k

THE TECHNIQUES OF
MODERN
STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY
Volume1: Strain Analysis

JOHN G.RAMSAY
MARTINI.HUBER

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ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

iMjitourl .
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Copyright © 1983 by
ACADEMIC. PRESS INC , ( LONDON ) LTD .
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No pan of this book may he reproduced in any form by photostat , microfilm or any
other means , without written permission from the publishers

British Library Gutvlaguing m Publication Data

Ramsay , J G
The techniques of modem structural geology
VoL 1
.
1 . Geology , Struct Ural
.
I Title IT Huber , M
551.8 UE60 J
--
ISBN 0 12 576901-ft
TSBN 0-12-516921 Tl Pl> k

LCCCN 82 -074569

PRINTED ' N rj-tfc i NITF: I f STATES tJlr AMfcKli \

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 Preface

In the case of nearly all branches of science a great advance was made
when accurate quantitative methods were used instead of more qualitative.
One great advantage of This is that it necessitates more accurate thought,
points out whet remains to be learned, and sometimes small residual
quantities, which otherwise would escape attention, indicate important
facts.
.
J. C Sorbyp 1908
Structural geology, a branch of earth science, has leapt The second reason for the recent advances in structural
ahead over the past decade. This rapid development has geology has Keen the realization that rock deformation,
come about for several reasons . First has been the realiz-

t
ation that naturally deformed rocks seen in held outcrops
contain a fantastic range of small scale features which
relate directly to large- scale orogenic deformation systems.
No longer is it wise for the geologist interested in large -
\ scale crustal structure to write off such small-scale features
.
as trivia It has become dear today that the understanding
and interpretation of these geometric features enables the
investigator to build up a much more comprehensive
understanding of the subtle but very important features of
an orogeme zone . The field structural geologist with a
developed “ eye ’ for these features can often work over
large areas ro much more effect than was passible in the
l past . No Longer is it adequate to determine the fold trends,
or to map a structural lineament, or even to realize that
here we have a suture between two moving continental
l a comprehensive account of such basic techniques as could
masses . Today wc can and should go much further —wc
can use our studies of strain stare to say exactly how much
deformation and how much displacement have occurred
Wien we have made an assessment of the overall strain
pattern of a region we arc in a good position to say what
the relative movement directions between large and small
sections of The crust wreref wherher the great bends in Ihc
like any other form of deformation , obeys well- defined
.
physical and chemical laws The concepts of material s i-
ence have therefore been applied to the study of deformed
.
rocks with great effect . Particularly important have been
the use ol mathematical methods and the application of
the concepts of continuum mechanics. These numerical
approaches have revolutionized the analysis of the
geometry of naturally deformed rocks and both theoretical
and practical interpretations of what these structures
signify
These books have grown out of a need lo teach fun-
damental, practical aspects of structural geology to under -
graduate and postgraduate students in the earili sciences
and they have been written to provide a basic text at
.
undergraduate university level We have tried ro assemble
be the foundation of a practical and theoretical course in
l he analysis of tectonic structures, stress and strain Volume
I covers the principles of deformation, and volume 2
applies these principles specifically to the analysis of folds
and fractures The mate rial covered in these first two
volumes has formed the core of various university courses
given by us in Britain and at the ETI \ Zurich and the two
,

( major orogcnic zones of the earth for example are primary
features , or result from secondary bowing of a previously
rectilinear zone .
f
The great interest in structural geology in many earth
science institutes nowadays can be attributed at least in
part to the practicality of the subject . We have found that
students become very involved in the subject when they
go into the held, which may be a well known locality , and
find that the tectonic structures may have been neglected
in previous publications. They often find that they can
make significant original observations which can lead to
extremely stimulating and exciting interpretations of the
tectonics , interpretations which can often he tested by
extending the investigations into adjacent terrain . dimensional to three -dimensional analysis , and from simple
An Instructors Mtumid is available fm this hook This can be
obtained from Aradcmk Press by recognised teachers
volumes have been designed to provide material for two
successive 15-weck teaching semesters. The material of the
planned rhird volume would he appropriate for advanced
specialist undergraduate or postgraduate courses.
We have tried to encourage independent thinking by the
student by leading him through progressive wrnys of thought
that we ourselves have found helpful in building an under-
standing of the subject * Our approach has been to help
the student to develop his own methods and to solve
problems by logical thinking, rather than to rely on the
routine application of a previously described and well - worn
“magic" formula, Wc have assembled the
various sessions
so that they build logically one on the other from two-
to complex analytical methods
Each ‘'session" starts with ihc formulation of a specific

V
 Vi PREFACE
problem and presentation of any essential background or
necessary mathematical techniques , This is followed by a
practical part in which we outline experiments, pose prob-
lems and set up a number of specific questions aimed at
focusing attention on key points , perhaps assisting the
solutions by giving a lew hints on how u get started . After
the questions have been answered or a technique has been
applied to solve a particular problem we provide a section
entitled “ Answers and Comments" Here we set out the
ke > features of the solutions , give numerical answers , and
comment on why one technique may be preferable to
another We also develop a commentary on the geological
significance of the results We are ot the opinion that such
a commentary wall link the sessions and , by providing an
important background , enable the student to see how wider
applications of the techniques can lead to deeper under -
standing of tectonic studies .
The problems wc present are based on actual geological
examples or on experiments and methods which we have
found particularly useful in understanding rock strain . Wc
are a tittle critical of some previously published collections
of structural geology problems and maps in Thai in our ,
experience they often do not relate to what occurs in
,
nature It also seems to us that rhe complexities of real
geological systems are much more stimulating than care -
fully selected or ‘’ invented ” problems which abstract too
cleanly one particulat aspect of a problem . We have also
strived to produce new and relevant illustrative material ,
and wc hope that the many photographs and diagrams will
assist the student lo understand the geometric complexities
that sometimes arise and to relate more clearly the the -
oretical and practical aspects of the subject
For each practical session we have set out material that
the student should be able to cover in a three - hour work
period We are aware that earth science students have
dissimilar backgrounds , particularly in mathematics , and
that they may , therefore , tind loo much or too little to
cover in a three -hour period . The questions we pose have
been designed to develop a thorough understanding of the
geometric features ol deformation because we are con -
, from a range ot material what would work well fn par - ,
vinced lhai such a background is critical for the future
development of the subject . Wc have also aimed at the
-
development of mathematically based thought processes
and analyses . The concepts of displacement and strain ,
which farm the basis of so much modern analysis, are most
naturally developed with some mathematical formulation .
Therefore , we have designed mathematical problems of
complexity increasing through the sessions to build a strong
background in mathematical theory . The mathematical
techniques are generally straightforward , being based on
-
simple algebraic methods , two- and three dimensional
co-ordinate geometry and some elementary calculus .
Although the specialist may see more elegant ways of
arriving at our results , we strongly hold the view that IT 15
better to get a student excited and interested in discovering
geometric principles with the basic mathematics he already
possesses , rather ihan insist on more sophisticated tech -
niques which might leave him struggling . From our experi -
ence wc have also found that an initial mastery and under -
standing of geometric principles in two dimensions is an
absolute necessity . When these principles are grasped it
is generally a relatively easy matter to extend them into
ihe third dimension .
Because of the range uF talent and die differences in
student background we have developed a double system
of problems. The fust sel is basic . It should be completed
-
in the three hoLii session and it contains fundamental
material that will be essential before the following sessions
can be tack I ed A secon d set , marketl wi th starred 11 umbers .
is more advanced It has been designed to lead to a deepen
.
-
ing of the understanding of the topic in hand , or to develop
stronger mathematical Techniques . It is not essential to
complete this second set of problems before passing to rhe
next session . They can either be tackled directly after the
basic set , or be used for a “second round " or revision
approach ,
We have developed a number of appendices separate
From the sessions , in which we set out the most important
mathematical proofs required to establish the basic for-
mulae used in the sessions . Wc have done iFtis because we
thought that an overloading of the sessions themselves with
somewhat dry basic mathematics ( important as it is) might
tend to inhibit the flow of problem solving In the session
questions we have suggested particular mathematical
exercises which relate directly lo the specific problems in
hand , whereas in the appendices we have developed more
general solutions of displacement and strain covering a
much wider and less specific held We also think that this
general and basic information is best concentrated in
appendices for easy access when required at a Inter stage
In producing these hooks wc have relied heavily on help
from many people and in conclusion we would like to
thank most sincerely all those who have assisted us lo pul
these volumes together . In particular we wish to convey
our thanks to Urs Gerber for producing so expertly black
and while photographic material from our colour diapo-
silives , and for assisting m many ways the production of
the illustrations. We thank our secretary , Barbara Das
Gupta , for the long hours she has put into this work and
the expert production ol the manuscript . Many course
students and assistants have battled with the session ques -
tions , discovering our mistakes and helping us to select
ticular , Roy KligEdd provided ms with a very lull and
useful commentary on the value of the practical material
.
Special thanks go to David Durncy for also providing us
wirli an appraisal of the text We also have drawn exten -
sively on his ideas relating to the effects of volumetric
dilatation in shear zones . Some data has been drawn from
his unpublished Ph . D . thesis to help produce the profiles
of rhe Helvetic nappes ( Fig 11.10 ) , and rhe authors and
he seem to have discovered at the same lime the effects
of inequantly shaped objects on calculations of increment at
strains from pressure shadows . We would like to thank
.
Dorothee Dietrich . David Durncy and Andrew Siddans
for providing unpublished data that went into the pro-
duction of the strain maps of the Helvetic nappes, to Pierre
C houkroune for generously providing rock specimens and
photographs of pressure shadows , and to Shankar Mitru
for providing photographs wt used in Session T Final
thanks go lo Ishbel Ramsay For drawing the deformed
version of the authors and to Adriarma Huber and Chris
Ramsay lor keeping ( he authors more OJ less along die
right displacement paths
September 1983 JOHN RAMSAY
MARTIN HUBER
I

Contents

f Preface v

SESSION 1 Displacement : Changes in Length and Angles 1

Introduction 1
Principles of displacement and strain using simple shear of a card deck i
Changes m lengths and angles 3
Definition extension e 3
Definitions: angular shear strain i p , shear strain y 3
Advanced problems ( all denoted with stars * } 4
I Answers and comments 4
Geological significance of length changes ; bond in age and folding 7
f Keywords and definitions 11
Key references 13

SESSION 2 The Strain Ellipse Concept : Distortion and Rotation 15

Introduction. 15
—
First group of experiments ihe strain ellipse homogeneous and heterogeneous strain
Second group of experiments: principal finite extensions and rotational component ot the strain
LS
16
*
Third group of experiments: variations of principal finite extension* and rotation with
displacement L6
Starred {' ) questions 17
Answers arid comments 19
Evolution of extension fissures in shear zones 23
Boudin age and folding and the strain ellipse 24
Keywords and definitions 30
Key references 31

SESSION 3 An introduction to Heterogeneous Strain 33

Introduction 33
Questions and experiments 34
Starred D questions 411
Answers and comments 42
Methods of measurement of shear strain in shear zones 44
Further comments up strain compatibility 46
Shear zone* with wall deformation 47
Shear zones with dilatation (area or volume change) 4H
-
En echelon extension fissures 48
Shear zones with deformed walls and dilatation 52
Keywords and definitions 52
Key references 53
vif
r

V l i i CONTENTS

SESSION 4 Displacement Vector Fields end Strain 55

Introduction 55
Questions 55
Starred ( " 1 questions 57
Answers and comments 58
The “ movement direction" concept 60
Types of reference schemes, to measure displacement 61
The general coordinate Transformation and strain 63
Strain ellipse fields and their geological significance 65
Keywords and definitions 70
Key references 71

SESSION 5 Practical Strain Measurement ;

.
i Initially Circular and Elliptical Markers 73

Introduction 73
Starred { ) questions 7H
Answers and comments 81
Strain determination using initially circular objects 81
Strain measurement from initially elliptical objects 81
Effect of non -random orientation of the initial elliptical markers S3
Rapid meihods for the determination of tectonic strain 85
Shapes of original particles 8ti
Keywords and definitions 86
Key references 86

SESSION 6 Practical Strain Measurement :

.
2 Lines 89

Introduction 89
How mai data tor a strain determination ? 91
The Mohr diagram 93
Starred ( * I questions 96
Answers and comments %
Methods of measuring extension 99
The Mohr circle construction 103
Keywords and definition* 105
Key references 105

SESSION 7 Practical strain Measurement :

3. The Centre to Centre Technique and Strain Partitioning 107

Introduction 107
The centre to centre method 107
Method I “ Nearest neighbour cenire to centre technique
"
110
Method 2 The Fry method Ml
St rain partitioning 113
Answers and comments 117
Strain measurement in clastic rocks ll 17
Keywords and definitions 124
Key references 125

