EI6704 Notes Rejinpaul

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EI 6704 Biomedical
Instrumentation
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* Unit I
FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
* UNIT II
NON ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS MEASUREMENT AND
DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES
* UNIT III
ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS
* UNIT IV
IMAGING MODALITIES AND ANALYSIS
* UNIT V
LIFE ASSISTING, THERAPEUTIC AND ROBOTIC DEVICES
*Overview
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Cell and its structure – Resting and Action Potential – Nervous

system and its fundamentals – Basic components of a biomedical
system- Cardiovascular systems- Respiratory systems -Kidney and
blood flow - Biomechanics of bone - Biomechanics of soft tissues -
Basic mechanics of spinal column and limbs -Physiological signals
and transducers - Transducers – selection criteria – Piezo electric ,
ultrasonic transducers - Temperature measurements - Fibre optic
temperature sensors.
*Unit I
FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING

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* Bio means life
* Bio instrumentation – Measurement of

biological / physiological Variable
* Biomedical Engineer coined by IEEE
*Introduction

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Human organism
Instrumentation
Man – Instrument system
*Man- Instrument
System
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Information
gathering
Instrumentation system
Diagnosis
Objectives of
Evaluation
Monitoring
Control

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* Man Instrument System

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* Basic living unit

* 100 trillion cells in human body
* 25 trillion red blood cells
Cell membrane
Nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nucleolus
*Cell & its structure

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water Electrolyte Proteins
Lipids Carbohydrates
*Constituents

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* Electrolyte – in organic chemicals – cellular

reactions
* Proteins
* Structural – long thin filament – contractile
mechanism
* Globular – catalyst
* Lipids
* Phospo & Cholestrol – membranes
* Carbohydrates – glycogen – supplies energy
*Constituents

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*Cytoplasm
Lysosomes
Ribosomes (RNA + (Intracellular
Protiens) Digestion)
Organelles
Mitochondria
(DNA , Power
house)

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RNA DNA
(Nucleolus)
Nucleus (5 -10 uM)
*NUCLEUS

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*Resting & Action

Potential

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*Polarized cell

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*Depolarization

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*Depolarized cell

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*Waveform

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*Circulatory System

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*Functioning of Heart

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*Conduction of Heart beat

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*Circulation & Respiration

D e o x y g e n a te d O x y g e n a te d
b lo o d b lo o d
U pper body
Lung
R ig h t L e ft
a t r iu m a t r iu m
R ig h t L e ft
v e n t ic le v e n t ic le
Lower body

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*Cardiac Cycle
* Atrial Systole
* Ventricular Filling
* Ventricular Systole
* Ventricular Diastole

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*Respiratory System

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*LUNGS

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*Alveoli

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* Each minute – 250 ml of Oxygen – in

250 ml of carbon di oxide – out
* Gaseous exchange in
alveoli – 15-20 breaths/ min
*LUNGS

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*Nervous System

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Central Nervous System

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*Brain
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*Brain

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*Activity Centres

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*Neuron

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*Neuron

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*Neuron with Synapse

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*Synapse

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* Acetylcholine
* Acetylcholine
Esterace
* EPSP (Excitatory
Post Synaptic
Potential)
* IPSP(Inhibitory Post
Synaptic Potential)

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*Kidney

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*Kidney

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*Nephron

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*Nephron

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Biomechanics has been defined as the study

of the movement of living things using the science
of mechanics (Hatze, 1974).
*Biomechanics

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* Improvement of performance
* Reduction or treatment of injury
*WHY STUDY
BIOMECHANICS?
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*Transducers

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* Active Transducer
* Passive Transducer
*Transducers

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* Magnetic Induction
* Piezo Electric
* Thermoelectric
* Photo electric
*Active Transducer

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*Magnetic Induction
Linear Type
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*Magnetic Induction
Rotary Type
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Principle Biomorphic Type
Electrical Equivalent
*Piezo Electric
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*Output
waveform
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Thermocouple- Double Reference -

Principle Thermocouple
*Thermoelectric
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Selenium - cell Silicon - cell
*Photo Electric

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* Resistive type
* Inductive type
* Capacitive type
*Passive Transducer

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* Potentiometer
* Photo diode
* Photo resistive cell
* Strain gage
*Resistive type

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*Strain gauge
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*Unbonded strain
gauge
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*Bonded strain gauge

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*Bonded strain gauge

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*Inductive Type

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*LVDT Principle
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*Signal Conditioning
System
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*LVDT

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*Electrical
Characteristic
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*Capacitive Type

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*Temperature
Measurement

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* Temperature is extremely important to human physiology

* low temperature can indicate onset of problems, e.g., stroke
* high temperature can indicate infection
* Temperature sensitive enzymes and proteins can be destroyed

by adverse temperatures
* Temperature measurement and regulation is critical in many

treatment plans
*Temperature Measurement
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* Thermoelectric Devices
* most common type is called Thermocouple
* can be made small enough to place inside catheters or hypodermic
needles
* Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

* metal resistance changes with temperature
* Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
* Positive temperature coefficients
*Temperature Sensors
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* Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
* formed from semiconductor materials, not metals often
composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or
Fe)
* typically have negative temperature coefficients
* Radiant Temperature Sensors

* photon energy changes with temperature
* measured optically (by photo detector)
* Integrated Circuit (IC) Temperature Sensors
*Temperature Sensors
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*Sensor operation
* small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs is attached to
ends of two optical fibers
* light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on temperature
* percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of
temperature
* Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor

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EI2311 BIO–MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT I
PHYSIOLOGY AND TRANSDUCERS : Cell and its structure – Resting and Action Potential
– Nervous system: Functional organization of the nervous system – Structure of nervous system,
neurons - synapse – transmitters and neural communication – Cardiovascular system –
respiratory system – Basic components of a biomedical system - Transducers – selection criteria
– Piezo electric, ultrasonic transducers - Temperature measurements - Fiber optic temperature
sensors.
Cell and its structure

 Cell is the basic unit of life. Cells are the basic building block of all animals including human
beings.
 Cells are of different size, shape, organelle composition and physiological roles. However
there are a number of structures common to most of the animal cells.
 The contents of the cell are separated from the external surroundings by the plasma
membrane or cell membrane. It is semi permeable in nature. It helps in regulating the
passage of materials between the cell and its surroundings.
 There are projections at some portions of the cell membrane called as the microvilli. These
microvilli help in increasing the surface area of the cell so as to increase the amount of
material passing through the cell membrane according to need.
 Cytoplasm is the constituent of the cell enclosed by the cell membrane.
 There are networks of branching membranous channels within the cytoplasm called the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 There are also a number of small particles in the cytoplasm called the ribosomes.
 Endoplasmic reticulums with associated ribosomes are called rough endoplasmic reticulum
and endoplasmic reticulums without ribosomes are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
 A vesicular organelle present in the cytoplasm is called the mitochondria.
 The mitochondria are covered by two membranes, the outer smooth membrane and the inner
membrane which go in for folding called cristae.
 The space between the cristae or the folding of the inner membrane of the mitochondria is the
mitochondrial matrix.
JEC/EIE/III – Year (A, B) (EVEN SEM) 1

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 Metabolic activities of the cell (including ATP synthesis) are taken care by the mitochondria
hence it is called the power house of the cell.
Cell Structure

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 The Golgi apparatus is another vesicle which consists of a set of smooth, flattened cisternae
arranged in parallel rows.
 The golgi apparatus is also called the dictyosome.
 The golgi apparatus helps in processing, picking and displacement of proteins.
 Lysosomes are smaller vesicular structures capable of digesting protein, nucleic acid,
polysaccharide and other materials.
 Lysosomes are involved in the intra cellular digestion and intra cellular scavenging of worn
and poorly functioning organelles.
Different Types of Human Cells

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 There are other smaller organelles present in the cell called peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
which are involved in the digestion of hydrogen peroxide and glyoxlic acid in the cell.
 The nucleus is a larger structure of the cell located at its centre.
 The nucleus is covered by the nuclear envelope which is made of inner and outer membrane.
 The outer membrane may contain ribosomes attached to it and hence forms continuities with
the endoplasmic reticulum.
 The inner and outer membrane fuses at certain points to form pores through which granular
material from the cytosol interact with nucleoplasm. (contents of nucleus)
 The nucleus contains chromosomal DNA and chromosomal proteins which are the genetic
machinery of the cell.
 It also contains dense granular structures called nucleolus.
 Cells are of different sizes ranging from 200nm to several centimeters in length.
 The human body contains up to about 75 trillion cells of which about 25 trillion cells are red
blood cells.
 All cells retain certain characteristics, such as organization, response to external stimuli,
nutrition, metabolism, respiration, excretion, reproduction etc.
 The cells undergo division called mitosis in which there is an approximated quantitative
division of cytoplasm and accurate qualitative division in the nucleus material.
 Depending on the functions and structural organization there are different forms of cells in
human body including skeletal cells, muscle cells, epithelial cells, neural cells, white blood
cells, red blood cells, mucus secreting cells etc.
 The Intracellular fluid and extra-cellular fluid contain ions like Na+, K+, Ca+, Mg+, Cl-, HCo3-
, So4+ etc.
 Correct balance of these ions in and out of the cell is very much necessary for the proper
functioning of the cell.
Resting Potential and Action Potential

Resting potential or resting membrane potential is defined as the potential that exists across the
cell membrane due to the differential distribution of ions in and around the cell.
Differential distribution of ions is maintained by the semi or selectively permeable nature of the
cell membrane.

