Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Managing Cover Crops Profitably
Managing Cover Crops Profitably
Managing Cover Crops Profitably, Third Edition, was pub- Managing cover crops profitably / project manager and
lished in 2007 by the Sustainable Agriculture Research and editor, Andy Clark.—3rd ed.
Education (SARE) program under cooperative agreements p. cm. -- (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education
with the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, USDA, (SARE) program handbook series ; bk. 9)
the University of Maryland and the University of Vermont. Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-888626-12-4 (pbk.)
Every effort has been made to make this book as accurate as 1. Cover crops—United States—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
possible and to educate the reader. This text is only a guide, I. Clark, Andy. II. Sustainable Agriculture Research &
however, and should be used in conjunction with other infor- Education (SARE) program
mation sources on farm management. No single cover crop
management strategy will be appropriate and effective for all SB284.3.U6M36 2007
conditions. The editor/authors and publisher disclaim any lia- 631.5'82—dc22
bility, loss or risk, personal or otherwise, which is incurred as 2007024273
a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and applica-
tion of any of the contents of this book. Cover photos (clockwise from top left):
Jeff Moyer, farm manager for The Rodale Institute, kills a hairy
Mention, visual representation or inferred reference of a
vetch cover crop with a newly designed, front-mounted
product, service, manufacturer or organization in this publi-
roller while a no-till planter drops seed corn behind the
cation does not imply endorsement by the USDA, the SARE
tractor. Photo by Matthew Ryan for the Rodale Institute.
program or the authors. Exclusion does not imply a negative
evaluation. Annual ryegrass overseeded into kale is already providing
cover crop benefits before cash crop harvest. Photo by
SARE works to increase knowledge about—and help farmers Vern Grubinger, Univ. of VT.
and ranchers adopt—practices that are profitable, environ-
Guihua Chen, a Univ. of MD graduate student, studies the
mentally sound and good for communities. For more informa-
ability of forage radish to alleviate soil compaction. Photo by
tion about SARE grant opportunities and informational
Ray Weil, Univ. of MD.
resources, go to www.sare.org. SARE Outreach is the national
outreach arm of SARE. For more information, contact: A winter smother crop of yellow mustard minimizes weed
growth in a vineyard. Photo by Jack Kelly Clark, Univ. of CA.
SARE Outreach
“Purple Bounty” hairy vetch, an early-maturing, winter hardy
1122 Patapsco Building
variety for the Northeast, was developed by Dr. Tom Devine,
University of Maryland
USDA-ARS in collaboration with The Rodale Institute,
College Park, MD 20742-6715
Pennsylvania State University and Cornell University
(301) 405-8020
Agricultural Experiment Stations. Photo by Greg Bowman,
(301) 405-7711 (fax)
NewFarm.org.
info@sare.org
www.sare.org Red clover, frostseeded into winter wheat, is well established
just prior to wheat harvest. Photo by Steve Deming,
To order copies of this book, ($19.00 plus $5.95 s/h) MSU Kellogg Biological Station.
contact (301) 374-9696, sarepubs@sare.org, or order online at
www.sare.org/WebStore. Back cover photo: Sorghum-sudangrass increased irrigated
potato yield and tuber quality in Colorado, whether it was
Project manager and editor: Andy Clark harvested for hay or incorporated prior to potato planting.
Graphic design and layout: Diane Buric Photo by Jorge A. Delgado, USDA-ARS.
Interior illustrations: Marianne Sarrantonio and Elayne Sears
Copy editing: Andy Clark Printed in the United States of America on recycled paper.
Proofreading: Aneeqa Chowdhury
Indexing: Claire Brannen
Printing: United Book Press, Inc.
FOREWORD
over crops slow erosion, improve soil, results and updated farmer profiles and research
FOREWORD 3
MANAGING COVER CROPS PROFITABLY
THIRD EDITION
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Buckwheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
How to Use this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 • Oats, Rye Feed Soil in
Benefits of Cover Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Corn/Bean Rotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Selecting the Best Cover Crops Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
for Your Farm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 • Cereal Rye: Cover Crop Workhorse . . . . 102
Building Soil Fertility and Tilth • Rye Smothers Weeds Before Soybeans . 104
with Cover Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Sorghum Sudangrass Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
• Cover Crops Can Stabilize Your Soil . . . . 19 • Summer Covers Relieve Compaction . . 110
• How Much N? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Winter Wheat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Managing Pests with Cover Crops . . . . . . . . . 25 • Wheat Boosts Income and
• Georgia Cotton, Peanut Farmers Soil Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Use Cover Crops to Control Pests . . . . . . 26 • Wheat Offers High-Volume
• Select Covers that Balance Pests, Weed Control Too . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Problems of Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Overview of Legume Cover Crops . . . . . 116
Crop Rotations with Cover Crops . . . . . . . . . 34 Cover Crop Mixtures Expand
• Full-Year Covers Tackle Tough Weeds . . . 38 Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
• Start Where You Are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Berseem Clover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Managing Cover Crops in Conservation • Nodulation: Match Inoculant to
Tillage Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Maximize N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
• After 25 Years, Improvements Cowpeas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Keep Coming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 • Cowpeas Provide Elegant Solution
Introduction to Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 to Awkward Niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Chart 1: Top Regional Cover Crop Species . . 66 Crimson Clover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chart 2: Performance and Roles. . . . . . . . . . . 67 Field Peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Chart 3A: Cultural Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 • Peas Do Double Duty for Kansas
Chart 3B: Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chart 4A: Potential Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Hairy Vetch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chart 4B: Potential Disadvantages.. . . . . . . . . 72 • Cover Crop Roller Design Holds
Promise for No-Tillers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
COVER CROP SPECIES • Vetch Beats Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Overview of Nonlegume Cover Crops . . . 73 Medics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Annual Ryegrass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 • Jess Counts on GEORGE for N and
Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Brassicas and Mustards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 • Southern Spotted Bur Medic offers
• Mustard Mix Manages Nematodes in Reseeding Persistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Potato/Wheat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
his 3rd edition could not have been written without the help of many cover crop experts. It is
T based in large part on the content of the 2nd edition, researched and written by Greg Bowman,
Craig Cramer and Christopher Shirley. The following people reviewed the 2nd edition, suggested
revisions and updates and contributed new content.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 5
Dale Gies, Moses Lake, WA Vicki Morrone, Michigan State Univ.
Bill Granzow, Herington, KS Jeff Moyer, The Rodale Institute
Stephen Green, Arkansas State Univ. Paul Mugge, Sutherland, IA
Tim Griffin, USDA-ARS Dale Mutch, MSU Kellogg Biological Station
Steve Groff, Holtwood, PA Rob Myers, Jefferson Institute
Gary Guthrie, Nevada, IA Lloyd Nelson, Texas Agric. Experiment Station
Matthew Harbur, Univ. of Minnesota Mathieu Ngouajio, Michigan State Univ.
Timothy M. Harrigan, Michigan State Univ. Eric and Anne Nordell, Trout Run, PA
Andy Hart, Elgin, MN Sharad Phatak, Univ. of Georgia
Zane Helsel, Rutgers Univ. David Podoll, Fullerton, ND
Paul Hepperly, The Rodale Institute Paul Porter, Univ. of Minnesota
Michelle Infante-Casella, Rutgers Univ. Andrew Price, USDA-ARS
Chuck Ingels, Univ. of California Ed Quigley, Spruce Creek, PA
Louise E. Jackson, Univ. of California RJ Rant, Grand Haven, MI
Peter Jeranyama, South Dakota State Univ. Bob Rawlins, Rebecca, GA
Nan Johnson, Univ. of Mississippi Wayne Reeves, USDA-ARS
Hans Kandel, Univ. of Minnesota Extension Ekaterini Riga, Washington State Univ.
Tom Kaspar, USDA-ARS Lee Rinehart, ATTRA
Alina Kelman, SARE Amanda Rodrigues, SARE
Rose Koenig, Gainesville, FL Ron Ross, No-Till Farmer
James Krall, Univ. of Wyoming Marianne Sarrantonio, Univ. of Maine
Amy Kremen, Univ. of Maryland Harry H. Schomberg, USDA-ARS
Roger Lansink, Odebolt, IA Pat Sheridan, Fairgrove, Mich.
Yvonne Lawley, Univ. of Maryland Jeremy Singer, USDA-ARS
Frank Lessiter, No-Till Farmer Richard Smith, Univ. of California
John Luna, Oregon State Univ. Sieglinde Snapp, Kellogg Biological Station
Barry Martin, Hawkinsville, GA Lisa Stocking, Univ. of Maryland
Todd Martin, MSU Kellogg Biological Station James Stute, Univ. of Wisconsin Extension
Milt McGiffen, Univ. of California Alan Sundermeier, Ohio State Univ. Extension
Andy McGuire, Washington State Univ. John Teasdale, USDA-ARS
George McManus, Benton Harbor, MI Lee and Noreen Thomas, Moorhead, MN
John J. Meisinger, USDA/ARS Dick and Sharon Thompson, Boone, IA
Henry Miller, Constantin, MI Edzard van Santen, Auburn Univ.
Jeffrey Mitchell, Univ. of California Ray Weil, Univ. of Maryland
Hassan Mojtahedi, USDA-ARS Charlie White, Univ. of Maryland
Gaylon Morgan, Texas A&M Univ. Dave Wilson, The Rodale Institute
Matthew J. Morra, Univ. of Idaho David Wolfe, Cornell Univ.
The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map (inside Abbreviations used in this book
front cover) shows whether a crop will survive A = acre or acres
the average winter in your area.We refer to the bu. = bushel or bushels
USDA hardiness zones throughout the book. DM = dry matter, or dry weight of plant material
Readers’ note: A new version of the map is F = (degrees) Fahrenheit in. = inch or inches
included in this reprint of the book (2012). K = potassium lb. = pound or pounds
The U.S. Forest Service map, Ecoregions of N = nitrogen
the United States (inside back cover), served in OM = organic matter
part as the basis for the adaptation maps included P = phosphorus
at the beginning of each cover crop chapter. This p. = page
ecosystem map, while designed to classify forest pp. = pages
growth, shows localized climate differences, such T = ton or tons
as rainfall and elevation, within a region. See > = progression to another crop
Bailey (citation #17 in Appendix F, p. 209) for / = a mixture of crops growing together
more information about ecoregions.
WINTER WHEAT grows well in fall, then provides forage and protects soil over winter.
4. Select the Best Cover Crop For this dairy scenario, rye is usually the best
You have identified a goal, a time and a place, now choice. Other cereal grains or brassicas could
specify the traits a cover crop would need to work if planted early enough.
work well.
Research with soil high in residual N in the generally on the express route with N. These
mid-Atlantic’s coastal plain showed that cereal rye nutrients can be brought up from deeper soil lay-
took up more than 70 lb. N/A in fall when plant- ers by any deep-rooted cover crop. The nutrients
ed by October 1. Other grasses, including wheat, are then released back into the active organic
oats, barley and ryegrass, were only able to take matter when the cover crop dies and decomposes.
up about half that amount in fall. Legumes were Although phosphorus (P) doesn’t generally
practically useless for this purpose in the leach, as it is only slightly water-soluble, cover
Chesapeake Bay study (46). Legumes tend to crops may play a role in increasing its availability
establish slowly in fall and are mediocre N scav- in the soil. Some covers, such as buckwheat and
engers, as they can fix much of their own N. lupins, are thought to secrete acids into the soil
To maximize N uptake and prevent leaching, that put P into a more soluble, plant-usable form.
plant nonlegumes as early as possible. In the Some cover crops enhance P availability in
above study, rye took up only 15 lb. N/A when another manner. The roots of many common
planting was delayed until November. It is impor- cover crops, particularly legumes, house benefi-
tant to give cover crops the same respect as any cial fungi known as mycorrhizae. The mycor-
other crop in the rotation and plant them in a rhizal fungi have evolved efficient means of
timely manner. absorbing P from the soil, which they pass on to
their plant host. The filaments (hyphae) of these
Not Just Nitrogen Cycling fungi effectively extend the root system and help
Cover crops help bring other nutrients back into the plants tap more soil P.
the upper soil profile from deep soil layers. Keeping phosphorus in an organic form is the
Calcium and potassium are two macronutrients most efficient way to keep it cycling in the soil. So
with a tendency to travel with water, though not the return of any plant or animal residue to the
energy sources, which the microorganisms use as Materials with a high carbon to nitrogen (C:N)
fuel to live.The process of burning this fuel sends ratio, such as mature grass cover crops, straw or
most of the carbon back into the atmosphere as any fibrous, woody residue, have a low N content.
carbon dioxide, or CO2. They can “tie up” soil N, keeping it immobilized
Suppose a lot of new food is suddenly put into (and unavailable) to crops until the carbon “fuel
the soil system, as when a green manure is supply” starts depleting. Tie-up may last for sever-
plowed down. Bacteria will expand their popula- al weeks in the early part of the growing season,
tions quickly to tap the carbon-based energy and crop plants may show the yellowing charac-
that’s available. All the new bacteria, though, will teristic of N deficiencies. That is why it often
need some N, as well as other nutrients, for body makes sense to wait one to three weeks after
building before they can even begin to eat. So any killing a low-N cover before planting the next
newly released or existing mineral N in soil gets crop, or to supplement with a more readily avail-
scavenged by new bacteria. able N source when a delay is not practical.
Annual legumes have low C:N ratios, such as the mixtures. This can be an effective manage-
10:1 or 15:1.When pure stands of annual legumes ment tool to reduce leaching while making the N
are plowed down, the N tie-up may be so brief more available to the next crop.
you will never know it occurred.
Mixed materials, such as legume-grass mixtures, Potential Losses
may cause a short tie-up, depending on the C:N A common misunderstanding about using green
ratio of the mixture. Some N storage in the micro- manure crops is that the N is used more efficient-
bial population may be advantageous in keeping ly because it’s from a plant source.This is not nec-
excess N tied up when no crop roots are there to essarily true. Nitrogen can be lost from a green
absorb it. manure system almost as easily as from chemical
Fall-planted mixtures are more effective in fertilizers, and in comparable amounts.The reason
mopping up excess soil N than pure legumes and, is that the legume organic N may be converted to
as stated earlier, the N is mineralized more rapidly ammonium (NH4), then to ammonia (NH3) or
from mixtures than from pure grass. A fall-seeded nitrate (NO3) before plants can take it up. Under
mixture will adjust to residual soil N levels. When no-till systems where killed cover crops remain
the N levels are high, the grass will dominate and on the surface, some ammonia (NH3) gas can be
when N levels are low, the legume will dominate lost right back into the atmosphere.
over crops are poised to play increasingly of trees or pastures for at least 10 years remains
such as tilling and burning that kill beneficials and By including cover crops in your rotations and
destroy their habitat. Build up the sustenance and not spraying insecticides, beneficials often are
habitat that beneficials need. Properly managed cover already in place when you plant spring or sum-
crops supply moisture, physical niches and food in mer crops. However, if you fully incorporate cover
the form of insects, pollen, honeydew and nectar. crops into the soil, you destroy or disperse most
of the beneficials that were present. Conservation Cover crops left on the surface may be living,
tillage is a better option because it leaves more of temporarily suppressed, dying or dead. In any
the cover crop residue on the surface. No-till event, their presence protects beneficials and
planting only disturbs an area 2 to 4 inches wide, their habitat. The farmer-helpful organisms are
while strip-tilling disturbs an area up to about 24 hungry, ready to eat the pests of cash crops that
inches wide between undisturbed row middles. are planted into the cover-crop residue. The ulti-
isms, including types of yeasts that can migrate experience on south Georgia farms and research
onto a cash crop after planting or transplanting. plots shows. Increased soil organic matter levels
Soilborne pathogenic fungi limit production of may help in reducing plant disease incidence and
vegetables and cotton in the southern U.S. (404, severity by enhancing natural disease suppression
405, 406, 407). Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium (252, 424).
myriotylum, Pythium phanidermatum and In soils with high levels of disease inoculum,
Pythium irregulare are the most virulent patho- however, it takes time to reduce population levels
genic fungi that cause damping-off on cucum- of soil pathogens using only cover crops. After
bers, snap beans, and other vegetables. Sclerotium tests in Maine with oats, broccoli, white lupine
rolfsii causes rot in all vegetables and in peanuts (Lupinus albus) and field peas (Pisum sativum)
and cotton. Infected plants that do not die may be researchers cautioned it may take three to five
stunted because of lesions caused by fungi on pri- years to effectively reduce stem lesion losses on
mary or secondary roots, hypocotyls and stems, potatoes caused by R. solani (240).Yet there are
and may have reduced yields of low quality. But single-season improvements, too. For example, in
after two or three years in cover cropped, no-till an Idaho study, Verticillium wilt of potato was
systems, damping-off is not a serious disease, as reduced by 24 to 29 percent following sudangrass
green manure. Yield of U.S. No.1 potatoes If the community of nematodes contains
increased by 24 to 38 percent compared with diverse species, no single species will dominate.
potatoes following barley or fallow (394). This coexistence would be the case in the
undisturbed field or woodland described above.
Nematode Management In conventional crop systems, pest nematodes
Nematodes are minute roundworms that interact have abundant food and the soil environment is
directly and indirectly with plants. Some species conducive to their growth. This can lead to rapid
feed on roots and weaker plants, and also introduce expansion of plant parasitic species, plant disease
disease through feeding wounds. Most nematodes and yield loss. Cropping systems that increase bio-
are not plant parasites, but feed on and interact logical diversity over time usually prevent the onset
with many soil-borne microorganisms, including of nematode problems. Reasons may include a
fungi, bacteria and protozoa. Damage to the crop dynamic soil ecological balance and improved,
from plant-parasitic nematodes results in a break- healthier soil structure with higher organic matter
down of plant tissue, such as lesions or yellow (5, 245, 424). In Michigan, to limit nematodes
foliage; retarded growth of cells, seen as stunted between potato crops, some potato growers report
growth or shoots; or excessive growth such as root that two years of radish improves potato produc-
galls, swollen root tips or unnatural root branching. tion and lowers pest control costs (270, 271).
ne of the biggest challenges of cover The ideas in this book will help you see cover
You can sow annual ryegrass right after har- 3 Year: Winter Wheat/Legume Interseed>
vesting an early-spring vegetable crop, allow it to Legume>Potatoes. This eastern Idaho rotation
grow for a month or two, then kill, incorporate conditions soil, helps fight soil disease and pro-
and plant a fall vegetable. vides N. Sufficient N for standard potatoes
Some farmers maximize the complementary depends on rainfall being average or lower to pre-
weed-suppressing effects of various cover crop vent leaching that would put the soil N below the
species by orchestrating peak growth periods, shallow-rooted cash crop.
rooting depth and shape, topgrowth differences 2 Year Options: For vegetable systems in the
and species mixes. See Full-Year Covers Tackle Pacific Northwest and elsewhere, plant a winter
Tough Weeds (above). wheat cover crop followed by sweet corn or
onions. Another 2-yr. option is green peas > sum- Northeast’s early spring vegetable crops often
mer sorghum-sudangrass cover crop > potatoes leave little residue after their early summer har-
(in year 2). Or, seed mustard green manure after vest. Sequential buckwheat plantings suppress
winter or spring wheat. Come back with potatoes weeds, loosen topsoil and attract beneficial
the following year. For maximum biofumigation insects. Buckwheat is easy to kill by mowing in
effect, incorporate the mustard in the fall (see preparation for fall transplants.With light tillage to
Brassicas and Mustards, pp. 81). incorporate the relatively small amount of fast-
1 Year: Lettuce>Buckwheat>Buckwheat> degrading buckwheat residue, you can then sow a
Broccoli>White Clover/Annual Ryegrass. The winter grass/legume cover mix to hold soil
weed control toward layby using flaming, cultiva- Strip planting into reseeding legumes works for
tion or directed herbicides. Crimson clover, hairy many crops in the South, including cotton, corn,
vetch, Cahaba vetch and Austrian winter peas are sweet potatoes, peanuts, peppers, cucumbers,
effective legumes in this system. cabbage and snap beans. Tillage or herbicides
Multiyear: Reseeding Legume>No-Till are used to create strips 12 to 30 inches wide.
Cotton> Legume>No-Till Cotton. Subterranean Wider killed strips reduce moisture competition
clover, Southern spotted burclover, balansa clover by the cover crop before it dies back naturally, but
and some crimson clover cultivars set seed quick- also reduce the amount of seed set, biomass and
ly enough in some areas to become perpetually N produced. Wider strips also decrease the
reseeding when cotton planting dates are late mulching effect from the cover crop residue.
enough in spring. Germination of hard seed in late The remaining strips of living cover crop act as
summer provides soil erosion protection over in-field insectary areas to increase overall insect
winter, N for the following crop and an organic populations, resulting in more beneficial insects
mulch at planting. to control pest insects.
Conservation tillage has been adopted on more In an Iowa study comparing no-till and conven-
and more acres since the 1970’s thanks to tional tillage in a corn>soybean>wheat/clover
improvements in equipment, herbicides and rotation, corn and soybean yields were lower in
other technologies. Several long-term, incremen- no-till plots the first year. With yearly application
tal benefits of conservation tillage have emerged. of composted swine manure, however, yield of
The most important benefits have been attributed both corn and soybean were the same for both
to the accumulation of organic matter at the soil systems beginning in year two of the study.Wheat
surface. yields were not affected by tillage, but increased
with compost application (385).
Talk to 10 no-tillers and you’ll probably hear 10 as soon as we can; but if it’s wet, we let the rye
different viewpoints on why it pays to quit dis- grow to suck up excess moisture. We can be
turbing and start building the soil. At Sheridan very wet in the spring, but Michigan also
Farms, we’ve got our list, too.We are able to bet- receives less rain during the growing season
ter time planting, weed control and other pro- than any other Great Lakes state, on average.
duction chores. And we’ve got the potential Moisture management is critical to us.
for sediment and nutrient runoff into Saginaw We’ve seen less white
Bay on Lake Huron under control. mold in no-tilled soy- An open mind
Like a lot of no-tillers would testify, however, beans wherever we have
these changes didn’t come quickly, nor without heavy residue. We’ve had
welcomes a lot
some reluctance and skepticism along the way. years with zero white of ideas that,
In our first years of no-tilling, starting in 1982, mold when our conven-
we did just about everything wrong and had an tional till neighbors with a little
absolute train wreck. We overcame a few hur- faced a costly problem. tweaking, can
dles early on, started adding more no-till acres It’s become a simple
and were 100% continuous no-till by 1990. equation: the heavier the deliver even
residue mat, the less more success
Cover Crop Success white mold.
