase rating of step up transformer is 25MVA,
11/66 kV with a leakage reactance of 10% & that of step down transformer is 25 MVA, 66/6.6
kV with a reactance of 10%.the bus voltage at motor is 6.6 kV when a 3 phase fault occurs at
F. compute (Reactance of transmission line=15% on a base of 25 MVA, 66kV & assume no
load when fault occurs)
1. Sub-transient current in fault
2. Sub-transient current in breaker, B
3. Momentary current in breaker, B
4. Current to be interrupted by breaker in 5 cycles.

Choose system base as 25 MVA

Solution: p.u. equivalent circuit for 3 phase fault at F

For a base of 25 MVA  25 

Sub transient reactance of Motor X  0.25   1.25p.u.
d  
5
 
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

1. Sub-transient current in fault

1 1
Isc     j4.22pu
 j1.25  j0.55
 
3
 
25M
Ibase   2187A
3  6.6k
Isc  9229A

2. Sub-transient current in breaker, B

1 1
I (B)  2    j3.42
sc
j1.25 j0.55
Isc (B)  3.42  2187  7479.5A
The current of motor at which fault is occurring goes directly into fault and does not pass
from Circuit Breaker so, the current passing through circuit breaker comes from Generator
and other two motors.

3. Momentary current in breaker, B

Imm  1.6  7479.5  11, 967A

4. Current to be interrupted by breaker in 5 cycles

25
X (motor)  j0.3   j1.5pu
d
5
We have to replace motor reactance in equivalent circuit by j1.5.
2 1
I    j3.1515pu
j1.5 j0.55
allowance  1.1  3.1515  2187  7581A

Short circuit fault on loaded synchronous machine

1. Obtain steady state solution of a loaded system.

2. Replace reactance of synchronous machines by their sub transient/transient value. Short
circuit all emf sources. Result is passive thevenin network.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

3. Excite passive network of step-2 at fault point by negative of pre fault voltage in series
with fault impedance. Compute voltage & current at point of interest.
4. Post fault voltages & currents are obtained by adding results of step 1&3.

Solved Examples

Problem: A synchronous generator & synchronous-motor each rated 25MVA, 11kV having
15% sub-transient reactance are connected through transformer & a line as shown. The
transformer are rated 25MVA, 11/66kV & 66/11 kV with leakage reactance of 10% each. The
line has a reactance of 10% on a base of 25MVA, 66kV.
The motor is drawing 15MW at 0.8pf leading & terminal voltage at 10.6kV when a
symmetrical 3 phase fault occurs at motor terminals. Find sub transient current is gen, motor
&fault?

Solution: Pre fault voltage 0 10.6 0

V   0.96360 pu
11
0 0.6 0 0
Pre fault current I  36.9  0.778336.9 p.u.
0.9636  0.8
15
power   0.6pu
25

Thevenin Reactance, Xth  0.1125pu

V0 0.96360
I    8.565 jpu
f
jX  Z j0.1125
th f

By Current Division

I Xdm
g
 '' ''
If
(X dg
 X  X dm )
0.15
I  I  0.25I   j2.141pu
g f f
0.6
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

I Xdg  X  j6.424pu
m  '' ''
(X dg
 X  X dm )
If
Ig (post  fault)  Ig(pre  fault)  Ig
 0.778336.9  2.141  90  1.7856  69.6pu

Im(post  fault)  Im(pre  fault)  Im

 0.778336.9  6.423  90  6.91884.83pu

The currents have been subtracted in case of motor as he direction of current reverses in
case of fault.

Unsymmetrical Faults

Unbalanced fault analysis is very important for relay setting, single phase switch and system
stability studies. Symmetrical components are used to study the unbalanced faults.