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In human cells, mostly Cl-, K+, and Na+ ions contribute to resting membrane potential.
In normal condition at polarization the pores in the semi-permeable membrane of the cell are not
big enough to allow Na+ ions to pass through but can allow K+ and Cl- to pass through.
Therefore K+ and Cl- ions contribute to the membrane potential.
Therefore at polarized state Na+ ions inside the cell becomes much lower than in the extra
cellular fluid outside.
Since sodium ions are positive, outside of the cell is positive compared to the inside.
Equilibrium in ion concentration is thus reached with a potential difference across the membrane,
negative on inside or positive on the outside and this membrane potential is known as resting
potential.
This potential is maintained until some disturbance (excitation) is given. Resting potential ranges
normally from -60 mV to -100mV.
Due to concentration difference of K+ ions in the inside and outside of the cell, creates a
diffusion gradient which is directed outward across the membrane which causes the inside of the
cell to become more negative than the outside.
Which means that more Cl- pass through to the inside of the cell and more K+ ions pass through
the cell membrane to the outside of the cell.
At this condition, the cell resembles a leaky capacitor where the associated electric field is
directed inwards (positive and negative) to the cell. This stops the inward flow of negative (Cl-)
ions and outward flow of positive ions (K+).
Since the electric and the diffusion force acts opposite to each other, a steady state (equilibrium
state) is reached. At steady state, the potential using Nernst equation is given by,
Eeq,K+ = RT/zF ln [K+]o/[K+]i
Eeq,K+ is the equilibrium potential for potassium, measured in volts.
R is the universal gas contant, equal to 8.314 joules.k-1.mol-1
T is the absolute temperature, measured in Kelvins
z is the number of elementary charges of the ion
F is the Faraday constant, equal to 96,485 coulombs.mol-1
[K+]o is the extracellular concentration of potassium, measured in mol.m-3
[K+]i is the intracellular concentration of potassium, measured in mol.m-3

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Polarized State of cell with resting potential

The resting potential can be calculated with the Goldman – Hodgkin – Katz or Goldman
Equation voltage equation using the concentrations of ions also including the relative
permeability of each ionic species.
Under normal conditions, only potassium (K+), sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions play large
roles for the resting potential calculation.
Em = RT/F ln ((PNa+ [Na+]o + PK+ [K+]o + PCl- [Cl-]i)/(PNa+ [Na+]i + PK+ [K+]i + PCl- [Cl-]o))
This equation resembles the Nernst equation, but has a term for each permeant ion.
The membrane potential is always changing in certain cells like the cardiac pace maker cells.
The resting membrane potential can be measured by inserting an electrode into the cell with a
reference electrode at the outside of the cell.
These potentials can also be measured with the usage of dyes that change their optical properties
according to the membrane potential.
So as to maintain steady state ionic imbalance, continuous transport of ions is required. The
active transport of ions is required.
The active transport mechanism of the cell is called sodium – potassium pump.
This pump actively transports K+ ions into the cell and Na+ ions out of the cell in the ratio 3Na+:
2K+. Energy of the pump is provided by cellular energy (ATP).

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Factors influencing the flow of ions across the membrane are,

1. Diffusion gradient across the membrane
2. Electric field directed into the cell
3. Membrane nature (Semi permeable)
4. Active transport of ions against the electrochemical gradient.
This movement of sodium ions into the cell constitutes an ionic current flow that further reduces
the balance of the membrane. The net result is an avalanche effect which tries to balance with the
ions outside. At the same time, K+ ions, which are higher in concentration inside the cell during
resting potential state try to leave the cell, but are unable to move as fast as Na+ ions. Thus the
cell attains a small positive potential on the inside due to imbalance of K+ ions known as action
potential which is nearly +20 mV. The cell is now in the depolarized condition. The process of
changing the cell from resting potential state to action potential state is called depolarization.
Depolarized State of cell with action potential
Now equilibrium state is achieved, once the rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has
stopped. Ionic currents, which lowered the barrier sodium ions are no longer present and the
membrane reverts back to its original semi/selectively permeable condition. Thus passage of Na+
ions from outside to inside is again blocked.
Time taken for the cell to come back to resting potential from action potential will be more but
by the active process (sodium pump), Na+ are transported outside the cell and hence the cell

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becomes polarized attains resting potential state. This process is called repolarization. The rate of
pumping is directly proportional to the sodium concentration in the cell.
The net height of action potential is defined as difference between the potential of depolarized
membrane at peak of action potential and resting potential.
After an action potential, there exists a brief period of time during which the cell cannot respond
to any new stimulus. This period is absolute refractory period. Following the absolute refractory
period, there occurs a relative refractory period, during which another action potential can be
triggered, by a stronger stimulation.
Action Potential – Cycle
An action potential is thus a rapid change of the polarity of the voltage from negative to positive
and then vice versa, the entire cycle lasting n the order of milliseconds. Each cycle and therefore
each action potential has a rising phase, and finally an overshoot phase. In cardiac pacemaker
cells, a plateau phas4 of intermediate voltage may precede the falling phase, extending the action
potential duration into hundred of milliseconds.

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Nervous System
The nervous system is the body’s control center.
Functions of the nervous system include
1. It senses changes within the body and outside environment.
2. It interprets the changes.
3. It helps in the co-ordination of the various parts of the body.
Functional Organizational of Nervous System
Central nervous system:
The central nervous system forms the control centre of entire system and it comprises the brain
and spinal cord.
Brain:
 The human brain measures about 1500cm3 in volume and weighs 1.36 Kgs.
 It is placed inside the cranium which gives it complete protection.
 The brain is covered by three membranes namely piamater, arachnoid and duramater.
 The space between the piameter and arachnoid is filled with the cerebrospinal fluid.
 The brain is divided into three parts namely,

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1) Fore Brain (Prosencephalon)
2) Mid Brain (Mesencephalon)
3) Hind Brain (Rhombencephalon)
1) Fore brain:
 The fore brain consists of the cerebrum, olfactory lobes and the diencephalons.
 Cerebrum: The cerebrum occupies 2/3 portion of the brain. There are two lobes of cerebrum
called cerebral hemispheres and these two are connected by a tissue called corpus callosum.
 The hemispheres of the cerebrum are divided into four lobes visible from the outside.
 They are a) Frontal b) Parietal c) Occipital d) Temporal.
 The outer region of the cerebrum is grey in color and hence known as grey matter (cerebral
cortex).
 This consists of the cytons of the neurons.
 The inner portion which is white in color is known as the white matter and is composed of
bundles of nerve fibers.
 The grey matter is folded and thrown into a number of convolutions consisting of ridges and
furrows to be accumulated within the limited space of the cranium.
 The ridges are known as gyri (singular gyrus) and the furrows sulci (Singular Suleus)
 The capillaries found all over the cerebral cortex supply oxygen to the brain.
 The cerebrum is the seat of consciousness, intelligence, imagination, memory, and reasoning,
thinking and planning.
 Specific areas are assigned on the cortex for specific function. Thus there is a centre for
vision, for perception of sound, taste, smell, touch etc.
 Diencephalon: They are a group of unpaired structures located deep within the cerebrum.
 This is considered as the interbrain that lies almost hidden by the cerebrum.
 It consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, lateral geniculate nucleus, pituitary gland.
 Signals from the cerebellum pass through the thalamus on the way to the motor areas of the
cerebrum.
 All signals entering the brain from the optic nerves enter the LGN (Lateral Geniculate
Nucleus) and undergo some processing before moving on the various areas of the cerebrum.

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 The hypothalamus is the seat of autonomic nervous system and is the source of about 8
hormones. Damage to this part is very fatal.
 Pituitary gland receives the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) and the oxytocin from the
hypothalamus and releases into the blood stream.
 Olfactory lobes: This is responsible for the sense of olfaction (smell)
 They receive input from the olfactory epithelia.
Human Brain
2) Mid Brain:
 The mid brain occupies only a small region in human when the whole of the brain is
concerned.
 There are four hemispherical bodies called corpora quadeigemina.
 These are responsible for the movement of the eyes, the head and the reflexes of both sides of
the body.
 The substantia nigra in the midbrain helps in smooth movement of the body.
 Damage to this substantia nigra causes Parkinson’s disease.

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3) Hind Brain:
 The hind brain consists of the cerebellum, pons cerebelli and the medulla oblongata.
 Cerebellum: This is situated below the cerebrum and it consists of two deeply convoluted,
hemispheres.
 It represents only 10% of the weight of the brain and 50 % of the neurons present in the
brain.
 It regulates and co-ordinates the group movements of skeletal muscles. (ie) it controls actions
like walking, running etc.
 Pons Cerebelli: These are a bridge of nerve fibers connecting the two lobes of the
cerebellum.
 It acts as the relay centre and is responsible for muscular movements.
 Medulla Oblongata: The medulla Oblongata lies posteriorly to the brain and it continues as
the spinal cord.
 Nerve impulses arising from here,
i) Stimulates the intercoastal muscles and diaphragm making breathing possible.
ii) Regulates heart beat
iii) Regulates the diameter of arterioles thus adjusting blood flow.
 Spinal cord: Spinal cord is the continuation of the medulla oblongata

 It is tubular in structure and is enclosed within the neural canal of the vertebral column.
 The posterior portion of the spinal cord is filamentous and is known as filum terminale.
 There is a central canal running through the centre of the spinal cord.
 This canal is filled with nutritive fluid called cerebrospinal fluid.
 Functions of spinal cord:
i) It connects a large part of the peripheral nervous system.
ii) Nerve impulses from the sensory neurons are transmitted to the brain by this.
iii) Signals (control) arising from the brain are also delivered to the motor neurons.
iv) The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating centre responsible for some reflexes
like the withdraw reflex.
Peripheral Nervous system:

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a. Cranial Nerves:
 Nerves that emerge from the brain are called cranial nerves. There are twelve pairs of cranial
nerves in human beings.
 These nerves may be one of these types,
a) Sensory: Carrying receptors to the brain
b) Motor: Carrying impulses from the CNS to a muscle or a gland.
c) Mixed: Both sensory and motor in function.
b. Spinal Nerves:
 31 pairs of nerve arise from the spinal cord.

 These pairs of nerves are called the spinal nerves.
 Each nerve originates from two roots a dorsal root and a ventral root, these join to form the
spinal nerve.
 The sensory nerves receive impulses through the dorsal root and motor nerves receive
through the ventral root.
Autonomous Nervous system:
 This lies outside the central nervous system (ie) outside brain and spinal cord.
 It helps in functioning of organs like heart, stomach and intestines.
 It consists of two nerves namely sympathetic and para sympathetic nerves.
 These two nerves possess antagonistic functions.
S.No. Para Sympathetic Nerves Sympathetic Nerves
1. Constricts the pupil Dilates the pupil
2. Retards heart beat Accelerates heart beat
3. Influences salivary secretions Inhibits salivary secretions
4. Lowers blood pressure and causes dilation Raises blood pressure and causes
of smooth muscles contraction of smooth muscles
5. Nerve endings release a substance called Nerve endings release a substance

acetylcholine called sympathin

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Nerve cell (Neuron) and Synapse – Transmitters and neural Communication
 Nerve cell is the basic unit of the nervous system.
The Nerve Cell (Neuron)
 The nerve cell body is called as the soma.

