27.

6% CONVERSION EFFICIENCY, A NEW RECORD FOR

SINGLE-JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS UNDER 1 SUN ILLUMINATION

Brendan M. Kayes, Hui Nie, Rose Twist, Sylvia G. Spruytte,

Frank Reinhardt, Isik C. Kizilyalli, and Gregg S. Higashi [1]

Alta Devices, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA

ABSTRACT illumination, for both thin-films [5] and for devices on

Alta Devices, Inc. has fabricated a thin-film GaAs device
on a flexible substrate with an independently-confirmed
solar energy conversion efficiency of 27.6%, under
AM1.5G solar illumination at 1 sun intensity. This
represents a new record for single-junction devices under
non-concentrated sunlight.
This surpasses the previous record, for conversion
efficiency of a single-junction device under non-
concentrated light, by more than 1%. This is due largely to
the high open-circuit voltage (Voc) of this device. The high
Voc results from precise control of the dark current.
The fact that this record result has been achieved with a
thin-film shows that, for GaAs material systems, the
majority of the growth substrate is not needed for device
performance. This allows one to consider amortizing the
potentially high cost of a GaAs growth substrate by
growing a thin-film, lifting it off, and reusing the same
substrate multiple times. This technology therefore has the
potential to be a novel high-performance, thin-film option
for terrestrial photovoltaics.
single-crystalline substrates. [6]
This development has the potential to improve the
production economics of solar energy conversion, as a
significant fraction of the cost of using single-crystalline
materials, namely the single-crystal substrate, can be
eliminated by lifting off the device structure and reusing
the growth substrate.
DEVICE FABRICATION
Our device fabrication process is illustrated schematically
in Fig. 1. First, a reusable GaAs growth substrate was
introduced into a metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
(MOCVD) chamber. A buffer layer of GaAs material was
grown, followed by a thin AlAs release layer, on top of
which the PV device structure was grown. What later
became the sun-facing side of the device was grown first,
and the back side of the device was grown last (Fig. 1a).

BACKGROUND

Typically, high-efficiency photovoltaic (PV) devices are

based on single-crystalline (usually Si or III-V) materials.
Single-crystalline materials add significant cost to PV
devices. In contrast, low-cost PV devices based on
amorphous or polycrystalline materials, such as a-Si,
CdTe, and CIGS, typically have relatively low efficiency. A
technology that could combine the efficiency advantages
of single-crystal materials with the cost advantages of thin-
films would therefore have the potential to significantly
reduce the cost per watt of the power produced.

Here we report on a PV device that has achieved a record

efficiency for single-junction devices, with a thin film of
semiconductor material. We achieved this result using a
GaAs-based device structure that was grown on a single-
crystal GaAs handle substrate, and then lifted off using the
epitaxial lift-off (ELO) process [2] to create a thin-film
device on a flexible substrate. Using this technique, we
achieved an NREL [3] -confirmed conversion efficiency of Figure 1 Schematic illustration of device fabrication
27.6% under AM1.5G illumination at 1 sun concentration, process.
[4] which exceeds the previously published records for PV
energy conversion of single-junction devices under 1 sun

978-1-4244-9965-6/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE 000004

The substrate was then diced into 35 mm x 35 mm square The results of current-voltage (I-V) testing under AM1.5G
pieces, cleaned, and the back contact metal was simulated solar illumination, at 1 sun intensity (i.e. without
deposited. This metal-on-semiconductor stack was then concentration) are shown in Table 1 and Fig. 3. Device Voc
attached to a flexible handle, using an adhesive (Fig. 1b). in particular was significantly higher than previously
published values for the GaAs material system, [5] [6] and
The handle-metal-semiconductor stack was then resulted in an overall efficiency higher than previously
introduced to a heated bath of aqueous acid. The acid published records for single-junction devices under 1 sun.
etches the AlAs release layer, but leaves the other layers This high Voc results from a device with very low dark
in the device stack, as well as the metal contact and current, as shall be discussed below. Short-circuit current
flexible handle, intact. The etch completes leaving a density (Jsc) is similar to what other groups have achieved
semiconductor thin-film supported by the back metal with GaAs solar cells.
composite. After being flipped over, rinsed and dried, the
resulting thin-film structure was ready for device
2
processing (Fig. 1c). Jsc 29.6 mA/cm
Voc 1.107 V
Front metallization was deposited using an evaporation Fill Factor 84.1%
and lift-off process. This was followed by etching, to define 2
2
Jmax 28.6 mA/cm
devices of 1 cm area. An anti-reflective coating (ARC) Vmax 0.963 V
was applied (Fig. 1d). A photograph of a completed Efficiency 27.6%
device is shown in Fig. 2.
2
Table 1 Performance characteristics of 1 cm device,
DEVICE CHARACTERIZATION as measured at NREL under AM1.5G illumination at 1
sun intensity. Jmax and Vmax refer to the current
Devices fabricated as above were then tested both density, and voltage, respectively, at the maximum
internally at Alta, as well as at NREL. The results of the power operating condition for this device.
testing at NREL are displayed in Table 1, and Figs. 3, 4,
and 5, below.