SESSION S Practical Strain Measurement :

4 Angies 127

Introduction 127
Strain determination using measurements of angular shear strain m
Breddin graphs 129
 CONTENTS « X

Mohr construction 129

Strain ratio and orientation determined trom two or more measurements of shear strain 332
Brcddin graph method 132
Mohr construction 132
Starred l, “ ) questions 134
Answers and comments 141
Concluding remarks concerning strain analysis from deformed fossils 347
Keywords and definitions 148
Kev references m

SESSION B Orientation Analysis 151

Introduction 151
Development of the stereographic and equal area projections 151
Basic plotting techniques 154
Directional sense 155
Rotation sense 155
Angles between lines 156
Bisector of tines 158
Pitch m
Angles between planes 158
Bisectors of planes 158
Curved planes and lines 159
Rotation of data on pro lections 160
Rotation about a. horizontal axis 160
Rotations about an inclined axis 160
Answers and comments 161
Key references InS

SESSION 10 Strain in Three Dimensions

I, Planar and Linear Fabrics 167

Introduction 167
Description of the position of a point and the directions of lines 167
Displacement in three dimensions 168
Classification of strain ellipsoids 171
Change of orientation of planes as a result of strain
'
174
Change of orientation of lines as a result of si rain 176
Starred ( * ) questions 176
Answers and comments 178
Measurement of three dimensional strain 178
Types of strain ellipsoid 17 M
The relationship between the fabric of deformed rocks and the finite strain state 179
Sequence of fabric development arising from the deform alien of sediments 185
Changes in orientation of planes and tines as a result of three 'dimensional strain 188
The March model for deformed planer and lines L 91
Definitions and keywords 193
Key references 194

SESSION 11 Strain in Three Dimensions

2. Review of Methods and Representation of Strain State 197

Introduction 197
Strain measurement: a summary 197
Strain values and their ratios 198
Recording and comparing strain states 199
Shortening or extension measurement 202
Relationships of strain ellipse fields and strain ellipsoid types 205
Relationship of directions of no finite longitudinal strain to the values of the principal longitudinal
,

strains 207
r

X CONTENTS

Starred ( * ) questions 207

Answers and comments 207
Keywords and definitions -J 4
Key references 214

SESSION 12 Progressive Displacement and Progressive Deformation Principles 217

Introduction 217
Progressive displacement 218
Progressive strain 219
Starred ( * ) questions 220
Answers and comments 221
I lie general progressive deformation process 223
Particle path line fields 232
Keywords and definitions 233
Key references 234

SESSION 13 Measurement of Progressive Deformation

1. Extension veins 235

Introduction 235
l 'ypes of fibrous vein systems 239
Measurement of incremental strains from fibrous vein systems 250
Starred ( 4 ) questions 251
Answers and comments 253
Chocolate tablet structure 255
Shear vein systems 257
Keywords and definitions 262
Key references 263

SESSION 14 Measurement of Progressive Deformation

Z Pressure Shadows 265

Introduction 265
Types of pressure shadows 265
Thin section preparation 27( 1
Measurement Techniques 270
Rigid fibre model 271
Deformable fibre modeJ 271
Inequidimcnsional rigid objects 273
Starred |* ) questions 275
Answers and comments 275
Interpretation of strain data 277
Keywords and definitions 279
Key references 280

APPENDIX A Strain Parameters 281

Extension 281
Quadratic extension 281
Logarithmic strain 281
Shear strain 282
Dimensions of strain parameters 282

APPENDIX B Strains from Displacement 283

1 Displace mem 283

2 . Homogeneous strain 2S4
 COM TENTS %i

3. The strain ellipse concept 284

4. The reciprocal strain ellipse 285
5 Longitudinal sirajn ( extension e ) along any line making an initial angle of a with ihe x-axis 285
- -
n Longitudinal strain along any line making a final angle a ' w irh the v axis 285
7 Relationship between a and a 286
8 , Direct urns of the principal strains of the strain ellipse after deformation I S' ) 286
9 . Initial directions of Ihe lines which wall become the principal strains ( #) 286
1Hi Rotation ta 286

12. Area change A 287

-
11 . Values of ihe principal strains Ai, A 287
*
-
13 rHie shearing strain developed along any initial direction ar from the .v axis 287
14 . The shearing strain development along a final a* direction from the r axis- 28 h

APPENDIX C Disp ( seamenis from Strain 289

Coordinaic transfor mat ions and displacement gradient matrices for specific types of strain 290

APPENDIX D Changes of Lengths and Angies in Strained Bodies 293

Changes in length 293

Changes in angles 294
Shear strain 295
Maximum *hear strain 296

Source List 297

Index 305
r

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 I!

Contents of Volume 2 : Folds and Fractures

SESSION IS hold Morphology

SESSION 16 Fold Orientation: Projection Techniques

SESSION 17 Fold Classification

SESSION 18 Fold Sections and Profiles

SESSION 19 Fold Mechanics 1 : Single layers

SESSION 20 Fold Mechanics 2 - Multilayers

SESSION 21 Strain and Small Scale Structures in Kilds

SESSION 22 Superimposed holds

SESSION 23 Fault Geomeiry and Morphology

SESSION 24 Faults and the Construction of Balanced Sections

SESSION 25 Mechanical Analysis of Fractures

SESSION 26 Brittle and Ductile Shear Zones

SESSION 27 Joints and Shatter Comes

SESSION 28 Structure and Mflfamorphism

APPENDICES E - F

>

Kill

1
r

rhis is
 SESSION 1
-£VV

Displacement ; Changes in
Length and Angles

Simple experiments with a cord deck model ere used to establish the
concepts of longitudinal strain and shear strain during progressive simple
shear. The methods for mathematically describing the displacements in
the form of displacement equations and coordinate transformation equa -
tions are developed. Some simple geological implications of length
changes are discussed end the development of boudin structures and
buckle folds are related to stretching and shortening taking place in com
petenl rock layers embedded in a less competent matrix ,

INTRODUCTION

A study of the geometric changes that take place during
deformation is probably the most important basic necessity
for an understanding of deformed rocks and for the
interpretation of the geological signifiednee o!' tectonic
.
structures The Earth during its evolution has been acted
an by a constantly changing force field which has led to
variations m the state of stress of its various rock constitu -
ents , i'he application • < f force to a material causes the mass
study, however, we wilt study strain with some more easily
worked material: paper I In this age of computers twhen
no scientist is considered a Scientist unless be has a prim
out under his arm or a pack of computer cards i n his hand |
we have easy access to a very simple modelling
methodshe card deck Simple experiments made by
shearing a stack of computer cards and observing the
changes in geometric form of various grids and circular
,

to change ir .s position and often its shape . The changes of
the positions of points in a body is known as displacement
and am resulting change of shape as deformation or
strain The sirams SCT up may be small and reversible, that
TO say The materia! may return to its original shape on
removal erf the applied stresses Such deformations are
characteristic of solid bodies deformed in the it elastic
range. At a certain Mate of elastic deformation , at the
elastic limn , the solid rocks lose their internal cohesion on
certain surfaces and undergo brittle deformation . Obser -
vations on many naturally deformed rocks indicate that
the J ucks have undergone much larger deformations than
those characteristic of elastic bodies. These deformations
developed large permanent strain , often without the
development of specific surfaces ol rupture. Such rocks arc
said to have undergone ductile flow The aim of the firs*
lew Sessions nf our work is to investigate in detail the
geometric features of deformed materials so that we can
start tn appreciate the reason'- lor the wide variety of
seen in naturally deformed rocks .
^natures
The relationship between displacement and the internal
shape changes , known as strain, is generally rather com
plicated . One of the practical ways or getting insight into
- Principles of displacement and strain using simple
these relationships is by performing experiments with sim -
.
ple models It is possible to deform models or ductile
materials such as clay, putty and Plasticene and to study
the geometric changes made by lines, grids or circular
markers inscribed on the model surface. To begin our
markers drawn on rhe edges of the card deck provide an
extremely convenient way of helping us understand some
of the key features of deformation geometry . Although
the experiments proposed below will provide excellent
visual aids tor helping us appreciate the principles of
deformation , we should straight away stress the limitations
of this model technique as applied tn natural deformations .
Rocks arc not packs ol gliding cards and then internal
deformations arc generally much more varied and complex
than those we will produce in OUT experiments The student
should avoid the idea that out experiments provide a
universal model for the behaviour of natural systems.
Sometimes natural deformations do take place by shearing
along narrow, planar , card -like olerneats: but generally
they do not. Sometimes they produce geometric features
like those we will sec tn nur model ; a! other times they do
ru > l So long as we are aware of these limitations we should
be safe , and we will find, in fact , that our card model is
able to establish practically all the impuriant fundamental
features of displacement and strain .
shear of a card deck
Practical details
The siudeni is recommended to set up the model , perform
the experiment himself and answer the quesnons posed.

l
 2 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY: STRAIN ANALYSIS

Figure t , 7. Box used for holding cards together for simple shear experiments

When he has answered these questions he should then strain values from IT 2 to 2 0 at increments of 0 * 2 y. li will
*

check his results with the answers (pp 5- 10) and carefully
4
be convenient ro use y as an absolute measure of the
go through the notes provided on the significance of the displacement because if . for example , we double the dis -
results. placement across Ihc box , that is equivalent to doubling
The experiments set out below can be carried out with
any sec of cards but the most suitable are standard IBM
the gamma value .
Formers with more elaborately curved edges should
computer cards which are thin and slip easily one on the also be made ( see Figure I 2) so that complex displace -
other The cards nre best held in a box , such as that ments and deformations can he induced into the card deck ,
.
illustrated in Figure 1.1 so that they will not splay out
sideways The box should have sides which are at least
and pairs with sinusoidal edges will also be useful for the
more complicated experiments of Sessions 2 and 3.
three times ihc length of the cards , and the height of the The mathematical name for the type of displacement wc
walls should be the same as the width of the cards . The will induce by sliding the cards one against the other is
card displacement can be done very simply fay hand , hut simple shear In this and later Sessions we will want to
best results will be obtained using pairs of wooden nr have some reference axes so that we can refer mote exactly
plastic shaped end pieces or formers as illustrated in Pig ures to the displacement and resulting geometric modifications
1.1 and 1.2. Using these formers , known values of shear that take place on our deck surface Let us therefore ,
can be induced into the card deck simply and accurately , choose an orthogonal coordinate reference system with v
while the free ends of the cards are held closely by the parallel to the walls of our shear box and y perpendicular
wedges eliminating their tendency to open out one from
,
to these walls ( Figures 1.1 and 1.3). We will also need to
the other. The student needs sets of paired triangular define what we mean by shear strain with reference to
-
wedges with different apical angles ( V M Values of y over
the following ranges will be found mosi useful ; 11 - T , 21 Rr ,
- . .
31°, 38 7\ 45’. 50 2’ 54 - 5* 58" , 61°, « - 5a . The amount
*

of shear induced into the card deck by farmers of this type

is best expressed in terms of the shear strain y parallel to
the walls of the shear box , defined as Greek "gamma":
y = tan y> — nt '

Formers with the angles given above will have shear

y
t

Figure 1.3 Constructions to he made on the top of the cards \

Figure 1.2. Shaped endpiaces or formers used to
cards in model experiments.
for the experiments of Questions 7. I 1 J and 7.5. The
deform
lower
diagram shows the configuration of the original equilateral
triangle after displacement ( A B C !
 DISPLACEMENT CHANGES IN LENGTH AND ANGLES 3

these coordinates ( see above , y ) We use subscripts for a value for e iif - I would imply that ilicf line had no
shear with reference to our chosen coordinate frame a existence .
*
follows: [ he firs? subscript refers to I lie perpendicular to
tw shear surface ( cards, shear box walls } and is she direc -
Definitions : angular shear strain i j s h e a r strain y
tion v and the second refers to the shear direction i. c .
.
,

the redirection hence subscripts vx in yw. Angular changes for any specific direction ire defined by
measuring the change in angle between a line in that
direction and another that imr originally perpendicular to
Changes in lengths and angles
Ir it , This angle is known as rhe angular shear strain and
Draw m black ink on the surface of the cards an equilateral is always referred to b \ the Greek letter “psi tV) ( Figure "

triangle ABt ( Figure 1.3 . equal side lengths | so that AC
is paraIId to the card direction and AS and BC make
angles of 6DU and 120° respectively to the cards, lr> Ink of
some other colour draw perpendicular fines from A to side
BC< B to side AC and C to side AB
Shear the card deck with different pairs of formers so
that the points A , B and C are displaced to new positions
A\ Br and C (Figure 13 ).
L 3). The deflection of the perpendicular to our reference
direction can he either clockwise or Hnlidockwise and we
differentiate these by using a sign convention. If the original
perpendicular is rotated ddckwisr relative lu the specific
direction , the angular shew strain is negative ', if rotated
anticlockwise then position. Foi example, in Figure 1 ,3
the signs of the angular shear strains with reference direc-
tions AfB\ B' C' and C* A' arc -t- vc , - ve and — ve respec-
tively, Go back to your tabulated results and indicate the
signs of i, , Foi purposes LVI convenience in later math -
1