 The soma is surrounded by two kinds of protoplasmic processes.
 They are,
o Branched structure known as dendrites
o Single un-branched structure called the axon
 The dendrites receive impulses whereas axons conduct impulses.
 Some nerve fibers are covered by an insulting layer called myelin sheath with constrictions at
regular intervals.
 These constrictions are called nodes of Ranvier.
 The node of Ranvier serves as points along the neuron for generating a signal.

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 Nerve fibers with myelin sheath are called myelinated nerve fibers and nerve fibers without
myelin sheath are called non-myelinated nerve fiber.
 The nerve impulses travel from one neuron to another by passing from axon of one neuron to
the dendrite of the other.
 The function between the axon and dendrite is called the synapse.
 It is through the synapse the nerve impulses pass to the dendrite of the following neuron.
 Messages travel within the neuron as an electrical action potential.
Neuro – Muscular Junction
 The space between two cells is known as the synaptic cleft.

 To cross the synaptic cleft the electric impulses requires the actions of neurotransmitters.
 Neurotransmitters are stored in small synaptic vesicles to move to the end of the axon and
discharge their contents into the synaptic cleft.
 Arrival of the action potential causes some of the vesicles to move to the end of the axon and
discharge their contents into the synaptic cleft.
 Released neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft, and bind to receptors on the other cell’s
membrane, causing ion channels on that cell to open.
 This prompts transmission of the message along that cell’s membrane.

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 Acetylcholine, dopamine and Norepinepheine are examples of neurotransmitters, although

each acts in different responses.
 These neuro transmitters remain in the cleft only for some time.
 Enzymes in the cleft inactivate the neurotransmitters.
 Inactivated neurotransmitters are taken back into the axon and recycled.
 Neurotransmitter,” dopamine” deficiency causes Parkinson’s disease.
Cardiovascular System
Cardiovascular system relates to the pumping mechanism of heart, the structure of related organs
and origin and conduction of heart beat.
Anatomy of human heart:
 Human heart is located in the upper portion of the chest.

 Although the size and weight of the heart vary from one individual to another in most cases,
the size of the heart is approximately the size of the person’s clenched fist and the average
weight of the heart is about 300gm.
 The heart is a chamber covered by muscles that is encased in a sac called the pericardium.
 This pericardium creates a lubricating fluid on its inside surface so that the friction between it
and the heart wall is reduced, allowing the heart to beat freely within the walls of the sac.
 The heart is the centre of the circulatory system, it is made of muscles and it acts as a pump.
 The heart is made of four chambers namely the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle and
left ventricle.
 The pumping action of heart is performed by contraction of the heart muscles surrounding
each chambers of the heart.
 These muscles receive blood from the coronary arteries which cover the heart like a crown
(corona).
 There are three types of heart or cardiac muscles namely,
i) Atrial muscle
ii) Ventricular muscle
iii) Specialized excitatory and conductive muscle.

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 Cardiac muscles are striated and involuntary in nature. Striated muscles are those with
striations or transverse lines at regular intervals. Involuntary muscles are those muscles
which cannot be controlled at will.
 The two atria are separated by a continuous partition called the inter-atrial septum and the
ventricles are separated by the inter-ventricular septum.
 The atria are separated from the ventricles by the auriculoventricular septum.
 Thus there is a complete separation of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood.
 Deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body is brought to the right atrium through the
superior and the inferior vena cavae.
 The pulmonary artery divides many times, into smaller arteries (arterioles).
 The arterioles supply blood to the alveolar capillaries of the lungs where red blood cells are
recharged with oxygen and they give out CO2.
 On the other lung, the tiny capillaries feed into tiny veins and venules which combine to form
the pulmonary vein.
 This vein returns the oxygenated blood to the heart.
 The blood enters through the left atrium from where it is pumped through the mitral or the
bicuspid valve into the left ventricle.
 The left ventricular muscle contracts and the pressure developed closes the bicuspid valve.
 A built-up pressure in the ventricle forces the aortic valve to open causing the blood flow in
the aorta.
 The blood reaches vital organs such as brain and to the extremities by the bifurcation or
division of arteries.
 The heart pumps about 5 liters of blood per minute.
 The heart beats 72 times per minute.
 In a normal adult the systolic blood pressure ranges in 95mm to 140mm of Hg.
 The average pressure is around 120mm of Hg.
 The diastolic or minimum blood pressure range is 60mm to 90mm of Hg.
 The average pressure is around 80mm of Hg.

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Anatomy of Human Heart
Origin, conduction and regulation of heart beat:
 Out of the three cardiac muscles namely the atrial muscle, the ventricular muscle and the
specialized excitatory & conductive muscles the excitatory and conductive muscles are
responsible for the conduction of heart beat.

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 The heart beat originates at the SA (Sino Atrial) node which is located near the junction of
the superior vena cava and the right atrium.
 The heart beat starts up with a rhythmical impulse generated at the SA node.
 The SA node acts as a pacemaker for the heart.
 The impulse that is generated at the SA node is conducted or passed on to the atrioventricular
node or the AV node located on the right side of the inter-atrial septum, near the tricuspid
valve by the inter-nodal tracts.
 The inter-nodal pathways are comprised of three pair of specialized cells namely anterior,
middle and posterior and these are specialized conducting fibers which conducts impulses
from SA node to the AV node.
 The inter-nodal pathways delay the impulses from the atria before passing it on to the
ventricles.
 The conduction of pulse from SA node to AV node takes 0.03 sec.
 This delay is to enable the contraction of the atria and hence the draining of blood into the
ventricles.
 From the AV node the impulses travel down to the ventricles through the AV bundle.
 The AV bundle is located at the auricular ventricular septum.
 The AV bundle is nothing but muscle fascicles passing through the fibrous tissue separating
the atria and ventricles.
 The impulses to reach the AV bundle from the AV node, takes 0.09 sec.
 The muscles in the AV bundle are larger than the ventricular muscles and the conduction
velocity of impulses are slower.
 Thus there is a further delay in conduction of pulses at the AV bundle for a another 0.04 sec.
 The pulses are then conducted throughout the ventricle to enable its contraction by fibers
which branch out from the AV bundle as the right branch and the left branch called the
purkinje fibers.
 The purkinje fibers cause the depolarization of the ventricles.
 The conduction of impulse in Purkinje fiber range at a rate of 1.5m/sec to 4.0m/sec.
 This rate is 160 times more when compared to the conduction velocity of the ventricular
muscles.

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 As the excitation pulses travel down from the SA to the purkinje fibers or rather from the
atria to the ventricles the contraction of the atria starts up and passes down to the ventricles.
 Then slow repolarization of the ventricles takes place to initiate the next heart beat.
 So a heart beat comprises of both contraction and relaxation.
 Therefore, a complete cardiac cycle is divided into,
 Systole – Contraction of heart, blood being pumped into the aorta for circulation
throughout the body.
 Diastole – Relaxation or dilation of heart, Heart cavities being filled with blood through
the superior and inferior vena cavae.
 So, the diastole and the systole comprise a complete cardiac cycle.
Respiratory System
Introduction:
 The human body takes in oxygen, which combines with hydrogen, carbon and various other
nutrients to produce heat and energy to perform work.
 The entire process of taking in oxygen from the environment, transporting the oxygen cells,
removing carbon – di – oxide from the cells and exhausting it to the atmosphere is called as
respiration.
 Respiration can simply be called as exchange of gases.
 Respiration are of two types namely, 1) External Respiration 2) Internal Respiration.
 External Respiration: The exchange of gases between the blood and the external environment
takes place in the lungs and is termed as external respiration.
 Internal Respiration: Internal Respiration is the respiration of the cells or it is the intracellular
use of O2 to make Adenosine tri phosphate (ATP).
 Lung is the organ responsible for respiration.
Structure of Respiratory System:
 The lung is the chief respiratory organ. it is enclosed in the thoracic cage which is composed
of the sternum in front, the vertebral column in the back, the ribs encircling the chest and the
diaphragm below.

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 Air enters the lungs through the air passages which include the nasal cavities, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and the bronchioles (terminal and respiratory)
 The lung is in a pair namely right and left.
Human Respiratory System

 The right lung consists of three lobes (upper, middle and lower) and the left lung has two
lobes (upper and lower).
 The larynx or the voice box which contains the vocal chords is connected to the bronchi
through the trachea (the wind pipe).
 Above the larynx is the epiglottis, a valve that closes whenever a person swallows, so as to
avoid food or liquid to enter the larynx and trachea.
 The trachea is about 1.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter and approximately 11 cm long extending from
larynx to the upper boundary of the chest.
 There it divides into right and left bronchi.

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 Each bronchus enter into the corresponding lung and divides into small branches.
 These branches are of unequal length and are at different angles.
 The diameters of these branches are reduced from 1.5 or 2.5 to 0.1.
 These small tubes which are helpful in air conduction are called the bronchioles.
 The diameter of these bronchioles further reduce these tiny tubes are called the terminal
bronchioles.
 These terminal bronchioles again branches into smaller bronchioles called the respiratory
bronchioles.
 Alveoli are attached to the walls of the lungs.
 They act as the air sacs.
 The exchange of gases takes place at the alveolus.
 The lungs are covered by a thin membrane called the pleura.
 The pleura is double layered, the layer that encloses the lung side is called the visceral pleura.
 The membrane that lies towards the thoracic walls is called parietal pleura.
 A special fluid is secreted between these two membranes and this is called the inter pleural
fluid.
 The diaphragm is a special dome or bell shaped muscles located at the bottom of the thoracic
cavity.
Mechanics and Ventilation of the lung:
 As the diaphragm contracts, the lungs expands.
 This expansion of the lungs causes the pressure in the lungs and the alveoli negative relative
to atmospheric pressure.
 As a result, air moves from a region of higher pressure (atmosphere) to a region of low
pressure (lungs and alveoli).
 After exchange of gases such as O2 and CO2 takes place, a set of abdominal muscles pulls the
diaphragm upwards.
 This causes pressure in the lungs, positive relative to atmospheric pressure, thus the impure
or exhausted air, leaves the lungs.