Single Line to Ground Fault (LG)

Before fault
System is at no load
Ia  Ib  Ic  0
Va , Vb , Vc are balanced voltages

During fault
Ia  If , I b  Ic  0
V a  I a Zf , V b  E b , V c  E c

Symmetrical components

Ia0  1 1 1  Ia 
  1 2  
I a1   3 1     0
 I  2    0 
 a2 
 1

Ia If
 I I I  
a0 a1 a2
3 3
 Va  If Zf  Va1  Va2  Va0  3Zf  Ia0
Since all sequence currentsEare equal, so the sequence networks will be connected in series.
a
I I I 
a1 a2 a0
Z
1 eq.
 Z 2 eq.
 Z 0 eq.   3Z
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

If  3Ia0 3Ea

Z  Z
Z
   3Z
1 eq. 2 eq. 0 eq. f

Z0 eq.  Z0  3Zn

Neutral voltage of alternator

Vn  If Zn  3Zn  Ia0

Short Circuit MVA

MVA or Power supplied by the source

during fault condition

* * *
SCMVA  3 Ea1Ia1  Ea2Ia2  Ea0Ia0 
Ea2 & values are zero during fault analysis
Ea0
provided that the system is under balanced
condition before fault occurrence
*
SCMVA  3Ea1Ia1
*
3Ea1E a2
SCMVA  3E
a1


Z  Z 
* *
1 eq.  Z 2 eq.  Z 0 eq.  3Zf 1 eq.  Z 2 eq.  Z 0 eq.  3Z
a
3E
SCMVA  Z1 eq.  2Z2 eq.  Z0
eq.
 3Zf

In terms of p.u.
Ea  1pu
3
SCMVA 
p.u.
Z1 eq.  Z2 eq.  Z0 eq.  3Zf

All impedances are in p.u.

3 Base MVA(3  )

In actual values SCMVA 
Z1 eq.  Z2 eq.  Z0 eq.  3Zf
pu

3  Base MVA(3  )

 CB must have a breaking capacity of 
Z1 eq.  Z2 eq.  Z0 eq.  3Zf
pu
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Line to Line Fault or Double line Fault

Before fault
System is at no
load Ia  Ib  Ic  0
Va , Vb , are balanced voltages
Vc

During fault
Ia  0, Ib  Ic  If
V a  0 , V b  V c  I f Zf

Symmetrical components for currents

Ia0  1 1 1   0 
  1 2  
I a1   3 1     Ib 
 I    2    I 
 a2     b 
Ia0  0 1
2
Ib   Ib 1 0
I
 90 Ib
30
Ib  If  3Ia1  90  j 3Ia1

Ia2  2
 Ib 
 Ia1
Ib
3
 Ia2  Ia1  0

 No existence for zero sequence network in L-L fault analysis

For voltages
Vb  Vc  I f Z f

V a0
2
  2
  Va1  Va2  Va0  Va1   Va2   j 3I a1Z f 
 2

  Va1      V
2
a2
  j 3I a1Z f
jVa1  jVa2  j 3Ia1Zf

 Va1  Va2  Ia1Zf

Sequence network connection

Ia1  Ia2 
Z
  Z Z
Ea

1 eq. 2 eq. f
If  j 3Ia1
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

 During unbalanced loading condition the steady state impedance of alternator has to be
taken.
 During fault current calculation sub-transient reactance has to be taken.

Short Circuit MVA

* * *
SCMVA  3 Ea1Ia1  Ea2Ia2  Ea0Ia0 
Ea2 & values are zero during fault analysis provided that the system is under balanced
Ea0
condition before fault occurrence
*
*  E 
SCMVA  3E I  3E   a1 
 Z1 eq.  Z2 eq.  Zf 
a1 a1 a1

a
3
SCMVA  Z1 eq.  Z2
E
Z
eq. 2 f

In pu system
Ea  1pu
3
SCMVA  p.u.
Z1 eq.  Z2 eq.  Zf
All impedances are in p.u.
3 Base MVA3  
In actual value SCMVA 
Z1 eq.  Z2 eq.  Zf
pu

 CB must have a breaking capacity of = 3 VLL If or 3Vph If

= 3Vph  max value of line current during fault

Line- Line to Ground (LLG) or Double line to ground Fault

Before fault
System is at no load
Ia  Ib  Ic  0
Va ,Vb , Vc are balanced voltages

During fault
Ia  0, If  Ib  Ic
Va  0, Vb  Vc  If Zf
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Symmetrical components for currents

Ia0  1 1 1   0 
  1 2  
I a1   3 1    Ib 
 I   1 2    I 
 a2 1   I  c 
f
I  I I I
3
a0 a b c
3
If  3Ia0