Question 1.1 '

Do the lengths of the sides of l he original triangle change '5
Measure them and record m tabulated form these data
(see helow ) .
Do the initially perpendicular lines remain perpendicu-
lar? Measure the angular deflection from the initial per-
pendicular f i,: . sec Figure 1.3 ) . Record the following data
1
in column form foi various values of simple shear displace
ment , JSI = can y.
ematical analyses we lake the range nr ol the angular shear
strain: this defines the shear strain , and is referred to hy
the Greek letter '’gamma " ( y) , c .g
y — tan rj >
The geometrical significance of y is seen if wc consider She
displacement of the perpendicular line from the reference
- line at unit distance from the reference line after defor -
mation ( Fig 1 . -I)

%> AB' B' C CA Direction A 8 '

¥ .
&C
r
"
CA'
V

.
= -
02
(W
Vv

Figure J ,4 - R&iaHonshfpS of c and y. Two initially perpen-

dicular lines p and n change orientation to take up positions
P and qr ,
In these experiments it should be clear that simple shear
displacement does generally lend to changes in length of
Hnev , and changes of angles between initially perpendicular
Question 1.2
lines These two types of geometric effect are used to
define strain parameters . Now extend your tabulated data, calculating the value of
the extension and shear strain for each direction The
Definition : extension e
subscripts for e and y refer to the direction ol the side of
she deformed triangle -FfrX " , .
Changes in length a re known m longitudinal strains and
Arc recorded by a mensure known as extension always
referred to by the lower ease letter cr Foi direction .4 r fi '
this would be A . Extension is defined as the change in
;v &A •! e,T i? .
&? A YXB Vac yc 4-
-
length divided by the original length, i.c . -0- 2
Q' 4

<A‘ f \ -
AH
Extension can be either positive (when the length
increases ) or negative [ when the length decreases i , and its
value lies between minus one and plus infinity i, - I <
e * -f- * ). Why urc values ol • lev ,
* * ihan - I impossible? Graphically record thestf changes m extension [ abscissa
If the initial line length was unity , then t would record an yT„ , ordinate t' u . etc ) and shear strain ( abscissa y, * • !

actual measure of the change of length of this line; clearly .

ordinate y tr etc . } ,
^
 4 STRUCTURAL GEOlOGv STRAIN ANALYSIS -
Question 1.3
Describe in words the changes in lengths of lines AB . BC
and ( 1 with increasing shear of ihe card deck . What is
ihe significance of [ he minimum on the curve for changes
in e., r.r ? What is the orientation of the line A ' B ' at this
minimum paiiu .' What is the significance of the poml where
'
the i?.4 ft curve crosses wish y nso " Are any oi the variations
in e linear with y?
Could WC describe the overall features of the defnr -
mat ion bv the changes of extension in any one direction '?
Question 1.4
Describe the changes that take place in the shear strains
along lines AH , Hi and with increase in yfl and again
discuss ihe significance oi these vimatiCins . changes
11 is not necessary for the student to complete |lie.se
.
problems before he moves on to Session 2 , although clearly
their completion is likely to enhance his undentnntling c? t
ihe liter Session work. They could be tuckled much later
as .
revision exercise or us a second round of work.
-
Answers mcl comments to these starred questions will be
Ionnd at [ he end of the Session
Question 1.6
*
Dev ehip a imil he musical formula that expresses I he values
ol extension t in terms of the initial otlrntation of a specific
line (angle er with the positive.r -axis direction) before shear
and the simple shear displacement p,, . Hint: choose a line
with initial unit length, and describe how this length is
modified os

Question 17
Question 1,5 *
Find a mathematical expression which gives ihe final orim -
Write two equations which express the displacement of
ititian a' of a line in terms of its initial orientation a ami
iun initial point in the card deck having coordinates ( x y ) . the shear strain pM
11 parallel w the shear box walls, c perpendieular to the
cards.) fo ia final position u . y ) after shear y with reference
to an origin of the coordinate system situated at one of the Question 1.8
corners of the card deck f Figure 1.5!• Put these in the to:m
*
Find a formula that expresses the values of extension e in
terms oi the final orientation a- of a line aftei shear and
T = t \ (x y )
* ihe simple shear displacement vrl.
v " = /; ( c , y )

-
where f (i. y ) and / jf .i. y ) arc some mat hemal ieal In net ions
of the initial position of the point . These equalions are
Question 1.9+
Find an expression which mathematicaljv describes the
known as coordinate transformation equations because
they relate the coordinates of pi rusts before and after
she at strain y along any inidaI direction o m terms of a
and y,. A . flint : if a line lias an orientation described by
displacement . Now check your answers and read the com-
its slope ft } = tan a , then the slope of a perpendicular is
mentary on the significance of the results . When this has
- 1/m.
been done either tackle the mure advanced Atari ed ques-
tions below or move on lo Session 2.
Question 1.10 +
f
* y
Define mathematically the relationships of \huar strain
variation along any direction o ' after deforninLion in terms
% y>
i of the amount of shear .

Question 1.11+
il you have a programmable calculator graph the function
Q ** 0 -x resulting from Questions I h+ { plotting y,T as abscissa, r *
Figure 1.8. Qi$ [itac:ement of s point ( x , yl to new pusmon { x
'

as ordinate ) and 1.4 + ! plotting yVj as abscissa and y,, as

y ) doting simple sfienr Note thet i, \ is negative? ordinate ) over range ol value a = 2b 4iY f «i. ) c m . ] !i!T ,
*
L1

120°, 1411“ , IftU fuul yM = 0 to 2 * 0, so as to realize fully the

1

changes in extension and shear strain during progressive,

Advanced Problems ( all denoted with stars )
* simple shear . Discuss the significance uf the curves
I changes from positive to negative values, changes of slopes
The problems set out below should lead to il furthering of etc . ,i
u general understanding nl ! Itc investigation earned out
previously They are designed to extend the student in
various way —iu increase the depth of his understanding
*
id titi! geometry of the experiments, to develop malh- ANSWERS AND COMMENTS
e mat Seal methods of thinking, to encourage his formulation
of various aspects of ihe geometrical problems more exactly We have investigated in these first experiment a process
than bus been possible tit the quest ions posed earlier, and - flown asprogressive displacement fit simple *xhear The
TO develop a deeper insight into the geological potential progression of the displacement has been recorded by
ol the material mea.suring the changes in the shear strain y,i
 DISPLACEMENT : CHANGES N LENGTH AND ANGLES 5
A B
'
7 '5 / •5

VO W

-
05 0 -5

e oo - Y o -o

- 05 - 05 -

-VO - VO

C 'A
- V500 -
15
05- -
J0 15 20- 00 0 -5 -
10 15 2-0
Yyx - syx
y
Figure t . 6. A shows the venations m extension along three fine directions as a result of Simple shear and 9 shows
the variations In shear strain y along the same directions

Changes in lengths -
shortening with hear beenrues less ,ind less . ;md when
B ' C is aligned perpendkulai to the card surfaces it ceases
Answers 1,1, 1.2, 1.3
to become shorter ( step 2). At this position the incremental
The process of simple shear leads to quite complex changes longitudinal strain is zero ie = 0) As we again increase
{

in lengths and angles on The surface oi the caid deck . the shear , the line starts to increase its length although ,

Lengths are generally changed, although those parallel to us total length is still shorter than it was originally ( step
the cards Hike CA ) remain unaltered for all amounts of 3 tf - ve e, ’ ve), The graph of the finite elongation along
1

shear If , after u shear displacement , a line is of unchanged B' C" ( Figure l . 7 l eventually crosses the e 0 abscissa line
~

.
length it is known us a direction of no finite longitudinal with a positive slope { step 4) At this stage in our experi-
-
strain <> = ih . Direction CA is H line of no finite longi- ment the later positive incremental elongations have accu-
•

tudinal strain for all values of simple shear displacement mulated to such an extent that they have exactly compen
-
( Figure LfiA ). All other directions in OUT card surface sated ( or the earlier history of shortening and it is dear
show progressive changes in extension with displacement that where this happens we must have at least oi o directions
\one of fhest length changes . as recorded by values of c. of no finite longitudinal strain : C’ A\ parallel to the cards
-
is linear with increase in amount of shear as measured by ( jr direction ): and D ' C\ making an angle of 60° to ihe r
Yn Wc will see later that this is a general feature of systems direction. We will sere later that the presence of two land
-
undergoing displacement and internal strain. Doubling the not more than two) directions of no finite longitudinal
amount of displacement docs not lead to a simple doubling strain is II characteristic feature of many types of two*
of the longitudinal si rain dimensional displacement processes (not only simple
Some directions in our model surface { line AS Figure shear ) and that the angle between these two directions has
1 6 A ) show progressive increases in extension with increase some special functional relationship to the strain state.
in shear, whereas others (e,g DC with initial orientation With further shear , so that 8 C ' makes angles of less than
a ~ lAfi show a complex sequence of changes , first 60" with the x -direction. finite elongations and incremental
shortening , then stretch IHK . During the early stages of sim elongations arc always positive (Figure 1.7 step 5),
pie shear line 13 C becomes progressively shorter During
.
From this simple experiment it is clear that some rather
these early stages wc say that The longitudinal strain et remarkahle and peihaps initially unexpected geometric
recording the total deformation is negative (e, - ve ) and happenings take place as a result of a very simple displace -
that ihe incremental longitudinal strain e recording the ment process . If we had seen only the end of our experiment
changes taking place arc also negative (>, *- v e ) ( Figure with a total shear y „ ^ 2dl, we might never have guessed
.
L7 step 1 ) . As the experiment pioceeds the rate of that line B' C had undergone such a complicated series
 6 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGV STRAIN ANALVSIS
c
/
L '60 s
o. B
l, erve 2, ef -ve
e. - ve e , =0
o JJ
ef DO k -r
/ 3
2
03
Figure 1.7 , Geometries 1 rep rcscnration of changes In length of a line BC during simple shear .
strain at successive times 1- 5 and e refers to the incremental longitudinal strain
of length changes GcunlngH- ally , these Comdex series of
length changes that occur in practically all progressive
deformation sequence have most important implications
*
and the small scale structures that flier field geologist
observes in naturally deformed nicks often show most
interesting traces of these changing geometric events VVV
shall study later turthei properties of progressive defor -
mation und the fascinating possibilities whereby, for exam -
ple. folded strata might become unfolded or stretched ami
mineral alignments produced m an curb stage oS a defor-
mation might he severely modified during, the later stages
ol a deformation . Although as this early stage in our study
ihcM! prospects, mighi appear alarming, perhaps it should
be emphasized straight awn , thui such geometric changes
1
ate neither haphazard nor chaotic, and that the changes
all obey well defined rules. The important lesson for u.s to
learn at this stage is that we must work to establish what
these rules, are so that wc are in a good position tu interpret
sensibly the structures seen in naturally deformed rocks
At the end of Question 1.3 we asked it the overall
features of the deformation could be described by the
changes or elongation m any one direction Clearly, strain
is not like many of our everyday measurement parameters
such as length or angle: ii cannot he defined by lust one
number , Within the 'Uirfaci of our card deck model , each
direction has its own characteristic number which defines
what changes have gone on in that directum . Strain is a
so -called tensor quantify, and requires several numbers to
define its “ state " One oi our problems in the next Session
will he to look into the problem > if variations m longitudinal
vtfiiin in different directions to discover practical ways of
defining features of flier finite or total strain tensor
Changes in angles
Answer 1 , 4
The variations m shcai strains with change in min 1 oricn . -
* Jf
J e, - ve 4. ef = 0 ,
5. e + ve
et: * ve e, * ve e; * ve
5 ^ BC '
>0 4 20
J i/
refers to the finite longitudinal
ration a arc complicated, as are those for longitudinal
strains . Wc have already seen that the longitudinal strains
along the direction A C remain constant und zero I low
ever. the shear strain along this line does change progres
-
^
lively as we increase the displacement . It should be cleat
from rhe way we defined yVl that the changes in y .Vl must
be the same as those of y, ,. and that Ihc scale along the
abscissa axis records negative values ol y, ..
For the initial direction Ah with a = 6QP we have seen
that the extension e increases progressively in a positive
sense with increase m although it does SO in a non-
linear manner . However , the changes m shear strain along
this line A ' H ’ are rather more complex ( Figure L6R ) r
Dunng the first displacement stages the material line with
direction A B changes orientation more rapidly than u line
.
initially perpendicular to AB This implies that we must
develop a shear strain along 4 ' 5 ' and rluiT because ol .
I he differences in rates id change of orientation, hie
measured shear strain deflection relative to A B ' will he
anticlockwise. The shear strain y , ,H therefore , has a pos -
itive sign . The rate of change of thb shear ^miir first
decreases and Inter increases in a negative sense , so that
at one particular stage in the deformation I be positive
anticlockwise sheur effects become exactly compensated
.
by Ia if r nega ti ve clockwi se sh c ar effect s On HJ r gra ph ihis
occurs where the shear strain line crosses the abscissa axis
.
( y = d ) Where this occurs these lines have very special
properties The two initially perpendicular directions which
earh in the experiment ( between y , values ul ITMO and
M5 ) lost their perpendicularity now return to a perpen -
Uteut&r relationship. One can prove mathematically ( see
Question 1,9 .1 thai these arc the only two directions in
*
the surface that were initially perpendicular und which at
that particular stage of the strain history remain perpen -
dicular , We will he able to prove later that where this
happens the two direction arc parallel to the directions of
*
maximum ond minimum elongation isec p 27 ) , As die .
experiment proceeds, the defiedion of the initial perpen-
dicular to A ' /T becomes clockwise with reference to the
 DISPLACEMENT CHANGES IN LENGTH AND ANGLES 7