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Respiration Mechanism
 This air (oxygen) that enters the lungs diffuses from there to blood and thus distributed to
various organs of the body.
 Diffusion of gas to alveoli:
 The tidal volume of lung expired from atmosphere is sufficient enough to reach the bronchi.
 The air to reach the alveolar sacs via the terminal bronchioles, the respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts depends upon a process called diffusion.
 Diffusion is nothing but movement of gas molecules at high velocity either towards the
atmosphere or towards the alveoli.
 Energy for diffusion is obtained from the kinetic energy of the molecules themselves.
Gas exchange in the lungs:
 During inspiration the alveoli sac is filled with oxygen rich air from atmosphere.

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Exchange of Gases
 The pulmonary capillaries divided from pulmonary artery, which carry impure blood from
heart is in the proximity of the alveoli sac.
 The O2 absorbed from atmosphere diffuses to the alveoli sac and interchange of O2 gas with
the CO2 from the pulmonary capillaries (Pulmonary blood) takes place.
Pressure terms related to respiration:
Alveolar Pressure:
 Pressure of air inside lung (alveoli) is called alveolar pressure.
 When no air is flowing in or out of the lungs, the pressure of air inside the lungs is more or
less equal to that of the atmosphere.
 This is said to be 0cm of H2O in the reference scale.
 But to draw in air alveolar pressure should be negative in relation to atmospheric pressure, so
pressure drops down to -1cm of H2O.
 This pressure is sufficient enough to draw 0.5 liters of air into the lungs.
 During expiration the reverse happens, the pressure builds up to 1 cm of H2O which is
enough to expel 0.5 of air.
Pleural Pressure:
 Hydrostatic pressure of inter-pleural fluid is called pleural pressure.
 Normal pleural pressure at the beginning of inspiration is -5cm of H2O but when lungs
expand the pressure becomes still more negative to about -7.5 cm of H2O.
 During expiration the reverse happens.
Trans-pleural pressure:
 Pressure difference between alveolar pressure and pleural pressure is called trans-pleural
pressure.
 In other words, the pressure difference between the alveoli in the lungs and outer surface of
the lungs is called as trans-pleural pressure.
 It is a measure of elastic forces of the lungs that tend to collapse the lungs at each instant of
respiration.

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Changes in Lung Volume, Alveolar Pressure, Pleural Pressure and Trans-pleural

Pressure
Basic Bio-Medical Instrumentation System
The quantity, property or condition that is measured by an instrumentation system is called the
measurand. In a medical instrumentation system, the measurand can be a bioelectric signal, such
as those generated by muscles or the brain, or the heart or a chemical or mechanical signal that is
converted to an electrical signal.
Sensors:
Conversion of physical measurands into electric outputs is done by Sensors (Biosensors). The
outputs from these biosensors are analog signals, i.e., continuous signals that are sent to the
analog processing and digital conversion block.
Analog Processing and Digital Conversion:
Here the signals are amplified, filtered, conditioned, and converted to digital form.
Bio-signal Processing:

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Then the signals are subjected to Bio-signal processing (Signal conditioning) which is used to
help in compensation for undesirable sensor characteristics. Once the analog signals have been
digitized and converted to a form that can be stored and processed by digital computers, many
more methods of signal conditioning can be applied.
Basic Bio-Medical Instrumentation System

Output Display:
Basic instrumentation systems also include output display devices that enable human operators to
view the signal in a format that is easy to understand. These displays may be numerical or
graphical, discrete or continuous, and permanent or temporary. Most output display devices are
intended to the observed visually, but some also provide audible output, e.g., a beeping sound
with each heart beat.
Data Storage:
In addition to displaying data, many instrumentation systems have the capability of storing data.
In some devices, the signal is stored briefly so that further processing can take place or so that
the operator can examine the data. In other cases, the signals are stored permanently so that

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different signal processing can be applied at a later time. Holter monitors, for example, acquire
24h of ECG data that are processed to determine arrhythmic activity and other important
diagnostic characteristics.
Data Transmission:
With the usage of internet and telephone, signals can be acquired with a device in one location,
perhaps in a patient’s home, and can be transmitted to another device for processing and /or
storage. This has made it possible, for example, to provide quick diagnostic feedback if a patient
has an unusual heart rhythm while at home. It is allowed medical facilities in rural areas to
transmit diagnostic images to tertiary care hospitals so that specialized physicians can help
general practitioners make more accurate diagnoses.
Calibration:
Two other components play important roles in instrumentation systems. The first is calibration
signal. A signal with known amplitude and frequency content is applied to the instrumentation
system at the sensor’s input. The calibration signal allows the components of the system to be
adjusted so that the output and input have a known, measured relationship. Without this
information, it is impossible to convert the output of an instrument system into a meaningful
representation of the measurand.
Feedback Control:
Another important component is a feedback element which is not a part of all instrumentation
systems. These devices include pacemakers and ventilators that stimulate the heart or the lungs.
Some feedback devices collect physiological data and stimulate a response (e.g., a heartbeat or
breath) when needed or are part of biofeedback systems in which the patient is made aware of a
physiological measurement (e.g., blood pressure) and uses conscious control to change the
physiological response.
Conclusion:
The basic components of a biomedical instrumentation system contain sensors that convert the
measurand, e.g., cardiac electrical activity, into an electrical signal, signal processing
components that condition (i.e., filter, amplify and in some cases digitize) the analog signal, and
components that are used to store and display the analog and/or digital data. In some cases, data
may be transmitted to another site for interpretation or may be used as part of a control circuit

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that feeds back to the patient. All these components are controlled using proper instrument
control.
Transducers
Definition:
A transducer is a device that is used to convert position, displacement, thermal and/or optical
signals into electrical quantities, which may be amplified, recorded or processed in an
instrumentation system.
More generally transducer may be defined as a device which converts a physical quantity or a
physical condition into an electrical signal. Transducers are also known as primary sensors,
pickups and even signal generators.
Characteristics of transducers:
1. Small size and weight
2. High reliability
3. Low cost
4. Capable of measuring fast transient pressures.
5. High sensitivity
6. Ability to withstand wider extremes of environmental conditions
7. Linear relationship between input and output.
Classification of Transducers:
1. Self Generating Analog Transducer:
These types of transducers produce electrical output signal proportional to the continuous
measurement of input parameter variations. They require no outside source of power. They
generate sufficient voltage or current for measurement purposes without any auxiliary sources.
Eg: Photoelectric cell, Piezoelectric crystals and Radioactive type of transducers. These
transducers are also called as active transducer.
2. Variable Parameter Analog Transducer:
These are also called passive transducer. these type of transducers are similar to self generating
analog pickups but they produce output which is a proportional fraction of an original resistance,
inductance, capacitance which varies with the change in input signal are in turn translated into

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corresponding voltage or current effects. Thus they require auxiliary circuitry requiring external
power supply. Eg: Resistive transducers, Inductive transducers, Capacitive transducers.
3. Pulse or Frequency generating Transducer:
These types of transducers are those which produce voltage pulse whose frequency is
proportional to the input parameter variations. Because frequency is an analog quantity, the
transducer may be treated as either analog or digital type depending on whether the output is
handled in the read out or data system.
4. Digital Transducer:
Digital transducers are those which produce a specially coded current voltage for each discrete
value sensed. As the input parameter varies, fresh values of the coded signal are generated by the
transducer. Digital transducers are more popular among transducers because of advantages
associated with digital measuring instruments and also due to the effect that signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without causing much distortion due to amplitude variations and
phase shift. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an analog to digital convertor can be
called a digital transducer.
5. Inverse Transducer:
An inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical quantity into s non-electrical output.
it is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a low power non-electrical output. Many
data indicating and recording devices are basically inverse transducers. An ammeter or
Voltmeter which converts electrical current into mechanical movement can be called as inverse
transducers.
Selection Criteria for transducers
In any measurement system or instrument the transducer being an input element transforms any
physical or physiological quantity to a proportional electrical signal. So selection of an
appropriate transducer is most important for having accurate results. The following are the points
to be considered in determining a transducer suitable for a specific measurement instrument,
1) Range:
The range of the transducer should be large enough to cover all the expected magnitudes of the
measurand.
2) Sensitivity:
The transducer should be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.

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3) Electrical Output Characteristics:

The electrical characteristics – the output impedance, the frequency response and the response
time of the transducer output signal should be compatible with the recording device and also the
measuring system or instrument.
4) Operating Principle:
The transducer is many a time selected on the basis of operating principle used by them.
5) Accuracy:
A high degree of accuracy is required; otherwise frequent calibration should be done.
6) Errors:
The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described by transfer
function so as to avoid errors.
7) Physical Environment:
The transducer selected should be able to withstand the environmental conditions to which it is
likely to be subjected while carrying out measurements and tests. Temperature, acceleration,
shock and vibration, moisture and corrosive chemicals are certain environmental conditions that
might affect transducer operation.
8) Stability:
The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability to be operative during its operation and
storage life.
9) Reliability:
Reliability should be assured in case of failure of transducer in order that the functioning of the
instrumentation system continues uninterrupted.
10) Loading Effects:
The transducer should have high input impedance and low output impedance.
11) Precision:
This refers to the degree of repeatability. A transducer should have high precision.
12) Resolution:
Resolution of a transducer indicates to the smallest measureable input increment.
13) Linearity:
Linearity reflects to the condition that the output is in some way proportional to the input.
14) Noise:

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This is the unwanted signal at the output due to either internal source or to interference. The
signal to noise ratio should be as high as possible.
15) Isolation:
Measurements made on patients by the transducer must not produce a direct electrical connection
between the subject and ground. Electrical isolation is provided using magnetic or optical
coupling techniques.
16)
S.No. Parameter Transducer
1. Blood Pressure Strain Gauge, LVDT, Capacitive type pressure transducer, low
frequency micro phone for picking Korotkoff sounds.
2. Peripheral arterial Finger or ear lobe pickup, piezo electric pickup for blood
blood pressure pressure
3. Blood flow Electromagnetic flow meter, ultrasonic flow meter
4. Cardiac output Dye dilution method, thermal dilution method
5. Heart rate Photoelectric plethysmograph
6. Phonocardiogram Moving coil or crystal microphone
7. Oximetry Photoelectric pulse pickup
8. Respiration rate Thermistor, impedance pneumography electrodes, CO2

detectors
9. Tidal Volume Spirometer
10. pH Glass and Calomel electrodes
Piezoelectric Transducers
 Certain crystalline materials, when subjected to mechanical stress, develop surface electric
charges.
 Thus, if a stress is applied to a piece of such material provided with suitable electrodes,
charges will appear on the electrodes and hence a voltage will be developed across them.
 Piezoelectric materials generally posses a linear relation between the change in induced
surface charges dQ and the change in applied force dF, as represented by the relation

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dQ = D.dF
Where, D is a constant for the material that expresses its charge sensitivity.
 A piezoelectric transducer thus behaves like a fixed capacitor carrying a charge proportional
to the applied stress.
 Hence, the piezoelectric transducer is a self – generating or active transducer.
 The application of an electric field to a piezoelectric crystal distorts it.
 Thus, the phenomenon is reversible.
Piezoelectric Transducer
 Several natural and synthetic materials like quartz, Rochelle salt, lithium sulphate and
ceramics such as barium titanate possess piezoelectric properties.
 In practice, piezo elements are slabs removed from the parent crystal by cutting along certain
crystallographic axes.
 The magnitude of the piezoelectric effect is dependent on the axis of the cut.
 The slabs cut from the crystal can be mounted to permit the development of piezoelectric
voltage in response to a bending, twisting or shearing force.
 The piezoelectric effect is directional sensitive, that is, if a tension produces specific positive
and negative charge accumulation, the compression produces a reversed charge build-up.
 Piezoelectric materials have a finite resistivity.
 The charge, thus generated by a change in applied force, slowly leaks away and potential
difference eventually falls to zero.
 Hence, piezoelectric transducers lack a DC response. There is an output only when the forces
applied are time-variant.

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 Applications of piezoelectric transducer:

1. The low cost, simplicity and relatively large output voltage generated by piezoelectric
materials make them particularly useful in a variety of bio-medical applications.
2. Crystal microphones of special design are quite often used for measuring and recording heart
sounds (Phonocardiography). Microphones for this purpose are either air-coupled or direct-
coupled. The properties desired for this application are a flat frequency response from 20 to
1000 Hz, and directional sensitivity, so that breathing sounds, room noise and the like are
suppressed.
3. Catheter-tip piezoelectric sensors are used for localized pick-up of sounds from within the
chambers of the heart (intra-cardiac phonocardiography). They are introduced directly into
the left heart via a thin walled needle introduced through a peripheral vein or artery.
4. Piezoelectric crystals are widely used for detecting the sounds (Korotkoff sounds) associated
with the occlusive cuff method for measuring systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The cuff
pressure at which these appear and disappear as the pressure is reduced, corresponds to the
systolic and diastolic blood pressures, respectively.
5. It is also used for detecting radial pulse.
6. Piezoelectric crystals are employed in medical ultrasonic devices. Ultrasonic pulses are
transmitted into the body structure3 and an echo from this structure is displayed on a cathode
ray oscilloscope, which is used for diagnosis.
7. It is used in ballistocardiography, for detecting the movement of a freely suspended platform
on which a patient is made to rest. The platform with the patient moves due to the pumping
action of the heart. These tracings are used for diagnosing abnormalities of the heart.
8. They are also used in ultrasonic blood-flow meters using the Doppler effect.
9. When drugs are administered intravenously, it is necessary to know the amount of drug
administered. For this purpose, drop-counting is done by a piezoelectric crystal. A mesh is
attached through a lever to a piezoelectric transducer. As each drop strikes the mesh, a pulse
is generated by a piezoelectric transducer.
Ultrasonic Transducer
 Ultrasonic waves are the non-audible sound waves whose frequencies are greater than 20000
Hz.

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 Ultrasonic waves are very useful for diagnostic and therapeutic applications in biomedical
field.
 When a ferromagnetic rod is placed in a magnetic field, along the axis of magnetization there
is a change in the length of the rod.
 This phenomenon is called magnetostriction.
 The change in length is independent of the sign of the field.
 Depending on the nature of the material, its previous treatment, the degree of earlier
magnetization and the temperature the length of the rod increases or decreases.
 Thus if a nickel (ferromagnetic) rod which is initially suitably magnetized is placed in an
alternating magnetic field whose frequency is equal to the natural mechanical frequency of
the rod, then there is resonant vibration of the rod.
 The natural frequency of the rod is given by,
F = (½.L) * (E/ρ)1/2
Where,
L – length of the rod.
E – Young’s modulus of the rod
Ρ – Density of the rod.
 The resonant vibration of the rod is utilized to produce low frequency ultrasonic waves.
 The magnetostriction coefficient should be more to get high power ultrasonic waves.
 Nickel, Monel metal, Permalloy and cobalt ferrite are popular magnetostrictive materials.
 Since practically the rods with very smaller length cannot be made, the high frequency
ultrasonic waves cannot be produced by magnetostriction effect.
Equivalent Circuit of the magnetostrictive Transducer:
 The name magnetostrictive or piezomagnetism is given to the phenomenon that when a
magnetic material like nickel is subjected to a magnetic field, for a small change in magnetic
field, a tensile stress is developed in the material.
 Thus the magnetostrictive coefficient ‘λ’ = Developed tensile stress/ Change in magnetic flux
density.

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Equivalent Circuit – Magnetostrictive Transducer

 In the figure above Zc indicates the characteristics impedance of the transmission line or the
magnetic core’s specific acoustic impedance.
 The electrical equivalent circuit of the magnetostrictive transducer can be thought of as an
electromechanical transformer with the turns ratio (λ/ωN) : 1 where ‘N’ is the number of
turns in the winding through which a.c. current is passed to magnetize the core and ‘ω’ is the
frequency of the developed a.c. magnetic field.
 The coupling between the mechanical and magnetic sections is determined by the
magnetostriction coefficient ‘λ’.
 The efficiency of the transducer is composed of two parts: the efficiency of conversion of
electrical into mechanical energy which decreases with the frequency (for example, below 10
kHz, it is 90% but at 200 kHz, it is only 20%) and the conversion of mechanical into acoustic
energy which remains constant at about 80% over a wide frequency range.
 To get resonance, both the impedances at the mechanical and magnetic sections should be
matched properly along with the higher value of magnetostriction coefficient.
 In the figure above, L represents the winding inductance, Rc the resistance arising from core
losses, Rw the winding resistance and Ll the leakage inductance.
 Maximum electrical power can be fed into a transducer from an electrical generator, when
the transducer’s input impedance is purely resistive and equals to the output resistance of the
generator.

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 The winding inductance can be neutralized at the resonance by coupling the transducer to the
generator through a suitably chosen capacitor ‘C’ so that the capacitor and winding
inductance ‘L’ form a series resonant circuit at the transducer’s operating frequency.
Piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers:
 Piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers are used to produce high frequency ultrasonic waves and
are manufactured from natural and synthetic piezoelectric materials.
 Quartz is the important material which is widely used because it vibrates in single mode with
single frequency.
 Further its frequency of vibration is not affected by temperature and moisture.
 Quartz is generally used to produce ultrasonic waves from 1 MHz to 10 MHz.
 The synthetic ultrasonic transducers are designed from ceramics and these are used to
produce any desired frequency even up to 500MHz and it can be machined to any desired
shape.
 Further their cost is also cheap.
 The crystal which produces ultrasonic waves can be cut into x-cut crystal so that it can
produce longitudinal mode of vibration and y-cut crystal to produce transverse mode of
vibration.
 Ultrasonic waves are produced in Quartz by inverse piezoelectric effect.
 When a high frequency R.F input is given to electrical axis of the crystal, then along the
mechanical axis of the crystal, the crystal expands and contracts periodically.
 Particularly when the natural frequency of the crystal is equal to R.F input frequency,
ultrasonic resonant vibrations are obtained.
 The frequency of the crystal is determined by the dimensions, Young’s modulus and density
of the crystal.
 The mechanical system of a quartz crystal may be represented by the equivalent electrical
circuit shown in figure.
 The mechanical resonance is equivalent to a series turned LCR circuit shunted by the
capacitance C1 of the electrodes.
 For example, if we take x-cut quartz (lengthwise vibration) in the form of a rectangular bar
having the following dimensions.
X = 1.4mm, Y = 30.7mm, Z = 4.1mm,

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Then R = 15000 Ohms, C = 0.0228 Picofarads, L = 137 Henries and C1 = 3.54 Picofarads
 Therefore, fo = 1/2Π√L.C = 90 kHz.
 The production of ultrasonic waves at resonance in the transducer can be represented as an
electromechanical (or) voltage – force transformer with electrical input and mechanical
output.
 The turns ratio of that transformer is equal to 1:h.Co where,
h = stress developed/ applied charge density (volt/m)
and Co is the static electrical capacitance of the transducer.
 Further L represents the mechanical inductance, C the mechanical capacitance and R the
mechanical resistance such that,
L = al ρc/8
C = 8l/( ρc.a.Π2c2)
R = (Z1+Z2)/4
 Here l is the thickness of the transducer, a the single surface area, ρc the density of the
transducer material and c the acoustic wave velocity through the transducer material Z1 and
Z2 are the impedances of the media in contact with the two plane surfaces of the transducer.
L, C and R form a series resonant circuit.
 At resonance, the frequency ‘fo’ of the R.F input signal is equal to 1/2Π√LC) which is also
the fundamental mode of vibration frequency of the transducer.
 The ‘Q’ value of the transducer during mechanical resonance is given by,
Qmech = ωoL/R = Π/2.Zc/Z1+Z2
And ωo2LC = 1.
 Therefore the value of ‘L’ at resonance is given by
L=Zc/16fo
Where fo represents the resonant frequency and Zc = ρc.c.a = acoustic impedance of the
transducer material.
Temperature Measurements
Introduction:
 Measurement of temperature is done by using mercury – in – glass thermometer. But it is not

relatively accurate over wide range.