Figure 2 Photograph of completed device. Figure 3 Current-voltage performance of device under

illumination.

978-1-4244-9965-6/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE 000005

 Fig. 4 shows the absolute value of dark current vs.
voltage, again as measured at NREL. For our
2
approximately 1 cm device, current is equivalent to
current density. The device has a notably low dark current
at all voltages shown. In particular, a low value of dark
current at high values of forward bias (i.e. V > 1 V) is
necessary to achieve high values of Voc. At the same time,
a low value of dark current at moderate forward bias
conditions (i.e. V < Vmax) is necessary to maintain
reasonably high fill factor. For example, this device has
-2 2
Jdark  mA/cm at V = 0.8V.

Fig. 5 shows the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the

device. EQE is a measure of the fraction of incident
photons of a given wavelength that are converted into
electrical current in the device. This device was sensitive
to light with wavelengths from around 320 nm to almost
900 nm. Further improvements to Jsc could be anticipated
if the collection of carriers generated by green-blue-UV (at
wavelengths < 500nm), and IR (at wavelengths > 800nm)
photons could be improved. The former can be anticipated
by further optimization of the front window layers and anti-
reflection coating of the device. The latter can be
anticipated by further optimization of GaAs absorber
thickness and back contact.
Figure 4 Absolute value of dark current-voltage of
device. ANALYSIS OF DARK CURRENT

Assuming that the dark current density Jdark at forward bias

V can be approximated by two diodes in parallel with a
parasitic resistivity Rs, then

  
1)  
    
  
 !  "  ,

where J01  

   
 
  
 

 of the dark current (as shall be discussed

Figure 5 External quantum efficiency of device.

Figure 6 Components of forward-bias dark current.

978-1-4244-9965-6/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE 000006

below), J02  
   
 
  
  For our device geometry, the primary potential loss

  
   
  q, k, and T are the mechanisms, which would interfere with efficient photon


    
 !   
 recycling, are non-radiative recombination in the GaAs
operating temperature (25 C for standard test conditions), absorber, and the loss of photons to heat at the contact at
respectively. the rear side of the device. Necessary conditions for
efficient photon recycling are that (a) the epitaxial growth
This allows one to think of the dark current conceptually as be of sufficient quality to ensure that the lifetime
being comprised of a 2kT component, a 1kT component, associated with any non-radiative processes is much
and a series resistance (see Fig. 6). For our device it is larger than the radiative lifetime, and (b) the back contact
clear that the measured data deviates significantly from be highly reflective.
this model for V < 0.8 V or so, but given that our operating
Vmax = 0.96 V, the region of most interest for this Single-crystalline III-V materials are well-suited to
discussion is where "#&'V 'Voc. exploiting photon recycling, because they can approach
near-ideal internal fluorescence yield (i.e. the fraction of
Achieving a high Voc requires careful control of J01, indeed absorbed photons that are re-radiated as photons, under
for our device a low value of J01 is synonymous with high open-circuit conditions). [7] This is in contrast to Si, which
Voc, through the relationship: even as a single crystal has its internal fluorescence yield
fundamentally limited by non-radiative recombination
& )* & processes, notably Auger recombination. [8] [9] Other thin
2) #$ %  ( -
   ./.0.,
' )+, ' film photovoltaics, such as CdTe and CIGS, are also not
2 well-suited to exploit photon recycling, due to non-radiative
using Jsc = 0.0296 A/cm as measured for our device. recombination associated with the high density of grain
Similarly, high values of fill factor require control of J02 and boundaries and other defects associated with their
Rs. typically polycrystalline microstructure.
*  
+
 ;?@J!


X

Y  The ELO process is also well-suited to exploiting photon
-21 2 recycling, because it allows access to the back of the
J01 6 x 10 A/cm device. This allows the back contact to be optimized not
-12 2
J02 1 x 10 A/cm just for carrier collection, but also for the reflection of
&
photons.
Indeed,  2 3 .4!
/05 &, from which we
'
recover our Voc of 1.107 V, using equation (2) above. CONCLUSION

PHOTON RECYCLING 27.6% conversion efficiency has been demonstrated

under AM1.5G simulated sunlight without concentration,
Measuring a high Voc such as we see in our device is with a thin-film GaAs device. This represents a record
equivalent to maintaining a very low 1kT component of the efficiency for single-junction devices of any kind, and
dark current, as we have described above. One way to

