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2017 Article
2017 Article
2017 Article
(2017) 30:515–527
DOI 10.1007/s10033-017-0121-5
REVIEW ARTICLE
Received: 29 October 2016 / Revised: 7 February 2017 / Accepted: 28 March 2017 / Published online: 21 April 2017
Ó Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017
Abstract Defect formation is a common problem in to as the ‘‘top-down’’ approach [1, 2]. The AM approach
selective laser melting (SLM). This paper provides a does not require the traditional tools, fixtures and compli-
review of defect formation mechanisms in SLM. It sum- cated procedures. Therefore, it can offer an advantage of
marizes the recent research outcomes on defect findings economically fabricating a customized part with complex
and classification, analyzes formation mechanisms of the geometries in a rapid design-to-manufacture cycle. With
common defects, such as porosities, incomplete fusion the development of high energy beams, it becomes possible
holes, and cracks. The paper discusses the effect of the to manufacture metal parts of high performance. Due to its
process parameters on defect formation and the impact of unique advantages, the AM approach has been widely
defect formation on the mechanical properties of a fabri- applied in many industries, such as aerospace, medical
cated part. Based on the discussion, the paper proposes devices, military and automobile [3–5].
strategies for defect suppression and control in SLM. Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is one of the additive
manufacturing processes. It is relatively mature and has been
Keywords Selective laser melting Process parameters a research focus in manufacturing metallic parts [6]. A
Defect Mechanical properties schematic layout of a typical SLM setup is presented in Fig. 1
[7]. During the SLM process, data is provided from a CAD
model which is then sliced into thin layers. Each sliced layer
1 Introduction is further developed with the appropriate scan paths. Through
the scanner mirrors, a laser beam selectively scans and melts
Additive manufacturing (AM) is an approach in which a the powders that are previously paved on the substrate
part is manufactured layer by layer from the data of a 3D according to the developed scan paths. After a layer is fin-
model. AM is a ‘‘bottom-up’’ approach as opposed to the ished, the building platform is lowered by an amount equal to
traditional subtractive manufacturing that is often referred the layer thickness, and a new layer of powders is paved. The
process repeats until the completion of the whole part. To
date, the SLM process is able to fabricate metallic parts from
Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant different material powders, such as titanium alloys [7, 8],
No. 51605077), Science Challenge Project (Grant No. nickel-based superalloys [9, 10], aluminum alloys [11, 12]
CKY2016212A506-0101) and Science Fund for Creative Research
Groups of NSFC (Grant No. 51621064). and stainless steels [13, 14].
Although the SLM process offers a great advantage in
& Bi Zhang manufacturing complex parts at a high material utilization
bi.zhang@uconn.edu rate [15], it is affected by many factors, such as laser
1 energy input and scan speed, scan strategy, powder mate-
Key Laboratory for Precision and Non-traditional Machining
Technology of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of rial, powder size and morphology. The SLM process con-
Technology, Dalian 116024, China sists of complicated physics, such as absorption and
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of transmission of laser energy [16], rapid melting and
Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA solidification of material, microstructure evolution [17, 18],
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516 Bi Zhang et al.
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Defect Formation Mechanisms in Selective Laser Melting: A Review 517
randomly distributed in an SLM fabricated part, and dif- insufficient overlap is a cause of formation of the un-
ficult to eliminate completely. melted powders between the scan tracks. In the deposition
process of a new layer, it becomes difficult to fully re-melt
2.2 Incomplete Fusion Holes these powders. As a consequence, incomplete fusion holes
are formed and remain in the SLM fabricated part. Fur-
Incomplete fusion holes, also known as lack-of-fusion thermore, if the laser energy input is too low to cause an
(LOF) defects, are mainly due to the lack of energy input enough penetration depth of the molten pool, LOF defects
during an SLM process. The formation of the LOF defects may be generated due to a poor interlayer bonding
is because the metal powders are not fully melted to deposit [24, 29, 37]. Therefore, LOF defects are usually distributed
a new layer on the previous layer with a sufficient overlap between the scan tracks and the deposited layers.
[24, 29]. An LOF defect may contain numerous un-melted Moreover, in a location where defects have been gen-
metal powders, as shown in Fig. 3(b) [37]. There are two erated, the surface of the location becomes rough. The
types of LOF defects: (1) poor bonding defects due to rough surface directly contributes to the poor flow of the
insufficient molten metal during a solidification process, as molten metal to form interlayer defects. The interlayer
in Fig. 3(a), and (2) defects with un-melted metal powders defects may gradually extend and propagate upwards to
in Fig. 3(b). form large multi-layer defects in a continuous deposition
In the SLM process, a laser selectively melts the metal process [38].
powders point by point, line by line, and layer by layer to For the easily oxidized alloy materials, such as alu-
complete the whole part. If the laser energy input is low, minum AlSi10Mg, a layer of oxide film is usually produced
the width of the molten pool is small, which results in an at the surface of a part with residual oxygen in the SLM
insufficient overlap between the scan tracks. The process. Then wettability decreases and molten metal flow
is blocked, leading to a poor bonding between the layers to
form the incomplete fusion defects [25, 39]. Fig. 4 shows
an image of an incomplete fusion defect. From the EDX
(Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer) data presented in
Table 1, location 2 of an incomplete fusion defect is rich in
oxygen, suggesting that this irregular defect should be
associated with the presence of an oxide layer which could
prevent the progress of bonding [39].