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 In dynamic circumstances at lowered body temperature, continuous or frequency sampling

of temperature is required, as in operating theatre, intensive care unit, etc.,
 For such applications of continuous reading facility, electronic thermometers are suitable.
 Thermocouples are normally used for measurement of surface skin temperature, rectal and
liquid temperature measurement.
 The resistance thermometer and thermistor measure absolute temperature whereas
thermocouples generally measure relative temperature.
 Temperature measurement is one of the most essential commonly used parameter in the field
of medical sciences.
 The variation in temperature is a direct result of the variation blood pressure.
 The metabolic rate and temperature have a close relation and because of all this and many
variations which all temperature dependent, it is an important parameter.
 Thermally sensitive elements which are used to measure temperature are,
1. Thermocouples
2. Thermistors
3. Resistance thermometer
4. Silicon diode temperature sensor
5. Radiation thermometry
6. Fiber optic temperature sensors.
1. Thermocouples:
 When two wires of different materials are joined together at either end, forming two
junctions that are maintained at different temperature, a thermoelectric motive force (T.e.m.f)
is generated which causes current to flow, this arrangement is called “Thermocouple”.
 Junction at higher temperature is termed the hot or measuring junction and at a lower
temperature cold, or reference junction, which is maintained at 0°C normally.
 Over a limited range of temperature, the thermal e.m.f and hence current produced is
proportional to the temperature difference existing between the junctions.
 Temperature measurement in a thermocouple is done by inserting one junction in or on the
surface of medium, whose temperature is to be measured, and keeping the other at a lower
and constant temperature, when measurable e.m.f is produced between two junctions.

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 The amount of voltage change per degree of temperature change of junctions varies with
kinds of metals making up the junction.
 Types of thermocouples based on the combination of materials used to make the junction are,
1. Copper-constantan
2. Iron-constantan
3. Chromel-alumel
4. Platinum-Rhodium
 Each type of thermocouple has a unique, nonlinear response to temperature.
 Copper-constantan combination is preferred for medical application, with reference junction
at 0°C and other at 37.5°C, output from this thermocouple is 1.5mV.
 Experimentation with thermocouple circuit has led to the formulation of following empirical
laws, which are fundamental to accurate measurement of temperature by thermoelectric
means:
 the algebraic sum of thermoelectric e.m.f generated in any given circuit containing any
number of dissimilar homogenous metals is a function only of the temperatures of junctions
and
 If all but one of the junctions in such a circuit are maintained at some reference temperature,
the e.m.f generated depends only upon temperature of that junction and can be used as a
measure of temperature.
 The temperature of the measuring junction can be determined from the thermo e.m.f only if
the absolute temperature of reference junction is known.
 Absolute Temperature of the reference junction is done by either:
a. by measuring the reference temperature with a standard direct reading thermometer or
b. by containing the reference junctions in a bath of well defined temperatures.
 Figure above illustrates a thermally sensitive bridge, which is designed to generate an e.m.f
that varies with the enclosure temperature in such a way that variations in cold junction are
nullified.
 In the figure R2 is temperature sensitive component that is thermally bonded to cold junction
thermocouple.
 Voltage change across R2 is equal and opposite of the cold junction thermal voltage over a
limited ambient temperature range.

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 This system introduces errors if the enclosure temperature undergoes wide variations.
 However, for moderate fluctuation in+/- 5°C, it enables an effective reference temperature
stability of +/- 0.2°C to be achieved.
 This type of reference temperature simulation is well adapted to zero suppression of a large
temperature to be recorded small temperature changes can be recorded.
2. Thermistors:
 This is also called thermal resistor.
 These are non-metallic resistors.
 Semi-conducting materials possessing negative coefficient of resistance are used to make up
a thermistor.
 When, such a material is subjected to a temperature change, the resistance of the material
changes.
 This change in resistance of the material is a measure of temperature to be sensed.
 This is the basic working principle of the thermistor.
 Thermistors are the oxides of certain metals like magnesia, cobalt and nickel which are
milled, mixed in proper proportions with binders, pressed into the desired shape and size.
 Thermistors have large negative temperature coefficient of resistance (i.e., resistance of
thermistor decreases with increase of temperature).

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Symbol for Thermistor

 Relation between resistance – temperature is given by,
R =A.eB/T
Where,
R = resistance of thermistor in Ω
T = absolute temperature
A & B are constants.
Types of Thermistors
 Thermistors are commercially available in the form of beads, glass probes, disks and rods.
 The bead type of thermistor which is much used for temperature measurement is glass
coated.
 Such thermistor may be small as a few thousands of an inch in diameter giving fast response.

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 Resistance at 25°C can vary over a wide range, from few ohms to several mega ohms.
 The usable temperature range is about -420 to 1200°F, however a single thermistor is not
ordinarily used over such a large range.
 The glass probes have a diameter of about 0.1 inch and a length varying from ¼ to 2 inch are
also widely used in temperature measurement, and have resistance properties similar to
beads.
3. Resistance Thermometer:
 The variation of resistance R with temperature T for most metallic materials can be
represented by an equation,
 R = Ro (1 +α1T +α2T2 + ………….+αnTn) where Ro is the resistance at temperature T = 0.
 The resistance thermometers are made of materials such as platinum, copper and nickel.
 The sensing elements are made in a number of different forms.
 For measurement of fluid temperatures the winding of resistance wires may be encased in a
stainless steel bulb to protect it from corrosive liquids or gases.
 For non-corrosive fluids open type pickups expose the resistive windings directly to the fluid
to enable faster response.
 Various flat grid windings are available for measuring surface temperatures of solids.
 Thin deposited films of platinum are also used in place of wire windings.
 Surface temperature transducers affixed to bodies may exhibit spurious output due to
interfering strain input.

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 The bridge circuits used with resistance temperature sensors may employ the deflection mode
of operation or the null mode.
 When the null method is used, resistor R4 is varied until balance is achieved.
4. Silicon Diode temperature sensor:
 Voltage drop across a forward biased silicon diode varies at the rate of 2mV/°C.
 This suggests that a silicon diode can be used as a temperature sensor.
 The circuit shown below can monitor body temperature in the range of 34-40°C with an
accuracy of 2.5%
 Temperature sensing diode D1 is connected to the non-inverting input of an operational
amplifier.
1
2
U1
3 5
V+
+ OS2
6
uA741OUT
2 1
V-
- OS1
0
4
 Gain of the amplifier is made 500.

 With D1 mounted in a water bath at 37°C, R1 is adjusted to give an amplifier output voltage
of zero.
 Using a center zero meter, the scale can be calibrated to +/- 3°C.
 Disadvantage of using diode as temperature sensor is the requirement of a stable calibration
source.

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5. Radiation thermometry:
 The principle of measuring the temperature of a body without making physical contact with it
is possible by radiation thermometry.
 That is there is a known relationship between the surface temperature of an object and λ the
radiant power.
 Medical thermography is a technique whereby the temperature distribution of the body is
mapped with a sensitivity of few lengths of a Kelvin.
 It is based on the recognition that skin temperature can vary from place to place depending
on the cellular and circulatory processes occurring at each location in the body.
 Normally, every body at absolute zero radiates electromagnetic power. the amount of
electromagnetic power being dependent on the body’s temperature and physical properties.
 For objects at room temperature, the spectrum is predominantly on the far and extreme far
infrared regions.
 A black body is an ideal thermal radiator; as such it absorbs all incident radiation and emits
the maximal possible thermal radiation.
 The radiation emitted from a body is given by Planck’s law multiplied by emissivity ‘ε’.
 Such expression relates radiant flux/unit wavelength Wλ at a wavelength λ given by,
 Wλ = ε.C1/λ2(eC2/λt-1)
where,
C1, C2 – Constants
t – Black body temperature
ε – Emissivity
 By the use of proper instrumentation radiation emitted may be amplified, processed and
displayed.
 Figure below shows a typical chopped beam radiation thermometer system for this purpose.
 A mirror focuses the radiation on the detector.
 However, a blackened chopper interrupts the radiation beam, at a constant rate.
 The output of the detector circuit is a series of pulses with amplitude dependent on the
strength of the radiation source.

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 This ac signal is amplified, while the mean value, which is subject to drift, is blocked, and a
reference phase signal, used to synchronize the phase sensitive demodulator is generated in a
special circuit consisting of a light source and detector.
 The signal is then filtered to provide a dc signal proportional to the target temperature.
 Such signal can then be displayed or recorded.
 Infrared microscopes have been designed using these techniques.
 Radiation thermometry can be used to determine the internal or core body temperatures of
the human by measuring the magnitude of infrared radiation emitted from the tympanic
membrane.
6. Optical – Fiber Temperature sensors
 Temperature sensors, such as thermistor or thermocouples require metallic components and
connecting wires, which disturbs the incident electromagnetic fields and may even cause
localized heating spots and the temperature readings may even be erratic due to interference.
 This problem is overcome by using temperature sensors, based on fiber-optics.
 These fiber optic devices utilize externally induced changes in transmission characteristics of
the optical fibers and offer typical advantages of optical fibers such as, flexibility, small
dimensions and immunity from electro-magnetic interference.
 Simplest type of temperature sensors consists of a layer of liquid crystal at the end of optical
fibers, giving a variation in light scattering with temperature at a particular wavelength.

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 Figure below shows ray-path configuration of temperature sensor, which utilizes a silica-
core, silicon clad fiber, with an unclad terminal portion immersed in a liquid which replace
the clad.
 Temperature rise causes e reduction in refractive index in liquid, clad fiber section.
 Therefore, light travelling from the silicon clad fiber to liquid clad fiber undergoes an
attenuation, which decreases by increased temperature.
 The light from an 860mm LED is coupled into the fiber.
 The light reflected backwards is sent along the same fibers and light amplitude modulation,
induced by thermo sensitive cladding applied on the distal end of fiber, is detected and
processed.
 A miniature temperature probe for medical use with 0.8mm external diameter and 0.5mm
internal diameter achieved a sensitivity of +/- 0.1°C in temperature interval, 20-50°C.
 One more type of temperature sensor is based on the temperature dependence of band edge
absorption of infrared light in GaAs crystal.