  -
X

"
achieve this is to have very efficient photon recycling.
Photon recycling is the process by which photons
absorbed in the GaAs absorber of the device are
radiatively re-emitted, and then re-absorbed in the same
GaAs absorber. Efficient photon recycling allows a higher
carrier density to build up within the device, because, in
the ideal case, photons that are absorbed in the
semiconductor either create electron-hole pairs that are
collected as current in the device, or are radiatively re-
emitted. These re-emitted photons then have a second
chance to be absorbed and generate electron-hole pairs.
Photon recycling therefore results from the combination of
minimizing the loss of photons to processes other than
carrier generation, as well as minimizing the non-radiative
recombination of carriers. This leads to increased carrier
density within the device, which in turns leads to greater
quasi-Fermi level splitting, increasing the Voc of the device.
This is qualitatively similar to how Voc can be increased by
concentrating the sunlight incident onto a solar cell, except
in our case we are reducing the dark current, rather than
increasing the light-generated current (see equation (2),
above).
978-1-4244-9965-6/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE

This result clearly shows that for the GaAs material
system the majority of the growth substrate is not needed
for device performance. The relatively high cost of a GaAs
growth substrate could therefore potentially be amortized
by growing a thin-film device and lifting it off, and then
reusing the same substrate to grow subsequent devices.
GaAs is an ideal material for developing such a lift-off /
substrate reuse scheme, because GaAs has a direct
bandgap, so that only a few microns of material are
needed to absorb all of the incoming light (for energies
higher than the bandgap energy). Crystalline Si (c-Si) by
contrast has an indirect bandgap and thus requires much
thicker absorber layers. Furthermore, GaAs is capable of
producing higher efficiencies than any other known
material system in a single-junction design. Finally,
relative to c-Si and CIGS, GaAs devices typically have
superior temperature coefficients, [10] [11] and superior
low-light performance, [12] which suggests that GaAs-
based PV modules can have superior kWh / kW p under
typical operating conditions.
000007
Highly-efficient devices have the advantage of reducing
the balance-of-systems (BOS) costs for a system with
given energy output, relative to technologies with lower
efficiencies. [13] High efficiency also allows larger
amounts of energy to be produced in area-constrained
€
, Thirty-first IEEE PVSC, 2005, pp. 889-
applications. The unique combination of high efficiency,
low weight, and flexibility opens up many new potential
applications for PV.
The above concepts are in principle extensible to the
fabrication of III-V multi-junction stacks, which could
improve the efficiency even further.
Recombination, Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 11, 2002, pp.
97-104
[9] R. Swanson, Approaching the 29% Limit Efficiency of
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894
[10] S. Matsuda et "Results from the First International
Round Robin Calibration and Measurement of Space
Solar Cells, Twenty-sixth IEEE PVSC, 1997, pp. 1043-
1047
[11~`"‡"J
"Evaluation of Thin-ˆ`
Cell
Finally, the device described in this paper was somewhat T




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limited by series resistance. We anticipate that efficiencies Photovolt: Res. Appl. 13, 2005, pp. 149ƒ156
in excess of 28% should be possible by reducing the
series resistance, thereby improving the fill factor of the [12~;"‡"?
 
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS last access date 30 Jan 2011

The entire Alta Devices team has contributed in various [13~†"?


"Mass Production of PV Modules with
ways to the development of the technology described in 18% Total-Area Efficiency and High Energy Delivery Per
this article. Specifically, we would like to highlight the Peak WattFourth World Conference on Photovoltaic
significant contributions of Sassan Amjadi, Melissa Archer, Energy Conversion, 2006, pp. 2018-2023
David Bour, Tom Gmitter, Roger Hamamjy, Gang He,
Frederick Jackson, and Jeremy Theil.

REFERENCES

[1] Questions may be directed to Chief Technologist,

Gregg Higashi, at greggh@altadevices.com

[2] @"^_+ 

"@Y

`

+
J-
{@Y|}*Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 1987,
pp. 2222-2224

[3] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),

Golden, Colorado

[4~"}"|


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@
_

(Version 37)Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 19, 2011, pp.
84-92

[5] G.J. Bauhuis GJ et al., "‚ -Film GaAs Solar

Cell Using Epitaxial Lift-OffSolar Energy Materials and
Solar Cells 93, 2009, pp. 1488ƒ1491.

[6~"}"|


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(Version 36)Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 18, 2010, pp.
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[7] I. Sch

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Quantum Efficiency, 99.7% Internally and 72% Externally,
* }|}…|}…}|}†_
‡

 

Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 1993, pp. 131-133

[8] M. J. Kerr et al.Limiting Efficiency of Crystalline

Silicon Solar Cells Due to Coulomb-Enhanced Auger

978-1-4244-9965-6/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE 000008