We started working with cover crops about 20 to your fields.
years ago. We deal with about a dozen different Deep-Rooted Crops
soil types, 80 percent of which are clay loam. We’re looking for a cover
And much of our land is poorly drained, low- crop that will help establish a more diverse
organic-matter lake bed soils. rotation, so we can always follow a broadleaf
Cereal rye has been a good cover crop year crop behind a grass crop and vice-versa. Oilseed
in and year out for this mixture of soils. We like radish is beginning to show real promise. It has
the AROOSTOCK variety from Maine because it about the same tremendous appetite for nitro-
provides fast fall and spring growth and its gen as wheat, and it develops a very deep root
smaller seed size makes it more economical to mass. It’s an excellent nutrient scavenger.
plant. This combination enables the cover crop to
In late August, we fly rye into standing corn capture maximum nitrogen from deep in the
and also into soybeans if we’re coming back soil profile to feed the following corn crop. No
with soybeans the following year. We learned one has ever proven to me that we need nutri-
that rye is easier to burn down when it’s more ents down deep. It sounds good to have a plant
than 2 feet tall than when it has grown only a food layer at 16 to 18 inches, but I much prefer
foot or less. the nitrogen and other nutrients near the sur-
The rye crop also helps us effectively manage face where the crop can use them.
soil moisture. If it looks like we’re going to get Deep-rooted cover crops like oilseed radish
a dry spring, we burn down rye with Roundup can help reverse the traditional theory of nitro-
Weed Fighter. Rates how well the cover crop CSA = Cool-Season Annual. Prefers cool tem-
outcompetes weeds by any means through its life peratures and depending on which Hardiness
cycle, including killed residue. Note that ratings Zone it is grown in, could serve as a fall, winter or
for the legumes assume they are established with spring cover crop.
a small-grain nurse crop.
SA = Summer Annual. Germinates and matures
Good Grazing. Rates relative production, nutrit- without a cold snap and usually tolerates warm
ional quality and palatability of the cover as a for- temperatures.
age.
WA = Winter Annual. Cold-tolerant, usually
Quick Growth. Rates the speed of establishment planted in fall and often requires freezing temper-
and growth. atures or a cold period to set seed.
Lasting Residue. Rates the effectiveness of the LP = Long-lived Perennial. Can endure for
cover crop in providing a long-lasting mulch. many growing seasons.
Duration. Rates how well the stand can provide SP = Short-lived Perennial. Usually does not
long-season growth. persist more than a few years, if that long.
Harvest Value. Rates the cover crop’s economic Hardy Through Zone. Refers to the standard
value as a forage (F) or as a seed or grain crop (S), USDA Hardiness Zones. See map on inside front
bearing in mind the relative market value and cover. Bear in mind that regional microclimate,
probable yields. weather variations, and other near-term manage-
ment factors such as planting date and compan-
Cash Crop Interseed. Rates whether the cover ion species can influence plant performance
crop would hinder or help while serving as a expectations.
companion crop.
Tolerances. How well a crop is likely to endure
CHART 3A: CULTURAL TRAITS despite stress from heat, drought, shade, flooding
or low fertility. The best rating would mean that
This chart shows a cover crop’s characteristics the crop is expected to be fully tolerant.
such as life cycle, drought tolerance, preferred
soils and growth habits.The ratings are general for Habit. How plants develop.
the species, based on measured results and obser- C = Climbing
vations over a range of conditions. Choice of cul- U = Upright
tivar, weather extremes and other factors may P = Prostrate
affect a cover crop’s performance in a given year. SP = Semi-Prostrate
SU = Semi-Upright
Column headings
Aliases. Provides a few common names for the pH Preferred. The pH range in which a species
cover crop. can be expected to perform reasonably well.
CHARTS 63
Best Established. The season in which a cover Inoculant Type. The recommended inoculant
crop is best suited for planting and early growth. for each legume. Your seed supplier may only
Note that this can vary by region and that it’s carry one or two common inoculants. You may
important to ascertain local planting date rec- need to order inoculant in advance. See Seed
ommendations for specific cover crops. Suppliers, p. 195.
Season: F = Fall ; Sp = Spring; Su = Summer;
W = Winter Reseeds. Rates the likelihood of a cover crop re-
Time: E = Early; L = Late; M = Mid establishing through self-reseeding if it’s allowed
to mature and set seed.Aggressive tillage will bury
Minimum Germination Temperature. The seed and reduce germination. Ratings assume the
minimum soil temperature (F) generally required tillage system has minimal effect on reseeding.
for successful germination and establishment. Dependable reseeding ability is valued in some
orchard, dryland grain and cotton systems, but
CHART 3B: PLANTING can cause weed problems in other systems. See
the narratives for more detail.
Depth. The recommended range of seeding
depth (in inches), to avoid either overexposure or CHARTS 4A AND 4B
burying too deeply.
These charts provide relative ratings of other
Rate. Recommended seeding rate for drilling and management considerations—benefits and possi-
broadcasting a pure stand in lb./A, bu/A. and ble drawbacks—that could affect your selection
oz./100 sq. ft., assuming legal standards for germi- of cover crop species.
nation percentage. Seeding rate will depend on The till-kill rating assumes tillage at an appro-
the cover crop’s primary purpose and other fac- priate stage.The mow-kill ratings assume mowing
tors. See the narratives for more detail about at flowering, but before seedheads start maturing.
establishing a given cover crop. Pre-inoculated See sectional narratives for details.
(“rhizo-coated”) legume seed weighs about one- Ratings are based largely on a combination of
third more than raw seed. Increase seeding rate published research and observations of farmers
by one-third to plant the same amount of seed per who have grown specific covers.Your experience
area. with a given cover could be influenced by site-
specific factors, such as your soil condition, crop
Cost. Material costs (seed cost only) in dollars per rotation, proximity to other farms, weather
pound, based usually on a 50-lb. bag as of fall extremes, etc.
2006. Individual species vary markedly with sup-
ply and demand. Always confirm seed price and CHART 4A: POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES
availability before ordering, and before planning
to use less common seed types. Soil Impact. Assesses a cover’s relative ability to
loosen subsoil, make soil P and K more readily
Cost/A. Seed cost per acre based on the midpoint available to crops, or improve topsoil.
between the high and low of reported seed prices
as of fall 1997 and the midpoint recommended Soil Ecology. Rates a cover’s ability to fight pests
seeding rate for drilling and broadcasting. Your by suppressing or limiting damage from nema-
cost will depend on actual seed cost and seeding todes, soil disease from fungal or bacterial infec-
rate. Estimate excludes associated costs such as tion, or weeds by natural herbicidal (allelopathic)
labor, fuel and equipment. or competition/smothering action. Researchers
CHARTS 65
Chart 1 TOP REGIONAL COVER CROP SPECIES1
Soil Erosion Subsoil Weed Pest
Bioregion N Source Builder Fighter Loosener Fighter Fighter
Northeast red cl, hairy v, ryegrs, swt cl, rye, ryegrs, sorghyb, sorghyb, rye,
berseem, sorghyb, sub cl, swt cl, ryegrs, rye, sorghyb,
swt cl rye oats forad buckwheat rape
Mid-Atlantic hairy v, red cl, ryegrs, rye, sub cl, sorghyb, rye, ryegrs, rye,
berseem, swt cl, cowpeas, swt cl, oats, sorghyb,
crim cl sorghyb rye, ryegrs forad buckwheat rape
Mid-South hairy v, sub cl, ryegrs, rye, sub cl, sorghyb, buckwheat, rye,
berseem, sub cl, cowpeas, swt cl ryegrs, sub cl, sorghyb
crim cl sorghyb rye, ryegrs rye
Southeast Uplands hairy v, red cl, ryegrs, rye, sub cl, sorghyb, buckwheat, rye,
berseem, sorghyb, cowpeas, rye, swt cl ryegrs, sub cl, sorghyb
crim cl swt cl ryegrs rye
Southeast Lowlands winter peas, ryegrs, sub cl, sorghyb berseem, rye, rye,
sub cl, hairy v, rye, cowpeas, wheat, sorghyb
berseem, sorghyb, rye, ryegrs, cowpeas,
crim cl sub cl sorghyb oats, ryegrs
Great Lakes hairy v, red cl, ryegrs, rye, oats, sorghyb, berseem, rye,
berseem, sorghyb, rye, swt cl, ryegrs, rye, sorghyb,
crim cl ryegrs, swt cl ryegrs forad buckwht, oats rape
Midwest Corn Belt hairy v, red cl, rye, barley, wht cl, rye, sorghyb, rye, ryegrs, rye,
berseem, sorghyb, ryegrs, swt cl, wheat, sorghyb
crim cl swt cl barley forad buckwht, oats
Northern Plains hairy v, swt cl, rye, barley, rye, sorghyb, medic, rye, rye,
medics medic, swt cl barley swt cl barley sorghyb
Southern Plains winter peas, rye, barley, rye, sorghyb, rye, rye,
medic, hairy v medic barley swt cl barley sorghyb
Inland Northwest winter peas, medic, swt cl, rye, sorghyb, rye, wheat, rye, mustards,
hairy v rye, barley barley swt cl barley sorghyb
Northwest Maritime berseem, ryegrs, rye, wht cl, rye, sorghyb, ryegrs, rye,
sub cl, lana v, sorghyb, ryegrs, swt cl lana v, oats, mustards
crim cl lana v barley wht cl
Coastal California berseem, ryegrs, rye, wht cl, sorghyb, rye, ryegrs, sorghyb,
sub cl, sorghyb, cowpeas, swt cl berseem, crim cl,
lana v, medic lana v rye, ryegrs wht cl rye
Calif. Central Valley winter peas, medic, wht cl, sorghyb, ryegrs, sorghyb,
lana v, sub cl, sub cl barley, rye, swt cl wht cl, rye, crim cl,
medic ryegrs lana v rye
Southwest medic, sub cl, barley, medic,
sub cl medic, barley sorghyb barley
1
ryegrs=annual ryegrass. buckwht=buckwheat. forad=forage radish. rape=rapeseed. sorghyb=sorghum-sudangrass hybrid.
berseem=berseem clover. winter peas=Austrian winter pea. crim cl=crimson clover. hairy v=hairy vetch. red cl=red clover.
sub cl=subterranean clover. swt cl=sweetclover. wht cl=white clover. lana v=LANA woollypod vetch.
Barley p. 77 2,000–10,000
N O N L E G U M E S
Oats p. 93 2,000–10,000
Rye p. 98 3,000–10,000
Buckwheat p. 90 2,000–4,000
1
Total N—Total N from all plant. Grasses not considered N source. 2N Scavenger—Ability to take up/store excess nitrogen.
3
Soil Builder—Organic matter yield and soil structure improvement. 4Erosion Fighter—Soil-holding ability of roots and total plant.
5
Good Grazing—Production, nutritional quality and palatability. Feeding pure legumes can cause bloat.
=Poor; =Fair; =Good; =Very Good; =Excellent
CHARTS 67
Chart 2 PERFORMANCE AND ROLES continued
Lasting Harvest Cash Crop
Species Residue1 Duration2 Value3 Interseed4 Comments
F* S*
adaptability.
U
1
Lasting Residue—Rates how long the killed residue remains on the surface. 2Duration—Length of vegetative stage.
3
Harvest Value—Economic value as a forage (F) or as seed (S) or grain. 4Cash Crop Interseed—Rates how well the cover crop
will perform with an appropriate companion crop.
=Poor; =Fair; =Good; =Very Good; =Excellent
fert
ght
Species Aliases Type1 Zone2 Habit3 (Pref.) Established4 Temp.
de
d
t
drou
hea
low
floo
sha
Annual ryegrass p. 74 Italian ryegrass WA 6 U 6.0–7.0 ESp, LSu, 40F
EF, F
black peas
E
M
Hairy vetch p. 142 winter vetch WA,CSA 4 C 5.5–7.5 EF, ESp 60F
U
White clover p. 179 white dutch LP, WA 4 P/SU 6.0–7.0 LW, E to 40F
ladino LSp, EF
CHARTS 69
Chart 3B PLANTING
Cost Cost/A Inoc.
Species Depth Seeding Rate ($/lb.)1 (median)2 Type Reseeds3
Drilled Broadcast
lb./A bu/A lb./A bu/A oz./100 ft2 drilled broadcast
Annual ryegrass 0–1/2 10–20 .4–.8 20–30 .8–1.25 1 .70–1.30 12 24 U
3
Barley /4–2 50–100 1–2 80–125 1.6–2.5 3-5 .17–.37 20 27 S
N O N L E G U M E S
1
Oats /2–11/2 80–110 2.5–3.5 110–140 3.5–4.5 4–6 .13–.37 25 33 S
3
Rye /4–2 60–120 1-2 90–160 1.5–3.0 4–6 .18–.50 25 35 S
1
Wheat /2–11/2 60–120 1–2 60–150 1–2.5 3–6 .10–.30 18 22 S
1
Buckwheat /2–11/2 48–70 1–1.4 50–90 1.2–1.5 3–4 .30–.75 32 38 R
1
Sorghum-sudangrass /2–11/2 35 1 40–50 1–1.25 2 .40–1.00 26 34 S
1
Mustards /4–3/4 5–12 10–15 1 1.50–3.00 16 24 U
BRASSICAS
1
Radish /4–1/2 8–13 10–20 1 1.50–2.50 22 32 S
1
Rapeseed /4–3/4 5–10 8–14 1 1.00–2.00 11 16 S
1
Berseem clover /4–1/2 8–12 15–20 2 1.70– 22 39 crimson, N
2.50 berseem
1 1
Hairy vetch /2-1 /2 15–20 25–40 2 1.70–2.50 35 65 pea, vetch S
E
1
/4–1/2
M
1
Red clover /4–1/2 8–10 10–12 3 1.40– 23 28 red cl, S
E
3.30 wht cl
L
1
Subterranean clover /4–1/2 10–20 20–30 3 2.50– 45 75 clovers, U
3.50 sub, rose
1
Sweetclovers /4–1.0 6–10 10–20 1.5 1.00– 16 32 alfalfa, U
3.00 swt cl
1
White clover /4–1/2 3–9 5–14 1.5 1.10– 19 30 red cl, R
4.00 wht cl
1
Woollypod vetch /2–1 10–30 30–60 2-3 1.25–1.60 30 65 pea, vetch S
1
Per
pound in 50-lb. bags as of summer/fall 2006; To locate places to buy seed, see Seed Suppliers (p. 166).
2
Mid-point price at mid-point rate, seed cost only. 3R=Reliably; U=Usually; S=Sometimes; N=Never (reseeds).
Annual ryegrass p. 74
Barley p. 77
N O N L E G U M E S
Oats p. 93
Rye p. 98
Wheat p. 111
Buckwheat p. 90
Sorghum–sudangrass p. 106
Mustards p.81
BRASSICAS
Radish p. 81
Rapeseed p. 81
Cowpeas p. 125
Medics p. 152
U
G
Sweetclovers p. 171
CHARTS 71
Chart 4B POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGES Note change in symbols = problem = not a problem
Increase Pest Risks Management Challenges
des
nem cts/
inc ature
ish
ill
cro nder
ial
pot ed
ato
ase
.
w-k
dise p
inse
orp
kill
ent
abl
Species Comments Pro/Con
ps
cro
we
m
hi
till-
mo
est
1
Annual ryegrass If mowing, leave 3-4" to ensure
regrowth.
Barley Can be harder than rye to
incorporate when mature.
N O N L E G U M E S
Commonly used nonlegume cover crops include: ground would otherwise be left fallow (between
• Annual cereals (rye, wheat, barley, oats) vegetable crops, for example). Buckwheat, while
• Annual or perennial forage grasses such as not a grass, is also a warm-season plant used in the
ryegrass same ways as summer-annual grasses.
• Warm-season grasses like sorghum-sudangrass Nonlegume cover crops are higher in carbon
• Brassicas and mustards than legume cover crops. Because of their high
carbon content, grasses break down more slowly
Nonlegume cover crops are most useful for: than legumes, resulting in longer-lasting residue.
• Scavenging nutrients—especially N—left over As grasses mature, the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
from a previous crop (C:N) increases. This has two tangible results:
• Reducing or preventing erosion The higher carbon residue is harder for soil
• Producing large amounts of residue and microbes to break down, so the process takes
adding organic matter to the soil longer, and the nutrients contained in the cover
• Suppressing weeds crop residue usually are less available to the next
crop.
Annual cereal grain crops have been used suc- So although grass cover crops take up leftover
cessfully in many different climates and cropping N from the previous crop, as they mature the N is
systems. Winter annuals usually are seeded in late less likely to be released for use by a crop grown
summer or fall, establish and produce good root immediately after the grass cover crop. As an
and topgrowth biomass before going dormant example of this, think of how long it takes for
during the winter, then green up and produce sig- straw to decompose in the field. Over time, the
nificant biomass before maturing. Rye, wheat, and residue does break down and nutrients are
hardy triticale all follow this pattern, with some released. In general, this slower decomposition
relatively small differences that will be addressed and the higher carbon content of grasses can lead
in the section for each cover crop. to increased soil organic matter, compared to
There is growing interest in the use of brassica legumes.
and mustard cover crops due to their “biofumiga- The carbon content and breakdown rate of
tion” characteristics. They release biotoxic chemi- brassicas is usually intermediate to grasses and
cals as they break down, and have been found to legumes, depending on maturity when terminat-
reduce disease, weed and nematode pressure in ed. Brassicas and mustards can take up as much N
the subsequent crop. Brassicas and mustards pro- as grass cover crops, but may release that N more
vide most of the benefits of other nonlegume readily to the subsequent crop.
cover crops, while some (forage radish, for exam- Nonlegume cover crops can produce a lot of
ple) are thought to alleviate soil compaction. See residue, which contributes to their ability to prevent
the chapter, Brassicas and Mustards (pp. 81), for erosion and suppress weeds while they are growing
more information. or when left on the soil surface as a mulch.
Perennial and warm-season forage grasses also Although grasses and other nonlegumes con-
can serve well as cover crops. Forage grasses, like tain some nitrogen in their plant tissues, they gen-
sod crops, are excellent for nutrient scavenging, erally are not significant sources of N for your
erosion control, biomass production and weed cropping system. They do, however, keep excess
control. Perennials used as cover crops are usual- soil N from leaching, and prevent the loss of soil
ly grown for about one year. Summer-annual organic matter through erosion.
(warm-season) grasses may fill a niche for biomass Management of nonlegumes in your cropping
production and weed or erosion control if the system may involve balancing the amount of
ANNUAL RYEGRASS
Lolium multiflorum
Marianne Sarrantonio
Nutrient catch crop. A high N user, ryegrass can
capture leftover N and reduce nitrate leaching
over winter. Provided it survives the winter, its
extensive, fibrous root system can take up as
much as 43 lb. N/A, a University of California
study showed (445). It took up about 60 lb. N/A ANNUAL RYEGRASS (Lolium multiflorum)
by mid-May following corn in a Maryland study.
Cereal rye scavenged the same amount of N by plants survive more than a year, this reseeding
mid-April on this silt loam soil (372). Ryegrass characteristic can create a weed problem in some
works well ahead of no-till corn or soybeans in areas, such as the mid-Atlantic or other areas with
the Corn Belt, sometimes winterkilling, or spray it mild winters. In the Midwest and Southern Plains,
for a weed-controlling mulch (302). it can be a serious weed problem in oat and
wheat crops. It has also been shown to develop
Nurse/companion crop. Ryegrass helps slow- herbicide resistance, compounding possible
growing, fall-seeded legumes establish and over- weed problems (161).
winter in the northern U.S., even if the ryegrass
winterkills. It tends to outcompete legumes in the Establishment & Fieldwork
South, although low N fertility favors the legume. Annual ryegrass germinates and establishes well
Emergency forage. Ryegrass is a very palatable even in cool soil (421). Broadcast seed at 20 to 30
forage (132).You can extend the grazing period in lb./A. You needn’t incorporate seed when broad-
late fall and early spring by letting livestock graze casting onto freshly cultivated soil—the first good
cover crops of ryegrass or a ryegrass-based mix. shower ensures seed coverage and good germina-
Annual ryegrass can be used as emergency forage if tion. Cultipacking can reduce soil heaving, how-
alfalfa winterkills. It establishes quickly and pro- ever, especially with late-fall plantings. Drill 10 to
duces a lot of forage in a short amount of time. 20 lb./A, 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep.
Noncertified seed will reduce seeding cost,
MANAGEMENT although it can introduce weeds. Annual ryegrass
also cross-pollinates with perennial ryegrass and
Ryegrass prefers fertile, well-drained loam or sandy turf-type annual ryegrass species, so don’t expect
loam soils, but establishes well on many soil types, a pure stand if seeding common annual ryegrass.
including poor or rocky soils. It tolerates clay or
poorly-drained soils in a range of climates and will Winter annual use. Seed in fall in Zone 6 or
outperform small grains on wet soils (132, 421). warmer. In Zone 5 and colder, seed from mid-
Annual ryegrass has a biennial tendency in cool summer to early fall—but at least 40 days before
regions. If it overwinters, it will regrow quickly your area’s first killing frost (194). Late seeding
and produce seed in late spring. Although few increases the probability of winterkill.
ANNUAL RYEGRASS 75
If aerially seeding, increase rates at least 30 per- Killing & Controlling
cent compared to broadcast seeding rate (18).You You can kill annual ryegrass mechanically by disk-
can overseed into corn at last cultivation or later ing or plowing, preferably during early bloom
(consider adding 5 to 10 pounds of red or white (usually in spring), before it sets seed (361, 422).
clover with it) or plant right after corn silage har- Mowing may not kill ryegrass completely (103).
vest. Overseed into soybeans at leaf-yellowing or You also can kill annual ryegrass with non-
later (191, 194). When overseeding into solana- persistent contact herbicides, although some
ceous crops such as peppers, tomatoes and egg- users report incomplete kill and/or resistance to
plant, wait until early to full bloom. glyphosate (161, 302).
To minimize N tie-up as the biomass decom-
Spring seeding. Sow ryegrass right after small poses, wait a few weeks after incorporation
grains or an early-spring vegetable crop, for a four- before you seed a subsequent crop. Growing rye-
to eight-week summer period before a fall veg- grass with a legume such as red clover would min-
etable crop (361). imize the N concern. By letting the cover residue
decompose a bit, you’ll also have a seedbed that is
Mixed seeding. Plant ryegrass at 8 to 15 lb./A easier to manage.
with a legume or small grain, either in fall or early
in spring. Ryegrass will dominate the mixture Pest Management
unless you plant at low rates or mow regularly. Weed potential. Ryegrass can become a weed if
The legume will compete better in low-N condi- allowed to set seed (361). It often volunteers in vine-
tions. Seed the legume at about two-thirds its nor- yards or orchards if there is high fertility and may
mal rate. Adequate P and K levels are important require regular mowing to reduce competition with
when growing annual ryegrass with a legume. vines (422). A local weed management specialist
In vineyards, a fall-seeded, 50:50 mix of ryegrass may be able to recommend a herbicide that can
and crimson clover works well, some California reduce ryegrass germination if the cover is becoming
growers have found (211). a weed in perennial grass stands. Chlorsulfuron is
Although not a frequent pairing, drilling rye- sometimes used for this purpose in California (422).
grass in early spring at 20 lb./A with an oats
nurse crop or frost seeding 10 lb./A into over- Insect and other pests. Ryegrass attracts few
wintered small grains can provide some fine fall insect pests and generally can help reduce insect
grazing. Frost seeding with red clover or other pest levels in legume stands and many vegetable
large-seeded, cool-season legumes also can work crops, such as root crops and brassicas. Rodents
well, although the ryegrass could winterkill in are occasionally a problem when ryegrass is used
some conditions. as a living mulch.