direction of A * B\ and die shear strain lakes up negative Geological significance of length changes:
values. Boudin age and folding
Finally , over the range of shear values in our experiment ,
the shear strain parallel to H * C ' i > always positive , and h We have seen that rather complex increases and decreases
-
progressively increases in a non linear fashion . in length rake place in different directions m a deformed
material . Although these effects have until now mostly
been discussed from a purely geometrical viewpoint , il
should lie dear that they have some special significance
Answer 1.5 when we attempt to interpret the significance of structures
Displacement in two dimensions is defined as the vector seen in deformed rocks.,
joining an initial point [ x , y ) and its final position: UT y' ) If the rock mass we investigate is more Of less uniform ,
Displacement has two components: u parallel to the X - HXJS . isotropic and homogeneous then deformation will nc»l lead
,

-
and u parallel to the y axis so that to the initiation of any special mechanical instabilities , at
least not in the early stages of deformation We will see
u = xr - jr
in our later sessions that such a deformation will he likely
0 =y —y* to produce overall modifications of shape and orientation
of the constituent particles which can lead to the devel -
In simple shear , because of the parallel sliding of the opment of statistically preferred orientations and the
cards, points arc only displaced parallel to the x-axis . and
pro-
duction of planar and linear fabrics.
they coordinate value of any point dots not change . The
Many natural rocks, however , are not isotropic and
-
distance moved parallel to the jr axis increases linearly with homogeneous . They
show variations in composition usually
distance from this axis .. In simple shear wc can therefore in ihe form ot H planar anisotropy ( bedding in sediments,
write two displacement equations:
banding in schists and gneisses, planar igneous dykes and
w “ ~ yy sills etc. ) . These layers of differing composition generally
( l 1 ) possess differing rheological properties, that is to say
ir = 0'
they may be brittle , or ductile , and if ductile they can be

known as the coordinate! transformation equations . -

I lie general equations relating every initial and final point , of varying ductility Often we do not know the exact type
5

of rheology (c g . whether Newtonian viscous , non -linear

-x - yy
.
viscous , plastic etc ) , bur often we are aware Thar the layers

H- 2 ) had differences of ductility under the particular conditions

y' ° y at the time of the natural deformation for they behaved
,

are related to the displacement equations . These equations in different ways

and so acquired different geometrical
are linear in that they do not involve complex functions features . When layered rocks with such different proper lies
of x and y. In their most complete form they involve four arc stretched or shortened parallel to the layering aniso
tropy , the layers become mechanically unstable.
-
[ erms. In geology wc often use the term competence to
xT = J: yy - describe the differences in rock properties which lead to
mechanical instability, 1 hose rocks which flow more easily
y * * Ox + y
than their neighbours are described as the least competent
_
These four coefficients of r and y can be expressed as a members , whereas those shat are differ than their neigh -
two by two matrix , ihe so -called strain matrix bours are termed the most competent rocks. Although the
x‘ _ 1 -y x term competence is therefore rather vaguely defined in
£ L3) any exact rheological way , il gives a very useful compar -
/
"

L° \ l y ative description of the components of a layered system

We wilt see later (Session 2 and Appendix B) that this which rhe field geologist can use to give some idea of rhe
,

matrix is an extremely important basic mathematical competence contrast of the components of deformed lay -
expression from which all the properties of the strain may ered rocks.
be derived Figure l .SB shows the results ot a simple laboratory
The absolute displacements are not recorded by the strain experiment in which a competent plastic layer was first
,

matrix , but the fundamental internal deformation features surrounded by a layered plastic of tower competence, and
are contained in it . For example , we could have lifted our then subjected to a progressive stretching parallel to the
shear box and transported it to mother bench in our layers. TTic competent material became mechanically
laboratory , In doing this wc would have subjected all the unstable during the deformation Slight imperfections
points on our card surface to another displacement ( tech - inside the competent layer gave high stress concentrations
nically termed a body translation perhaps together with al certain points, and these higher stresses led to higher
a body rotation ) , but this movement would not have deformation rates at these locations . The competent layer ,

affected the results of our shear experiments inside the box therefore became preferentially stretched and thinned and
,

in terms of changes of lengths and shear strains. A total eventually failure occurred on a tracture . Further extension
displacement equation would add other terms in our equa - led to a separation ot the isolated fragments of the com
tions to those of Equation LI , Technically these would petent layer , and the surrounding more ductile material
-
add displacement vectors , but these additional vectors flowed into the so-called neck zones between ihe fragments .
would not change the specific vector gradients which set This process is called boudinage and the fragments which ,

up lhe internal distortions in our cards . -

are rectangular nr sub elliptical in section and form long
a STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY , STRAIN ANALYSIS
fliu rod - tike masses in the third dimension , are termed
baudins Where ihe competence contrast is high , the
-
houdms generally have block like profiles, because their
ends are controlled by cross fractures. As the surrounding
male rial flows in towards the fruiidin neck ., the form ol the
ends of the boudin blocks is often modified by ihe differ -
ential shear along the competenH incompetent rock inter -
face . The houdins develop a characteristic barrel xhapird-
1 rnss vtsYr an . and, where the separation is large , the strong
flow - of incompetenr material can completely modify 1 he
-
shape of the end of the baudin into a fish mouth form
-
( Figure LS ) , Where the competence contrast \ low the
competent layer generally undergoes strong, ductile flow
around the initial stress concentrations, and may prefer -
entially stretch without ru.pturer The cross section of such
boudims shows a more lenticular form known as pinch and
swell structure
The shortening of a competent layer embedded m a less
competent matrix also leads to mechanically unstable situ*
Ftgun 18 A Dt&gwmmMk representation of the cross sec
tionaf Farms of bopdins , competence contrast ! a > b <: d.
B ; Three stapes during a laboratory expertmem of boudin
structure to plastic modes materials, C . Examples of boudin
structures; competent rock caic silicate. incompetent rock
marble Khan Gorge, Namibia
aiioav The layer ss deflected sideways and develops a
folded form, ITiese folds * known as buckle folds* generally
show a rather regular periodic wavelength ( Figure 1.9 )
It the competent layer is isolated and sepasated from other
competent layers by a considerable thickness of «ncom-
peient rock , then this wavelength is a 11met tori of competent
layer thickness and a function of the competence contrast
An increase jn the thickness of the competent layer and
a si m crease in Hie competence contrast both lead to an
increase in the wavelength of the initial buckle fold, II
the competence contrast ts high , the large miHal
wave length-thickness ratio is translated into the later fold
style as a long layer length relative to the distance between
adjacent fold hinges. Such lolds ( Figure l,9A layer a ; B
C ) arc termed ptygmatic structures and are very char-
act eristie of deformed aphid and pegmatite veins in gneis.sk
terrain .
We will leave tins important suhjeel ol the structural
forms of layers in deformed rocks now . but we will return
to the Topic several times in later Sessions when we have
built a stronger background m strain analysis .
Figure 1.9 , A : Types of buckle folds developed during the
shortening of competent layers competence contrast
,
a h > c d B: Laboratory experiment producing piygmetic
structure in model materials of differing plasticity . C Ptyq -
'
mtitic structure in a pogmaiiif? vein Contained in a metase -
dimfimary matrix Chindamota Zimbabwe,
 DISPLACEMENT ; CHANGES SN LENGTH AND ANGLES 9

Answer 1.6* m
1-
Consider an initial line OA of anil length , oriented at an
angle or to the x-axis ( Figure 1 . Mi) . I hen , after displace - and the slope of q ' is
ment by a simple shear yyi . this line changes position to
QA ' so as to lie at an angle a to th, e .v -direction hs length
'

— — = ———
_ fj
. .1 (
1 Yyi /
- m ) + rri
^ now FI + ' ) units ( e is the extension }
The slope of a line n perpendicular to p is '

Yvi .m - 1
m
= 17
which is generally nos the same as the slope of q* The
S.'iT £i difference in orient a item defines the nngulai shear strain
Then
*
-* #
it -h
COS * COS a - y Srnft
= tan ty, - = 1 -sith
Figure 7JO. Changes in length of a fine as g result of simple
Sheen where n and h are the slopes of n , Ithe perpendicular to
pf ) and ol q * respectively , i . e.
The coordtEHtte. s of point T are U , vt nr ( cos a. sin ft ) . iyy,m - Dm L + ( J ?T + y,T - i
is displaced parallel tox hy an amount yn sin a to new
i I - [(jus - 1 + y,Tj ))
coordinates ( x\ yr ) given by ( cos n - y -sina , sin a ) It . *
follows from Pythagoras ' theorem that
^ which can lie simplified to:
vU r - YiEtti - 11
( 1 + e )1 = xf ~ + yr - = ( cos n- - yM* sin nT + sin* a - ft " * rJr ' ! L U- «
.

or [ i . -n
e (1 - 3 yFi ;cste ft sin ft + -
yi, si tv tv) 1 - 1 where m = ran a. Two special solutions to Equation 1 , 8
are apparent ;
Answor 1.7 * ( I ) where m - ( ] then yr = yysk a result wc had discovered
y sjn a previously from our experiments considering the shear
lan ot * = x* cos a - yf , sin &
strain along direction CA*
( III when: fir= U cither yyw = II fa result implying no
This am be pul m two forms: displacement )

tan ft
1
-1 tan a
(1*5)
or m: 4- y m „ -1 *0
yyi tan LT
This second conclusion shows that in general two values
tan a-
tan a ‘
( 1 -6 ) .
of m are possible . There are therefore , two directions in
1 + Tn tan ft ' our deformed surface along which no shear strain occurs.
The product of the roots of a quadratic equation
Answer 1.8
.
ax1 + hy + c = N is c/ a Because the constant term of the
* quadratic equation is - I , the products of the two values
Substituting Equation 1.6 into Equation 1.4 of m musi he minus one , implying that she two directions
e s {1 + 2yn sin a ' cos ft ' ¥ fji sin1 ft ' )~ ®^ I * { I .7 )
.
were initially perpendicular It wall he seen in I he next
Session that this result has a very great significance in terms
of the principal features of deformation. The two orien -
Answer 1,8 +
Consider an initial line in direction p making an angle
of a to the x-axis ( Figure 1.1. 11 Jrs slope is given by
tations are the roots of the quadratic equation given hy
rn = tan a =|(- y!T ± V ( f + 4) )
^
. IT? }

m = tan Line tp initially perpendicular TO p . has a slope

— .
\jm From Equation 1.5 the slope of the initial line p
After displacement to direction p ' is
Answer 1.10*
Using Equation 1.6 in 1.8

rf - = 2
fi , ) + 2 ynnf + 1
~

where m' = San »'

By extending the previous discussion of the solutions of
Equations 1.8 to 1.10 it will he apparent that after de.for -
mation the two lines showing no shear strain are aho
Figure 1.11. The angular shear strain yr . with reference to a
direction p after a simple shear displacement
perpendicular and have orientations given by
m = tan a ' = 4 ( yw ± V ( yi + 4 ) ) . 1 - 11)
10 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY : STRAIN ANALYSIS

Answer 1.11* The development of mathematical expressions for

See Figure* I 12 and 1.13 for the complete graph Seal sol-
utions over u range of y,. = from f ? U to - 2 *0 to Equations
3.4 and l.B respectively The longitudinal strains for lines
-
lying between n 0c and a - W (Figure 1.12) are all
positive The geological implications here are that any
competent rock layers with such an initial orientation would
show the progressive development of boudnis. In contrast
describing length and angular changes leads to two types
of equations . One set of equations describes the features
of strain in terms of parameters existing before the defor -
motion eoak place. These are known as Lagrangian equa
. .
tions For example Equations 1.4 and l . B are both Lagran -
-
ginn forms involving the angle a before deformation . l ( is
also possible to describe the same strain features in terms
,

otdirffliam after deformation; these are known as Eulerian

die longitudinal strains for the lines between a = and
a = ISLE show an initial history of contraction , and a later equations. Equations L7 and 1.10 involve o ' and are both
Eulerian forms. The link between Lagrangian and Eulerian
history of stretching. I he. implications of such changes will
be discussed fully in Session 12: at this stage we should equations can be made by a single equation describing the
relationships of tv and ari before and after deformation
note the possibility of layers showing early formed folds
respectively .
which were subsequently boudinaged .
The changes in shear strain for different values of & are
We will see that for many geological purposes the
Eulerian equations are most usefulr because in practice it
quite complex. This is because the rates of angular change
is the deformed state which is our present day reference
of the reference direction and m initial perpendicular are .
point . Lagrangian equations are useful , but they are mostly
to some extent , independent . The shear strain variations
are complex because they combine the effects of these two used lor predicting the geometric effects of particular si rain
variably changing lines . sequences .