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 In the temperature measuring system as shown in figure above based on the principle, light is
emitted by a LED, transmitted to and from the crystal via optical fiber and measured by a
photo detector.
 No metal parts are used in the temperature probe design, resulting in transparency of the
probe to electromagnetic fields.
 Single sensor probe with an outer diameter of 0.6mm and 4 point temperature sensor probe of
1.2mm diameter are available.
UNIT – I
PHYSIOLOGY AND TRANSDUCERS
PART – A
1. Draw the structure of the cell

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2. Define resting potential?

Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane negative on the inside
positive on the outside. This membrane potential is called the resting potential of the cell.
3. Define propagation rate
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or is propagated form cell to cell is
called propagation rate.
4. Define Depolarization?
The process of changing from the resting state to the action potential is called depolarization.
5. Write any two characteristics of resting potential?
1. The value of resting potential is maintained as a constant until some kind of disturbance
upsets the equilibrium.
2. It is strongly depending on temperature
6. Draw the relationship between the action potential and muscle contraction?
7. Define all or nothing law?

Regardless of the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stipules which is assumed
to be greater than the threshold of stimulus the action potential is always the same for any given
cell.
8. Define relative refractory period?
During relative refractory period another action potential can be trigged but a higher stimulus is
required to reinitiate an action potential the subsequent contraction of muscle.
9. Define half cell potential?
The voltage developed at an electrode electrolyte interface is designated as the half cell potential
or electrode potential.
10. Define Transducers.
A transducer is a device which detects or senses the bio-signal and converts it into an electrical
signal for bio-signal processing.
11. What are the types of transducer?
1. Self Generating Analog Transducer:
2. Variable Parameter Analog Transducer:
3. Pulse or Frequency generating Transducer:
4. Digital Transducer:

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5. Inverse Transducer:
12. Define Active transducer.
A transducer which gives its output without the use of an excitation voltage or modulation of a
carrier signal is called an active transducer.
13. Define Passive transducer.
A transducer which gives its output using an excitation voltage or modulation of carrier signal is
called a Passive transducer.
14. What are the types of Active transducer?
1. Magnetic induction type transducer
2. Piezoelectric type transducer
3. Photovoltaic type transducer
4. Thermo electric type transducer.
15. Define Piezo-electric type transducer.
When certain crystals subjected to compression or tension, charge separation occurs in these
crystals and an electrical voltage is developed. Thus it convert displacement or pressure into an
electrical variable.
16. Define Photoelectric effect.
Ejection of electrons from a metal or semi-conductor surface when is illuminated by light or any
other radiation of suitable wave length is called Photoelectric effect.
17. What are the types of Photoelectric effect?
1. Photo emissive transducer
2. Photo conductive transducer
3. Photo voltaic transducer
18. What are the types of Passive transducer?
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
19. What are the types of Resistive transducer?
1. Strain gauge
2. Photo resistor
3. Photo diode
4. Photo transistor
5. Thermistor
20. What are the types of strain gauge?
1. Bonded 2. Un-bonded
21. Give some factors for good strain gauge transducer.
1. The resistance of the strain gauge should be more.
2. The resistance wires would not have any mechanical hysteresis in its response.
22. Define capacitive transducer.
A capacitor consists of two conducting surfaces separated by a dielectric which can be in the
form of solid, liquid, gas or vacuum. Capacitive transducers can measure the displacement
produced by the bio-variable by means of change in overlapping area of C.S. of the conducting
plates, thickness of the dielectric material and distance between the conducting plates.
23. Define inductive transducer.
Inductive transducers are based on the principle of change in the reluctance, permeability, no. of
turns in the coil and orientation of the coil which may produce a change in the inductance.

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25. What is CNS?

The brain and spinal cord comprise on of the main divisions of the nervous system is called
CNS.
26. What is sodium Pump?
In a cell, the sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of the cell to make the cell to re-
polarize is called sodium pump.
27. What is PNS?
PNS Peripheral nervous system, Nerve fibers outside the central nervous system are called PNS.
28. What are synapses?
The interactions between neurons are called synapses.
29. What is Cardio pulmonary system? The circulatory path for blood flow through lungs is
called cardio pulmonary system. Oxygen and nutrients are given to cells through this system.
30. What is circulatory system?
It is type of transport system. It helps supplying the oxygen and digested food to different parts
of our body and removing carbon dioxide from the blood.
31. What is respiratory system?
It means breathing and respiration. Breathing in is called inspiration breathing out is called
expiration. It includes nose and lungs.
16 Marks:
1. Explain in detail about cell structure with a neat diagram.
2. Explain about magnetostrictive type transducer and piezoelectric type transducer.
3. Explain how bio-potential is generated in the human heart.
4. Discuss the generation of Resting and Action potential in detail.
5. Draw an action potential waveform and discuss in detail about polarization and repolarization.
6. Explain the action of sodium pump.
7. Draw the physiology of heart and explain the electrical conduction system.
8. What are the various factors that influence the selection of transducers?
9. Explain the basic bio-medical instrumentation system with a neat block diagram.
10. Explain the nervous system in detail.
11. Explain human respiratory system in detail with a neat diagram.
12. Explain fiber optic temperature sensor.

UNIT III
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NON-ELECTRICAL PARAMETER
MEASUREMENTS:
• Measurement of blood pressure – Cardiac
output – Heart rate – Heart sound
• Pulmonary function measurements –
spirometer – Photo Plethysmography, Body
Plethysmography
• Blood Gas analyzers : pH of blood –
measurement of blood pCO2, pO2, finger-tip
oxymeter
• ESR, GSR measurements.
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Catheter disassembled

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Direct Measurement using

Catheters

1) Direct Measurement
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Catheters(type:1)
• A catheter or a needle type probe is inserted
through a vein or artery to the area of
interest.
• Two types of probes can be used. One type is
the catheter tip probe in which the sensor is
mounted on the tip of the probe and the
pressures exerted on the sensors are
converted to the proportional signals.

1) Direct Measurement
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Catheters(type:2)
• The other is the fluid filled catheter type
which transmits the pressure exerted on its
fluid filled column to an external transducer.
• This transducer converts the exerted pressure
to electrical signals. The electrical signals can
be amplified and displayed or recorded.

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Sphygmomanometers

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What is normal blood pressure?

• Your blood pressure rises with each heartbeat
and falls when your heart relaxes between
beats. While BP can change from minute to
minute with changes in posture, exercise,
stress or sleep, it should normally be less than
120/80 mm Hg (less than 120 systolic AND
less than 80 diastolic)

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REQUIREMENTS
• inflatable rubber bladder called the cuff,
• a rubber squeeze,
• ball pump and valve assembly and
• a manometer

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Procedures
• To begin blood pressure measurement, use a

properly sized blood pressure cuff. The length
of the cuff's bladder should be at least equal
to 80% of the circumference of the upper arm.
• Wrap the cuff around the upper arm
• Rapidly inflate the cuff to 180mmHg. Release
air from the cuff at a moderate rate
(3mm/sec).

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• Listen with the stethoscope and

simultaneously observe the
sphygmomanometer.
• The first knocking sound (Korotkoff) is the
subject's systolic pressure.
• When the knocking sound disappears, that is
the diastolic pressure (such as 120/80).
• A BLOOD PRESSURE OF 180/120mmHg

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• Inflate the BP cuff: Begin pumping the cuff bulb

as you listen to the pulse sounds. When the BP
cuff has inflated enough to stop blood flow you
should hear no sounds through the stethoscope.
• The gauge should read 30 to 40 mmHg above the
person's normal BP reading.
• If this value is unknown you can inflate the cuff
to 160 - 180 mmHg. (If pulse sounds are heard
right away, inflate to a higher pressure.)

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• Listen for the Systolic Reading: The first

occurence of rhythmic sounds heard as blood
begins to flow through the artery is the
patient's systolic pressure.
• Listen for the Diastolic Reading: Continue to
listen as the BP cuff pressure drops and the
sounds fade.
• Note the gauge reading when the rhythmic
sounds stop. This will be the diastolic reading.

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CARDIAC OUTPUT

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Cardiac output
• is the volume of blood pumped by the heart
per minute (mL blood/min).
• Cardiac output is a function of heart rate and
stroke volume.
• Theheart rate is simply the number of heart
beats per minute.
• The stroke volume is the volume of blood, in
milliliters (mL), pumped out of the heart with
each beat. Increasing either heart rate or
stroke volume increases cardiac output.
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• The equation for cardiac output is:

• HR x SV = Q.
• Therefore to calculate Q we must first
establish HR and SV. An example at
rest is shown below.
• HR (70BPM) x SV (70ml) =
4900ml/min or 4.9 litres per minute

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Cardiac output
• Cardiac output (known as ‘Q’) is a measure of

the amount of blood that is pumped out of
the heart in one minute.
• ‘Q’ specifically refers to the amount of blood
pumped out of the left ventricle as this is the
ventricle that supplies blood to the muscles
and organs of the body.
• Cardiac output is made up of two
components, heart rate (HR) and stroke
volume (SV).
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Heart rate
• Heart rate (HR) refers to the number of times
the heart beats every minute (bpm).
• This can be easily measured through the use
of heart rate monitors or taking ones pulse
(counting the ‘pulses’ at the radial artery for
example over a one minute period).

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• Heart rates increase as the intensity of activity
increases, This is because the working muscles
demand more energy, so the heart beats
increasingly faster.
• The normal resting heart rate range for an

adult is between 60-100 bpm. However when
a resting heart rate is greater than 100bpm it is
called ‘tachycardia’ and when it’s below
60bpm it is called ‘bradycardia’.

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Stroke volume
• Stroke volume (SV) refers to the quantity of
blood pumped out of the left ventricle with
every heart beat.