For voltages
Vb  Vc  Va1  Va2
V b  V c  I f Zf
2
Va0   Va1  Va2  If Zf

 2

Va0     Va2  3Ia0Zf
Va0  Va2  3Zf Ia0

Symmetrical components for voltages

Va0  1 1 1  Va 
  1 2  
Va1   3 1    Vb 
 V   1 2    V 
 a2     b 
VV 1 2
  V  (   )V 
a1 a2
1 3
a b

V  V  2V 

3 1
a0 a b

VV 2  V
 2
   V  3Z I
a0 a1
3  b b f a0

Va0  Va1  3Zf Ia0

Sequence network connection

 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Ea
I 
where Z  Z  3Z

a1
Z  Z ||  3Z  0 eq. 0 n

 Z
1 eq.
 2 eq. 0 eq. f 
I  I Z2 eq.
a0 a1  Z || Z0 eq. 
 2 eq. 
If  3Ia0

Short Circuit MVA

* * *
SCMVA  3 Ea1Ia1  Ea2Ia2  Ea0Ia0 
Ea2 & values are zero during fault analysis provided that the system is under balanced
Ea0
condition before fault occurrence *
 Ea 
SCMVA  3E I  3E  
*

 Z
Z
||
  3Z   
 1  2 eq. 0 eq. f  
eq.
Z 3E
a

SCMVA 
Z10 eq.
eq.
2
||2f eq. 3Z 
Z
 

In pu quantities
Ea  1pu
3
SCMVA 
p.u.
Z1 eq.  Z2 eq. || Z0 eq.  3Z f
  


All impedances are in p.u.

3 Base MVA 3  

In actual value SCMVA 
Z1 eq.   Z 2 eq. || Z 0 eq.  3Z f 
  
 CB must have a breaking capacity of = 3
VLL If or 3Vph If
= 3Vph  max value of line current during fault
Neutral Grounding

 Whenever phase voltage magnitude is increased to line to line voltage magnitudes, then
 overhead insulation will flash over such that conductor will be connected to ground
through the arc. This is called as arcing ground.
 Arcing grounds will occur in the system whenever there is a LG fault & there is no closed
path provided for zero sequence currents.
 To award arcing fault, we must connect neutral to ground
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Solved Examples

Problem: Y-connected alternator with isolated neutral, has Ve,  Ve & zero sequence
impedance as 0.18, j0.12, j0.06pu respectively. Rating of alternator is 100MVA, 18kV, a LG
fault occurs on phase ‘a’ on No-load alternator what are phase voltage of ‘b’ & ’c’?

Solution: alternator is isolated i.e. If=0

Va1= Ea1- Ia1 Z1 =Ea1
Va1 = 1 p.u.
Va2 = Ia1Z2 = 0
Va0 = -1pu
0 0
Vb = -1+1 240 + 0 = 1.732  150 pu
0 0
Vc = -1+1 120 +0= 1.732 150 pu
Vb = Vc = 18 KV = line voltage

 Advantage of isolated neutral is possibility of maintain a supply even with a fault on one
line.
 Interference with telephone line is reduced due to absence of zero sequence currents.

Before fault

Ic / ph  Vph
 VphCph
Xc / ph
Al Line charging currents lead the corresponding voltages
0
By 90 .
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

During fault
Phase voltages become line voltages
Va 3Vph

3Vph
Vb

Vc  0V

Ipa 3Vph
 X / ph  3 Ic / ph
c

3Vph
Ipb   3 I c / ph
Xc / ph
Ipc  If  Ipa  Ipb  3Ic / ph

 System voltage becomes dangerously high

Grounding Method
1. System grounding or Neutral Grounding
To avoid arcing ground & damage for the system and for the protection purpose or to make
the relay such that fault is identified.
2. Equipment grounding or safety grounding
For operator safety, the body or outer casing of apparatus is connected to ground.

Types of Neutral Grounding

1. Solid Grounding
Zn=0 solid grounding
X0
 3 for solid grounding
X1

2. Resistance Grounding
Generally, resistance grounding is used in alternators to limit stator
fault current. It is used when charging current is small i.e, for low
voltage short lines. Helps in improving system stability during ground
faults.
3. Reactance Grounding
Zn = jXn
Used for grounding neutrals for synchronous motor, capacitor having
large charging current.
X0
 3 for reactance grounding
X1
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

4. Resonance Grounding / Peterson Coil /suppresser coil grounding

Also called as earth fault neutralizer. An inductor is connected between neutral & ground.