Figure 1.12. Venetians of longitudinal strain (axtamion e ) with initial orientation n of a line undergoing simple shear yvr .
i
DISPLACEMENT : CHANGES IN LENGTH AND ANGLES 11

pi .

-t

/
yy M
*
Figure 1.13. Variations of shear strain y with initial orientation a of a line undergoing simp / a shear y .
^

KEYWORDS AND DEFINITIONS

T Angular shear strain
J Body rotation
Body translation
Soudinaye
s l.ohesl M o l , ( 1909 ) because of the similarity of the forms
A measure of the angular deflection between two initially
peipeni1icular Li ties (Figure 1, 4),
A type of displacemcnl: where all pnjnis in a body undergo
an identical angular rotation about some fixed point .
A type of displacemenl where the displacement vectors for
all points are identical .
A structure produced during the extension of eompcteni
layers enclosed in an incompetent matrix . The competent
layers show more or less regular regions of thinning Cor
-
breaking ) , and separate into sub paraltel pieces termed
boudins The term boudin was originally proposed by
af the sub-parallel competent layer pieces To a variety of
French sausages (boudins) lying side by side in a butcher ’ s
shop window .
 1

12 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY: STRAIN ANALVSIS

Brittle deformation The failure of a Pressed body , leading to the formation

of fractures, when the elastic limit is exceeded,
Competence A general term to describe the case with which a material
can deform. Competent materials art stiffer , Ikiw less
1
-

easily or break more readily than incompetent materials

Displacement Tile change in position of a point in a body from an initial
position with coordinates ( x . y) tti a final position i x\ v ' ).
Displacement is the straight line vector joining ( x . v) and
* .
( ' y ) Displacements for all the points in a body may be
expressed in rhe form of displacement equations , and
coordinate transformation equations (p 7 and Appen-
dix B) .
Ductile flow The property of certain materials whereby , when stressed,
the material undergoes a permanent deformation without
fracturing. The strains arising during ductile flow arc gem
erally larger than those of an elastic strain
Elastic strain A strain in a solid body ser up as the result of application
of a stress, Elastic strains arc reversible and the body
recovers its original shape when the stresses arc removed.
'\J Elastic strains arc generally small (longitudinal strains

4C-S28 .
c < fh 02 and shear strains y < 11 * 02)
Longitudinal strain A change in length of a line element a line of initial length
/ and final length / ' has a longitudinal strain defined
as extension e ( or engineers extension ) where
e = ( T — [ )j L The finite longitudinal strain e( is a measure
of the total strain from initial to final stale. I he incre-
mental longitudinal strain t\ is the partial change oi
length of a line from its length / at the start of the increment
to its length / / at the end ot the increment ( e , =( / / - / ) //)

Pinch and swell structure
A variety of boudinage in which the b< uidim arc connected
by narrow zones of competent material This structure is
characteristic of materials where the competence contrast
is not strongly marked ( 1 igure I-8 A . layer e).
'

Ptygmatic structure Folds with the following geometric properties ( sec Eicurc
1.14 ) :
1 Constant layer thickness r
2 Distance between adjacent fold crests ( or troughs !
measured along the layer ( / ) Iurge compared to layer
thickness ( >10)
3. Distance between adjacent fold crests measured along ,

the layer I /) large compared to fold wavelength ( it )

The form of the folded layer is characteristic of that pro-
duced by buckling a thin elastic sheet in air . known as an
elastic# , In deformed rocks ptygmatic structures are found
where vingjf . isolated layers of relativel> highly competent
. .
Figaw 7 74 Geometric features of ptvflmititc structure. material enclosed in a matrix of low competence arc
strongly shortened.
Rheology The study of the relationships between stress imposed on
a body and the resulting strains or strain rates ,
Shear strain y The tangent of the angular shear strain y ~ tan

Simple shear .
A displacement which transforms m initial square into a
parallelogram where the displacement vectors arc ail on
ented parallel to one set of opposite sides of the square
and parallelogram ( Figure I 5). The vector direction is
known as rhe shear direction and the plane containing
this and a normal lo the plane o| ihe parallelogram is the
shear plane .
*
Strain
KEY REFERENCES
In each ot the Sessions of this book a number of key
references will he given to provide background reading
which is especially pertinent to the topics under discussion .
At the end of the book a more complete reference list will
he found .
Important background reading on strain will be found
m the following works:
hieger. J . C. ( 1956 ) “ Elasticity , Fracture and Flow" . 206
pp . Methuen , London .
.
Means W D. ( 1976 ), "Stress and Strain ” , 33*J pp.
Spri ngcr -Vcrl ag, Heiddberg .
Ramsay , J G , ( ! %7 ). “ Folding and Fracturing of Rocks" .
-
568 pp McGraw Jfill , New York
Thompson W and Tait . P G , ( 1679) , “ Principles of
Mechanics and Dynamics” , Part l ( paperback version pub-
lished 1962 ) 50# pp. Driver . London
Trucsdclb C, and l oupim R. A , f 1 %D ). The classical field
theories. In “The Encyclopaedia of Physics". ( S. Flugge,
edl 226 273 Springer - Verlng, Berlin , Heidelberg .
DISPLACEMENT: CHANGES N LENGTH AND ANGLES 13
'
The change in shape or internal configuration of a body
insulting from certain types of displacement Mathemati-
cally it is second order tensor quantity which requires
lour components for its definition in two dimensions and
nine components tr» three dimensions ( see later definitions
in Session 2 j In this book we will use strain for his
I tensor
quantity , including features of distortion and rotation
Hus is. a very useful small monograph selling out many of
the basic features of displacement and deformation rn a
dear and concise way For this and the following three
Sessions the most useful background reading will be found
-
in rhe accounts of displacement arid two dimensional shnin
-
ipp . 20 33)
I his book provides an excel lent introduction for the math'
emurkal approach to deformation It has been written with
the needs of geologists in mind so that ihe discussion find
applications of the theory arc especially valuable and
informative At this stage the most relevant sections are
found under the headings of deformation . and especially
pp . 130-139 and i 68-173.
This book , written tor structural geologists , set *, out many
of the mathematical properties of strain . It develops the
geological implications of the geometric features of defor -
mation in term', nf the structures of naturally deformed
rocks. The following pages are recommended as being
particularly relevant toi the first four Sessions of ihis pres-
- - . - -
ent work : pp 50 69 83 91 94 96 , 103 120 .
f
This reference is for those wishing to look Lit one of the
classic historic works on mechanics The sections most
relevant for our studies will be found on p. 116, but the
analysis rapidly proceeds to an investigation of three -
dimensional features, and may be found to be a little hard
going at this early stage
This work presents what is probably The most complete
and mathematically most comprehensive account of stiain
io he found in the existing literature . Be warned ,
however ,
that this book does require a very sound knowledge of
mathematical methods. A section on simple sheai will be
found on pp . 292 -298 .
 1

jtjy &>* _$ <* * J- I

rAi' j is
^ J««K

j>
SESSION 2

The Strain Ellipse

Concept
Distortion and Rotation

Experiments with ihe card deck model are used to Iflustrate the differences
between displacements which set up homogeneous and heterogeneous
S 3 rains, and how homogeneous strain can be anarysed using the concept
of The finite strain ellipse. The four components of strain in two dimensions
are related to the two principal longitudinal strains and their orientations
before and after displacement . Simple shear is shown to be a rotational
.
deformation Some further geological implications of simple shear are
developed TO illustrate the evolution of extension fissures in shear zones,
and To show how Ihn differences of forma of folds end of baudin structures
arise from differences of rock Sayer orientation with respect to the directions
of principal slrains .

INTRODUCTION

The experiments of Session l showed That the strain dun First group of experiments ; The strain ellipse -
-
is lies doped h\ two dimensional displacement has quite homogeneous and heterogeneous strain
complex geometrical features We saw that values ol lon-
gitudinal strain and shear strain vatictl with the direction Question 2.1
in which the measurements were taken . In Ehin Session we Displace the cards using a pair of wedge shaped formers
wii; describe these variations and show that they form a
of cousinnt displace mens gradient. The large circle is
.
system LIEit pattern
deformed into an ellipse; if the initial circle ha\ a an it
Huw can w c find an
. experimental solution to this prob - .
raditm this ellipse is known as the finite strain ellipse
lem with the shear box used in our previous experiments?
Measure ihe lengths of the major and ininoi it mi-axis of
One wpy would be to draw lines with many different
this ellipse . These lengths relate to rhe maximum and
mie mations say at tO intervals, on the card deck surface
minimum extensions of the strain ( values I c \ and 1 -+ t
We could Eheu study systematically how the longitudinal
where £ i and e?? are known as the principal finite
and shear strums vary with respect to' the initial and final
extension defined such that c - is always, numerically
perm urns of these lines. However we Ci-m use a simpler greater than Cz \ In our experiment e\ is pusilivt and F: is
r

method to study these strum sanations we draw a circle

ncgulive. The ellipticity Rot the strain ellipse , recording
ph the curd deck surface and see how the form of die
certain aspects of the distortion component of the strain ,

vOcuinference of this circle is modified when wc shear the is the proportion f 1 + e% } fl I + c- T calculate its value.
earth Using A circular marker not only enables us to see
Detenume iheonematicmalfhe strain ellipse by measuring
bowlines with any initial orientation ( represented by all
the angle between ihe major axis and The direction of The
the possible radii joining circumference points to circle
edges of the cards ( angle ft ' } .
ceoTref change length and orientation but helps u* to
,

formulate one of the most important concepts at strain

analysis—the finite strain ellipse .
The concept el the strain ellipse is based on the hom-
ogeneity uf strain Homogeneous strain produced by
simple shear displacement arises when the differential dis-
placements between any 10 adjacent cards is the same as
occurs across any other 10 adjacent cards. This differential
displace mens is termed She displacement gradient
homogeneous strains arc set up where the displacement
gradient is constant
Question 2,2
Repeat these measurements on Ihe ellipses derived by
distortion of the smaller circles Arc the ellrplidlies and
•memillions vim\lanI ? Why ?
Question 2,3
With .i hand lens observe the displncement ai the edge ot
the huge ellipse—note how they .ue discontinuous and

15
 16 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY - STRAIN ANALYSIS

step- like h Ihe form of the deformed circle reallv an

,
Question 2 , 6
ellipse V
L iing the formers, with values of y
'
fl - tf , displace ihe
~

Question 2.4
.
cards to astute of hntrtoge neons strain On the huge ellipse
draw the major iiml minor diameters the lines, will be
Derivation of the equation for the strain ellipse pro - perpendicular
With another set of formers wilh ^ hear value 0- 4
duced in simple shear ,