Rust occasionally can be a problem with annu-
Maintenance. Avoid overgrazing or mowing rye- al ryegrasses, especially crown and brown (stem)
grass closer than 3 to 4 inches. A stand can persist rust. Look for resistant, regionally adapted vari-
many years in orchards, vineyards, and other areas eties. Annual ryegrass also can host high densities
if allowed to reseed naturally and not subject to of pin nematodes (Paratylenchus projectus) and
prolonged heat, cold or drought. That’s rarely the bromegrass mosaic virus, which plant-parasitic
case in Zone 5 and colder, however, where cli- nematodes (Xiphinema spp.) transmit (422).
mate extremes take their toll. Perennial ryegrass
may be a smarter choice if persistence is impor- Other Options
tant. Otherwise, plan on incorporating the cover Ryegrass provides a good grazing option that can
within a year of planting. Annual ryegrass is a rel- extend the grazing season for almost any kind of live-
atively late maturing plant, so in vineyards it may stock. Although very small-seeded, ryegrass does not
use excessive water and N if left too long. tiller heavily, so seed at high rates if you expect a rye-
BARLEY
Hordeum vulgare
nexpensive and easy to grow, barley provides grains and can sop up excess subsoil moisture to
BARLEY 77
Barley prefers cool, dry growing areas. As a Tilth-improving organic matter. Barley is a
spring cover crop, it can be grown farther north quick source of abundant biomass that, along with
than any other cereal grain, largely because of its its thick root system, can improve soil structure
short growing period. It also can produce more and water infiltration (273, 445). In California crop-
biomass in a shorter time than any other cereal ping systems, cultivars such as UC476 or COSINA
crop (273). can produce as much as 12,900 lb. biomass/A.
Nurse crop. Barley has an upright posture and
BENEFITS relatively open canopy that makes it a fine nurse
crop for establishing a forage or legume stand.
Erosion control. Use barley as an overwintering Less competitive than other small grains, barley
cover crop for erosion control in Zone 8 and also uses less water than other covers crops. In
warmer, including much of California, western weedy fields, wait to broadcast the forage or
Oregon and western legume until after you’ve mechanically weeded
A fast-growing Washington. It’s well- barley at the four- or five-leaf stage to reduce
suited for vineyards weed competition.
barley can be and orchards, or as
As an inexpensive, easy-to-kill companion crop,
grown farther part of a mixed seed- barley can protect sugarbeet seedlings during their
ing. first two months while also serving as a soil pro-
north and produce As a winter annual, tectant during droughty periods (details below).
more biomass in barley develops a deep,
fibrous root system. Pest suppression. Barley can reduce incidence of
a shorter time The roots can reach as leafhoppers, aphids, armyworms, root-knot nema-
than any other deep as 6.5 feet. As a todes and other pests, a number of studies suggest.
spring crop, barley has
cereal grain. a comparatively shal- MANAGEMENT
low root system but
holds soil strongly to Establishment & Fieldwork
minimize erosion during droughty conditions (71). Barley establishes readily in prepared seedbeds,
and can also be successfully no-tilled. It prefers
Nutrient recycler. Barley can scavenge significant adequate but not excessive moisture and does
amounts of nitrogen. It captured 32 lb. N/A as a poorly in waterlogged soils. It grows best in well-
winter cover crop following a stand of fava beans drained, fertile loams or light, clay soils in areas
(Vicia faba) in a California study, compared with having cool, dry, mild winters. It also does well on
20 lb./A for annual ryegrass. A barley cover crop light, droughty soils and tolerates somewhat alka-
reduced soil N an average of 64 percent at eight line soils better than other cereal crops.
sites throughout North America that had received With many varieties of barley to choose from,
an average of 107 lb. N/A (265). Intercropping bar- be sure to select a regionally adapted one. Many
ley with field peas (Pisum sativum) can increase are well-adapted to high altitudes and cold, short
the amount of N absorbed by barley and returned growing seasons.
to the soil in barley residue, other studies show
(215, 218). Barley improves P and K cycling if the Spring annual use. Drill at 50 to 100 lb./A (1 to 2
residue isn’t removed. bushels) from 3/4 to 2 inches deep into a prepared
seedbed, or no-till using the same seeding rate.
Weed suppressor. Quick to establish, barley out- If broadcasting, prepare the seedbed with at
competes weeds largely by absorbing soil mois- least a light field cultivation. Sow 80 to 125 lb./A
ture during its early growing stages. It also shades (1.5 to 2.5 bushels) and harrow, cultipack or disk
out weeds and releases allelopathic chemicals lightly to cover. Use a lower rate (25 to 50
that help suppress them.
Elayne Sears
February. Plantings before November 1 generally cereals and can be grown
fare best, largely due to warmer soil conditions. without irrigation in
Expect mixed results if trying to use barley as a some situations. About
self-reseeding cover crop. half of the commer-
cial barley acreage
Mixed seedings. Barley works well in mixtures in dryland areas is
with other grasses or legumes. In low-fertility soils irrigated, however.
or where you’re trying to minimize tie-up of soil California cropping
nitrogen, growing barley with one or more systems that include
legumes can be helpful. Your seeding cost per barley tend to be
pound will increase, but the reduced seeding rate irrigated as well.
can offset some of this. A short-season Canadian Low seeding rates BARLEY (Hordeum vulgare)
field pea would be a good companion, or try an won’t necessarily
oat/barley/pea mix, suggests organic farmer Jack conserve moisture, as vegetative growth often
Lazor, Westfield, Vt. increases.
In northern California, Phil LaRocca (LaRocca LaRocca hasn’t had any moisture problems or
Vineyards, Forest Ranch, Calif.) lightly disks his grape-yield concerns from growing barley or
upper vineyard’s soil before broadcasting a mix other cover crops, even in the 40 percent of his
of barley, fescue, brome, LANA vetch, and crimson, upper vineyard that isn’t furrow-irrigated.“Once
red and subterranean clovers, usually during your vines are established, their root system is
October. He seeds at 30 to 35 lb./A, with 10 to 20 deeper and much more competitive than a typical
percent being barley. “I’ve always added more cover crop’s root system,” he observes.
barley to the seeding rate than recommended. Mowing can postpone and prolong barley
More is better, especially with barley, if you want flowering, as with other cereal grains. As a spring
biomass and weed suppression,” he says. cover, barley puts on biomass quickly, so you can
After broadcasting, LaRocca covers erosion- kill it in plenty of time for seeding a following
prone areas with 2 tons of rice straw per acre, crop. If you want barley to reseed, don’t mow
which is “cheaper than oat straw here and has until most of the stand has headed and seed is
fewer weed seeds,” he notes. “The straw decom- about to fall off.
poses quickly and holds seed and soil well.” To encourage reseeding of his cover mix, Phil
Besides contributing to soil humus (as the cover LaRocca allows every other row in his upper vine-
crop also does), the straw helps keep the seedbed yard to go to seed, then disks it down. That lets
warm and moist. That can be very helpful in him skip reseeding some blocks.
LaRocca’s upper vineyard, where it sometimes If you’re concerned about barley reseeding or
snows in winter. crop competition when intercropped, however,
In his other, less-erodible vineyard, LaRocca plant a lighter stand, suggests Alan Brutlag,Wendell,
disks up the cover vegetation, then runs a harrow Minn. During droughty conditions, he broadcasts
BARLEY 79
25 to 30 pounds of barley per acre as a soil-protec- emergence and lessen incidence of root rot disease,
tive companion crop for sugarbeet seedlings. The if this has been a problem in your area (397).
low-density stand is easy to stunt or kill a month Varieties resistant to leaf diseases are available.Two-
later with the combination of herbicides and crop rowed varieties are more resistant to leaf rust and
oil that he uses for weed control in his sugarbeets. mildew. Also avoid planting barley after wheat.
Another control option is a single application of an If nematodes are likely to be a problem, plant
herbicide labeled for grass control. late in fall or during winter to avoid warm-season
growth and incorporate early in spring in Zone 8
Killing and warmer. Barley can be a host for a nematode
Kill barley with a grass herbicide in late spring, or species (Meloidogyne javanica) that adversely
by rolling disking or mowing at the mid- to late- affects Thompson seedless grapes.
bloom stage but before it starts setting seed. Barley drastically reduced root-knot nematode
If plant-parasitic nematodes have been a prob- (Meloidogyne hapla M. Chitwood) populations
lem, incorporate overwintered barley early in and increased marketable carrot yields by at least
spring, before warm temperatures encourage seventeen-fold in a Quebec study comparing
nematode populations. three-year rotations (242).
Marianne Sarrantonio
Species: Brassica napus, Brassica rapa,
Brassica juncea, Brassica hirta, Raphanus
sativus, Sinapsis alba
Nomenclature Note: The cover crops Adaptation Note: This chapter addresses man-
described in this chapter all belong to the agement of eight different cover crop species
family BRASSICACEAE. Most but not all of the with varying degrees of winterhardiness. Some
species belong to the genus Brassica. In com- can be managed as winter or spring annuals.
mon usage, the various species are sometimes Others are best planted in late summer for cover
lumped together as “brassicas” and sometimes crop use but will winterkill. Consult the infor-
distinguished as “brassicas” vs. “mustards.” In mation on management, winterhardiness and
this book, we will use brassicas as an umbrella winter vs. spring use (pp. 87-88) and the exam-
term for all species; mustards will be used to ples throughout the chapter, then check with
distinguish that subgroup, which has some local experts for specific adaptation information
unique characteristics. for your brassica cover crop of choice.
rassica and mustard cover crops are known trapping, and biotoxic or biofumigation activity.
Looking for a green manure crop to maintain control early dying disease (Verticillium
soil quality in his intensive potato/wheat dahliae), that cost that up to $500 per acre.
rotation, Dale Gies not only improved Farmers are especially vulnerable to early
infiltration and irrigation efficiency, he also dying disease if their rotations contain fewer
found biofumigation, a new concept in pest than three years between potato crops.
management. However, with potato prices dropping,
Farming 750 irrigated acres with two sons potato farmers in Washington and elsewhere
and a son-in-law in the Columbia basin of Grant started looking for ways to reduce costs. Gies
County,Wash., Gies started growing green contacted Andy McGuire at Washington State
manure crops in 1990 because he wanted to University Extension for help documenting
improve his soils for future generations. Since the results he was seeing with brassicas.
then, he has reduced his use of soil fumigants With research funding from SARE, McGuire
thanks to the biocidal properties of Brassica confirmed that the mustards improved
cover crops. In particular, Gies is most excited infiltration. He also showed that white
about results using a mixture of white or mustard was as effective as metam sodium
oriental mustard and arugula (Eruca sativa), in controlling potato early dying disease.
also a brassica, to manage nematodes and “The findings suggest that mustard green
potato early dying disease. manures may be a viable alternative to the
“We use the mustards to augment other fumigant metam sodium in some potato
good management practices,” Gies cautions. cropping systems,” says McGuire.“The practice
“Don’t expect a silver bullet that will solve can also improve water infiltration rates and
your pest problems with one use.” provide substantial savings to farmers. Until
Controlling nematodes is essential to more research is done, however, mustard
quality potato production, both for the cover crops should be used to enhance, not
domestic and the international market. eliminate, chemical control of nematodes.”
Farmers typically manage root knot Researchers have found that mustards can
nematodes (Meloidogyne chitwoodi) and also suppress common root rot (Aphano-
fungal diseases with pesticides, such as myces euteiches) and the northern root-knot
Metam sodium, a fumigant used routinely to nematode (Meloidogyne hapla).
Vegetable Systems. Fall-planted brassica cover Winter-killed forage radish leaves a nearly
crops fit well into vegetable cropping systems fol- weed- and residue-free seedbed, excellent for
lowing early harvested crops. White mustard and early spring “no-till” seeding of crops such as car-
brown mustard have become popular fall-planted rots, lettuce, peas and sweet corn. This approach
cover crops in the potato producing regions of can save several tillage passes or herbicide appli-
the Columbia Basin of eastern Washington. cations for weed control in early spring and can
Planted in mid to late August, white mustard take advantage of the early nitrogen release by the
emerges quickly and produces a large amount of forage radish. Soils warm up faster than under
biomass before succumbing to freezing tempera- heavy residue, and because no seedbed prepara-
tures. As a component of integrated weed man- tion or weed control is needed, the cash crop can
agement, using brassica cover crops in vegetable be seeded earlier than normal.
rotations could improve weed control and reduce
reliance on herbicides (39).
BUCKWHEAT
Fagopyrum esculentum
Marianne Sarrantonio
phosphorus and some minor nutrients (possibly
including calcium) that are otherwise unavailable
to crops, then releasing these nutrients to later
crops as the residue breaks down. The roots of
the plants produce mild acids that release nutri-
ents from the soil. These acids also activate BUCKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum)
slow-releasing organic fertilizers, such as rock
phosphate. Buckwheat’s dense, fibrous roots clus- sitize aphids, mites and other pests. These benefi-
ter in the top 10 inches of soil, providing an exten- cials include hover flies (Syrphidae), predatory
sive root surface area for nutrient uptake. wasps, minute pirate bugs, insidious flower bugs,
tachinid flies and lady beetles. Flowering may
Thrives in poor soils. Buckwheat performs start within three weeks of planting and continue
better than cereal grains on low-fertility soils and for up to 10 weeks.
soils with high levels of decaying organic matter. Nurse crop. Due to its quick, aggressive start,
That’s why it was often the first crop planted on buckwheat is rarely used as a nurse crop,
cleared land during the settlement of woodland although it can be used anytime you want quick
areas and is still a good first crop for rejuvenating cover. It is sometimes used to protect late-fall
over-farmed soils. However, buckwheat does not plantings of slow-starting, winter-hardy legumes
do well in compacted, droughty or excessively wherever freezing temperatures are sure to kill
wet soils. the buckwheat.
BUCKWHEAT 91
inch rows. Use heavier rates for quicker canopy Buckwheat is sensitive to herbicide residues
development. For a fast smother crop, broadcast from previous crops, especially in no-till
up to 96 lb./A (2 bu./A) onto a firm seedbed and seedbeds. Residue from trifluralin and from tri-
incorporate with a harrow, tine weeder, disk or azine and sulfonylurea herbicides have damaged
field cultivator. Overall vigor is usually better in or killed buckwheat seedlings (79). When in
drilled seedings. As a nurse-crop for slow- doubt, sow and water a small test plot of the fast-
growing, winter annual germinating seed to detect stunting or mortality.
Buckwheat legumes planted in late
summer or fall, seed at Pest Management
germinates and one-quarter to one-third Few pests or diseases bother buckwheat. Its most
grows quickly, of the normal rate. serious weed competitors are often small grains
Buckwheat compen- from preceding crops, which only add to the
producing 2 to 3 sates for lower seeding cover crop biomass. Other grass weeds can be a
tons of dry rates by developing problem, especially in thin stands. Weeds also can
more branches per plant increase after seed set and leaf drop. Diseases
matter in just and more seeds per blos- include a leaf spot caused by the fungus
som. However, skimping Ramularia and Rhizoctonia root rot.
6 to 8 weeks. too much on seed
makes stands more vul- Other Options
nerable to early weed Plant buckwheat as an emergency cover crop to
competition until the canopy fills in. Using protect soil and suppress weeds when your main
cleaned, bin-run or even birdseed-grade seed can crop fails or cannot be planted in time due to
lower establishment costs, but increases the risk unfavorable conditions.
of weeds. As denser stands mature, stalks become To assure its role as habitat for beneficial
spindly and are more likely to lodge from wind or insects, allow buckwheat to flower for at least 20
heavy rain. days—the time needed for minute pirate bugs to
produce another generation.
Rotations Buckwheat can be double cropped for grain
Buckwheat is used most commonly as a mid-sum- after harvesting early crops if planted by mid-July
mer cover crop to suppress weeds and replace in northern states or by early August in the South.
bare fallow. In the Northeast and Midwest, it is It requires a two-month period of relatively cool,
often planted after harvest of early vegetable crops, moist conditions to prevent blasting of the blos-
then followed by a fall vegetable, winter grain, or soms. There is modest demand for organic and
cool-season cover crop. Planted later, winterkilled specially raised food-grade buckwheat in domes-
residue provides decent soil cover and is easy to tic and overseas markets. Exporters usually
no-till into. In many areas, it can be planted fol- specify variety, so investigate before planting
lowing harvest of winter wheat or canola. buckwheat for grain.
In parts of California, buckwheat grows and
flowers between the killing of winter annual Management Cautions
legume cover crops in spring and their re-estab- Buckwheat can become a weed. Kill within 7 to 10
lishment in fall. Some California vineyard man- days after flowering begins, before the first seeds
agers seed 3-foot strips of buckwheat in row begin to harden and turn brown. Earliest maturing
middles, alternating it and another summer cover seed can shatter before plants finish blooming.
crop, such as sorghum-sudangrass. Some seed may overwinter in milder regions.
Buckwheat can harbor insect pests including
Lygus bugs, tarnished plant bugs and Pratylynchus
penetrans root lesion nematodes (256).
OATS
Avena sativa
OATS 93
enough. Late-summer plantings can absorb as but, because of its relatively high nitrogen con-
much as 77 lb. N/A in an eight- to ten-week peri- tent, could pose a nitrate-poisoning threat to live-
od, studies in the Northeast and Midwest have stock, especially if you delay harvesting until oats
shown (313, 329). are nearing the flowering stage.
Where the plant winterkills, some farmers use The climbing growth habit of some viny
oats as a nitrogen catch crop after summer legumes such as vetch can contribute to lodging
legume plowdowns, to hold some N over winter and make oat grain harvest difficult. If you’re
without needing to kill the cover in spring. Some growing the legume for seed, the oats can serve as
of the N in the win- a natural trellis that eases combining.
Oats are a terkilled oats may still be
lost by spring, either MANAGEMENT
reliable, low-cost through denitrification
cover that into the atmosphere or Establishment & Fieldwork
by leaching from the soil Time seeding to allow at least six to 10 weeks of
winterkill in profile. Consider mixing cool-season growth. Moderately fertile soil gives
Zone 6 and oats with an overwinter- the best stands.
ing legume if your objec-
much of Zone 7. tive is to maximize N Late-summer/early-fall planting. For a win-
contribution to the next terkilled cover, spring oats usually are seeded in
crop. late summer or early fall in Zone 7 or colder.
Broadcasting or overseeding will give the best
Smother crop. Quick to germinate, oats are a results for the least cost, unless seeding into heavy
great smother crop that outcompetes weeds and residue. Cleaned, bin-run seed will suffice.
also provides allelopathic residue that can hinder If broadcasting and you want a thick win-
germination of many weeds—and some crops (see terkilled mulch, seed at the highest locally recom-
below)—for a few weeks. Reduce crop sup- mended rate (probably 3 to 4 bushels per acre) at
pression concerns by waiting two- to three weeks least 40 to 60 days before your area’s first killing
after killing oats before planting a subsequent crop. frost. Assuming adequate moisture for quick ger-
mination, the stand should provide some soil-pro-
Fall legume nurse crop. Oats have few equals tecting, weed-suppressing mulch.
as a legume nurse crop or companion crop. They Disk lightly to incorporate. In many regions,
can increase the fertilizer replacement value of you’ll have the option of letting it winterkill or
legumes. Adding about 35 to 75 lb. oats/A to the sending in cattle for some fall grazing.
seeding mix helps slow-establishing legumes such If seeding oats as a fall nurse crop for a legume,
as hairy vetch, clovers or winter peas, while a low rate (1 to 2 bushels per acre) works well.
increasing biomass. It also helps reduce fall If drilling oats, seed at 2 to 3 bushels per acre
1
weeds. The oats will winterkill in many areas /2 to 1 inch deep, or 11/2 inches when growing
while improving the legume’s winter survival. grain you plan to harrow for weed control.
Shallow seeding in moist soil provides rapid emer-
Spring green manure or companion crop. gence and reduces incidence of root rot disease.
Spring-seeded with a legume, oats can provide Timing is critical when you want plenty of bio-
hay or grain and excellent straw in the Northern mass or a thick ground cover. As a winter cover
U.S., while the legume remains as a summer—or following soybeans in the Northeast or Midwest,
even later—cover. There’s also a haylage option overseeding spring oats at the leaf-yellowing or
with a fast-growing legume if you harvest when early leaf-drop stage (and with little residue pre-
oats are in the dough stage.The oats will increase sent) can give a combined ground cover as high
the dry matter yield and boost the total protein, as 80 percent through early winter (200). If you
Marianne Sarrantonio
trol plots with no oat cover, while oats planted two
weeks later had just 10 percent fewer weed plants
in spring and 81 percent of the weed biomass of
control plots (329, 330).
OATS 95
Oats, Rye Feed Soil in Corn/Bean Rotation
Bryan and Donna Davis like what cover crops Spring oats are broadcast in mid or late March
have done for their corn/soybean rotation. with a fertilizer cart and then rotary harrowed. If
They use less grass herbicide, have applied going back to corn, they seed at a heavier, 3.5 bu
insecticides only once in the last six years, and rate, expecting only about 5 or 6 weeks of growth
they have seen organic matter content almost before they work down the cover crop with a soil
double from less than 2% to almost 4%. finisher and plant corn in early May. For soybeans,
Rye and oats are the cover crop mainstays on they either kill chemically and no-till the beans, or
the nearly 1,000 acres they farm near Grinnell, work down and seed conventionally.