For balance condition/to maintain phase to phase voltage at V ph only

IL  3Ic / ph
In this case voltage across Peterson coil is V ph
Vph
I  3V C / ph
L ph
L
1
L  32C /
ph

 If C is small, L is high so resistance grounding is preferred.

 Alternator neutral is always grounded through resistance because C/ph is very less and to
improve the stability of the system.

Type of fault Sequence currents Sequence voltages If

LG Ia0  Ia1  Ia2 Va  Va0  Va1  Va2  3Ia1Zf 3Ia0
LL Ia1  Ia2  0, Ia0  0 Va1  Va2  Ia1Zf j 3Ia1
LLG Ia1  Ia2  Ia1  0 Va0  Va1  3Ia0 Zf & Va1  Va2 3Ia0
LLL & LLLG Ia1  Ia , Ia0  Ia2  0 Va0  Va2  0 & Va1  Ia Ia1

Solved Examples
Problem: The severity of line-to-ground and three phase faults at the terminals of an
unloaded synchronous generator is to be same. If the terminal voltage is 1.0 p.u. and Z 1 = Z2
=j0.1 p.u., Z0 = j0.05 p.u., for the alternator, then the required inductive reactance for neutral
grounding is

Solution: For an unloaded alternator the fault current for line to ground fault is given by

If1  3 Ea
X X X
1 eq. 2 eq. 0 eq.

For an unloaded alternator, fault current for 3-phase fault is given by

E
a
I f2 
X1 eq.
Given that If1  If 2
3Ea E
X1 eq.  X2 eq.  X0 eq.  Xa
1 eq.
3X1 eq.  X1 eq.  X2 eq.  X0 eq.  X 
 0 eq.  X0  3Xn 
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

3(0.1) = 0.1 + 0.1 + X0 + 3Xn

0.1= 0.05+3Xn
Xn = 0.0166P.u
Inductive reactance required for neutral grounding, Xn = 0.0166 P.u

Problem: A 50 Hz alternator is rated 500 MVA, 20 kV, with X d = 1.0 per unit and X”d = 0.2 per
unit. It supplies a purely resistive load of 400 MW at 20 kV. The load is connected directly
across the generator terminals when a symmetrical fault occurs at the load terminals. The
initial rms current in the generator in per unit is

Solution: Given Xd  0.2p.u, Base MVA  500, Base KV  20

X X
 Base MVA
d p.u. d 
Base KV 
2


Base KV 
2

Xd  Xd p.u

Base MVA
 

Xd
20 
2

  0.2  0.16 
500
For three phase symmetrical fault,  20  3
 10
 
The initial RMS fault current, I f E E 3
 
X a a
 X 
0.16  72168.78 A

Base current I  1 eq. d

400   For resistive load p.f  1

6 kA11.547

10
base 3  
3  20  10  1

 Perunit value of fault current If 72168.78

 11547  6.25 p.u.

Problem: A 20-MVA, 6.6-kV, 3-phase alternator is connected to a 3-phase transmission line.

The per unit positive-sequence, negative-sequence and zero-sequence impedance of the
alternator are j0.1, j0.1 and j0.04 respectively. The neutral of the alternator is connected to
ground through an inductive reactor of j0.05 p.u. The per unit positive, negative and zero-
sequence impedances of the transmission line are j0.1, j0.1 and j0.3, respectively. All per unit
values are based on the machine ratings. A solid ground fault occurs at one phase of the far
end of the transmission line. The voltage of the alternator neutral with respect to ground
during the fault is

Solution: Single line diagram of the given specifications is as shown in figure.

 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Equivalent +ve,-ve and zero sequence reactance’s

The fault current for line to ground fault

If  3Ea
X X X WhereEa = Vth = 1.0 P.u
1 eq. 2 eq. 0 eq.

3  1.0
If  j0.2  j0.2  j0.49
If = 3.37  900
The voltage of neutral reactance = In Xn= If Xn = 3.37  0.05 = 0.168 P.u

Since the voltage of alternator is taken as base, neutral reactance

6600
Voltage, Vn = 0.168  = 640.18V
3

Problem: At a 220 kV substation of a power system, it is given that the three-phase fault
level is 4000 MVA and single-line to ground fault level is 5000 MVA. Neglecting the
resistance and the shunt susceptances of the system. The positive and zero sequence driving
point reactance’s at the bus are?