Hy considering the displacement of any iniiial point \ x . y )

positioned on the circumference of a circle of unit radius
remove part of the shear; Are the titles of the major and
minor axes of the previous ellipse still perpendicular ? *
*
and with centre at (0, 01 given by i he equalion Question 2,7
Completely remove the shear deformation I fie strain
T
- * r ^ i
ellipse will return io its originally drcuLo lonti Are the
h> some new position < ' y ' ) t derive the equalLon of the
*
strain ellipse after u simple shear displacement or ylJt Hmt :
.
new petitions nF the Lines if the original si lain ellipse axes
perpendicular "
displace the points on the circle using the coordinate trans-
formation equations in the form:
Question 2.8
Jf = Jr " - yyr
Measure the angle made by the long axis of the strain
y =y 1
, -
ellipse ( # = U 8 ) and the direction oi the edges of the
cards l angle tff ) and The angle Tins line makes with she
Question 2.5 cards in die undisplaced state ( angle tfi The angles are
different; calculate the difference It - d' - d \ which is a
R pw« the itrsl experiment a former with a curved
"
measure of ihe rotational component of the strain
*
dfepkeeractlE
using
surface { Figure 2.1 J . What is the form of flic Although the strain is a rotational one. have the cards
Innic circle after it has been ( lispiuccd: is it art ellipse '-1 actually rotated' ' '

Question 2.S
A
Repeat question 2,6 with formers of shear value = 1 n.
Do the directions of T S I X E S ol I he ellipse coincide with
those for a shear ot y,, = i>8? Calculate the rotational
component ul the strain for The shear of y . = jm , h IT
,
twice the rotation for the shear nr >, = H' 8 ?
Before proceeding to the third group or experiments,
8 check answers and read the commentary on (be significance
uf these result .
*
Third group of experiments : variations of principal
finite extensions and rotation with displacement

.
Figufs 2. f View of rhe surface of the card dock mode } used
-
This next group of experiment!- i aimed M evaluating more
exactly the re la ismis hips between strain, mration mid
. displacement .
for ths experiments of Questions 2 , 1 to 2 W ; A before shear -
ing. B, after sheering

Question 2.10

What are the forms at the smaller circles ? Arc they more
nearly elliptical than that vI the large circle? Mow constant
are the approximate clliptlribes of the deformed small
circles and how constant ore then one nr a lions "
Before procceding to Question 2.6, check your answers
'
.
WM formers of vansMe y i value evaluate the following
data and tabulate them using The table overleaf
riot the data on to four graphs using scales Hfy - 5 * i| cm
( abscissa ) and ordinate scales cMiptkin R 2 s ern per
unit: .
HT - 2 cm , dr UP 2 cm and rotation tu 11 ' =
2 cm, Keep to these scales and plot data on to tracing

and read the cornmenmrv.
Second group of experiments ; Principal finite
extensions and rotational component of the strain
I he aim of this group of experiments is to investigate the
so ' called rotation effects of a displacement rind strain svs-
tern and to formulate more exact I \ how Ihe form of the
a rain ellipse is . function of the displace mu nt .
*
paper , The results can then be compared with I he exact
solutions in the answer section .
Are Liny of the curves linear with increase m shear
.
displacement y, , 7 The area of an ellipse o rrtib derived
ft om a circle of initial area itr If we define the proportional
change in areas hi the Greek lerier “delta " r _J u then
l - A * * ( l - , > ( ] + :,}
*
What do you deduce about area change in simple shear .'
 STRAIN ELLIPSE CONCEPT; DISTORTION AND ROTATION 17

. = tan v
ft 1 + eh = -r f
IT + ffild + -
as ) = ( 1 4) fl ru = 0' - fl

-0 2

-04
-0 - 6
- OB
-1 0

Extension structures developing in shear zones two solutions over the range oi (V CF - liKT I range of 2 F
Fi Question 2,11
—
fl0 360°) * and that these two directions arc perpendicular
Show that i he long axis of Hie strain ellipse can never pass
through I he shear direction ( parallel to the .t -axis).
What is the orientation 0' os the maximum U-mgHudina !
I strain of the first ellipse to develop by simple shear?
f Determine this by extrapolation of the ff curve to the Orientation Oof the principal finite extensions
position yfj = 0 p. -
Figure 2.2 shows a shear zone With parallel sides cutting
before deformation

through displaced ( but mi deformed ) wall rocks: A shows Question 2.13*

ihe initial development of [ he asone , and B and C illustrate
later stages as Lite shears in the centre of the zone become
stronger > and as the shear zone widens. In A. draw the
I system of extension cracks which would be expected lu
i form perpendicular to the orientation of the maximum
extension of the first formed strain ellipse. In B and C .
show how ihese would be modified by later shear, and how
they would extend into the less deformed wall areas
(assuming that the propagation of an extension vein takes
place ill lhe crack tip in a direction perpendicular to The
maximum incremental extension
Derive an equation which enables you to calculate the
tot. il shear strain y from the orientation made by the
extension crack aml the direction of the shear zone .
Now proceed to the Answers and Comments section
then continue with the starred questions , or move on to
Session. 3«
In Session 1 we derive# a genera I equal ion lor she extension
.
along any line With initial orientation i ( liquation. 1.4 )
Use the same mathematical technique as for Question
2.12* rn find an equation giving the orientation of the
maximum ami minimum extensions before displacement
Prove that the two directions are initially perpendicular .
Calculation of the rotation m
Question 2.14*
The values of 0' and t ) determined from questions 2, 12*
iind 2.13* will be different , and we have seen that this
difference defines ihe finite rotation tu . It should he clear
,
that
tan 2 cu = tan — 20
expand this and find the value of tan 2 to. Then , using the
)

identity
STARREDt * ) QUESTIONS 2 tan ia
tan 2w -
I - larrW
Orientation tf of the principal axes of the strain
ellipse
show shat tan m - + > j*5L Another mathematical solution ,

to this equation will appear as tun «u = - 2 /yr hut this soF

union is not an appropriate geomelrical solution to our
Question 2.12*
problem. Discuss why it is inappropriate . Show that in ,

In Session 1 we derived a general equation which expressed simple shear , I he internal rotation can never exceed PCI
"

-
rfie value of extension r for all directions given by orien
-
tation o ' in the deformed state ( Equation 1.7 ) . The orien
tation of the principal extensions after deformation can be
Values of the principal finite extensions
derived from this general equation by finding its maximum Question
and minimum values , Differentiate Equation 1.7 with 2,15*
respect to at * and find where dtv / dd* is zero ( the standard
1
By substituting the values of 0' in the original equation for
method for finding the maximum and minimum values of e* , find the values of the principal strains. The simplest
any function 3 The simplest form for the final equation final result is expressed in ihe quadratic extension (Greek
for 0' [ values of a ‘ giving maximum and minimum values “lambda" A ) and defined as A = i J - e )1. Give your results
of r* } \s found using double angle forms ( sin 2 ff = 2 sin in the form of the two principal quadratic extensions
ff cos H cos 20' = cos:
^ - sin f ? > . Prove that there arc
2 r
\ and A3,;.

I
 9

: 1 '

2*

Figure 2.2. Progressive development of a snear zone. See Question 2, IT .

- -
Copy Qd < •£: 1982 AcfrOternc Piraa rec IlCmdonI Lid Th c figum on lh:a Jvaye, wirh lfie COpynghl hblie« «n V 5J ifcorudurta by MB rtatlen for Ibe sMrpdsn a fcdlving
* * *
i£ie«rci9BB ID whien >: islatea mid by nu pefBun, m no orhe - lurinat o > medium, arid for I\ Q puposo wliliOut l »w written cwiMnc bf iha cow hold#

Figure 2.3. Values of shear strain v along imy
Question 2.16 +
In Session 1 ( Question 1 , 9 + ) we derived an equation
expressing the value of the shear strain y along any line
making an initial angle a with the .> - direction in terms of
the amount oi shear strain y, , Figure 23 is a graphical
representation of this function lor various values oi n
between 4S° and h5c . as shown by the similarly shaped and similarly oriented
The curve ior n = 453 lies completely b the y + vc sector ,
whereas the other curves initiate in the y - ve sector, cross
she y - l! abscissa and continue into the y + ve sector
-
What is the significance of the Jo cat ions where the various
curves for different n values cross the abscissa axis'1 Discuss
the evolution of the principal strain direction ( f f ) in
of these graphs
ANSWERS AND COMMENTS
The strain ellipse—homogeneous and
htiterogen&ous strain
Answers 2, 1 . 2.2
When the cards are displaced using a pair of wedge-shaped
-
formers with constant angle of shear i, kurre potiding to
shear strain in the card direction of y, i , the circle of
anil radium is. displaced into a perfect ellipse . The smaller
circles are also transformed into ellipses with absolutely
similar shapes to those taken up by the larger circle , and
with their major and minor axes parallel throughout the
outface. From the way that the card deck htis been sheared
it is obvious that the differential displacement taking place
SIP A IN5 ELLIPSE CONCEPT ; D^ SJOfiTION AND ROTATION 19
fine making an initial angle n wiltr rhe direction of simple shear
between any 1U adjacent cards is the same as that taking
place between any other 111 adjacent cards. In technical
terms the displacement taking place river any small part
of the surface is known us the displacement gradient and
this gradient \ > clearly censtoiH in mir experiment Hie
distortion set up within any small (but not too small i area
of the surface h identical to that In any other small area,
ellipses in our experiment . A consent displace^ ml gra-
dient leads to a stow of homogeneous strum *
.
Answer 2 , 3
terrm. II we view the- ellipses on die surface of our model from
a distance of a meter the distortion appears verv - muoih
and uniform , but these smooth outlines are an illusion and
with a hand lens thus are seen to be built up by a senes
of discontinuous steps . If we could have drawn circles of
very small initial radius to cover only five of the cards
( Figure 2 ,41 vve would not have called the deformed shapes
ellipses , The displacement over very small areas is clearly
discontinuous and itr our card modd \ and in real racks )
the concept of hrmiogprieous strain does tun hold orvr fields
.
ryf iffo.s' t ' n\atiott which are cen \ mufl In flattinill\ 11 eUVnried
.
Figure 2.4 Shearing of a smell circular market I Aj in the card
. <
deck mode! experiment The resulting form BI is not shat of
a simple strain ellipse .
20 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY : ST R AIK ANALYSIS

Figure 2.5 The concept of homogeneous strain and the strain

ellipse is not always simply applicable to a rock and its
component crystals A illustrates the initial unde formed rock
with crystals a~ f and with a circular market, and B shows the Figure 2.6 , Homogeneous simple shear displacement of a
deformed shape of rhess crystals with now forms a' f and pomt ix , yi to new position { x\ y' J and the production of a
with the discontinuous locations of the marker let Figure simin ellipse
2,4l

rocks the homogeneous slrain theory can generally be 2. <T i according to the Hitlerian version of the displacement
applied over the surface of a single hand specimen * but equations:
because nearly all rocks are farmed from cm aggregate of
crystal particle : the theory cannot he applied when we can
4

*ee the Individual grains ( f - igure 2.5 ) . In processes of

'
an
natural rock iJelririmmon the overall shape change ol she
The general equation of an ellipse centred at the origin
rock is accomplished by small discern in nou ^ displacements and oblique to the coordinate axes is given by
helween and within individual grains , and b \ changes of
shape of single crystals by solution and growth. When the At3 4- 2 Bxy - Cy2 = 1
overall relationships of thousands of grains are considered
we find a smoothing out of the effects of the discontinuities
where A . B and C arc constants Equation 2.1 is c Icurly
in The same way that in our cards we have found that the
an ellipse of this type .
small discontinuous slips merge to give an overall picture
f continuity Durin g na t u rai deform a lion the cryvtal com
i?
- Answer 2.5
ponents genera lb- keep the same neigh hours, and there
are usually no chaotic separations t adjacent elements ,
If we displace the cards with a former having a curving ,

" displacement edge the shift laking place between the III
Although this is general!) true in tectonic deform EI tinns . adjacent cards is generally different from that between any
there arc of course othci natural processes in which this
continuity ( or ‘‘ held togetherness ' ' i does not apply , In
.
other 1( 3 adjacent cards The displacement %radiant is t?ur -
iuhk and under these circumstances the large circle
processes such as turbulent Row in sediments OJ magmas
becomes deformed into a complex shape which is no that
and in the selective solution transfer and redeposition of
,

of an ellipse. *
crystal components, the displacements will no: always obey
the laws ot ordered shape changes from, which we develop .
If tor example, the variable simple shear displacement
induced into the curd deck was of a sinusoidal nature so
-
the concepts ol finite strain (i. c the so called laws of
that the radius of the unii circle was displaced hy ii quarter
eontinuum mechanics l .
wavelength rtf the sine function with coordinate transfnr
malion given h> ;
Equation of the strain ellipse x* = x - sin( 2 v/ jr)
, r
=y
An & wer 2.4 >
Displace menl equalions can be expressed in two forms. then the unit circle rr + y 7 - I. is displaced into the farm
’