Iowa. Bryan and Donna purchased the farm—in They have managed rye in different ways over
the family since 1929—in 1987 and almost im- the years depending on its place in the rotation,
mediately put most of the operation under 100% but prefer to seed into killed or tilled rye rather
no-till, a system they had experimented with over than a living cover crop.They figure that they get
the years.They now till some acres and are also in about 35 lb. N from oats and up to 60 lb. from rye.
the process of transitioning 300 acres to organic. On their organic transition acres they are
Moving 1/3 of their acreage toward organic applying chicken manure (2 tons/A), and
seems the logical culmination of the Davis’ cover crops are crucial to sopping up excess
makeover of their farm that started with a nutrients and crowding out the weeds that
desire to “get away from the chemicals.” That crop up in response to the extra nutrients.
was what motivated them to start using cover They feel that their efforts to balance nutrients
crops to feed the soil and help manage pests. are also helping with weed control, because
“We were trying to get away from the idea weeds feed on nutrient imbalances.
that every bug and weed must be exterminated. In addition to the increase in soil organic
Rather, we need to ‘manage’ the system and matter, attributed to cover crops and no-tillage,
tolerate some weed and insect pressure. It should they’ve also seen improvements in soil moisture
be more of a balance,” says Bryan. and infiltration. Fields that used to pond after
Bryan and Donna are practitioners and heavy rains no longer do. Soybeans are weathering
proponents of “biological farming,” a systems drought better, and corn stays green longer during
approach based on such principles as feeding a “more natural” drying down process.
the soil to keep it biologically active, reducing “Our system takes more time and is more labor
chemical inputs and paying attention to trace intensive, but if you look at the whole budget, we
elements or micronutrients in order to are doing much better now.We have cut our
maintain balance in the system. Cover crops chemical costs dramatically, and have reduced
play an integral role in this system. fertility costs—in some fields—by 1/3 to ½,” says
They seed oats at 2-3 bu/A in spring or fall, Bryan.“With energy costs these days, you can’t
depending on time and labor availability. Donna afford not to do this.”
does most of the combining and planting, but Davis is careful to note that this is not just
even with a lot of acres for two people to about adding one component such as cover
manage, cover crops are a high priority on their crops.“You need to address the whole system, not
schedule. Fall-seeded oats are planted after just one piece of the pie.To be able to have a
soybean harvest and “need rain on them soon sustaining system, you must work with the living
after planting to get them started.” They’ll put on system. Feed the soil and give it a roof over its
about a foot of growth before winterkilling, head.” Cover crops play a crucial role in that
usually in December in their south-central Iowa system.
conditions. —Andy Clark
OATS 97
RYE
Secale cereale
he hardiest of cereals, rye can be seeded • A Maryland study credited rye with holding
Weed suppressor. Rye is one of the best cool Establishment & Fieldwork
season cover crops for outcompeting weeds, Rye prefers light loams or sandy soils and will ger-
especially small-seeded, light-sensitive annuals minate even in fairly dry soil. It also will grow in
such as lambsquarters, redroot pigweed, vel- heavy clays and poorly drained soils, and many
vetleaf, chickweed and foxtail. Rye also suppress- cultivars tolerate waterlogging (63).
es many weeds allelopathically (as a natural Rye can establish in very cool weather. It
herbicide), including dandelions and Canada this- will germinate at temperatures as low as 34° F.
tle and has been shown to inhibit germination of Vegetative growth requires 38° F or higher (361).
some triazine-resistant weeds (336).
Rye reduced total weed density an average of 78 Winter annual use. Seed from late summer to
percent when rye residue covered more than 90 midfall in Hardiness Zones 3 to 7 and from fall to
percent of soil in a Maryland no-till study (410), and midwinter in Zones 8 and warmer. In the Upper
RYE 99
Midwest and cool New England states, seed two to
eight weeks earlier than a wheat or rye grain crop
to ensure maximum fall, winter and spring
growth. Elsewhere, your tillage system and the
amount of fall growth you prefer will help deter-
mine planting date. Early planting increases the
amount of N taken up before winter, but can make
field management (especially killing the cover
crop and tillage) more difficult in spring. See Rye
Marianne Sarrantonio
Smothers Weeds Before Soybeans (p. 104).
Rye is more sensitive to seeding depth than other
cereals, so plant no deeper than 2 inches (71). Drill
60 to 120 lb./A (1 to 2 bushels) into a prepared
seedbed or broadcast 90 to 160 lb./A (1.5 to 3
bushels) and disk lightly or cultipack (361, 422). CEREAL RYE (Secale cereale)
If broadcasting late in fall and your scale and
budget allow, you can increase the seeding rate to mination), the rye can’t set seed and dies on its
as high as 300 or 350 lb./A (about 6 bushels) to own within a few months in many areas.This pro-
ensure an adequate stand. Rye can be overseed by vides good weed control in asparagus, says Rich
air more consistently than many other cover crops. de Wilde, Viroqua, Wis.
“I use a Buffalo Rolling Stalk Chopper to help After drilling a large-seeded summer crop such
shake rye seeds down to the soil surface,” says as soybeans, try broadcasting rye.The cover grows
Steve Groff, a Holtwood, Pa., vegetable grower. well if it’s a cool spring, and the summer crop
“It’s a very consistent, fast and economical way takes off as the temperature warms up. Secondary
to establish rye in fall.” (Groff’s farming system tillage or herbicides would be necessary to keep
is described in detail at www.cedarmeadow the rye in check and to limit the cover crop’s use
farm.com). of soil moisture.
Mixed seeding. Plant rye at the lowest locally Killing & Controlling
recommended rate when seeding with a legume Nutrient availability concern. Rye grows and
(361), and at low to medium rates with other matures rapidly in spring, but its maturity date
grasses. In a Maryland study, a mix of 42 pounds of varies depending on soil moisture and tempera-
rye and 19 pounds of hairy vetch per acre was the ture. Tall and stemmy, rye immobilizes N as it
optimum fall seeding rate before no-till corn on a decomposes.The N tie-up varies directly with the
silt loam soil (81). If planting with clovers, seed maturity of the rye. Mineralization of N is very
rye at a slightly higher rate, about 56 lb. per acre. slow, so don’t count on rye’s overwintered N
For transplanting tomatoes into hilly, erosion- becoming available quickly.
prone soil, Steve Groff fall-seeds a per-acre mix of Killing rye early, while it’s still succulent, is one
30 pounds rye, 25 pounds hairy vetch and 10 way to minimize N tie-up and conserve soil mois-
pounds crimson clover. He likes how the three- ture. But spring rains can be problematic with rye,
way mix guarantees biomass, builds soil and pro- especially before an N-demanding crop, such as
vides N. corn. Even if plentiful moisture hastens the opti-
Spring seeding. Although it’s not a common mal kill period, you still might get too much rain
practice, you can spring seed cereals such as rye in the following weeks and have significant
as a weed-suppressing companion, relay crop or nitrate leaching, a Maryland study showed (109).
early forage. Because it won’t have a chance to Soil compaction also could be a problem if you’re
vernalize (be exposed to extended cold after ger- mowing rye with heavy equipment.
RYE 101
Cereal Rye: Cover Crop Workhorse
RYE 103
Rye Smothers Weeds Before Soybeans
An easy-to-establish rye cover crop helps 13 ounces of surfactant per acre makes it
Napoleon, Ohio, farmer Rich Bennett enrich his easier for Roundup to penetrate rye leaves,”
sandy soil while trimming input costs in no-till he explains.
soybeans. Bennett broadcasts rye at 2 bushels The cover dies in about two weeks. The
per acre on corn stubble in late October. He slow kill helps rye suppress weeds while
incorporates the seed with a disc and roller. soybeans establish. In this system, Bennett
The rye usually breaks through the ground doesn’t have to worry about rye regrowing.
but shows little growth before winter Roundup Ready® beans have given him
dormancy. Seeded earlier in fall, rye would greater flexibility in this system. He used to
provide more residue than Bennett prefers cultivate beans twice using a Buffalo no-till
by bean planting—and more effort to kill the cultivator. Now, depending on weed pressure
cover.“Even if I don’t see any rye in fall, I know (often giant ragweed and velvetleaf) he will
it’ll be there in spring, even if it’s a cold or wet spot treat or spray the whole field once with
one,” he says. Roundup. Bennett figures the rye saves him
By early May, the rye is usually at least 1.5 $15 to $30 per acre in material costs and
feet tall and hasn’t started heading. He no-tills fieldwork, compared with conventional no-till
soybeans at 70 pounds per acre on 30-inch systems for soybeans.
rows directly into standing rye cover crop. Rye doesn’t hurt his bean yields, either.
Then, depending on the amount of rye growth, Usually at or above county average, his yields
he kills the rye with herbicide immediately range from 45 to 63 bushels per acre,
after planting, or waits for more rye growth. depending on rainfall, says Bennett.
“If it’s shorter than 15 to 18 inches, rye “I really like rye’s soil-saving benefits,” he
won’t do a good enough job of shading out says.“Rye reduces our winter wind erosion,
broadleaf weeds,” notes Bennett, who likes improves soil structure, conserves soil
how rye suppresses foxtail, pigweed and moisture and reduces runoff.” Although he
lambsquarters.“I sometimes wait up to two figures the rye’s restrained growth (from the
weeks to get more rye residue,” he says. late fall seeding) provides only limited
“I kill the rye with 1.5 pints of Roundup scavenging of leftover N, any that it does
per acre—about half the recommended rate. absorb and hold overwinter is a bonus.
Adding 1.7 pounds of ammonium sulfate and Updated in 2007 by Andy Clark
While insect infestations are rarely serious with can reduce diseases in some cropping systems.
rye, as with any cereal grain crop occasional prob- No-till transplanting tomatoes into a mix of
lems occur. If armyworms have been a problem, rye/vetch/crimson clover, for example, consistent-
for example, burning down rye before a corn ly has been shown to delay the onset of early
crop could move the pests into the corn. Purdue blight in several locations in the Northeast. The
Extension entomologists note many northeastern mulch presumably reduces soil splashing onto the
Indiana corn farmers reported this in 1997. Crop leaves of the tomato plants.
rotations and IPM can resolve most pest problems If you want the option of harvesting rye as a
you might encounter with rye. grain crop, use of resistant varieties, crop rotation
and plowing under crop residues can minimize
Few diseases. Expect very few diseases when rust, stem smut and anthracnose.
growing rye as a cover crop. A rye-based mulch
RYE 105
SORGHUM-SUDANGRASS HYBRIDS
Sorghum bicolor x S. bicolor
var. sudanese
orghum-sudangrass hybrids are unrivaled for plants and nematodes.They are not frost tolerant,
Marianne Sarrantonio
crop. Their seedlings, shoots, leaves and roots
secrete allelopathic compounds that suppress
many weeds. The main root exudate, sor-
goleone, is strongly active at extremely low con-
centrations, comparable to those of some
synthetic herbicides (370). As early as five days SORGHUM-SUDANGRASS (Sorghum bicolor X S.
after germination, roots begin secreting this alle- bicolor var. sudanese
lochemical, which persists for weeks and has visi-
ble effects on lettuce seedlings even at 10 parts tems, and weed and nematode suppression can
per million (440). produce dramatic results.
Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids suppress such On a low-producing muck field in New York
annual weeds as velvetleaf, large crabgrass, barn- where onion yields had fallen to less than a third
yardgrass (126, 305), green foxtail, smooth pig- of the local average, a single year of a dense plant-
weed (190), common ragweed, redroot pigweed ing of sorghum-sudangrass hybrid restored the
and purslane (316). They also suppressed pine soil to a condition close to that of newly cleared
(214) and redbud tree seedlings in nursery tests land (217).
(154). The residual weed-killing effects of these
allelochemicals increased when sorghum-sudan- Widely adapted. Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids
grass hybrids were treated with the herbicides can be grown throughout the U.S. wherever rain-
sethoxydim, glyphosate or paraquat, in descend- fall is adequate and soil temperature reaches
ing order of magnitude (144). 65° F to 70° F at least two months before frost.
Once established, they can withstand drought by
Nematode and disease fighter. Planting going nearly dormant. Sorghum-sudangrass
sorghum-sudangrass hybrids instead of a host hybrids tolerate pH as high as 9.0, and are often
crop is a great way to disrupt the life cycles of used in rotation with barley to reclaim alkaline
many diseases, nematodes and other pests. For soil (421). They tolerate pH as low as 5.0.
example, when sorghum-sudangrass or sorghum
alone were no-tilled into endophyte-infected fes- Quick forage. Sorghum-sudangrass is prized as
cue pastures in Missouri that had received two summer forage. It can provide quick cover to pre-
herbicide applications, the disease was controlled vent weeds or erosion where legume forages have
nearly 100 percent. No-till reseeding with endo- been winterkilled or flooded out. Use care
phyte-free fescue completed this cost-effective because these hybrids and other sorghums can
renovation that significantly improved the rate of produce prussic acid poisoning in livestock.
gain of yearling steers (16). Grazing poses the most risk to livestock when
plants are young (up to 24 inches tall), drought
Renews farmed-out soils. The combination of stressed or killed by frost. Toxicity danger varies
abundant biomass production, subsoiling root sys- between cultivars.
A summer planting of sudangrass was the best fall cash crop into the rotation while still
single-season cover crop for relieving soil growing the cover during summer.
compaction in vegetable fields, a team of Heavy equipment, frequent tillage and lack
Cornell researchers found. Yellow mustard, of organic matter contribute to compaction
HUBAM annual white sweetclover and problems for vegetable growers in the
perennial ryegrass also were effective Northeast, where frequent rains often force
to some extent in the multi-year study.“But growers into the fields when soils are wet.
sudangrass has proven the most promising so Compacted soils slow root development,
far,” says project coordinator David Wolfe.“It hinder nutrient uptake, stunt plants, delay
has shown the fastest root growth.” maturity and can worsen pest and disease
“Sudangrass is best managed with one problems (451). For example, the Cornell
mowing during the season,” Wolfe adds. Mowing researchers found that slow-growing cabbages
promotes tillering and a deep, penetrating root direct-seeded into compacted soils were
system. Mowing also makes it easier to vulnerable to flea beetle infestations (450).
incorporate the large amount of biomass Brassica cover crops such as yellow mustard
produced by this crop.With its high C:N ratio, were solid challengers to sudangrass as a
it adds to soil organic matter. compaction reliever, but it was sometimes
Farmers and researchers have long known difficult to establish these crops in the test.
that alfalfa’s deep root system is a great “We still have a lot to learn about how best
compaction-buster. But alfalfa does not to grow brassicas and fit them into rotations
establish easily on wet compacted fields, and with vegetables,” Wolfe says.
most vegetable growers can’t afford to remove Wolfe and his team assessed the cover
land from production for two to three years to crops’ effectiveness by measuring yields of
grow it, notes Wolfe. Many also lack the subsequent crops and conducting a host of
equipment to subsoil their fields, which is soil quality measurements, including
often only a temporary solution, at best. That’s infiltration rates, water-holding capacity,
why Wolfe geared his study to identify cover aggregate stability and organic matter levels.
crops that can produce results in a single For more information, contact David Wolfe,
season. In the case of heat-loving sudangrass, 607-255-7888; dww5@cornell.edu.
it also may be possible to squeeze a spring or Updated in 2007 by Andy Clark
If you kill the cover crop early enough in fall, vide needed soil structure benefits wherever
the residue will partially break down before cold intensive systems cause compaction and loss of
temperatures slow biological action (361). Where soil organic matter reserves. See Summer Covers
possible, use sorghum-sudangrass ahead of later- Relieve Compaction, above.
planted crops to allow more time in spring for Grown as a summer cover crop that is cut once
residue to decompose. and then suppressed or killed, sorghum-sudan-
Planting sorghum-sudangrass every third year grass can reduce weeds in fall-planted alfalfa.
on New York potato and onion farms will rejuve- Sorghum-sudangrass suppressed alfalfa root
nate soil, suppress weeds and may suppress soil growth significantly in a Virginia greenhouse
pathogens and nematodes.Working a legume into study (144), but no effect was observed on alfalfa
the rotation will further build soil health and add germination when alfalfa was no-till planted into
nitrogen. Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids can pro- killed or living sorghum-sudangrass (145).
WINTER WHEAT
Triticum aestivum
lthough typically grown as a cash grain, rush to kill it early in spring and risk compacting
Elayne Sears
About 80 percent of the K is recycled if the stems option. See Wheat
and leaves aren’t removed from the field at har- Boosts Income
vest. All the nutrients are recycled when wheat is and Soil Protection WINTER WHEAT
managed as a cover crop, giving it a role in scav- (p. 113). (Triticum aestivum)
enging excess nitrogen.
“Cash and Cover” crop. Winter wheat can be Weed suppressor. As a fall-sown cereal, wheat
grown as a cash crop or a cover crop, although competes well with most weeds once it is estab-
you should manage each differently. It provides a lished (71). Its rapid spring growth also helps
cash-grain option while also opening a spot for a choke weeds, especially with an underseeded
winter annual legume in a corn>soybean or simi- legume competing for light and surface nutrients.
lar rotation. For example: Soil builder and organic matter source.
• In the Cotton Belt, wheat and crimson clover Wheat is a plentiful source of straw and stubble.
would be a good mix. Wheat’s fine root system also improves topsoil
• In Hardiness Zone 6 and parts of Zone 7, plant tilth. Although it generally produces less than rye
hairy vetch after wheat harvest, giving the or barley, the residue can be easier to manage and
legume plenty of time to establish in fall. Vetch incorporate.
growth in spring may provide most of the N When selecting a locally adapted variety for use
necessary for heavy feeders such as corn, or as a cover crop, you might not need premium
all of the N for sorghum, in areas northward to seed. A Maryland study of 25 wheat cultivars
southern Illinois, where early spring warm-up showed no major differences in overall biomass
allows time for development. production at maturity (92). Also in Maryland,
• In much of Zone 7, cowpeas would be a good wheat produced up to 12,500 lb. biomass/A
choice after wheat harvest in early July or following high rates of broiler litter (87).
before planting winter wheat in fall. In Colorado, wheat planted in August after early
• In the Corn Belt and northern U.S., undersow vegetables produced more than 4,000 lb. bio-
red clover or frostseed sweetclover into a mass/A, but if planted in October, yielded only
wheat nurse crop if you want the option of a one-tenth as much biomass and consequently
year of hay before going back to corn. With or scavenged less N (114).
Wheat is an ideal fall cover crop that you can Disease or pests rarely have been a problem,
later decide to harvest as a cash crop, cotton he notes.
farmer Max Carter has found.“It’s easier to “It’s a very easy system, with wheat always
manage than rye, still leaves plenty of residue serving as a fall cover crop for us. It builds soil
to keep topsoil from washing away—and is and encourages helpful soil microorganisms.
an excellent double crop,” says Carter. It can be grazed, or we can burn some down
The southeastern Georgia farmer no-till in March for planting early corn or peanuts
drills winter wheat at 2 bushels per acre right anytime from March to June,” he says.
after cotton harvest, without any seedbed For a double crop before 2-bale-an-acre
preparation.“It gives a good, thick stand,” he cotton, Carter irrigates the stand once in
says. spring with a center pivot and harvests 45-
“We usually get wheat in by Thanksgiving, to 60-bushel wheat by the end of May.“The
but as long as it’s planted by Christmas, I chopper on the rear of the combine puts the
know it’ll do fine,” he adds. After drilling straw right back on the soil as an even blanket
wheat, Carter goes back and mows the cotton and we’re back planting cotton on June 1.”
stalks to leave some field residue until the “It sure beats idling land and losing topsoil.”
wheat establishes.
If weed control is important in your system, avoid pulverizing topsoil (358) and depleting soil
look for a regional cultivar that can produce early moisture.
spring growth.To scavenge N, select a variety with
good fall growth before winter dormancy. Winter annual use. Seed from late summer to
early fall in Zone 3 to 7—a few weeks earlier than
MANAGEMENT a rye or wheat grain crop—and from fall to early
winter in Zone 8 and warmer. If you are consider-
Establishment & Fieldwork ing harvesting as a grain crop, you should wait
Wheat prefers well-drained soils of medium tex- until the Hessian fly-free date, however. If cover
ture and moderate fertility. It tolerates poorly crop planting is delayed, consider sowing rye
drained, heavier soils better than barley or oats, instead.
but flooding can easily drown a wheat stand. Rye Drill 60 to 120 lb./A (1 to 2 bushels) into a firm
may be a better choice for some poor soils. seedbed at a 1/2- to 11/2-inch depth or broadcast 60
Biomass production and N uptake are fairly to 160 lb./A (1 to 2.5 bushels) and disk lightly or
slow in autumn. Tillering resumes in late win- cultipack to cover. Plant at a high rate if seeding
ter/early spring and N uptake increases quickly late, when overseeding into soybeans at the leaf-
during stem extension. yellowing stage, when planting into a dry seedbed
Adequate but not excessive N is important dur- or when you require a thick, weed-suppressing
ing wheat’s early growth stages (prior to stem stand. Seed at a low to medium rate when soil
growth) to ensure adequate tillering and root moisture is plentiful (71).
growth prior to winter dormancy. In low-fertility After cotton harvest in Zone 8 and warmer,
or light-textured soils, consider a mixed seeding no-till drill 2 bushels of wheat per acre without any
with a legume (80). See Wheat Offers High Value seedbed preparation. In the Southern Plains, 1 bushel
Weed Control, Too (p. 114). is sufficient if drilling in a timely fashion (302).
A firm seedbed helps reduce winterkill of With irrigation or in humid regions, you could
wheat. Minimize tillage in semiarid regions to harvest 45- to 60-bushel wheat, then double crop
Pairing a winter wheat cover crop with a 90 lb./A into a good seedbed, generally in mid-
reduced herbicide program in the inland September in Idaho.“In our area, growers can
Pacific Northwest could provide excellent deep rip in fall, disk and build the beds (hills),
weed control in potatoes grown on light soils then drill wheat directly into the beds,” she
in irrigated, semiarid regions. A SARE-funded says. Some starter N (50 to 60 lb./A) can help
study showed that winter wheat provided the wheat establish. If indicated by soil testing,
effective competition against annual weeds P or K also would be fall-applied for the
that infest irrigated potato fields in following potato crop.