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Cardiac output Measurement
• There are three methods for measuring

Cardiac Output. They are,
• Indicator dilution Method

• Dye dilution Method
• Thermal dilution Method

Indicator dilution Method:
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PROCEDURE
• The volume flow of the fluid (blood) from the
heart can be estimated by introducing a
known amount of indicator and measuring
the concentration.
• The indicator can be injected at a constant
rate or as a bolus.
• In the bolus type of injection a small quantity
of indicator is injected into the right heart
itself.
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• The presence of the indicator in the

peripheral artery is detected by a
photoelectric transducer since the
indicator is a radio isotope and the
concentration is displayed on a chart
recorder.
• The curve obtained is called the dilution

curve

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Indicator dilution Method –
Dilution Curve

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• FORMULA USED
• Q = ((M * 60)/area under the curve) in l/min
• Q – Cardiac Output
• M – Amount of indicator
• For example,
• if 10 mg of indicator was injected and average
concentration from curve is 5 mg/l for curve
duration of 20 seconds, then,
• Q = (10 * 60)/(5 *20) l/min = 6 l/min

Dye dilution method:
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PROCEDURE
• the indicator used is a dye.
• Indocyanine green or Cardiogreen dye is
commonly used.
• This dye is used to record the dilution
curve.
• The concentration of the dye is
measured with the help of infra red
photocell.

• The dye is needed in very small
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quantities of up to 5 mg.
• the dye is injected and the dye pass
through circulation.
• The blood is drawn from the radial or
femoral artery by a motor driven
syringe through a cuvette.
• A radiation source illuminates the
cuvette from one side and the
detector photocell receives the
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• after recording the dilution curve, saline is

injected to flush the dye out of the circulating
blood.

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Thermal dilution method:
• In this method, a thermal indicator of
known volume is introduced into
either the right or left atrium and this
will produce a resultant temperature
change in the pulmonary artery or
the aorta respectively.
• The temperature change helps in

estimating cardiac output.
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• FORMULA USED:
• Cardiac Output =
• (a constant * [Blood temperature – injectate
temperature])/ (area under the dilution curve)

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PROCEDURE
• A solution of 5 % dextrose in water at room
temperature is injected into the right atrium.
This is the thermal indicator.
• It mixes in the right ventricle and is detected
in the pulmonary artery by means of a
thermistor.
• The thermistor is mounted to a catheter
probe.

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• The injectate temperature is also sensed

by a thermistor and the difference in
temperature between the injectate and
blood circulating in the pulmonary artery
measured.
• Reduction in temperature in temperature
in the pulmonary artery due to the
passage of dextrose is integrated with
respect to time and the blood flow in the
pulmonary artery is then computed
electronically. Get useful study materials from www.rejinpaul.com
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• 10 ml of injectate is used for dilution

curve.
• Dextrose solution at a temperature of
18°C - 28°C is used.
• Blood temperature is measured over
a range of 30°C to 40°C.

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Heart rate Measurement

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PROCEDURE
• Heart rate: The number of heart beats
per unit time is measured as the heart
rate.
• The heart rate is based on the number of
contractions of the ventricles .
• The heart rate may be too fast
(tachycardia) or too slow (bradycardia).
• Heart rate can be measured from the ECG
signal either by the average or
instantaneous time intervals between
two successive R peaks.Get useful study materials from www.rejinpaul.com
Techniques used to calculate heart
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rate include,
• 1) Average Calculation: An average rate in
beats/min is calculated by counting the
number of pulses in a given time.
• 2) Beat to Beat Calculation: This is done

by measuring the time (say T) in seconds,
between two consecutive pulses, and
converting this time into beats/min
(60/T). Get useful study materials from www.rejinpaul.com
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Heart Sound Measurement

• The heart sounds may be due to movement
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of heart wall, closure of walls, flow of

blood, leakage of blood etc.
• The principal instrument used for the
clinical detection of heart sounds is the
acoustical stethoscope.
• An improvement over the acoustical
stethoscope is the electronic stethoscope
consisting of a microphone, an amplifier
and a head set.

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IMPORTANCE
• Electronic stethoscopes can detect heart
sounds which are too low in intensity or too
high in frequency

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The phonocardiograph
• The phonocardiograph is an instrument used
for detecting and recording the sounds
connected with the pumping action
(mechanical action) of the heart.
• This helps in indicating heart rate and
rhythmicity of heart beat, efficiency of
pumping of blood, valve action etc.
• the phonocardiograph consists of a
microphone, an amplifier and the recorder.

1) Crystalwww.rejinpaul.com
and2) Dynamic.
• The crystal microphone consists of a piezo

electric material which generates potentials
when subjected to mechanical stresses due to
heart sounds.
• The amplifier used for a phonocardiograph
has wide bandwidth with a frequency of
range about 20 to 2000 Hz

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• Filters permit selection of suitable frequency
bands, so that particular heart sound
frequencies can be recorded.
• The phonocardiogram requires a recording
system capable of responding to 2000 Hz.
Galvanometer recorders,
• direct writing recorders,
• inkjet recorders,
• electrostatic recorders or
• thermal recorders can be used to record PCG
(Phono Cardio Gram) waves.
DESCRIPTIONwww.rejinpaul.com
ABOUT
HEART SOUND
• The first sound is due to the closure of mitral and
tricuspid valves. This sound corresponds to the R
wave of the ECG.
• Any abnormality in the first sound thus relates to
relaxation of atria or contraction of ventricles.
• The normal sounds are longer in duration, lower in
frequency and greater in intensity than the second
sound.
• The frequencies of these sounds range between 30 to
100 Hz and duration range from 50 to 100ms.

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The second sound

• The second sound is higher in pitch with
duration 25 to 50 ms and frequency 100 Hz.
• this sound is produced due to the closure of
aortic and pulmonary valves.
• The third sound is produced by the inflow of
blood to the ventricles.
• The fourth sound is produced due to the
contraction of the atria.

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pO2 Measurement
• Oximetry is a technique that helps in
measuring the amount of oxygen in a patient’s
or subject’s blood.
• Oxygen Saturation = [HbO2]/([HbO2]+[Hb])
• Where,
• [HbO2] = Concentration of Oxygenated
hemoglobin
• [Hb] = Concentration of De-Oxygenated
hemoglobin
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Types of Oximetry:
• There are two types of Oximetry namely,

• In vivo Oximetry
• In vitro Oximetry

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In vitro Oximetry:
• In this technique oxygen saturation in blood is

measured by taking blood out of the body
and measurement process is done at a later
time in the laboratory under anaerobic
conditions.
• In vivo Oximetry:
• In this technique oxygen saturation in blood is
measured while the blood is still flowing in
the circulatory system.
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In vitro Oximetry:
• There are two types of measurement

principles namely,
• Transmission Method
• Reflection Method

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a) Transmission Oximetry:
I = Io -kCb
Io = Intensity of original incident light

I = Intensity of transmitted light
k = Absorption coefficient
C = Concentration
b = Thickness of the medium

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Beer - Lambert's law.

• According to the law, when a beam of light
radiation is passed through a medium the rate
of decrease of intensity of radiation with the
thickness of the medium is proportional to the
intensity of the incident radiation as well as
concentration of the medium.
• The wavelength best suited for measurement
of oxygen saturation of blood is 600 and 700
nm

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b) Reflection Oximetry:

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Finger tip Oximeter

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• The pulse oximeter consists of finger tip

probe. The probe has 2 LEDs, one emitting
infrared light at 940 nm and the other
transmitting visible (red) at 660 nm.
• The probe has a photo sensor on the other
side of the LED.
• This probe is clipped onto the finger tip. Light
from the LED passes through the finger tip and
reaches the photo sensor which converts it
into respective electrical current

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• The output of the photo sensor is a raw signal

that represents both the absorption of red
light and the infrared light.
• It is made of both ac and dc components. The
ac signal is due to the pulsing of arterial blood
while the dc signal is due to all the non
pulsating absorbers in the tissues.

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• Oxygen saturation, R = (ac 660/dc 660)/(ac

940/dc 940).
• The current signal is first amplified, converted to
voltage form and then further amplified at a
second amplifier stage.
• It is then separated into red and infrared
components by a de-multiplexer circuit.
• A band pass filter circuit further separates it into
ac and dc components.
• Then an ADC is employed to convert it to digital
form. This is followed by a microprocessor which
supports the required digital signal processing.
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Advantages
• No need of rubbing of skin to increase

vasodilatation to increase blood flow.
• Simplified operational procedures are to be
followed.
• Subject variability like skin pigmentation,
thickness of tissue, sensor location etc has no
significant influence on the oxygen saturation
measurement.

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UNIT IV MEDICAL IMAGING:

Radiographic and fluoroscopic techniques
Computer Tomography
MRI
Ultrasonography
Endoscopy
Thermography
Different types of biotelemetry systems
patient monitoring
Introduction to Biometric systems.

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What Is Medical Imaging?
• Medical imaging is the process by which physicians evaluate an area of the subject's body
that is not normally visible. This process could be clinical or research motivated and can
also have scientific and industrial applications.
10/30/2017

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Radiography
• This is the creation of radiographs, photographs made by exposing a photographic film

or other image receptor to X-rays.
• Since X-rays penetrate solid objects, but are slightly attenuated by them, the picture
resulting from the exposure reveals the internal structure of the object.
• The most common use of radiography is in the medical field (where it is known as
medical imaging).
10/30/2017

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X-ray Machines for Generation of X-rays:

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• The x-ray output, Q=K.Iв.t.Va2

• Iв – Beam current(mA)
• t -Time of exposure
• Va –Anode voltage(100kv)

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Block diagram and operation of an x-ray machine:

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Image intensifier in fluoroscopy:

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

(OR)
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMRI)

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Block Diagram – MRI Instrumentation

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THERMOGRAPHY

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Endoscopy

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SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LECTURE NOTES UNIT 4
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Cell and its structure – Resting and Action Potential – Nervous

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* Bio means life

* Bio instrumentation – Measurement of

* Biomedical Engineer coined by IEEE

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* Man Instrument System

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* Basic living unit

*Cell & its structure

water Electrolyte Proteins

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* Electrolyte – in organic chemicals – cellular

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*Resting & Action

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*Conduction of Heart beat

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*Circulation & Respiration

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* Each minute – 250 ml of Oxygen – in

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*Neuron with Synapse

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Biomechanics has been defined as the study

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* Reduction or treatment of injury

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Principle Biomorphic Type