The first tells us the positions ol die new euordinates illustrated in Figure 2.7 given hy the equalion.
ot a point 11 v " ) when we know she initial coordinates x' 2 - 2x ' sm(2v 7^ J + sm 4( 3v 7>) + y ' - 1 ( 2,2 )
( yl hi this form the equations have a reference which
is (he initial state , and they are known as / .aynmv:ian Prove this equation yourself by displacing the unit circle
equ nitons : by the equations describing the Eulcnan form ot the
nonlinear displacement . Any pair of non - linear displace '
x - x - yy mew equations give rise to complex local displace me ni
gradients,- and . under these conditions, the internal di>-
This information can he easily reorganized so that t and
> become the subject of she equal nun Thus, knowing the
.
Slid positions after iUxptticemenf we can compute the
initial coordinates. Such equations which refer tu the firm!
state are known as Euieriim equations
x = x r f )y *

y - yr
To displace poirtK on our initial circle we icplaee all ihe
i and y coordinate - lu new positions | .v
4 ' ) (
'
.
sec I igure
Figure 2.7, Heterogen&ouB sinip le shear displacement loaditi g
to the deformation of an initial circle ra a non-elliptical shape

tort ions cannot be analysed by u single strain ellipse The
strain is then known ILS hetvrogeneou* finite steam.
It we observe the forms of the circles of smaller diameter
drawn on the model it will he seen that , although they arc
nnt exactly elliptical after deformation . I hey are more
nearly elliptical Lhun is the shape of the larger circle . This
erids to an important concept in a field of heterogeneous
strain , I lie displacement gradients over a small element
approximate to those necessary to induce n homogeneous
strain in that dement . If the displacement gradient varies
smoothly , the field ol hutcrtrgenaom strain esm ridc^yT he
subdivided into small elements which have tfimmt homo
itffljVJJJX strain This is a most important conclusion for the
.
MMJVtur il geologist: it means that the distortion of the
rocks in any large structure of heterogeneous strain , such , perpendicular relationships , In the unstrained statu the firm
.is u fold can always be analysed by applying the strain
,
ellipse concept to individual outcrops or perhaps hand
-
specimen size pieces of rock . Ihe work of Clous ( 1947 ) cm
The strains .seen in oolitic limestones in the South Mountain
told of Maryland provides a particularly clear example of
rh$ pppjic 111 ion Of this principIe fFigti re 2 , 8) Wc wi 11 exam -
.
ine 40 trie of the methncLv of , train analysis of hetero
geneous strain sysicms in rhe next session . Fot a complete
cantinas ion of this rather complex problem we require
the mote com pick differential equations relating hetero
geneous finite strain to displacement this topic will be
examined in Volume 3 of this book series
st
Figure 2.8. Strain ellipses in an anticlinal fold west of South
Mountain . Maryland USA , Tnc ellipses show systematic vari *
at fane In elfiptidty and orientation related to position in the
fold . Data from Cioos
Tt ix worth emphasizing that practically all geological
structures involve heterogeneous, strain , and that if we wish
to apply rhe strain ellipse concept we mast he sure that the
, whereas those measured in a clockwise sense are designated
area of our ob&er nation issufficienfl}' small for the conditions
nf homogeneity to he met , yet nor so small that the behaviour
of the individual ay dal component of the rack interferes
wich die homogeneity ,
Principal strains and rotational component of the
strain
Answers 2.6, 2 , 7
When displacement lakes place we have seen that internal
distortions are set up and ibal . il the displacement gradient
ix cun stun I l he unit circle becomes distorted into the strain
, determining this orientation . Although practically ah geo-
ellipse . The orientalien and values of the principal strains
STRAIN ELLIPSE CONCEPT ; DISTORTION ANO ROTATION 21
depend on the amount and type of displacement and can
he expressed mathematically as functions of the displace-
ment ( sec Answer 2 , 15* below ). In our experiments all
the displacements are parallel to the card surfaces: as the
amount of shear increases iyvx becomes larger ) the pro-
portions of the principal strains (elliptidiy of the strata
ellipse , ft ) increases . The angle 0' recordingthe orientation
of the ellipse also changes the ellipse ' s long axi > rornmg
,
to lie closer to the X-axis,
io y
When the cards are unshewred from the state y, = 0 8
!T
A
-
( M the two perpendicular lines of the strain ellipse
* axes drawn on the cards loose their perpendicularity , but
when the shear is completely removed and the strain ellipse
has returned to its circular form the two lines regain their
-
which become the principal arar of the strain ellipse arc
always perpendicular and There is only one pair of initially
perpendicular lines which remain perpendicular after
deform a lion . I Ids may he proved mathematically (see
Answer I . ** ); you could also experiment by irial and
error by drawing differently oriented set* uf perpend leu la i
-
-
—
lines on the curds to see d any remain perpendicular after
did urination you would nor be successful! This special
property of the principal axes of strain is very useful tor
determining the directions of principal Unite strains in
rocks . Many features m rocks are initially perpendicular
the angles between mud cracks and bedding , the angle
between polygonal cooling fractures and dyke walls, fossils
with initial bilateral symmetry , and certain worm borings
arc initially arranged perpendicular to I he bedding planes
If wc ibid these features remaining perpendicular in a rock
wc know to have been deformed , then their directions
must coincide with the major and minor axes of the strain
ellipse.
Answer 2.8
If the directions of the principal axes of strain do not
change ( fl = O' ) as a result of displacement , then that
deformation is termed Srrotationat finite strain In our
card deck model , the angle always differs from the angle
ft and the difference defines the rotational component
( ml of OUT strain winch is known ax a rotational finite
strain
Before we discuss angular relationships we should note
the sign convention for angles in our xy coordinate system
Angles measured in an antic lockwise sense from ihc pos -
itive direction of the i - axiv are designated as positive ,
.
negative In oil! experiment , the angle ( f defining the long ,
axis of the ellipse always makes a smaller positive angle
-
with the .E axis than does the angle f? defining the initial
.
orientation of this line It therefore follows that the rotation
tu ( Greek " omega" ) uu = d‘ - fi ) is always negative .
Practically all deformations produced as . i result nf geo -
logical processes are rotational ones but i : is usually very
difficult indeed in measure the rotational component in
.
naturally deformed rocks This in because , in order to
measure ru. we have to know the initial orientation oi the
principal axes of the strain ellipse; when wc have only
deformed rocks to observe we generally have no wav of
logical deform a r ions are rotation aL it is worth emphasizing
22 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGV : STRAIN ANALVSiS
again that they ure not all produced by simple shear: simple
shear is |usi one of an infinite number a1 possible rotational
'
strains.
Although simple shear is a rotationaJ deformation, there
,
has been no actual rotation in space of the card deck to
produce this rotation Ihe development of a rotational
strain does nor necessarily imply ihai The body has to spin
physically around some axis . Because of this lack of real
rotation pf the cards in space some tike to refer to the
, stant , whereas longitudinal strains along OY are always
rotation that occurs in our experiment a> an internal rota - positive extension!^ given by 1 4- c (I
tion , in contrast to an external rotation which would occur
if we rotated the card deck box itself
Because the concept of rotation can be easily misun-
derstood it is worth looking into more detail here It is
Sometimes mathematically Convenient to think of a finite
strain as being made up ot two components, an irrotational
part which describes the dmornonal aspect of the displace-
.
ment and a body rotation pan which rotates the mass
about an axis until it comes, to tie in the specific orientation
that we sec at the end of the displacement process
-
( Appendix ( , Section 5) If will he clear 1m:m the experb
merits carried out with our deck of cards that such a
-
two stage process has no / actually occurred during simple
shear. In fact, the concept would be false if we thought of
displacement processes as being built up in this manner .
Let us consider the two-stage model as applied to simple
shear We first have to distort the mass irrotationalIy about
the Two perpendicular directions defined by rhe principal
axes of the strain ellipse and the angle Figure 2.9B) and
.
Figure 2,9 Comparison of longitudinal strains artsing iA !
from simple shear and ( B) from pure shear followed by a
rotation where the resulting finite strains are identical. C
illustrates the progressive changes in longitudinal strain
along the line OX and OY as a result of these two
deformations.
I hen provide a solid body rotation through the angle to.
Are these changes in actual description of those which
have gone on in the material ? The end products are cer -
tainly identical, but the intervening changes of lengths, for
example, are quite different The differences cast be
realized if we study tile length changes which lake place
along the direction OX and OY . In progressive simple
shear ( Figure 2.9 A ) lengths parallel to OX remain con-
If the
deformation proceeded first by an irrotational strain the
length changes along OX and OY would be quite different,
and along OX the line would rust be shortened and then
lerigThenoJ * one effect exactly compensating for the other
The progressive length changes seen in our two processes
.
and graphically recorded in Figure 1.9C are quite different ,
The mathematically convenient concepts for separating the
distortional and rotational effects of displacement must be
handled with care , and it is not possible so isolate one from
the other in any progressive displacement sequence t heir ,
separation is only valid H we refer to the geometric dif-
ferences which describe die finite changes that have
occurred as a result of the total process of displacement
Answer 2,9
When the card deck model is deformed through si shear
-
of value yM = 1 6 the directions of the axes of the finite
strain ellipse arc nut coincident wish the lines which ' ' ere .
parallel to the axes of the strain ellipse developed by a
shear ol: value 0 8, 1 Ins effect is the rule in all rotational
deformations because the deformation increments are not
coaxial . We will analyse this effect in more detail later ,
[ here is no simple linear connection between the eSIipticity
of she two ellipses for shears of y and 2 y . nor is there any
.
simple doubling of the rotational component At first sight
you might find tins rather surprising, for you mighi have
expected That doubling the displacement would lead to
twice the strain and twice the rotation. But . if you remem-
ber that the displacement gradient is expressed us u two
by lwo matrix and that matrix products are more complex
things Shan numerical products, then it becomes more
apparent why there is a complicated relationship here.
Answer 2.10
The four curves which result from ihc laboratory model
.
investigations are illustrated in Figure 2,10 None of the
.
variations of ellipticity R , orientation Hand 0 ' or rotation
a are linear with increasing shear strain The curve of
ellipticity ot the strain ellipse is concave upwards implying
,
Ih;IE the divloriion builds up more rapidly than die sheaf
strain . This is a characteristic feature of most ddurmmiutss
taking place in geology ( although it should be pointed out
that it is not a universal feature of all steady state pro-
gressive deformation processes ) . In contrast to the increas-
ing rate of eilipt icily with progressive shear , she rates of
change of the orientation parameters it' and Hand of the
ro tado n io a 11 dc ereasc Wit h shear [ n fact &* as \mptotic al I \
.
approaches a value of CT 0 asymptotically approaches 40 '
and rotation cn &lsp asymptotically approaches a maximum
value of W
In simple she HI The value of the area change is zero
for ail values of y,„ It should also he apparcsnl from the
f STRAIN ELLIPSE CONCEPT: DISTORTION AND ROTATION 23

5C

so"
8

5-tf

-
^89
R
-
i0
&' UJ

JF

;
- Ld

Jff
Rrh L *
Ue
2

£0
w"

.
l Q j
0*
’ 0 Q' S .' i) Pi
-y
Figure 110 Variations In Initial 0 and final H' orfontopons of the finite attain ellipse exes eSfiptidty R of the strain ellipse,
and rotation ci as a result of progressive simple shear fy ¥ fJ .
geo mem uf the shear paiigJleiogntm made hv the card incremental strain ellipse developed SL any stage tinring
surfaces ( base length and perpendicular distance constant ) The deformation history is also identically oriented because
ib - i - sJinple shear is a iJdbnuation without area change the ccomeHu increments arc the same. For example if ,

A A Tn simple shear no changes take place in lengths after a given total shear ol say ft , - TO we were to draw
perpendicular to the card model surface . Such a detnr a new circle on the finite strain. ellipse ol ready formed from
mation is termed a plant swum and This , combined With an initial circle then the geometric changes raking place
,