Washington, Oregon and Idaho. The wheat usually does well and shows
Banding herbicide over the row when good winter survival. Amount of spring rainfall
planting potatoes improved the system’s and soil moisture and the wheat growth rate
effectiveness, subsequent research shows, says determine the optimal dates for killing wheat
project coordinator Dr. Charlotte Eberlein at and planting potatoes.
the University of Idaho’s Aberdeen Research Some years, you might plant into the wheat
and Extension Center.“In our initial study, we and broadcast Roundup about a week later.
were effectively no-tilling potatoes into the Other years, if a wet spring delays potato
Roundup-killed wheat,” says Eberlein.“In this planting, you could kill wheat before it gets
study we killed the cover crop and planted out of hand (before the boot stage), then wait
potatoes with a regular potato planter, which for better potato-planting conditions.
rips the wheat out of the potato row.” A Moisture management is important,
grower then can band a herbicide mixture especially during dry springs, she says.“We
over the row and depend on the wheat mulch usually kill the wheat from early to mid May—
to control between-row weeds. a week or two after planting potatoes. That’s
“If you have sandy soil to start with and can soon enough to maintain adequate moisture in
kill winter wheat early enough to reduce the hills for potatoes to sprout.”
water-management concerns for the potatoes, An irrigation option ensures adequate soil
the system works well,” says Eberlein. moisture—for the wheat stand in fall or the
“Winter rye would be a slightly better cover potato crop in spring, she adds.“You want a
crop for suppressing weeds in a system like good, competitive wheat stand and a vigorous
this,” she notes.“Volunteer rye, however, is a potato crop if you’re depending on a banded
serious problem in wheat grown in the West, herbicide mix and wheat mulch for weed
and wheat is a common rotation crop for control,” says Eberlein. That combination gives
potato growers in the Pacific Northwest.” competitive yields, she observes, based on
She recommends drilling winter wheat at research station trials.
with soybeans, cotton or another summer crop. Mixed seeding or nurse crop. Winter wheat
See Wheat Boosts Income and Soil Protection works well in mixtures with other small grains or
(p. 113). You also could overseed winter wheat with legumes such as hairy vetch. It is an excel-
prior to cotton defoliation and harvesting. lent nurse crop for frostseeding red clover or
Another possibility for Zone 7 and cooler: Plant sweetclover, if rainfall is sufficient. In the Corn
full-season soybeans into wheat cover crop Belt, the legume is usually sown in winter, before
residue, and plant a wheat cover crop after bean wheat’s vegetative growth resumes. If frostseed-
harvest. ing, use the full seeding rates for both species,
Commonly used legume cover crops include: cash crops, these forage crops also can be used for
• Winter annuals, such as crimson clover, hairy more than one year and often are harvested for
vetch, field peas, subterranean clover and feed during this time. They can be established
many others along with—or overseeded into—other crops
• Perennials like red clover, white clover and such as wheat or oats, then be left to grow after
some medics cash crop harvest and used as a forage. Here they
• Biennials such as sweetclover are functioning more as a rotation crop than a
• Summer annuals (in colder climates, the win- cover crop, but as such provide many benefits
ter annuals are often grown in the summer) including erosion and weed control, organic mat-
ter and N production. They also can break weed,
Legume cover crops are used to: disease and insect cycles.
• Fix atmospheric nitrogen (N) for use by Summer-annual use of legume crops includes,
subsequent crops in colder climates, the use of the winter-annual
• Reduce or prevent erosion crops listed above, as well as warm-season
• Produce biomass and add organic matter to legumes such as cowpeas. Grown as summer
the soil annuals, these crops produce N and provide
• Attract beneficial insects ground cover for weed and erosion control, as
well as other benefits of growing cover crops.
Legumes vary widely in their ability to prevent Establishment and management varies widely
erosion, suppress weeds and add organic matter depending on climate, cropping system and the
to the soil. In general, legume cover crops do not legume itself. These topics will be covered in the
scavenge N as well as grasses. If you need a cover individual sections for each legume.
crop to take up excess nutrients after manure or Legumes are generally lower in carbon and
fertilizer applications, a grass, a brassica or a mix- higher in nitrogen than grasses. This lower C:N
ture is usually a better choice. ratio results in faster breakdown of legume
Winter-annual legumes, while established in residues.Therefore, the N and other nutrients con-
the fall, usually produce most of their biomass and tained in legume residues are usually released
N in spring.Winter-annual legumes must be plant- faster than from grasses. Weed control by legume
ed earlier than cereal crops in order to survive the residues may not last as long as for an equivalent
winter in many regions. Depending on your cli- amount of grass residue. Legumes do not increase
mate, spring management of legumes will often soil organic matter as much as grasses.
involve balancing early planting of the cash crop Mixtures of legume and grass cover crops com-
with waiting to allow more biomass and N pro- bine the benefits of both, including biomass pro-
duction by the legume. duction, N scavenging and additions to the
Perennial or biennial legumes can fit many dif- system, as well as weed and erosion control. Some
ferent niches, as described in greater detail in the cover crop mixtures are described in the individ-
individual sections for those cover crops. ual cover crop sections.
Sometimes grown for a short period between
ixtures of two or more cover crops are come on strong. Because they reseed themselves,
BERSEEM CLOVER
Trifolium alexandrinum
fast-growing summer annual, berseem growth period during the West Coast’s rainy sea-
With the help of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, The rate of N fixation is determined largely
legume cover crops can supply some or all by the genetic potential of the legume species
of the N needed by succeeding crops. This and by the amount of plant-available N in the
nitrogen-producing team can’t do the job right soil. Other environmental factors such as heat
unless you carefully match the correct and moisture play a big role, as well. Fueling N
bacterial inoculant with your legume cover fixation is an expensive proposition for the
crop species. legume host, which may contribute up to 20
Like other plants, legumes need nitrogen to percent of its carbohydrate production to the
grow. They can take it from the soil if enough root-dwelling bacteria. If the legume can take
is present in forms they can use. Legume roots up free N from the soil, it won’t put as much
also seek out specific strains of soil-dwelling energy into producing nodules and feeding
bacteria that can “fix” nitrogen gas from the bacteria to fix nitrogen from the air.
air for use by the plant. While many kinds of Perennial legumes fix N during any time of
bacteria compete for space on legume roots, active growth. In annual legumes, N fixation
the root tissues will only begin this symbiotic peaks at flowering.With seed formation, it
N-fixing process when they encounter a ceases and the nodules slough from the roots.
specific species of rhizobium bacteria. Only Rhizobia return to the soil environment to
particular strains of rhizobia provide optimum await their next encounter with legume roots.
N production for each group of legumes. These bacteria remain viable in the soil for
When the root hairs find an acceptable three to five years, but often at too low a level
bacterial match, they encircle the bacteria to to provide optimum N-fixation when legumes
create a nodule. These variously shaped lumps return to the field.
on the root surfaces range in size from a BB If legume roots don’t encounter their ideal
pellet to a kernel of corn. Their pinkish bacterial match, they work with the best
interiors are the visible sign that nitrogen strains they can find. They just don’t work as
fixation is at work. efficiently together and they produce less N.
Nitrogen gas (N2) from air in the spaces Inoculating seeds with the correct strain
between soil particles enters the nodule. The before planting is inexpensive insurance
bacteria contribute an enzyme that helps to make sure legumes perform up to their
convert the gas to ammonia (NH3). The plant genetic potential. Clover inoculum, for
uses this form of N to make amino acids, the example, costs just a few cents per pound of
building blocks for proteins. In return, the host seed treated, or more for an enhanced sticker
legume supplies the bacteria with that buffers and feeds the seedling.
carbohydrates to fuel the N-fixation process.
COWPEAS
Vigna unguiculata
owpeas are the most productive heat- Cowpeas make an excellent N source ahead of
COWPEAS 125
Thick stands that grow well can outcompete Intercropping with soybeans also increased para-
bermudagrass where it does not produce seed sitism of the bollworms compared with plots
and has been plowed down before cowpea intercropped with onions or cotton without an
planting (263). In New York, both cowpea and intercrop. No effects on overall aphid, leafhopper
soybean provided some weed-suppressing bene- or bollworm populations were observed (422).
fits. Neither adequately controlled weeds, but
mixing with buckwheat or sorghum-sudangrass Companion crop. Thanks to its moderate shade
improved performance as a weed management tolerance and attractiveness to beneficial insects,
tool (43). cowpeas find a place in summer cover crop mix-
In California, cowpea mulch decreased weed tures in orchards and vineyards in the more tem-
pressure in fall-planted lettuce, while incorporat- perate areas of California.Avoid use under a heavy
ed cowpea was less effec- tree canopy, however, as cowpeas are susceptible
Cowpeas thrive tive. An excellent desert to mildew if heavily shaded (263). As in much of
cover crop, cowpea also the tropical world where cowpeas are a popular
under hot, moist reduced weed pressure food crop, they can be underseeded into corn for
conditions, but in California pepper pro- late-season weed suppression and post-harvest
duction (209). soil coverage (361).
also tolerate The weed-suppressing
drought and low activity of cowpea may Seed and feed options. Cowpea seed (yield
be due, in part, to allelo- range 350 to 2,700 lb./A) is valued as a nutrition-
soil fertility. pathic compounds in the al supplement to cereals because of complemen-
residue. The same com- tary protein types. Seed matures in 90 to 140 days.
pounds could adversely Cowpeas make hay or forage of highest feed value
impact your main crop. Be sure to consult local when pods are fully formed and the first have
information about impacts on cash crops. ripened (120). A regular sickle-bar mower works
for the more upright-growing cultivars (120, 422).
Quick green manure. Cowpeas nodulate pro- Crimping speeds drying of the rather fleshy stems
fusely, producing an average of about 130 lb. N/A to avoid over-drying of leaves before baling.
in the East, and 200 lb. N/A in California. Properly Low moisture need. Once they have enough
inoculated in nitrogen deficient soils, cowpeas soil moisture to become established, cowpeas are
can produce more than 300 lb. N/A (120). a rugged survivor of drought. Cowpeas’ delayed
Plowdown often comes 60 to 90 days after plant- leaf senescence allows them to survive and recov-
ing in California (275). Higher moisture and more er from midseason dry spells (21). Plants can send
soil N favor vegetative growth rather than seed taproots down nearly 8 feet in eight weeks to
production. Unlike many other grain legumes, reach moisture deep in the soil profile (107).
cowpeas can leave a net gain of nitrogen in the
field even if seed is harvested (361). Cultivars for diverse niches. Cover crop culti-
vars include CHINESE RED, CALHOUN and RED
IPM insectary crop. Cowpeas have “extrafloral RIPPER, all viny cultivars noted for superior resis-
nectaries”—nectar-release sites on petioles and tance to rodent damage (317). IRON CLAY, a mix-
leaflets—that attract beneficial insects, including ture of two formerly separate cultivars widely
many types of wasps, honeybees, lady beetles, ants used in the Southeast, combines semi-bushy and
and soft-winged flower beetles (422). Plants have viny plants and resistance to rootknot nematodes
long, slender round pods often borne on bare and wilt.
petioles above the leaf canopy. Most of the 50-plus commercial cowpea culti-
Intercropping cotton with cowpeas in India vars are horticultural. These include “crowder
increased levels of predatory ladybugs and peas” (seeds are crowded into pods), grown
parasitism of bollworms by beneficial wasps. throughout the temperate Southeast for fresh pro-
Marianne Sarrantonio
Easy to establish. Cowpeas germinate quickly and
young plants are robust, but they have more diffi-
culty emerging from crusted soils than soybeans. COWPEAS (Vigna unguiculata)
COWPEAS 127
Cowpeas Provide Elegant Solution to Awkward Niche
Once cowpea plants form pods, they may suppression and about 90 percent of their
attract stinkbugs, a serious economic pest in parts nitrogen contribution. However, waiting too
of the lower Southeast. However, no significant long before mowing or incorporation will
stinkbug presence was reported in three years of flush stinkbugs into adjacent crops. Leaving
screening in North Carolina. If stinkbugs are a remnant strips of cowpeas to attract stinkbugs
concern, remember these points: may reduce movement into other crops, as
• Flail mowing or incorporating cowpeas at long as the cowpeas keep producing enough
pod set will prevent a stinkbug invasion. By new pods until the cash crop is no longer
that time, cowpeas can provide good weed threatened.
COWPEAS 129
CRIMSON CLOVER
Trifolium incarnatum
ith its rapid, robust growth, crimson Reseeding cultivars provide natural fertility to
Marianne Sarrantonio
the most dry matter (5,600 to 6,000 lb./A) com-
pared to hairy vetch, bigflower vetch, berseem
clover, arrowleaf clover (Trifolium vesiculosum)
and winter peas. It produced 99 to 130 lb. N/A
and is recommended for soil erosion control CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum)
because of its high early-autumn dry matter pro-
duction (426). Nutrient cycler. Crimson clover adds to the soil
As a summer annual in lower Michigan, a mid- organic N pool by scavenging mineralized N and
summer planting of crimson clover seeded at 20 by normal legume N fixation. The scavenging
lb./A produced 1,500–2,000 lb. dry matter and 50- process, accomplished most effectively by grass-
60 lb. N/A by late November (270). es, helps reduce the potential for N leaching into
groundwater during winter and spring (181, 265).
Mixtures. Crimson clover grows well in mixtures Mixed with annual ryegrass in a simulated rainfall
with small grains, grasses and other clovers. An study, crimson clover reduced runoff from the
oats crop is a frequent companion, either as a herbicide lactofen by 94 percent and norflurazon
nurse crop to establish a clear stand of crimson and fluometuron by 100 percent (346). The
clover, or as a high-biomass, nutrient-scavenging grass/legume mixture combines fibrous surface
partner. In California, crimson clover is planted roots with short tap roots.
with rose clover and medics in orchards and nut
groves to minimize erosion and provide some N MANAGEMENT
to tree crops (422).
Establishment & Fieldwork
Beneficial habitat and nectar source. Crimson Crimson clover will grow well in about any type
clover has showy, deep red blossoms 1/2 to 1 inch of well drained soil, especially sandy loam. It may
long.They produce abundant nectar, and are visit- fare poorly on heavy clay, waterlogged, extremely
ed frequently by various types of bees. The acid or alkaline soils. Once established, it thrives
blooms may contain many minute pirate bugs, an in cool, moist conditions. Dry soil often hinders
important beneficial insect that preys on many fall plantings in the South.
small pests, especially thrips (422). In Michigan, Inoculate crimson clover if it hasn’t been
crimson increased blueberry pollination when grown before. Research in Alabama showed that
planted in row middles. Georgia research shows deficiencies of phosphorus or potassium—or
that crimson clover sustains populations of pea strongly acidic soil with a pH of less than 5.0—
aphids and blue alfalfa aphids. These species are can virtually shut down N fixation. Nodules
not pests of pecans, but provide alternative food were not even formed at pH 5.0 in the test.
for beneficial predators such as lady beetles, Phosphorus deficiency causes many small but
which later attack pecan aphids. inactive nodules to form (188).
igh N-fixers, field peas produce abundant the mid-Atlantic area. Risk of infection increases if
Marianne Sarrantonio
• Plant into grain stubble or a rough seedbed, or
interseed into a winter grain. These environ-
ments protect young pea roots by suppressing
soil heaving during freezing and thawing.
Trapped snow insulates plants, as well. FIELD PEAS (Pisum sativum subsp. arvense)
PARTRIDGE, Kan.—Jim French figures Austrian colder early and mid-winter temperatures. In
winter peas provide free grazing, free nitrogen, most years, he sets up temporary fence and
or both. The vining legume produces just as turns his cattle into the peas about April 1 at
much N for the following grain sorghum crop the stocking rate of two animal units per acre.
even if he lets his registered Gelbvieh herd eat During the best years of mild weather and
all they want of the winter annual’s spring adequate moisture,“the cattle have a hard time
growth. keeping up,” says French. Depending on his
French farms on flat, well-drained sandy need for forage or organic matter, he leaves
loam soil near Partridge, Kan. He manages the cattle in until he incorporates the pea
about 640 acres each of cash crops (winter stubble, or gives it time to regrow.
wheat and grain sorghum) and forages (alfalfa, One reason he gets about the same 90 to 120
sudangrass, winter peas and cowpeas, and an lb. N/A contribution with or without grazing is
equal area in grass pasture). Peas follow wheat that the winter pea plants apparently continue
in the three-year crop rotation on his south- N fixation and root growth while being grazed.
central Kansas farm. He chisel plows the Soil tests show that 25 to 30 lb. N/A are
wheat stubble twice about 7 inches deep, available in the nitrate form at incorporation in
disks once to seal the surface, then controls late spring, with the balance in an organic form
weeds as necessary with a light field cultivator. that mineralizes over the summer. Grazing the
Between mid-September and mid-October he peas helps to contain cheatgrass, which tends
inoculates about 30 lb./A of the peas and drills to tie up N if it’s incorporated just ahead of his
them with an old John Deere double-run disk sorghum crop.
drill in 8-inch rows. Establishment is usually French is sold on winter peas ahead of his
good, with his only anxiety coming during grain sorghum because it provides N while
freeze-thaw cycles in spring.“Each time the peas reducing weed pressure from cheatgrass and
break dormancy, start to grow, then get zapped pigweed and decreasing lodging from charcoal
with cold again they lose some of their root root rot. The option to use the peas as
reserves and don’t have quite the resistance to forage—while still achieving adequate
freezing they did.They’ll sprout back even if sorghum yield—lets him buy less processed
there’s vegetative freeze damage as long as their feed, improves livestock health and accelerates
food reserves hold out,” French reports. conversion of the peas’ organic material into
Ironically, this spring freezing is less of a available soil nutrients.
problem further north where fields stay frozen “Winter peas work best where you integrate
longer before a slower thaw. This works as crops and livestock,” says French.“They give
long as snow cover protects the peas from the you so many benefits.”
30 percent in the top soil layer for all other treat- break down. Mixtures of small grains with
ments. In situations where the early-summer N Austrian winter peas and the vetches had C:N val-
release from peas could be excessive, mixing ues from 13 to 34, but were generally under 25 to
Austrian winter peas with a grain can moderate 30, the accepted threshold for avoiding net immo-
the N contribution and slow down its release into bilization of N (344).
the soil (344). Austrian winter peas and crimson clover can
The carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio of plant mat- provide adequate N for conventionally planted cot-
ter is an indication of how rapidly vegetation will ton in South Carolina. In a three-year trial, fertilizer
ew legumes match hairy vetch for spring Corn planting date comparison trials with
Marianne Sarrantonio
Austrian winter peas and crimson clover (243).
In Wisconsin’s shorter growing season, hairy
vetch planted after oat harvest provided a gross
margin of $153/A in an oat/legume/corn rotation
(1995 data). Profit was similar to using 160 lb. N/A
in continuous corn, but with savings on fertilizer
and corn rootworm insecticide (400). HAIRY VETCH (Vicia villosa)
Hairy vetch provides yield improvements
beyond those attributable to N alone. These may tions than does vetch. Residue with a C:N ratio of
be due to mulching effects, soil structure 25:1 or more tends to immobilize N. For more
improvements leading to better moisture reten- information, see How Much N? (p. 22), and the
tion and crop root development, soil biological rest of that section, Building Soil Fertility and
activity and/or enhanced insect populations just Tilth with Cover Crops (p. 16).
below and just above the soil surface.
Early weed suppression. The vigorous spring
Soil conditioner. Hairy vetch can improve root growth of fall-seeded hairy vetch out-competes
zone water recharge over winter by reducing weeds, filling in where germination may be a bit
runoff and allowing more water to penetrate the spotty. Residue from killed hairy vetch has a weak
soil profile through macropores created by the allelopathic effect, but it smothers early weeds
crop residue (143). Adding grasses that take up a mostly by shading the soil. Its effectiveness wanes
lot of water can reduce the amount of infiltration as it decomposes, falling off significantly after about
and reduce the risk of leaching in soils with excess three or four weeks. For optimal weed control with
nutrients. Hairy vetch, especially an oats/hairy a hairy vetch mulch, select crops that form a quick
vetch mix, decreased surface ponding and soil canopy to compensate for the thinning mulch or
crusting in loam and sandy loam soils. Researchers use high-residue cultivators made to handle it.
attribute this to dual cover crop benefits: their abil- Mixing rye and crimson clover with hairy vetch
ity to enhance the stability of soil aggregates (par- (seeding rates of 30, 10, and 20 lb./A, respectively)
ticles), and to decrease the likelihood that the extends weed control to five or six weeks, about
aggregates will disintegrate in water (143). the same as an all-rye mulch. Even better, the mix
Hairy vetch improves topsoil tilth, creating a provides a legume N boost, protects soil in fall and
loose and friable soil structure. Vetch doesn’t winter better than legumes, yet avoids the poten-
build up long-term soil organic matter due to its tial crop-suppressing effect of a pure rye mulch
tendency to break down completely. Vetch is a on some vegetables.
succulent crop, with a relatively “low” carbon to
nitrogen ratio. Its C:N ratio ranges from 8:1 to Good with grains. For greater control of winter
15:1, expressed as parts of C for each part of N. annual weeds and longer-lasting residue, mix
Rye C:N ratios range from 25:1 to 55:1, showing hairy vetch with winter cereal grains such as rye,
why it persists much longer under similar condi- wheat or oats.
THE POSSIBILITY of using rollers to reduce with a 3-inch overlap on each end. The original
herbicide use isn’t new, but advances are design has already been modified to include a
being made to improve the machines in ways 15-foot, 6-inch model suitable for use with a 6-
that could make them practical for controlling row planter on 30-inch rows. It can be adapted
no-till cover crops. to fit a 4-row planter on 38-inch rows, and a 5-
Cover crop rolling is gaining visibility and foot version for 2-row vegetable planters.
credibility in tests by eight university/farmer “We realize that 6-row equipment is small
research teams across the country. The test by today’s standards, and work is under way
rollers were designed and contributed by The on a system that mounts one section of the
Rodale Institute (TRI), a Pennsylvania-based roller in front of the tractor with the
organization focused on organic agricultural remainder mounted on the planter ahead of
research and education. The control achieved the row units. This design will allow as wide a
with the roller is comparable to a roller roller system as a farmer needs,” Moyer says.
combined with a glyphosate application, Chevron Pattern. The chevron pattern on
according to TRI. the face of the roller came about after the
The Rodale crop rollers were delivered to designers realized that mounting the roller
state and federal cooperative research teams in blades in a straight line would cause excessive
Virginia, Michigan, Mississippi, North Dakota, bouncing, while just curving the blades in a
Pennsylvania, Georgia, California and Iowa in screw pattern would act like an auger and
Spring, 2005. Funding for the program comes create a pulling effect.“If you were driving up
from grants and contributions from the a hill that might be fine, but we don’t need
Natural Resources Conservation Service and help pulling our tractors down the steep
private donors. I&J Manufacturing in Gap, Pa., slopes we farm. The chevron pattern
fabricated the models distributed to the neutralizes any forces that might pull the
research teams. tractor in either direction,” Moyer explains. It
“The requirement is that each research overcomes both the bounce of straight-line
leader partners with a farmer cooperator to blades and the auguring effect of corkscrew
adapt the rollers to local conditions and cover blades.
cropping systems,” explains Jeff Moyer, TRI’s “In addition, with the twisted blade design,
farm manager.“Our goal is to gain more only a very small portion of the blade touches
knowledge about the soil building and weed the ground at any one time as it turns, so the
management effects of cover crops while full pressure of the roller is applied 1 inch at a
reducing the need for herbicides,” he says. time. This roller design works better than
Farmer Built. Moyer designed and built anything we’ve ever used,” he adds.
the first front-mounted TRI roller prototype in Prior to settling on the TRI prototype, Moyer
2002 in conjunction with Pennsylvania farmer and Brubaker studied stalk choppers with nine
John Brubaker, whose land abuts the TRI rolling drums arranged in two parallel rows.
property. The original 10-foot, 6-inch roller This design required 18 bearings and provided
width is equal to 4 rows on 30-inch spacing, lots of places for green plant material to bunch
No-till vegetable transplanting. Vetch that is Herbicides will kill vetch in three to 30 days,
suppressed or killed without disturbing the soil depending on the material used, rate, growth
maintains moisture well for transplanted vegeta- stage and weather conditions.
bles. No-till innovator Steve Groff of Lancaster Vetch incorporation. As a rule, to gauge the
County, Pa., uses the rolling stalk chopper to cre- optimum hairy vetch kill date, credit vetch with
ate a killed organic mulch. His favorite mix is 25 adding two to three pounds of N per acre per
lb. hairy vetch, 30 lb. rye sunny day after full spring growth begins. Usually,
Winter hardy and 10 lb. crimson N contribution will be maximized by early bloom
clover/A. (10-25 percent) stage.
through the No-till, delayed kill. Cutting hairy vetch close to the ground at full
warmer parts of Farmers and researchers bloom stage usually will kill it. However, waiting
are increasingly using a this long means it will have maximum top
Zone 4, few roller/crimper to kill growth, and the tangled mass of mature vetch can
overwhelm many smaller mowers or disks. Flail
legumes can rival hairy vetch and other
cover crops (11). Jeff mowing before tillage helps, but that is a time and
hairy vetch’s N Moyer and others at the horsepower intensive process. Sickle-bar mowers
Rodale Institute in should only be used when the vetch is well sup-
contributions. Kutztown, Pa., roll hairy ported by a cereal companion crop and the mate-
vetch and other cover rial is dry (422).
crops in late May or
early June (at about 50% flower). The modified Management Cautions
roller is front-mounted, and corn is no-tilled on About 10 to 20 percent of vetch seed is “hard”
the same pass (303). See Cover Crop Roller seed that lays ungerminated in the soil for one or
Design Holds Promise For No-Tillers, p. 146. more seasons. This can cause a weed problem,
Also useful in killing hairy vetch on raised beds especially in winter grains. In wheat, a variety of
for vegetables and cotton is the improved proto- herbicides are available, depending on crop
type of an undercutter that leaves severed residue growth stage. After a corn crop that can utilize
virtually undisturbed on the surface (96). The the vetch-produced N, you could establish a hay
undercutter tool includes a flat roller attachment, or pasture crop for several years.
which, by itself, usually provides only partial sup- Don’t plant hairy vetch with a winter grain if
pression unless used after flowering. you want to harvest grain for feed or sale.