Solution: Assume base MVA = 5000MVA, Base voltage=220kV

For three phase fault,
2

SCMVA  3  Ea
| X1 eq. |
2
3  220
4000  | X |
1 eq.
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

| X1 eq. | 12.1
For single line to ground fault,
2

SCMVA  3  Ea
X1 eq.  X2 eq.  X0 eq.
2
5000  3  220
X1 eq.  X2 eq.  X0 eq.

X1 eq.  X2 eq.  X0 eq.  29.04 

X1 eq.  X2 eq.  12.1

X0 eq.  4.84 

Problem: Three-phase to ground fault takes place at locations F 1and F2 in the system shown
in the figure. If the fault takes place at location F 1, then the voltage and the current at bus A
are VF1and IF1 respectively. If the fault takes place at location F 2, then the voltage and the
current at bus A are VF2 and IF2 respectively. The correct statement about voltages and
currents during faults at F1 and F2 is
(a) VF1 leads IF1 and VF2 leads IF2
(b) VF1 leads IF1 and VF2 lags IF2
(c) VF1 lags IF1 and VF2 leads IF2
(d) VF1 lags IF1 and VF2 lags IF2
Solution: If fault occurs at F1

IF EA  EB0

X190 X 90
2
Where X1 is reactance from source to fault point
X2 is reactance from EB to fault

VF1  EB0  IF1. X390

X3 = reactance from EB to point A

VF E 0
 X B90 (–ve sign as current flows into fault but IF1 has opposite direction shown)
1 2

EB
= X2 90
X3  X3 
VF1  EB0  EB X 180 = EB 1 0
2 
 
X2 

So IF1 leads VF1
For fault at F2
VF2  EA  IF2  X4  90
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

X4 = reactance from EA to point A

E
EA   A   90
I 
F2
X190
 X4 X 1
V   
E A 
1
F2
x 
 1 
So IF2 lags VF2 .
Hence option (b) is correct

Problem: Consider a power system shown below:

Vs1=Vs2= (i+j0)pu
Positive sequence impedance are
Zs1=Zs2=0.001+j0.001pu & ZL=0.006+j 0.06pu
3-phase base MVA=100
Voltage base =400 KV(L-L)
Nominal system frequency =50 Hz
Reference voltage for phase ‘a’ is defined as v(t)= V mcos(ωt)
A symmetrical 3 phase fault occurs at center of line i.e at point ‘F’ at time t o. The positive
sequence impedance from source S1 to point F equals 0.004+j0.04 pu. The wave from
corresponding to phase ‘a’ fault current from bus X reveals that decaying dc offset current is
negative & in magnitude at its maximum initial value. Assume that negative sequence
impedance are equal to positive sequence impedances & zero sequence impedance as 3
times positive sequence impedance.
1. The instant (to) of fault will be.
2. The rms value of ac component of fault current (Ix) will be
3. Instead of 3 phase fault, if SLG fault occurs on phase ‘a’ at F with zero fault impedance,
then rms value of ac component of fault current (Ix) for phase will be

Solution: The instantaneous Fault Current is,

1. i(t)  A
Rt/L
 2Z
cos(t  )
e V
t  to ,i(t)  0 m

Rt0 /L
0A 
e
2Zcos(t 0  )
V
m
 Power Systems (Fault Analysis)

Rt0 /L 2
Ae  cos(t0  )
V
m
Z
Maximum value of DC offset current= 2
Z
V
to    0 m

Z  0.004  j0.04 p.u.

0
Z | z |   0.0484.29 p.u.
  84.29 or 1.471rad
1.471
t  0.00468 sec  4.682ms
o
2 50

2. Zeq Z 0
  0.0284.29 p.u.
2
100 0
I (pu)   49.8  84.29 pu
f
Z1
100
I  49.8   7.18KA
f
3  400

0
3. Z1eq  0.0284.29 p.u.
Z2eq  Z1eq  0.0284.29 p.u.

Z 
I I  10
I 
0 eq an a1 a2
Z Z Z
Ia  29.85pu 1eq 2eq 0eq

100
I  29.85   4.97kA
f
3  400