2.3 Cracks
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518 Bi Zhang et al.
Table 1 Element content analysis of the defect (wt. %) needle-type crystal grains are continued on the both sides
Location 1 2 3 4
of the crack, indicating a typical transgranular mode of
cracking [40].
O 0.87 41.75 2.55 0.4 For stainless steels and nickel-based superalloys,
Mg 0.30 0.58 0.31 0.26 because of their low thermal conductivity and high thermal
Al 88.57 56.42 86.96 88.17 expansion coefficient, they are more vulnerable to gener-
Si 10.24 1.23 10.20 11.18 ating cracks with high susceptibility to cracking in an SLM
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 process [9, 27, 42, 43]. To solve this problem, pre-heating
the substrate and improving the ambient temperature are
recommended to reduce the cracks in the SLM fabricated
parts [26, 27].
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Defect Formation Mechanisms in Selective Laser Melting: A Review 519
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520 Bi Zhang et al.
Fig. 9 Scatter plot of crack density and void fraction in SLM Ni-
superalloy parts, and defect fraction in titanium parts against energy
density; lines represent data trend
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Defect Formation Mechanisms in Selective Laser Melting: A Review 521
and distribution. Generally, three different scan strategies Fig. 11 [7]. For the unidirectional and zigzag scan strate-
have been utilized in the SLM processes, namely ‘‘unidi- gies, at the beginning and end of a scan track, laser power
rectional’’, ‘‘zigzag’’, and ‘‘cross-hatching’’, as shown in is usually unstable and scan speed is gradually reduced,
which tends to result in a relatively higher laser energy
input and defect formation [20, 56]. In addition, the
impurities in the powders may also be pushed to the ends of
a track in the densification process to form higher defect
density. Actually, incomplete fusion defects are more fre-
quently generated between the scan tracks and layers
[57, 58]. Cross-hatching scan strategy can make the entire
laser energy input more balanced in the whole layers,
which effectively prevents defect accumulation and
propagation.
The ‘‘island scan strategy’’ has been developed for parts
fabrication, as illustrated in Fig. 12 [39]. Firstly, the filled
layer is divided into several islands with each island being
built randomly and continuously. Then the successive
layers are displaced in a certain distance, so as to avoid the
accumulation of defects in the same location. Furthermore,
the residual thermal stress in the SLM fabricated parts can
be more balanced to reduce cracks development. However,
due to the problem of potentially unstable laser energy
input and the change in scan orders, defects are generally
formed at the border of small islands, which needs further
improvements for the ‘‘island scan strategy’’.
Yang et al [59, 60] applied the interlayer staggering and
the orthogonal scan strategy to reducing the defects formed
in the overlapping zone between tracks. As shown in
Fig. 13, after one layer is completed, the laser scans the
overlapping zone between the adjacent tracks to suffi-
ciently melt powders in the next layer deposition. The
orthogonal scan strategy is adopted in the next layer, so
that energy input can be more balanced for reducing
defects, as previously also mentioned.
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522 Bi Zhang et al.
Fig. 13 Interlayer staggering and orthogonal scan strategy [60] For an SLM fabricated part, defects are more detrimental to
its fatigue strength due to the points of stress concentration.
and gradually propagate in the part. The following Sec- A defect often serves as a source of crack initiation and
tions 4.1-4.2 are dedicated to discussing the influence of propagation, which may greatly reduce the fatigue strength
defects on the mechanical properties in the SLM parts. of the part. The stochastic distribution of the defects also
aggravates the scattering of fatigue life, which may severely
4.1 Tensile Properties restrict the application of the SLM fabrication.
Fig. 14 shows the results on fatigue life obtained from
As mentioned earlier, the metallic powders suffer a rapid the literature on the SLM Ti6Al4V parts and their wrought
melting and solidification in the SLM process, due to a
large cooling rate, which produces a part with a finer grain
microstructure and better tensile properties than those
made of the traditional wrought counterparts
[17, 30, 61, 62]. The tensile strength (TS), ultimate tensile
strength (UTS), and elongation of the SLM titanium alloy
parts are shown in Table 2. Both TS and UTS of the SLM
titanium alloys are higher than their wrought counterpart,
generally above 1,000 MPa. Therefore, the SLM titanium
alloys can meet the tensile strength requirements for
engineering applications. However, the elongations of the
SLM titanium alloys are rather low (less than 10%), which
may be attributed to the defects in the SLM parts.
Furthermore, the SLM process has a directional effect on
the properties of the forming parts due to its basic deposi-
tion principle. The directional effect is a direct cause of the
severe anisotropy in the mechanical properties of the fab- Fig. 14 Fatigue life of the SLM Ti6Al4V parts and their wrought
ricated part. For a part fabricated based on the orthogonal counterparts
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Defect Formation Mechanisms in Selective Laser Melting: A Review 523
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Defect Formation Mechanisms in Selective Laser Melting: A Review 525
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72. WYCISK E, SOLBACH A, SIDDIQUE S, et al. Effects of Bi Zhang is in the Chinese National ‘‘Thousand-Talent Program’’
defects in laser additive manufactured Ti6Al4 V on fatigue with Dalian University of Technology, China, and a full professor of
properties. Physics Procedia, 2014, 56: 371-378. the University of Connecticut, USA. He is a fellow of both ASME and
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46A(9): 3816-3823. China. E-mail: liyongtao2017@163.com
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