BELTSVILLE, Md.—Killed cover crop mulches • Transplant seedlings using a minimum tillage
can deliver multiple benefits for no-till planter able to cut through the mulch and
vegetable crops (1, 2, 3, 4). The system can firm soil around the plants.
provide its own N, quell erosion and
leaching, and displace herbicides. It’s also The hairy vetch mulch suppresses early season
more profitable than conventional weeds. It improves tomato health by
commercial production using black plastic preventing soil splashing onto the plants, and
mulch. A budget analysis showed it also keeps tomatoes from soil contact, improving
should be the first choice of “risk averse” quality. Hairy vetch-mulched plants may need
farmers, who prefer certain although more more water. Their growth is more vigorous and
modest profit over higher average profit that may yield up to 20 percent more than those
is less certain (224). on plastic. Completing harvest by mid-
The key to the economic certainty of a September allows the field to be immediately
successful hairy vetch planting is its low cost reseeded to hairy vetch. Waiting for vetch to
compared with the black plastic purchase, bloom in spring before killing it and the tight
installation and removal. fall turnaround may make this system less
From refining his own research and on-farm useful in areas with a shorter growing season
tests in the mid-Atlantic region for several than this Zone 7, mid-Atlantic site.
years, Aref Abdul-Baki, formerly of the USDA’s Abdul-Baki rotates season-long cash crops of
Beltsville (Md.) Agricultural Research Center, tomatoes, peppers and cantaloupe through the
outlines his approach: same plot between fall hairy vetch seedings. He
• Prepare beds—just as you would for planting shallow plows the third year after cantaloupe
tomatoes—at your prime time to seed hairy harvest and seeds hairy vetch for flat-field crops of
vetch. sweet corn or snap beans the following summer.
• Drill hairy vetch at 40 lb./A, and expect He suggests seeding rye (40 lb./A) with the
about 4 inches of top growth before vetch for greater biomass and longer-lasting
dormancy, which stretches from mid- mulch. Adding 10-12 lb./A of crimson clover
December to mid-March in Maryland. will aid in weed suppression and N value.
• After two months’ spring growth, flail mow Rolling the covers before planting provides
or use other mechanical means to suppress longer-lasting residue than does mowing them.
the hairy vetch. Be ready to remow or use Some weeds, particularly perennial or winter
herbicides to clean up trouble spots where annual weeds, can still escape this mixture,
hairy vetch regrows or weeds appear. and may require additional management (4).
nce established, few other legumes out- tall, is semi-erect or prostrate, hairless, and offers
STANFORD, Mon.—Jess Alger can count on stand of GEORGE medic. The medic/wheat
13 inches of rainfall or less on his central interplant yielded 29 bushels per acre—six
Montana farm, occasional hail damage, too few bushels less than the other field. But the
solar units to raise safflower or millet, some interplanted grain tested at 15 percent protein,
bone-chilling winters without snow cover— a full percentage point higher. Those are high
and George. That’s GEORGE black medic. yields for Alger’s area, partly due to timely
On-farm tests showed he got 87 lb. N/A and summer rain.“The yield drop with medic was
3 percent organic matter on his Judith clay mostly a weed problem with Persian darnel,”
loam soils. He initially seeded the medic on 10- Alger explains,“but I now have that mostly
inch row spacings with barley at 10 lb./A, his under control.”
standard rate and seeding method. He grazed Jess continues to fine-tune his system to
the medic early in the second year, and then let maximize income and weed management. He
it go to seed. In Year 3, he sprayed it with became certified organic in 1999. He maintains
glyphosate in order to establish a sorghum- the medic seed bank with no-till plantings of
sudangrass hybrid as emergency forage on May GEORGE with a nurse crop of Austrian winter
15. He had several inches of growth when frost peas. He is experimenting successfully with rye
hit about June 10 and killed the tender grass. instead of summer fallow.
The medic came on strong. He let it mature If weed pressure is high, medic fields are
to its full 12 inches to harvest it for seed.“It grazed closely to prevent weeds from going to
was already laying over, but the pickup guards seed, then plowed. Otherwise, he no-tills
on my combine helped to gather in about half winter wheat into standing medic so he can
the seed.” The other half pumped up the seed leave most of the medic in place, bury less
bank for years ahead. seed and allow GEORGE to rest more securely
He did a comparison with side-by-side fields in his field.
of spring wheat. One followed a spring wheat Updated in 2007 by Andy Clark
crop, the other he planted into a six-year-old
germinate for two years. Second-year growth may medic increased spring wheat yield by about 92
be modest, but coverage improves in years three percent compared with spring wheat following
and four after the initial seeding if competition is fallow, and also appreciably raised the grain pro-
not excessive (422) and grazing management is tein level (379). GEORGE grows in a prostrate to
timely. ascending fashion and overwinters well with
snow cover in the Northern Plains.
BENEFITS April soil N value after black medic in one
Montana test was 117 lb./A, about 2.5 times the
Good N on low moisture. In dryland areas, fallow N level and the best of six cultivars tested,
most legumes offer a choice between N produc- all of which used less water than the fallow treat-
tion and excessive water use. Medics earn a place ment (378). In North Dakota, however, unrestrict-
in dryland crop rotations because they provide N ed medic growth depressed yield of a following
while conserving moisture comparable to bare- wheat crop (73).
ground fallow (230, 380).
Fallow is the intentional resting of soil for a sea- Great N from more water. Under normal dry-
son so it will build up moisture and gain fertility land conditions, medics usually produce about 1 T
by biological breakdown of organic matter. Black dry matter/A, depending on available soil mois-
MEDICS 153
Southern Spotted Burr Medic Offers Reseeding Persistence
While annual medics, in general, are hard medic cultivar CIRCLE VALLEY successfully
seeded, they usually cannot tolerate winters reseeded in a Louisiana no-till cotton field for
north of the Gulf South. Southern spotted burr more than 10 years without special
medic (Medicago arabica) shows promise as management to maintain it (103).
a winter legume that can reseed for several Research in the Southeast showed that if
years from a single seed crop in Hardiness Southern spotted burr medic begins blooming
Zone 7 of the Southeast. March 23, it would form viable seed by May 2,
Once as widely grown as hairy vetch in the and reach maximum seed formation by May
mid-South region of the U.S., burr medic 12. By allowing the cover crop to grow until
persists in non-cropland areas because it is 40 to 50 days after first bloom and managing
well adapted to the region (326, 327). A local the cropping system without tillage that
accession collected in northern Mississippi would bury burclover seeds too deeply,
exhibits better cold hardiness and insect Southern spotted burclover should
resistance than commercially available successfully reseed for several years.
(Australian) annual medics. Native medic seed is being increased in
In a replicated cold-hardiness trial spanning cooperation with the USDA-Natural Resources
several states, spotted burr medic flowered in Conservation Service’s Jamie Whitten Plant
mid-March, about two weeks after SERENA, Materials Center, Coffeeville, Miss., for possible
CIRCLE VALLEY or SANTIAGO burclover, but two accelerated release to seed growers as a
weeks before TIBBEE crimson clover. The burr “source-identified” cover crop.
medic flowered over a longer period than Insect pests such as clover leaf weevil
crimson, matured seed slightly sooner than (Hypera punctata Fabricius) and the alfalfa
TIBBEE but generally did not produce as much weevil (Hypera postica Gyllenhal)
biomass. preferentially attack medics over other winter
The big advantage of spotted burr medic legume cover crops in the Southeast, and
over crimson clover was its ability to reseed could jeopardize seed production. These
for several years from a single seed crop. In insects are easily controlled with pyrethroid
studies in several states, the native medic insecticides when weevils are in their second
successfully reseeded for at least two years instar growth stage. While not usually needed
when growth was terminated two weeks after for single-season cover crop benefits, insect-
TIBBEE bloomed. Only balansa clover (see Up- icides may be warranted in the seeding year to
and-Coming Cover Crops, p. 191) reseeded as ensure a reseeding crop for years to come.
well as spotted burclover (105). The burr
ture and fertility. When moisture is abundant, stand. In California orchards and vineyards where
medics can reach their full potential of 3 T/A of winters are rainy instead of frigid, medics mixed
3.5 to 4 percent plant-tissue nitrogen, contribut- with other grasses and legumes provide a contin-
ing more than 200 lb. N/A (201, 422). uous cover that crowds out weeds. In those situa-
tions, medics help reduce weed seed production
Fight weeds. Quick spring regrowth suppresses for the long-term.
early weeds. Fall weeds are controlled by medic
regrowth after harvest, whether the medic stand Boost organic matter. Good stands of medics in
is overseeded or interplanted with the grain, or well drained soil can contribute sufficient residue
the grain is seeded into an established medic to build soil organic matter levels. One Indiana
Elayne Sears
medics were 20 inch-
should be mowed regularly to a height of 3 to 5 es tall and blooming.
inches during the growing season for best seed set In the upper Mid-
and weed suppression. To increase the soil seed west, snail and burr BLACK MEDIC
bank, rest medic from blooming to seed maturation, medics achieve peak (Medicago lupulina)
then resume clipping or grazing (285, 422, 435). biomass about 60
days after planting. An early August seeding of the
Provide good grazing. Green plants, dry plants annuals in southern Illinois germinated well,
and burs of burr medic provide good forage, but stopped growing during a hot spell, then restart-
solid stands can cause bloat in cattle (422). The ed. Growth was similar to the spring-planted plots
burs are concentrated nutrition for winter forage, by September 29 when frost hit.The plants stayed
but lower the value of fleece when they become green until the temperature dipped to the upper
embedded in wool. Annual medics overseeded teens (201).
into row crops or vegetables can be grazed in fall
after cash crop harvest (376). Widely acclimated. Species and cultivars vary
by up to seven weeks in their estimated length of
Reseeding. Black medic has a high percentage of time to flowering. Be sure to select a species to fit
hard seed. Up to 90 percent has an outer shell that your weather and crop rotation.
resists the softening by water and soil chemicals
that triggers germination (286). Scarified seed will MANAGEMENT
achieve 95 percent germination, and 10-year old
raw seed may still be 50 percent viable (422). Burr Establishment
medic seed in the intact bur remains viable for a Annual medics offer great potential as a substitute
longer time than hulled seed (120). for fallow in dry northern regions of the U.S. with
Their status as a resilient, reseeding forage longer day length. Annual medics need to fix as
makes medics the basis for the “ley system” devel- much N as winter peas or lentils and have a com-
oped in dry areas of Australia. Medics or subter- petitive establishment cost per acre to be as valu-
ranean clover pastured for several years on able as these better-known legume green
Australian dry-lands help to store moisture and manures (383).
build up soil productivity for a year of small grain Medics are widely adapted to soils that are rea-
production before being returned to pasture.This sonably fertile, but not distinctly acid or alkaline.
use requires livestock for maximum economic Excessive field moisture early in the season can
MEDICS 155
significantly reduce medic stands (373). Acid-tol- Where medic and corn work together, such as
erant rhizobial strains may help some cool-season California, maximize medic survival during the
medics, especially barrel medic, to grow on sites corn canopy period by seeding early (when corn
that otherwise would be inhospitable (422). is eight to 16 inches tall) and heavy (15 to 20
To reduce economic risk in fields where you’ve lb./A) to build up medic root reserves (47, 422).
never grown medic, sow a mixture of medics • After wheat harvest. MOGUL barrel medic
with variable seed size and maturation dates. In seeded after wheat harvest produced 119 lb. N/A
dry areas of California, medic monocultures are in southern Michigan, more than double the N
planted at a rate of 2 to 6 lb./A, while the rate with production of red clover seeded at the same time
grasses or clovers is 6 to 12 lb./A (422). (373). In Montana, mid-season establishment of
Establishment options vary depending on cli- snail medic after wheat works only in years with
mate and crop system: adequate precipitation, when it smothers weeds,
• Early spring—clear seed. Drill 1/4 to 1/2 builds up N, then winterkills for a soil-holding
inch deep (using a double-disk or hoe-type drill) organic mulch (72).
into a firm seed bed as • Autumn seeding. Where winters are rainy in
Medics earn a you would for alfalfa. California, medics are planted in October as win-
Rolling is recommend- ter annuals (436). Plant about the same time as
place in dryland ed before or after seed- crimson clover in the Southeast, Zones 7 and 8.
rotations because ing to improve seed-soil
contact and moisture in Killing
they provide N the seed zone. Seeding Medics are easy to control by light tillage or her-
while conserving rate is 8 to 10 lb./A for bicides. They reseed up to three times per sum-
black medic, 12 to 20 mer, dying back naturally each time. Medics in the
moisture. lb./A for larger-seeded vegetative stage do not tolerate field traffic.
(snail, gamma and burr)
annual medics. In the Field Management
arid Northern Plains, fall germination and winter Black medic>small grain rotations developed in
survival are dependable, although spring planting Montana count on successful self-reseeding of
also has worked. medic stands for grazing by sheep or cattle. A
• Spring grain nurse crop. Barley, oats, month of summer grazing improves the econom-
spring wheat and flax can serve as nurse crops for ics of rotation by supplying forage for about one
medic, greatly reducing weed pressure in the animal unit per acre. In this system, established
seeding year. The drawback is that nurse crops self-reseeding black medic plowed down as green
will reduce first-year seed production if you are manure in alternate years improved spring wheat
trying to establish a black medic seed bank. To yield by about 50 percent compared to fallow
increase the soil seed reserve for a long-term (380).
black medic stand (germinating from hard seed), Black medic is a dual-use legume in this adapt-
allow the medic to blossom, mature and reseed ed “ley” system. Livestock graze the legume in the
during its second year. “medic years” when the cover crop accumulates
• Corn overseed. SANTIAGO burr medic and biomass and contributes N to the soil. Cash crops
SAVA snail medic were successfully established in can be no-tilled into killed medic, or the legume
no-till corn three to six weeks after corn planting can be incorporated.
during a two-year trial in Michigan. Corn yield was A well-established black medic stand can
reduced if medics were seeded up to 14 days after reduce costs compared with annual crops by
corn planting. Waiting 28 days did not affect corn coming back for many years. However, without
yield, but medic biomass production was reduced the livestock grazing benefit to supply additional
by 50% (219). utilization, water-efficient legumes such as lentils
MEDICS 157
clover needs more consistent moisture for its shal- crops in several years of trials run from northern
lower, slower growing roots (422). Medics are California into Mexico in the 1990s. While some
more susceptible than subclover to seed produc- of the naturalized strains have been self-reseeding
tion loss from closely mowing densely planted for 30 years in some orchards, Extension special-
erect stalks. Burr and barrel medics are not as ists say the commercial cultivars may be prefer-
effective as subclover at absorbing phosphorus able because they are widely available and better
(422). documented.
Medics may survive where true clovers Established burr medic tolerates shade as a
(Trifolium spp.) fail due to droughty conditions common volunteer in the understories of
(422) if there is at least 12 in. of rain per year California walnut orchards, which are heavily
(292). shaded from April through November. However,
Medics grow well in in Michigan trials over several years, SANTIAGO (a
Medics are easy mixtures with grasses and burr medic with no spines on its burs) failed to
clovers, but don’t per- establish satisfactorily when it was overseeded
to kill with light form well with red clover into corn and soybeans at layby. Researchers sus-
tillage or most (422, 263). Once estab- pect the crop canopy shaded the medic too soon
lished, black medic han- after planting, and that earlier overseeding may
herbicides. dles frost better than have allowed the medic to establish.
crimson or red clover. There are at least 10 cultivars of barrel medic.
GEORGE grows more Dates of first flowering for barrel medics range
slowly than yellow blossom sweetclover in spring from 80 to 105 days after germination, and seed
of the second year, but it starts flowering earlier. It count per pound ranges from 110,000 for
uses less water in the 2- to 4-foot depth than HANAFORD to 260,000 for SEPHI (422). A leading
sweetclover, soybeans or hairy vetch seeded at new cultivar, SEPHI, flowers about a week earlier
the same time. than JEMALONG, commonly used in California (251,
422).SEPHI, a mid-season cultivar, has a more erect
Annual Medic Cultivars. Species and cultivars habit for better winter production, is adapted to
of annual medic vary significantly in their dry mat- high- and low-rainfall areas, yields more seed and
ter production, crude protein concentration and biomass than others, has good tolerance to
total N. Check with local or regional forage spe- Egyptian alfalfa weevil and high tolerance to spot-
cialists for cultivar recommendations ted alfalfa aphid and blue green aphid. It is sus-
Burr medic (also called burclover) cultivars ceptible to pea aphid.
are the best known of the annual medics. They Snail medic (M. scutellata) is a prolific seed
branch profusely at the base, and send out pros- producer. Quick germination and maturity can
trate stems that grow more erect in dense stands lead to three crops (two reseedings) in a single
(422). They grow quickly in response to fall season from a spring planting in the Midwest
California rains and fix from 55 to 90 lb. N/A, near- (373). MOGUL barrel medic grew the most bio-
ly as much as true clovers (294, 422). Most stands mass in a barley intercrop, compared with
are volunteer and can be encouraged by proper SANTIAGO burr medic and GEORGE black medic in
grazing, cultivation or fertilization. a four-site Minnesota trial. It frequently reduced
Selected cultivars include SERENA (an early barley yields, particularly those of a semi-dwarf
bloomer), and CIRCLE VALLEY, both of which have barley variety, but increased weed suppression
fair tolerance to Egyptian alfalfa weevil (435). and N and biomass production (289).
SANTIAGO blooms later than SERENA. Early burr In a Michigan test of forage legumes for emer-
medics flower in about 62 days in California, rang- gency forage use, MOGUL barrel medic produced
ing up to 96 days for mid-season cultivars (422). 1.5 T dry matter/A compared to about 1 T/A for
Naturalized and imported burr medic proved SAVA snail medic and SANTIAGO burr medic (M.
the best type of burclover for self-reseeding cover polymorpha). Nitrogen production was 66 lb./A
RED CLOVER
Trifolium pratense
Field Evaluation
In Michigan, about half of the total N fixed by a
legume will mineralize during the following
growing season and be available to that season’s
crop (229). However, Wisconsin research shows
release may be faster. There, red clover and hairy
Marianne Sarrantonio
Rotations
Rotation niches for red clover are usually between
RED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense) two non-leguminous crops. Spring seeding with oats
or frostseeding into wheat or barley are common
Killing options (34).The intersowing allows economic use
For peak N contribution, kill red clover at about of the land while the clover is developing. This
mid-bloom in spring of its second season. If you grain/red clover combination often follows corn, but
can’t wait that long, kill it earlier to plant field also can follow rice, sugar beets, tobacco or potatoes
corn or early vegetables. If you want to harvest in two-year rotations. For three-year rotations includ-
the first cutting for hay, compost or mulch, kill the ing two full years of red clover, the clover can be
regrowth in late summer as green manure for fall incorporated or surface-applied (clipped and left on
vegetables (197). If avoiding escapes or clover the field) for green manure, cut for mulch or har-
regrowth is most important, terminate as soon as vested for hay (120).
soil conditions allow. Red clover in a corn>soybean>wheat/red
Actively growing red clover can be difficult to clover rotation in a reduced-input system out-per-
kill mechanically, but light fall chisel plowing fol- formed continuous corn in a four-year Wisconsin
lowed by a second such treatment has worked study. The legume cover crop system used no
well in sandy loam Michigan soils. commercial fertilizer, no insecticides and herbi-
To kill clover mechanically in spring, you can cides on only two occasions—once to-spot spray
till, chop or mow it any time after blooming starts. Canada thistles and once as a rescue treatment for
You can also shallow plow, or use a moldboard soybeans. Rotary hoeing and cultivating provided
plow. Chop (using a rolling stalk chopper), flail or weed control.
sicklebar mow about seven to 10 days ahead of Gross margins were $169 for the corn>soy-
no-till planting, or use herbicides. Roundup beans>wheat/red clover and $126 for continuous
Ready® soybeans can be drilled into living red corn using standard agricultural fertilizers, insecti-
clover and sprayed later. cides and herbicides.Top profit in the study went
A summer mowing can make it easier to kill red to a corn>soybean rotation with a gross margin of
clover with herbicides in fall. Michigan recom- $186, using standard inputs (272, 398, 167).
mendations call for mowing (from mid-August in Ohio farmer Rich Bennett frostseeds redclover
northern Michigan to early September in south- (10-12 lb./A) into wheat in February. He gets a
ern Michigan), then allowing regrowth for four decent stand of clover that keeps weeds down in
weeks before spraying. The daytime high air tem- summer after wheat harvest. The clover overwin-
SUBTERRANEAN CLOVERS
Trifolium subterraneum,
T. yanninicum,
T. brachycalcycinum
ubterranean clovers offer a range of low- (Hardiness Zone 7 and warmer) as a killed or liv-
erably (415).
When tarnished plant bug (Lygus lineolaris) is
SUBTERRANEAN CLOVER (Trifolium subterraneum) a potential pest, subclover may be the legume
cover crop of choice, based on a Georgia com-
over winter while living subclover prevented N parison among subclovers, hybrid vetches and
loss (128). Mowing was effective in controlling a crimson clover. MT. BARKER had particularly low
living mulch of subclover in a two-year California levels, and nine other subclover cultivars had
trial with late-spring, direct-seeded sweet corn lower levels than the crimson (56).
and lettuce.This held true where subclover stands
were dense and weed pressure was low. Planting Home for beneficial insects. In tests of eight
into the subclover mulch was difficult, but was cover crops or mixtures intercropped with canta-
done without no-till equipment (239). lope in Georgia, MT. BARKER subclover had the
highest population of big-eyed bugs (Geocorus
Soil loosener. In an Australian study in com- punctipes), a pest predator. Subclover had signifi-
paction-prone sandy loam soil, lettuce yield dou- cantly higher numbers of egg masses of the preda-
bled following a crop of subclover. Without the tor than rye, crimson clover and a polyculture of
clover, lettuce yields were reduced 60 percent on six other cover crops, but not significantly higher
the compacted soil. Soil improvement was credited than for VANTAGE vetch or weedy fallow.While the
to macropores left by decomposing clover roots covers made a significant difference in the preda-
and earthworms feeding on dead mulch (395). tor level, they did not make a significant differ-
ence in control of the target pest, fall armyworm
Great grazing. Subclovers are highly palatable (Spodoptera frugiperda) (56).
and relished by all livestock (120). Seeded with
perennial ryegrass, tall fescue or orchardgrass, sub- Erosion fighter. Subclover’s soil-hugging, dense,
clovers add feed value as they improve produc- matted canopy is excellent for holding soil.
tivity of the grasses by fixing nitrogen. In
California, subclover is used in pasture mixtures Disease-free. No major diseases restrict sub-
on non-irrigated hills. Perennial ryegrass is pre- clover acreage in the U.S. (21).
ferred for pasture through early summer, especial-
ly for sheep (309). MANAGEMENT
ithin a single season on even marginal- and grazing legumes in the South and later
SWEETCLOVERS 171
wheat, could tap the deep P buildup from the
legume roots and fallow leaching, whereas spring
wheat could not. The vesicular-arbuscular mycor-
rhizal (VAM) fungi associated with legume roots
contribute to the increased P availability associat-
ed with sweetclover (69, 70).
SWEETCLOVERS 173
Sweetclover: Good Grazing, Great Green Manure
Bill Granzow taps biennial yellow sweetclover keep cattle healthy on the lush legume
to enhance soil tilth, control erosion and forage.
prevent subsoil from becoming compacted. He • Quick green manure. Spray after it has
uses common varieties, either from the grown 3 to 4 inches, then plant sorghum.
elevator or one his father originally bought This method contributes about 60 pounds
from a neighbor. of N to the soil. He knocks back persistent
Granzow, of Herington, Kan., produces no- re-growing sweetclover crowns in the
till grain and runs cattle in an area midway sorghum by adding 2, 4-D or Banvel to the
between Wichita and Manhattan in the east- postemerge herbicide mix.
central part of the state. Granzow overseeds • Green manure/fallow. Kill at mid- to full
sweetclover into winter wheat in December bloom, leave fallow over summer, then plant
or January at 12 to 15 lb./A using a rotary wheat again in fall. This method provides
broadcaster mounted on his pickup. about 120 lb. N/A, according to estimates
Sometimes he asks the local grain cooperative from Kansas State University.
to mix the seed with his urea fertilizer for the • Seed crop. He windrows the plants when
wheat. There’s no extra charge for seed about 50 percent of the seedpods have
application. Alternately, Granzow plants turned black, then runs the stalks through
sweetclover at the same rate with March- his combine. To remove all of the hulls, he
seeded oats. runs the seed through the combine a
Yellow sweetclover has overgrown second or third time.
Granzow’s wheat only when the wheat stand
is thin and abnormally heavy rains delay Despite the heavy growth in the second year,
harvest. The minimal problem is even rarer in yellow sweetclover matures and dies back
oats, he says. naturally. If the residue is heavy, he sets the
He uses yellow sweetclover with the drill a bit deeper for planting.
companion wheat crop in four possible ways, He rates fall sweetclover hay from the
depending on what the field needs or what seeding year as “acceptable forage.” He’s aware
other value he wants to maximize. For each, that moldy sweetclover hay contains
he lets the clover grow untouched after wheat coumarin, a compound that can kill cattle, but
harvest for the duration of the seeding year. He he’s never encountered the problem. Second-
used to disk the sweetclover at least twice to year yellow sweetclover makes silage at initial
kill it. Now 100% no-till, he sprays with to mid-bloom stage with 16 percent protein
Roundup and “a little bit of 2,4-D.” Second-year on a dry matter basis.
options include: “Mixed with grass hay or other silage, it
• Grazing/green manure. Turn in livestock makes an excellent feed,” he says, adding value
when the clover reaches 4 inches tall, let to its cover crop benefits and giving him
them graze for several weeks, spray to kill, farming flexiblity.
then plant grain sorghum within a couple of Updated in 2007 by Andy Clark
days. He feeds an anti-bloat medication to
SWEETCLOVERS 175
ter contribution, mow prior to blossom stage Pest Management
whenever sweetclover reaches 12 to 24 inches Sweetclover is a rather poor competitor in its
high before final incorporation or termination establishment year, making it difficult to establish
(361). Mowing or grazing at bloom can kill the pure sweetclover in a field with significant weed
plants. pressure. Once established, it provides effective
In dryland areas, the optimum termination date weed control during the first fall and spring of fal-
for a green manure varies with moisture condi- low, whether or not it is harvested for hay, incor-
tions. In a spring wheat>fallow rotation in porated or left on the soil surface (33).
Saskatchewan, sweetclover Sweetclover residue is said to be allelopathic
During its incorporated in mid-June against kochia, Russia thistle, dandelion, perennial
of a dry year provided 80 sowthistle, stinkweed and green foxtail. Repeated
second season, percent more N the fol- mowing of yellow sweetclover that is then left to
yellow sweet- lowing spring than it did mature is reported to have eradicated Canada this-
when incorporated in tle. Letting sweetclover bloom and go to seed
clover can grow early July or mid-July— dries out soil throughout the profile, depleting the
even though it yielded up root reserves of weeds.
8 feet tall while to a third less biomass at Sweetclover weevil (Sitonia cylindricollis) is a
roots penetrate the June date. Mineraliz- major pest in some areas, destroying stands by
ation from sweetclover defoliating newly emerged seedlings. Long rota-
5 feet deep. usually peaks about a year tions can reduce damage, an important factor for
after it is killed. The organic farmers who depend on sweetclover fer-
potential rate of N release tility and soil improvements. In the worst years of
decreases as plants mature and is affected by soil an apparent 12 to 15-year weevil cycle in his area,
moisture content (147). “every sweetclover plant across the countryside
In this study, the differences in N release were is destroyed,” according to organic farmer David
consistent in years of normal precipitation, but Podoll, Fullerton, N.D. “Then the weevil popula-
were less pronounced. Little N mineralization tion crashes, followed by a few years where
occurred in the incorporation year. Nitrogen addi- they’re not a problem, then they begin to rebuild.”
tion peaked in the following year, and has been Cultural practices have not helped change the
shown to continue over seven years following yel- cycle, but planting early with a non-competitive
low sweetclover (147). nurse crop (flax or small grains) gives sweetclover
In northern spring wheat areas of North plants the best chance to survive weevil foraging,
Dakota, yellow sweetclover is usually terminated Podoll says. Further research is needed to develop
in early June just at the onset of bloom, when it management techniques to control the weevil.
reaches 2 to 3 feet tall. This point is a compro- In a three-year Michigan trial of crop rotations
mise between cover crop gain (in dry matter to decrease economic losses to nematodes, a yel-
and N) and water consumption.A quick kill from low sweetclover (YSC)>YSC>potato sequence
tillage or haying is more expensive and labor- out-yielded other combinations of rye, corn,
intensive than chemical desiccation, but it stops sorghum-sudangrass and alfalfa. Two years of
moisture-robbing transpiration more quickly clover or alfalfa followed by potatoes led to a yield
(153). response equivalent to application of a nemati-
Grazing is another way to manage second-year cide for control of premature potato vine death
sweetclover before incorporation. Start early in (78). Legume-supplied N coupled with an overall
the season with a high stocking rate of cattle to nutrient balance and enhanced cation exchange
stay ahead of rapid growth. Bloat potential is capacity from the cover crop are thought to be
slightly less than with alfalfa (153). involved in suppressing nematode damage (271).
SWEETCLOVERS 177
planting a fall crop. Alternatively, you can allow it COMPARATIVE NOTES
to winterkill for a thick, lasting mulch.
In Pennsylvania, Eric and Anne Nordell seed Sweetclover and other deep-rooted biennial and
sweetclover after early vegetables (in June or July) perennial legumes are not suited for the most
and allow it to grow throughout the summer. It severely drought-prone soils, as their excessive
puts down a deep taproot before winter, fixes soil moisture use will depress yield of subsequent
nitrogen and may bring nutrients to the soil sur- wheat crops for years to come (163).
face from deep in the soil profile. See Full-Year When planting sweetclover after wheat har-
Covers Tackle Tough Weeds, p. 38. vest, weeds can become a problem. An organic
farmer in northeastern Kansas reports that to kill
Other Options cocklebur, he has to mow lower than the sweet-
First-year forage has the same palatability and clover can tolerate. Annual alfalfa can tolerate low
feeding value as alfalfa, although harvest can mowing (205).
reduce second-year vigor. Second-year forage is of After 90 days’ growth in a North Dakota dryland
lower quality and legume comparison, a June planting of yellow
Sweetclover becomes less palatable as sweetclover produced dry matter and N compara-
plants mature, but may ble to alfalfa and lespedeza (Lespedeza stipulacea
tolerates a wide total 2 to 3 tons per acre Maxim). Subclover, fava beans (Vicia faba) and
range of harsh (120). field peas had the best overall N-fixing efficiency in
Growers report seed the dryland setting because of quick early season
environments, yield of 200 to 400 lb./A growth and good water use efficiency (331).
poor soils and in North Dakota. Minimize
shattering of seedpods Cultivars. Yellow cultivars include MADRID, which
pests. by swathing sweetclover is noted for its good vigor and production, and its
when 30 to 60 percent of relative resistance to fall freezes. GOLDTOP has
its pods are brown or excellent seedling vigor, matures two weeks later,
black. Pollinating insects are required for good provides larger yields of higher quality forage and
seed yield (183). has a larger seed than MADRID (361). Yellow com-
Hard seed that escapes harvest will remain mon and YUKON joined GOLDTOP and MADRID—all
in the soil seed bank, but organic farmer high-coumarin types—as the highest yielding culti-
Rich Mazour of Deweese, Neb., sees that as a plus. vars in a six-year North Dakota test (269).
A 20- to 30-percent stand in his native grass pas- Leading white biennial cultivars are DENTA,
tures comes on early each spring, giving his cattle POLARA and ARCTIC. POLARA and ARCTIC are adapt-
early grazing. Once warm-season grasses start to ed to very cold winters. Best for grazing are the
grow, they keep the clover in check. In tilled lower-producing, low-coumarin cultivars DENTA
fields, sweep cultivators and residue-management and POLARA (white) and NORGOLD (yellow).
tillage implements take care of sweetclovers with
other tap-rooted “resident vegetation,” Mazour Seed sources. See Seed Suppliers (p. 195).
says.
hite clovers are a top choice for “living The best of 36 varieties tested in north-central
Marianne Sarrantonio
cooler areas, where N-fixing bacteria persist in the
soil for up to three years, even volunteer wild
white clover should leave enough bacteria behind
to eliminate the need for inoculation (120).
Mowing no lower than 2 to 3 inches will keep
white clover healthy. To safely overwinter white WHITE CLOVER (Trifolium repens—
clover, leave 3 to 4 inches (6 to 8 inches for taller intermediate type)
types) to prevent frost damage.
Crop Systems
Killing Living mulch systems. As a living mulch, white
Thorough uprooting and incorporation by chisel clover gives benefits above and below ground
or moldboard plowing, field cultivating, undercut- while it grows between rows of cash crops, pri-
ting or rotary tilling, or—in spring—use of a suit- marily in fruits, vegetables, orchards and vine-
able herbicide will result in good to excellent kill yards. Living mulch has not proved effective in
of white clover. Extremely close mowing and par- agronomic crops to this point. To receive the
tial tillage that leaves any roots undisturbed will multiple benefits, manage the covers carefully
suppress, but not kill, white clover. throughout early crop growth—to keep them
from competing with the main crop for light,
Pest Management nutrients, and especially moisture—while not
Prized by bees. Bees work white clover blos- killing them. Several methods can do that effec-
soms for both nectar and pollen. Select insect- tively.
management measures that minimize negative
impact on bees and other pollinators. Michigan Hand mowing/in-row mulch. Farmer Alan
blueberry growers find that it improves pollina- Matthews finds that a self-propelled 30-inch
tion, as does crimson clover (see Clovers Build rotary mower controls a clover mix between
Soil, Blueberry Production, p. 182). green pepper rows in a quarter-acre field. He uses
40-foot wide, contour strip fields and the living
Insect/disease risks. White clovers are fairly tol- mulch to help prevent erosion on sloping land
erant of nematodes and leaf diseases, but are sus- near Pittsburgh, Pa. In his 1996 SARE on-farm
ceptible to root and stolon rots. Leading insect research, he logged $500 more net profit per acre
pests are the potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae), on his living mulch peppers than on his conven-
meadow spittlebug (Philaenis spumarius), clover tionally produced peppers (259).
leaf weevil (Hypera punctata), alfalfa weevil Matthews mulches the transplants with hay, 12
(Hypera postica) and Lygus bug (Lygus spp.). inches on each side of the row. He hand-seeds the
If not cut or grazed to stimulate new growth, the cover mix at a heavy 30 lb./A between the rows.
buildup of vegetation on aged stolons and stems cre- The mix is 50 percent white Dutch clover, 30 per-
ates a susceptibility to disease and insect problems. cent berseem clover, and 20 percent HUIA white
Protect against pest problems by selecting resistant clover, which is a bit taller than the white Dutch.
cultivars, rotating crops, maintaining soil fertility and He mows the field in fall, then broadcasts medium
employing proper cutting schedules (361). red clover early the next spring to establish a hay
In the heart of blueberry country in the to two farms: Double-R Blueberry Farm and
leading blueberry state in the U.S., Richard Wind Dancer Farms, jointly operated by RJ
James “RJ” Rant and his mother, Judy Rant, are and his mother, Judy.
breaking new ground and reaping great Michigan blueberry farmers have been
rewards. Thanks to cover crops such as white using cover crops for many years, and top-
and crimson clover taking center stage on producing Ottawa County farmers are no
their two family farms, the blueberry crop is exception. Growing blueberry bushes on
thriving and the farmers are reaping significant ten-foot centers, there is a lot of space
rewards. between rows that farmers try to manage
The Rants’ soil is also on the receiving end as economically and efficiently as possible.
of the multiple benefits of white and crimson Seeking something that will not compete with
clover cover crops. the cash crop, most farmers choose rye or
Judy and her husband, Richard Rant, planted sod. Both require significant management in
their first bushes in the early 1980s while both terms of time and labor, not to mention seed
were still working full time off the farm. They and fuel costs to plant and kill.
managed the farm until retirement without RJ Rant took a different tack. Their sandy
going into debt—something of an loam soils were decent but not excellent, and
accomplishment during that period—but the his research led him to focus his efforts on
operation never really took off. Still in high improving the soil by reducing tillage and
school when his father passed away, RJ Rant planting cover crops. While rye, an annual
stepped into the operation during college. cover crop, required tillage in fall before
Choosing farming over graduate school, RJ planting and in spring to kill and incorporate,
began a quest to improve the blueberry perennial white clover could be grown for
operation and its bottom line. His focus on two or more years without tilling. Because it is
soil-building and cover crops proved key to low-growing, the clover required less labor in
the success of their operation, now expanded planting and mowing.
field and replace the berseem, which is not win- The research showed that in dry years, mowing
terhardy (259). alone won’t suppress a living mulch enough to
New Zealand white clover provided good keep it from competing for soil moisture with
weed control for winter squash in the wetter of crops in 16-inch rows. Further, weeds can be even
two years in a New York trial. It was used in an more competitive than the clover for water dur-
experimental non-chemical system relying on ing these dry times (282).
over-the-row compost for in-row weed control. A California study showed that frequent mow-
Plants were seeded into tilled strips 16 inches ing can work with careful management. A white
wide spaced 4 feet apart. Poor seed establishment clover cover reduced levels of cabbage aphids in
and lagging clover growth in the drier year creat- harvested broccoli heads compared with clean-
ed weed problems, especially with perennial cultivated broccoli. The clover-mulched plants, in
competitors. The living mulch/compost system strip-tilled rows 4 inches wide, had yield and size
yielded less than a conventionally tilled and comparable to clean cultivated rows. However,
fertilized control both years, due in part to only intensive irrigation and mowing prevented
delayed crop development from the in-row com- moisture competition. To be profitable commer-
post (282). cially, the system would require irrigation or a less
thirsty legume, as well as field-scale equipment the clover. Leaf smut Healthy stands
able to mow between several rows in a single caused less problem on the
pass (93). living-mulch corn than on can produce
Chemical suppression is unpredictable. An the clean-cultivated check 80 to 130 lb.
application rate that sets back the clover suffi- plot (170).
ciently one year may be too harsh (killing the N/A when killed
clover) or not suppressive the next year due to Crop shading. Sweet
corn shading can hold
the year after
moisture, temperature or soil conditions.
white clover in check establishment.
Partial rotary tillage. In a New York evaluation of when corn is planted in
mechanical suppression, sweet corn planting strips 15-inch rows and about 15
20 inches wide were rotary tilled June 2 into white inches apart within the row. This spacing yielded
clover. Although mowing (even five times) didn’t higher corn growth rates, more marketable ears
sufficiently suppress clover, partial rotary tilling at per plant and higher crop yields than conven-
two weeks after emergence worked well. A strip tional plots without clover in an Oregon study.
of clover allowed to pass between the tines led to Corn was planted into tilled strips 4 to 6 inches
ample clover regrowth. A surge of N within a wide about the same time the clover was chemi-
month of tilling aided the growing corn. The loss cally suppressed. Adapted row-harvesting equip-
of root and nodule tissue following stress from ment and handpicking would be needed to make
tillage or herbicide shock seems to release N from the spacing practical (139).
Type: legume
pecialty vetches such as woollypod and pur- In Zone 5 and colder and parts of Zone 6, wool-
Elayne Sears
used, the covers might
water costs, try seeding just before a storm is fore- be allowed to grow for a
cast, then irrigate if the rain misses you. longer period and pro-
vide additional N.Timing is WOOLLYPOD
Spring planting. Planted in early spring, woolly- important when disking, VETCH
pod vetch can provide plowdown N by Memorial however, as you don’t want (Vicia villosa ssp.
Day for a summer annual cash crop in the Northeast. to make equipment access dasycarpa)
difficult or compact soil
Mowing & Managing during wet spring condi-
Woollypod vetch can survive freezing conditions tions (211).
for days, but severe cold can markedly reduce its Given the high dry matter production from
dry matter and N production (212, 273). woollypod vetch when it’s allowed to grow at
In most cases, main challenges for an estab- least until late March, two or three diskings or
lished woollypod vetch stand include managing mowings will encourage rapid decomposition.
its abundant growth and viny tendrils and ensur- Power spaders can reduce soil compaction when
ing adequate moisture for your primary crop. In incorporating vetches in spring conditions, com-
wet environments such as western Oregon, how- pared with heavier disk harrows (421).
ever, LANA vetch can retard spring soil drying and
seedbed preparation for summer crops (364). Moisture concerns. Many orchard and vineyard
Woollypod responds well to mowing, as long as growers find it helpful to drip irrigate tree or vine
you keep the stand at least 5 inches tall and avoid rows if they are growing an aggressive cover crop
mowing during the two-month period just before such as LANA between the rows for the first time.
it reseeds. “I can mow as late as mid-March and In California vineyards where irrigation isn’t used,
still see good reseeding,” says Glenn Anderson, an a few growers report that vines seem to lose vigor
organic almond grower in California’s Central faster when grown with cover crops. Others
Valley.“After that, I may mow if I want to prevent haven’t observed this effect. After a few years of
some frost damage, but I know I’ll lose some of growing leguminous covers, many find that their
the vetch through reduced reseeding.” soil is holding moisture better and they need less
Anderson usually mows the floor cover once or water to make the system work.
twice before mid-March and after it reseeds. He
cuts in the direction of prevailing winds—which Reseeding concerns. Vetch mixtures often fail
can be on a diagonal to his tree rows—to facilitate to reseed effectively, especially if they have been
air movement throughout the orchard, especially mowed at the wrong time or soil fertility is high.
when he anticipates moist air heading his way. Some vineyard managers expect low persistence
In vineyards, “high chopping” legume mixes to and reseed a vetch mix in alternate rows every
a 12-inch height can help keep them from trellis- fall, or reseed spotty patches.
To find your best cover crops, you needn’t you use field-scale machinery, establish field-
become Dr. Science or devote your life to length plots. For row crops, use plots at least four
research. It’s not hard to set up valid, on-farm tests rows wide, or strips based on your equipment
and make observations. Follow these steps: width. Keep in mind the subsequent crop’s man-
agement needs.
A. Narrow your options. Aim for a limited-scale
trial of just two to five species or mixtures. You D. Design an objective trial. Plots need to be as
can test the best one or two in a larger trial the uniform as possible, randomly selected for each
next year. Unsure of the best place and time in option you’re testing, and preferably replicated (at
your rotation? Start with small plots separated least two or three plots for each option). If parts
from cropped fields and plant over a range of of the field have major differences (such as poor-
dates, under optimal soil and weather conditions. er drainage or weedy spots), put blocks or groups
If you’re sure where and when to plant and have of plots together so each treatment has equal rep-
just two or three covers to try, put the trial right resentation in each field part, or avoid those areas
in your cropped fields, using your normal seedbed for your trial entirely. Label each plot and make a
preparation.This method provides rapid feedback map of the trial area.
on how the cover crops fit into your cropping sys-
tem. Keep in mind management may need some E. Be timely. Regard the trial as highly as any
tweaking (such as seeding rate or date) to get the other crop. Do as much or as little field prepara-
best results. tion as you would for whole fields, and at an
appropriate time. If possible, plant on two or
B. Order small seed amounts. Many compa- more dates at least two weeks apart. In general,
nies provide 1- to 10-pound bags if you give them seed winter annuals at least six weeks before a
advance notice. If 50-pound bags are the only killing frost. Wheat and rye can be planted later,
option, arrange to share it with other growers. although that will reduce the N-scavenging signif-
Don’t eliminate a species just because seed price icantly.
seems high. If it works well, it could trim other
costs.You could consider growing your own seed F. Plant carefully. If seeding large plots with
eventually, and perhaps even selling it locally. Be tractor-mounted equipment, calibrate your seed-
sure to obtain appropriate inoculants if you’ll be ing equipment for each cover crop. This can
testing legumes, which require species-specific prevent failures or performance differences due
rhizobial bacteria so the cover can capture and to incorrect seeding rates. Keep a permanent
“fix” N efficiently. See Nodulation: Match record of drill settings for future reference. A
Inoculant to Maximize N (p. 122). hand-crank or rotary spin seeder works well for
small plots getting less than five pounds of seed.
C. Determine plot sizes. Keep them small Weigh seed for each plot into a separate con-
enough to manage, yet large enough to yield ade- tainer. To calculate seeding rates for small plots,
quate and reliable data. Plots two to four rows use this formula: 1 lb./acre = 0.35 oz (10 grams)/
wide by 50 to 100 feet could suffice if you grow 1000 ft2 area seeded. If your cover crop seeding
vegetables for market. If you have 10 or more rate calls for 30 lb/acre, multiply 0.35 oz by 30.
acres, quarter- or half-acre plots may be feasible. If You will need 10.5 oz (300 grams) of seed for
Appendix B
UP-AND-COMING COVER CROPS
Talbot Ag Supply
13612 1st St.
Queen Anne, MD 21657
410-820-2388
robertshaw@friendly.net
ORGANIZATIONS 201
ORGANIZATIONS—WEST Small Farm Center
University of California
Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food
One Shields Ave.
Systems
Davis, CA 95616
University of California
530-752-8136
1156 High St.
fax 530-752-7716
Santa Cruz, CA 95064
sfcenter@ucdavis.edu
831-459-3240
www.sfc.ucdavis.edu
fax 831-459-2799
serves as a clearinghouse for questions from
jonitann@ucsc.edu
farmers, marketers, farm advisors, trade associa-
www.ucsc.edu/casfs
tions, government officials & agencies, & the aca-
Facilitates the training of organic farmers
demic community
& gardeners, with practical hands-on & academic
training University of California SAREP
One Shields Ave.
SARE Western Region Office
Davis, CA 95616-8716
Utah State University
530-752-7556
4865 Old Main Hill
fax 530-754-8550
Room 322
sarep@ucdavis.edu
Logan, UT 84322-4865
www.sarep.ucdavis.edu
435-797-2257
wsare@ext.usu.edu
www.westernsare.org
Appendix E
REGIONAL EXPERTS
These individuals are willing to briefly respond to specific Jim Crawford
questions in their area of expertise, or to provide referral to New Morning Farm
others in the sustainable agriculture field. Please respect
their schedules and limited ability to respond. Note: CC 22263 Anderson Hollow Rd.
denotes cover crop(s) or cover cropping. Hustontown, PA 17229
814-448-3904
fax 814-448-2295
NORTHEAST jim@newmorningfarm.net
Andy Clark www.newmorningfarm.net
SARE Outreach 35 years of CC for vegetable production
1122 Patapsco Building
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742-6715
301-405-2689
fax 301-405-7711
coordinator@sare.org
www.sare.org
technical information specialist for sustainable
agriculture; legume/grass CC mixtures
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Appendix G
RESOURCES FROM SARE
SARE’s print and online resources cover a range of The New American Farmer 2nd Edition,
topics, from tillage tool selection to interpreting a 200 pp, $16.95
soil test for your conditions. Most publications Profiles 60 farmers and ranchers who are renew-
can be viewed in their entirety at www.sare.org/ ing profits, enhancing environmental stewardship
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munities by embracing new approaches to agri-
BOOKS culture.
Building a Sustainable Business, 280 pp, $17 The New Farmers’ Market, 272 pp, $26.95
A business planning guide for alternative and sus- Covers the latest tips and trends from leading sell-
tainable agriculture entrepreneurs that follows ers, managers, and market planners to best display
one farming family through the planning, imple- and sell product. (Discount rates do not apply.)
mentation, and evaluation process.
Steel in the Field, 128 pp, online only
Building Soils for Better Crops, 294 pp, $20.95 Farmer experience, commercial agricultural engi-
How ecological soil management can raise fertili- neering expertise and university research com-
ty and yields while reducing environmental bine to tackle the hard questions of how to
impact. reduce weed management costs and herbicide
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Crop Rotation on Organic Farms: A
Planning Manual, 154 pp, $24 Youth Renewing the Countryside,
An in-depth review of the applications of crop 171 pp, $24.95
rotation, including improving soil quality and Shares stories of young people in each state
health, and managing pests, diseases and weeds. changing the world through rural renewal.
Manage Insects on Your Farm: A Guide to Shipping & Handling: Add $5.95 for first book,
Ecological Strategies, 128 pp, $15.95 plus $2 for each additional book shipped within
Manage insect pests ecologically using crop diver- the U.S.A. Call (301) 374-9696 for shipping rates
sification, biological control and sustainable soil on orders of 10 or more items, rush orders, or
management. international shipments. Please allow 3-4 weeks
for delivery. MD residents add 5% sales tax. (Prices
are subject to change.)
INDEX 233
in rotation, 15, 26–27, 34–43 for fertilizer reduction, 9–10 red clover, 160
winter wheat, 112 management of, 161–63 rye, 99
Cereal grains. See Small grains, overseeding, 12 white clover, 180
specific crops overview of, 159 Conservation tillage.
Cereal rye. See Rye performance and roles, See Tillage, conservation
Chlorsulfuron, 76 67–68 Corn belt. See Midwest
Choppers/chopping. planting of, 70, 161 Corn cropping systems
See also Rolling stalk in rotation, 36–37, 160, berseem clover, 123–24
chopper, 108, 121, 145 162–63 brassicas, 83, 85, 88
Clover, alsike, 163 Clover, rose, 14 in conservation tillage, 55
Clover, balansa, 170, 191–92 Clover, subterranean crimson clover, 132–33
Clover, berseem advantages of, 26, 31, 71 field peas, 141
advantages of, 71 benefits of, 165–66 hairy vetch, 142–43, 145
benefits of, 118–19 comparative notes, 170 medics, 156
comparative notes, 124 cultivars, 165, 170 oats-rye, 96, 103
cultural traits, 69 cultural traits, 69 red clover, 159, 160, 161, 162
disadvantages of, 72 disadvantages of, 72 in rotation, 9, 10, 142
management of, 119–24 management of, 166–70 with soybeans, 34–37, 41, 44,
overview of, 118 in orchards, 14 53, 96, 112
performance and roles, overview of, 164–65 subterranean clover, 165–66,
67–68 performance and roles, 169, 170
planting of, 70, 119–20 67–68 white clover, 183
in rotation, 36–37, 123–24 planting of, 70, 166–67 winter wheat, 112
Clover, crimson reseeding, 13 Costs
advantages of, 26, 30, 71 in rotation, 41 in corn rotation, 162
benefits of, 130–31 Clover, white cover crops, 9, 50
comparative notes, 134 advantages of, 71 fertilizer cost reduction, 9–10
cultivars, 133 benefits of, 179–80 lupins, 193
cultural traits, 69 comparative notes, 184 medics, 156
disadvantages of, 72 cultivars, 179 pesticides, 10, 27
in orchards, 14 cultural traits, 69 red clover, 160
overseeding, 12 disadvantages of, 72 reducing, 27
overview of, 130 living mulch, 13 seed, 64, 70, 189
for pasture and hay, 134 in orchards, 14 sorghum-sudangrass hybrids,
performance and roles, overseeding, 12 106
67–68 overview of, 179 sunnhemp, 194
planting of, 70, 131–33 performance and roles, Cotton
in rotation, 35, 36, 41 67–68 in conservation tillage, 55
soil erosion protection, 11 planting of, 70, 180–81 in no-till system, 149–50
winter cover, 15 in rotation, 37 rotations for, 40–42
Clover, red Collins, Hal, 60–61 soil erosion protection, 11
advantages of, 71 Companion crop. and soybeans, 126
benefits of, 159–61 See also Nurse crop Cover crops.
comparative notes, 163–64 berseem clover, 119, 124 See also specific crops
cultivars, 160–61, 164 cowpeas, 126 advantages of, 64–65, 71
cultural traits, 69 field peas, 138 benefits of, 9–11, 16, 57, 58,
disadvantages of, 72 oats, 95 59, 60, 61
INDEX 235
Southeast, 58 Farmer accounts Farmer accounts
Southern Plains, 59 Gies, Dale-potato/wheat Sheridan, Pat-No-till farming,
Farmer accounts rotation, 86–87 52–53
Abdul-Baki, Aref-hairy vetch Granzow, Bill-sweetclovers Stevens, Will-wheat as winter
as mulch, 150 for grazing and green cover, 115
Alger, Jess-perennial medic manure, 174 Thompson, Dick and
for soil quality, fertility, 153 Groff, Steve-incorporating rye Sharon-hairy vetch and
Anderson, Glenn-woollypod seed, 100 nematodes, 32
vetch as frost protectant Groff, Steve-killing rye, 101 Farming organizations, 200–202
and recognizing seedlings, Groff, Steve-no-till vegetable Fava beans, 78
186 transplanting, 103 Fernholz, Carmen, 97
Anderson, Glenn-woollypod Kirschenmann, Fred-sweet- Fertilizer
vetch reseeding, 187–88 clover with nurse crops, and cover crops, 46
Bartolucci, Ron-establishing 177 for fallow systems, 139
woollypod vetch, 186 LaRocca, Phil-barley in red clover, 161, 162, 163
Bennett, Rich-frostseeding vineyard mix, 79 reducing, 9–10, 53
red clover, 162–63 Lazor, Jack-barley in subterranean clover, 169
Bennett, Rich-rye for weed mixtures, 79 Fescue, 13, 107, 144
management in soybeans, Maddox, Erol-rye, 105 Field Peas
104 Martin, Barry-managing rye, advantages of, 71
Beste, Ed-subterranean clover 102–3 benefits of, 135–37
with corn, 170 Matthews, Alan-white clover comparative notes, 141
Brubaker, John-crop rollers in contour strips, 181 cultural traits, 69
for no-till, 146 Mazour, Rich-managing disadvantages of, 72
Brutlag, Alan-lightly seeding sweetclover escapes, 178 for fertilizer reduction, 10
barley, 79–80 Moyer, Jeff-crop rollers for management of, 137–41
Burkett, Ben-winter peas for no-till, 146–48 overview of, 135
disease suppression, 138 Nordell, Eric and Anne-cover performance and roles,
Carter, Max-wheat crops for weeds, 38–39 67–68
production, 113 Nordell, Eric and Anne-early planting of, 70, 136, 137–41
Davis, Bryan and Donna-oats seeding sweetclover, 178 in rotation, 42
and rye in corn/bean Phatak, Sharad-cover crops winter cover, 15
rotation, 96, 103 for pest related benefits, Forage
de Wilde, Rich-killing rye, 101 30–31 annual ryegrass, 75
de Wilde, Rich-rye for mulch, Phatak, Sharad-cover crops to barley, 80
103 control pests in cotton, berseem clover, 119
de Wilde, Rich-spring seeding peanuts, 26–27 field peas, 136, 137
rye, 100 Podoll, David-sweetclover grasses, 73
Dunsmoor, Dan-sorghum weevil cycle, 176 medics, 155, 156
sudangrass nematicidal Quigley, Ed-managing rye, mixed seedings in, 117
effect, 109 103 rapeseed, 84
Erisman, Jack-timing rye kill, Quigley, Ed-seeding after red clover, 163
101 corn harvest, 35 rye, 105
French, Jim-cowpeas in Rant, Richard-clover in sorghum-sudangrass hybrids,
rotation, 128 blueberries, 182–83 107
French, Jim-field peas, 140 Sheridan, Pat-managing rye, sweetclover, 173, 178
102
INDEX 237
oats, 95 Lupins, 19, 193 Midwest
red clover, 162 Lupinus angustifolium L.. berseem clover, 120
roller-crimpers, 54 See Lupins buckwheat, 92
rye, 35, 100–101, 102 cover crops for, 34–37, 41,
ryegrass, 76 M 57, 66
sorghum-sudangrass hybrids, Malting barley, 10 cowpeas, 129
108 Mammoth clover. hairy vetch, 145
subterranean clover, 167 See Clover, red medics, 155, 157
sweetclover, 175–76 Maura, Clarence, 194 oats, 94
white clover, 181 McGuire, Andy, 86, 87 rye, 100, 101
winter wheat, 115 Medicago. See Medics strip tillage, 56
Ladino clover. See Clover, white Medicago arabica, 154 sweetclover, 172, 173
Lana vetch. See Vetch, Medics weed problems, 75
woollypod advantages of, 71 Millet, 13, 163
Leaching. See also Nitrogen, 11, benefits of, 152–55 Mishanec, John, 108
18–19, 24, 45, 94, 100 comparative notes, 157–58 Mitchell, Jeffrey, 61
Legumes. See also specific crops cultivars, 158–59 Mixed seeding/Mixtures
in conservation tillage, 47 cultural traits, 69 advantages/disadvantages of,
grass mixtures and, 47 disadvantages of, 72 117–18
lentils, 11, 139 management of, 155–57 annual ryegrass, 76
moisture conservation, 11 for moisture conservation, 11 barley, 78, 79
nitrogen and, 9, 47, 94 in orchards, 14 berseem clover, 120
nodulation, 122–23 overview of, 152–53 brassicas, 88
in orchards, 14 performance and roles, cowpeas, 108
overview of, 116 67–68 crimson clover, 131, 133
in rotation, 9, 42–43, 139 planting of, 70, 155–56 grass/legume, 47
and rye mixtures, 40–41, 99, in rotation, 42, 156–57 hairy vetch, 99, 144
101, 103 Medium red clover. oats, 94
soil erosion protection, 11 See Clover, red red clover, 160
Lentils, 11, 139 Melilotus officinalis. rye, 99, 100, 101
Ley cropping subterranean See Sweetclovers rye/legume, 40–41, 99, 101,
clover, 155 Meloidogyne hapla. 103
Living mulches See Nematodes sorghum-sudangrass hybrids,
advantages of, 13 Meloidogyne javanica. 108
in conservation tillage, 55 See Nematodes subterranean clover, 165, 169
perennial ryegrass, 13 Microorganisms. See also winter wheat, 114–15
rodents and, 76 Biomass; Organic matter; Mowers/mowing
turfgrasses, 13 Residue, 17, 21, 31 barley, 79
for weed management, 33 Mid-Atlantic berseem clover, 120–21
white clover, 180, 181 cover crops for, 66 brassicas, 88
Lolium multiflorum. crimson clover, 132 in conservation tillage, 55
See Ryegrass, annual field peas, 138, 141 cowpeas, 127–28
Louisiana S-1 clover. hairy vetch, 143 crimson clover, 133
See Clover, white rye, 101 fescue, 144
Lupin albus L.. See Lupins weed problems, 75 flail, 108, 120, 145
hairy vetch, 145
INDEX 239
O small grains, 13 R
Oats sorghum-sudangrass Radishes. See also Brassicas
advantages of, 71 hybrids, 13 advantages of, 24, 71
benefits of, 93–94 sweetclover, 177 cultural traits, 69
comparative notes, 97 white clover, 180 overview of, 85
cultural traits, 69 performance and roles,
disadvantages of, 72 P 67–68
management of, 94–97 Pacific Northwest planting of, 70
overview of, 93 brassicas, 80, 82 in rotation, 10, 83
performance and roles, cover crops for, 60–61, 66 Rapeseed. See also Brassicas
67–68 erosion control, 78 advantages of, 71
planting of, 70, 94–95, 96 Paradana clover. cultural traits, 69
in rotation, 9, 37, 40 See Clover, balansa disadvantages of, 72
Oats, black, 46, 97, 192–93 Paraquat, 88, 107, 170 overview of, 84
Orchards. See also Fruits; Paratylenchus projectus. performance and roles,
Vineyards See Nematodes 67–68
annual ryegrass, 74 Perennials. See specific crops planting of, 70
barley, 78 Pests. See Diseases; Insects; Reseeding
cover crops and, 14 Weeds balansa clover, 191, 192
medics, 154 Phosphorus barley, 79
rye, 99 brassicas, 89 crimson clover, 133, 183
subterranean clover, 164, buckwheat, 91 medics, 155, 156
165, 167, 169 cover crops, 19–20 subterranean clover, 168
woollypod vetch, 185, 186 crimson clover, 131 sweetclover, 173
Organic matter. hairy vetch, 144 white clover, 180
See also Biomass; Residue oats, 93–94 woollypod vetch, 187–88
cover crops and, 96 red clover, 163 Residue. See also Biomass;
medics, 154–55 sweetclover, 172 Organic matter
overview of, 17 winter wheat, 112 berseem clover, 122
rye, 99 Pisum sativum. See Field Peas brassicas, 83–84
winter wheat, 112 Planting. See Seeding/Seeds, buckwheat, 39–40
woollypod vetch, 186 specific crops in conservation tillage, 44–45
Overseeding. Plastic mulch, 150 hairy vetch, 143–44, 145
See also Seeding/Seeds Polysaccharides, 17–18 medics, 154–55
annual ryegrass, 12, 76 Potassium rye, 99, 101, 103, 104
barley, 79 crimson clover, 131 small grains, 36
berseem clover, 120 hairy vetch, 144 sorghum-sudangrass hybrids,
in crop rotation, 12 oats, 93–94, 97 108
field peas, 141 rye, 98 subterranean clover, 168
hairy vetch, 12, 144 sweetclover, 172 sweetclover, 176
medics, 156, 157 winter wheat, 112 Rhizobia, 20
millet, 13 Potatoes, 81, 82, 83, 84, Riga, Ekaterini, 83, 87
oats, 94 86–87, 88 Rodale Institute, 146, 148
red clover, 161 Predators. See Insects
rye, 12, 98, 100 Prussic acid, 96, 111
INDEX 241
buckwheat, 91 medics, 154 Sunnhemp, 108, 127, 193–94
in conservation tillage, 45 strip tillage, 56 Sweetclovers
cover crops, 11, 16–24, 39 sweetclover, 171 advantages of, 24, 71
field peas, 136 Southeast benefits of, 172–73
hairy vetch, 143 berseem clover, 120 comparative notes, 178
improving, 10–11, 13 cover crops for, 58–59, 66 cultivars, 178
red clover, 160 field peas, 135, 138, 139–40 cultural traits, 69
rye, 104, 105 medics, 154 disadvantages of, 72
ryegrass, annual, 74 Southern Plains management of, 173, 175–76
small grains, 36 cover crops for, 59–60, 66 overview of, 171–72
sorghum-sudangrass hybrids, crimson clover, 132 performance and roles, 13,
106–7 rye, 101 67–68
subterranean clover, 166, 167 weed problems, 75 planting of, 70, 173, 175
sweetclover, 172, 176 Southwest, 66 in rotation, 37, 176
white clover, 180, 182–83 Soybeans
winter wheat, 112 berseem clover, 123–24 T
Soil moisture. See also Soil; Soil brassicas, 85 Tillage. See also No-till
erosion; Soil fertility and tilth in conservation tillage, 55 brassicas, 84
cover crops, 11, 24, 35–36, cotton intercropping, 126 conservation, 27, 29, 30, 42,
47–48, 96 crimson clover, 53 44–61
field peas, 136 crop rotation systems, 34–36, effect on organic matter, 18
medics, 155–56 41, 44 mustards, 84
nitrogen and, 21 field pea overseeding, 141 nitrogen and, 21–24
oats, 95 hairy vetch overseeding, 53, sorghum-sudangrass hybrids,
rye, 101, 104 144 108, 109
sweetclover, 172, 177, 178 nematodes and, 32 strip tillage equipment,
Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids red clover, 161–62 56–57
advantages of, 24, 32, 71 in rotation, 10, 96, 108 white clover, 183
benefits of, 106–7 rye, 52, 98, 104 Trials on farm, 189–90
comparative notes, 111 winter wheat, 53, 112 Trifolium alexandrinum.
cultivars, 109, 111 Strip cropping See Clover, berseem
cultural traits, 69 annual ryegrass, 77 Trifolium balansae.
disadvantages of, 72 berseem clover, 124 See Clover, balansa
management of, 108–11 in cotton, 41 Trifolium brachycalcycinum.
moisture conservation and, cowpeas, 129 See Clover, subterranean
11 equipment, 56–57 Trifolium incarnatum.
overseeding, 13 nematodes and, 32 See Clover, crimson
overview of, 106 rye, 99 Trifolium michelianum Savi.
performance and roles, white clover, 181, 182 See Clover, balansa
67–68 Subclover. See Clover, Trifolium pratense.
planting of, 70, 108 subterranean See Clover, red
in rotation, 37, 40 Sudax. See Sorghum-sudangrass Trifolium repens.
soil improvement and, 10 hybrids See Clover, white
Sorgoleone, 107 Sudex. See Sorghum-sudangrass Trifolium subterraneum.
South hybrids See Clover, subterranean
cover crops for, 66 Sugarbeets, 10, 80 Trifolium yanninicum.
crimson clover, 132 Sulfur, 89, 144 See Clover, subterranean
INDEX 243
Wheat, winter Windham, Gary, 192
advantages of, 30, 71 Winter rye. See Rye
benefits of, 112–13 Winter Wheat.
for cash and cover crop, 112 See Wheat, winter
cultural traits, 69 Winterkill mulches
disadvantages of, 72 annual ryegrass, 75
management of, 113–15 buckwheat, 92
moisture conservation and, crimson clover, 130
11 hairy vetch, 144
overview of, 111–12 medics, 156, 157
performance and roles, oats, 93–94, 95
67–68 sweetclover, 178
planting of, 70, 113–14 Wolfe, David, 110
in rotation, 10, 36–37, 38,
42–43 Y
soil erosion protection, 11 Yellow mustard, 110
White sweetclover. Yellow sweetclover.
See Sweetclovers See Sweetclovers
Wild white clover.
See Clover, white
Divisions
The areas within each Division
are Provinces.
1. Tundra
2. Subarctic
3. Warm Continental
4. Hot Continental
5. Subtropical
6. Marine
7. Prairie
8. Mediterranean
9. Tropical/Subtropical Steppe
10. Tropical/Subtropical Desert
11. Temperate Steppe
12. Temperate Desert
13. Savanna
14. Rainforest
Mountains with Altitudinal
Zonation
Source: R.G. Bailey (see p. 209).
Farmers across the U.S. are using cover crops to smother weeds, deter
pests and slow erosion.They find that cover crops help them cut costs and boost profits while
improving their soil and protecting natural resources.
This book distills findings from published studies and on-farm experience into a user-friendly
reference tool for farmers and agricultural educators.You will find detailed information on how
to select cover crops to fit your farm, and how to manage them to reap multiple benefits.