*
.
ihe lock of surface urea change implies that in three m ( his new circle during the next shear strain increment
dimensions the total deformation keeps a constant ootiwnc Would he identical to those that took place during 1 he very
A . = U. In mos* geological processes, two dimensional
planes do show area, change and also show changes m the
- first defurmndor- of the initial circle .
II Fin extension fissure system wns to form during the
ihird dimension implying non- pium strain which may aKn
1
initial shear displacement then the fissures would he ori -
,

imply volume change or dilatation A\ . We will discuss

> ented perpendicular to the first maxim urn incremental
the geometry of these features in a later session of this
butik ( Session 10) *
Evolution of extension fissures in shear zones
Answer 2.11
Finni extrapolation of the ff graph for strain ellipse; orien-
tation, the orientation ol the first strain ellipse long axis
extension* that is at 135 " to the shear zone walls. They
would farm a parallel en-echelon array as shown in Figure
2.1 ! A . Note carefully the relationships of the geometry of
-
the un echelon array to the shear zone displacement sense
Once formed , the fissures become carried along by sub-
sequent displacements taking place In the shear zone so
thin their initial forma l ion angle ol 05° becomes reduced
by an umouni depending upon lhe amount of subsequent
.
shear strain The first formed fissures therefore rotate hut
,

i *- J ! 45" to the shear direction . The uric mat ion of any 11 is most important to note that this lino rotation w d ntn
 I

24 ETRUCTUAA . GEOLOGY STRAIN ANALYSIS I

A 3

1359

.
Figure 2.1 i progressive development of extension fissures developing in & shear zone ' Answer 2.1 l )r

the same ns. the rotation that wfe have defined previously array and the shear zone displacement sense i Figure
as The rotational component ut of the strain ellipse. The 2.1IB). If the shear displacement at the aspne centre
geometry of line rotation is shown iii Figure 2 L2A « Any becomes very large it h possible that the central part ol
,

tine starting with an initial orientalion a is rotated to a each sigmoidal vein will be rather badly oriented rn allow
new position ii such that The stretching that is necessary along the direction of max
imum incremental extension. At this siage new cross*
-
cot a ' = cot a* - y ( 2.3i
cuffing veins may initiate at 135 to The shear zone walls ,
'

Some curves for this Function are illustrated in Figure the “older " vein system becoming effectively dead as the
-
2 12 B . including that of ± ] W which is of special interest new extension system develops* I figu re 2.1 L C)
in. our study of fissure rotation It should be clear that
every line of different initial Orientation undergoes a dif -
Figure 2J 3 illustrates examples of cn-echdon and sig
moidaJ vein arrays Jn different stages of development
-
ferent line rotation u tor an identical later shear value , Their geometry should be compared with the model we
*
and that; the rotation tu for The si ram as a whole is a quite have developed from the progressive simple shear
different function . Sequencer, special attention should be paid LU the possi-
The initial fissures rotate according to the a = 1353 curve bilities of determining (a) shear zone displacement sense,
.
of Figure 2.12B md defitly by measuring the change of ibf approximate value nf die shear /.one displacement
orientation we cotdd directly compute the umount ol shear I large or small ) , ( c ) how- it would be possible to determine
subsequent to figure initiation. At the same time as rotat - the value ol I he shear strain yy, at pmui in the zone The
ing rhey often become opened and the fissure generally answers to these queries should be readily apparent from
*
become filled with crystalline mate tinI deposited from pure the model we have evolved.
fluids ( fibrous crystals at calcite , quart and chlorite are
*
the most abundant filling species of veins in naturally
Soudinage and folding and the strain ellipse
deformed crack systems }
As Ihe shear zone widens and the deformation front Isi Session I we looked into some of the ecological con sc -
moves outwards the fissure rips will propagate into the quentes of changes of length in layered rocks containing
,

shear zone walls The propagation direction will be con - layers of differing competence , and saw how lengthening
trolled by the incremental strain and will therefore he of a compc lent layer cnukl lead to houdiosge nnd shorten-
* ^
oriented at 1.35' to the shear zone The total fissure ing to buckle folding Now thai we have established the
geometry now links the rotated Central part of ihe vein strain ellipse concept it will be useful to sec what geometric
'

-
with a 135 oriented lip. and will therefore exhibit a rite implication *’ follow from the orientations of the layers in
tnoulal shape Note carefully the shape of the sigmoidal respect to the axes of the Mrsin ellipse .
A
cotaf

Figure 2.12. Relationship of fine rotation fw = n ' - a ) and amount of shear strain yrM < n simple shear ,
A
Figure 2 . 13 A : En-echeion array of quarts filled veins developed in a shear some in sandstone
. . .
. Mullion Devon UK B :
htgmoidallv
.
shaped en- echolon vein array in sandstone Budv , Cornwall UK ,

B
 STRAIN ELLIPSE CONCEPT DISTORTION AND ROTATION 27

Perhaps we should first point out lliut the structures -

which form ought he complex uv a rcMili ol progressive
tan 20' = < 2.4 >
Y
length changes tHkuig place during the strain hiftorv m; we
have seen in Session 1 , We will discuss this problem inter Figure 2.17 illustrates a tan 20' graph. It will In? seen Thai
i Session 12 j . Here we will |USE look into the possibilities -
i.inee wu select a value for y , this c lahlishc values foi 2 H\
^ '
and we automatically obtain two solutions over a 360 '
arising from total strain state ,
range for 20' . TheSc two solutions are always given by 28 '
The layer orientation within the strain ellipse can be
and 2d' I S(T which implies that I he two 0' directions are
varied so that it u symmetric or asymmetric with respect
to the strain ellipse's principal axes (Figure 2.14) . l! the
perpendicular, As y becomes very Surge , tt' approaches
zero This means that the long axis of the ellipse comes
-
Layering runs parallel or sub parallel to the axis of principal
.
closer to the v -axis hut can never pass through it
extension it will be boutlinaged, and these boudin struc-
tures are also symmetric I hat iv the axes of the separated
Orientation tf of the principal strains before
fragments of competent layer will be parallel to the layering
deformation
ul the less competent material and to the overall regional
trend of the- layering ( Figure 2.14A " ) . Answer 2.13
If the layering is oblique m the principal strains, hue Still *
in a direction of stretching, then nn interesting geometric Thus proof follows so closely on that of Question 2 12 *
effect is seen . The hemdin fragments become asymmet - that it is unneees&sry to give it in full The initial orien-
ncally aligned to the general trend ol the layering and rations are given by
-
show an “eu echelon " dktribtriion (Figures 2 MIT 2.1b )
ian 2d = - n.5 )
They dearly have not been so strongly rut ate d ( line element
Y
rotation) as the layering in the matrix One finds in lab-
oratory experiments that llie difference in line element und it is clear fsotu the arguments developed above dun
rotation between the bundin and its mat r ix is at a maximum these two directions must also be perpendicular .
when the cross sectional form of the boisdins is upproxi - It should be noted that in Session I ( Question ] . y ,i we
mat el) cqui-dmieftsianal, and is ai u minimum when the established that there was only one set nf initially pwpen-
*
boudins are long relative to their breadth , iUcLtl&r which remain perpendicular rfter deformation .
If the layering is oriented parallel to the direction of This is true for till displacements which produce i homo -
maximum shortening in the ellipse, ptygmatic folds form ,
and these folds are symmetric and have their axial surfaces
-
geneuus strum appropriately au dysed using a strain ellipse ,

perpendicular to the average trend ol the layers ( Figure Internal rotation

2.140 ' K However , where the layering is in an. orientation
where contraction takes place, but oblique to the maximum Answer 2.14
shortening, the folds are asymmetric. The first folds to *
form along the competent layer are symmetric. but wilh 20' - tan 20
increasing shortening the orientations of ( he average layer lan 2 in = Hint, 10' - 2d) = ltali
- tun 20' inn 2 d
direction and axial surface both move towards the max -
imum extension direction giving the fold a characteristic Substituting appropriate values of tan Itf ' ( Equation 2.4 )
asymmetry (Figures 2.14C 2.15 b
' 1
and tan 20 | Equation 2,? )
As with Session 1 the render has » choice of possditliiics 4 r
tan 2 ri/
lot continuing the siudy . After dl'eckmg his conclusions r-4
ol die result of Questions 2.1-2, 13 lie can either proceed
directly to Session 3, after checking that nil she key words tun it) is iruicuiaied rrom the identity
and concepts sei out in the summary list are fully under - 2 tan to
tun 2iu =
stood, or answer the additional and more advancesI ques- I turn w
tions of Session 2 sci out in starred numbers below ,
which gi ves

Orientation 8' of the principal axes of the strain 0 = tarn w — i ( an ut -l

ellipse

Answer 2.12
*
(\ = j tan te - i)( tun m f -
Y
giving two so! ul ions
+ en r = 1 + Zy cos a' sin cv ' y sin a
'

d 4-

differentiating wilh respect tu a tun tti - + tr or —Y^ 1.2,6 }

de, The first of these roots is appropriate to out problem
2 yfcos: art - sin ' a - 2r sma cos a '
1

2( 1 + tfu J )
dijr ' but the second is not For example w hen we consider die .,

simplifying using double angle forms, equating de ^/ da to

1
rotation at very low values of y , the second result give*-
zero and replacing o ' by 0' we obtain the orientalmns iT tan 4*j tu be n very large negative number with u rotation
of the maximum and minimum extensions approaching 90° or 2 7 0' c l e a r l y a geometrically absurd
result , Why does this solution appear ? What does it mean
0 = 2 cos 20' -+ ysin 20' since mathematically u is a valid solution for tan "i The
1
 D

B'

Figure 2.14 . Geometric features of structures developed ir a competent rock layer (black ) embedded in an incompetent
main
* .
A \ symmetnc boudm structured B \ em echelon tooudin structure; C asymmetric folds D , symmetric folds
Figure 2.15 , Asymmetric ptygmattc folds developed in a competent pegmatite layer enclosed In Maine meta sediments.
.
Mail, Scotland let Figure 2 14C i

Figure 216 Emechefon boudins formed m competent caicsiUcate layers surrounded by tncompotont marble, Adamello
massif ,\ /V , Italy fcf Figure & i 4BTf ,

'4i
r
30 STRUCTURAl GEOLOGY : STRAIN ANALYSES

anticlockwise rotation to (implied by the positive sign )

approaches a maximum value ol W us y become increas-
1 ingly large
1
Answer 2.15
o W *
(1 + ) = ] -I- 2 y cos a sin tv‘ -l- jAiiir ct‘
Replacing a by (V ( the directions oi the axes of the strain
fltfft 2 $ 2
V ellipse | and using double angle forms

Figure 2.1?, Graphical solution of Equation 2 $ showing two

solutions for 20 oriented 180 apart.
fl - \
ef = (Y2 COS 26? * - 2ysm 2 ft + 1) 4

substituting values of
reason is apparent when we draw the physical orientations 1
or 0 arid ( Figure 2.18 ) , I'he axes which become the
cos 20' =
11 + fair 20'I 1*
maximum fl) and minimum i .T axes of the strain ellipse
and
with orientations Wand tf + '-Jn cun he numerically taken
away from the axes nr the strain ellipse { L and 2 ' with 4
tan 20'
sin 20' =
orientations ff and H' + Wj in several ways . (I - tan 320* ) v:

(a ) r - i = & - e = to and
(b) 2 r - 2 *= & 4 9U“ - ( B + an m j

(c ) F -
-
2 = IV - [ 0 90*) = t o 90 - tan 20' ——y
( d ) 2 ' - 1 = tY -+ 90 -
H = t o + 90
and simplifying the result , we obtain
The first two solutions are geometric solutions to our
problem whereas ( he second two solutions, although
,

mathematically correct , have no real significance for us.

It i ;, dtf ^ r from the solution lan w = + ( ‘ /fl ) that the
Ai oi Ai =
^ *
i y + 2 ± y( y1 + 4) 1 - )

where k is the quadratic extension ( I + r )1.

12,7 )

Answer 2,16
*
The curves cross the abscissa axis where (he shear strain
for the initial direction t has zero value It follows from
( he discussion of Question 2.13 that where this occurs
*
the direction of the line now coincides with the axis or
maximum elongation of the strain ellipse
We have seen from our experiments (Question 2.1li
that the principal elongation axis of the strain ellipse at
the start of the deformation coincides with i he a 45° line ~

This could also be proved by evaluating tan 20' using

Figure 2A8 Physical significance of the two solutions ot
Equation 2.6.
Equation 2.4 when y is close torero With increasing shear ,
the line that had an initial orientation a = 50" become * rhe
direction of maximum extension and, with progressively
increasing shear , the major axis of the strain ellipse moves
successively through directions that were originally ori -
ented a - 55* , 60n and 65°. It is deal that the axes of
successive strain ellipses nevei coincide with any fixed line
direct ion in the body, bur Thai rhey systematically sweep
through material as it progressively deforms

KEYWORDS AND DEFINITIONS

Area change or area dilatation J,,
*K
Displacement gradient
The ratio of the area of the strain ellipse to the area of the
initial ciTde from which it was derived. ,! i can he expressed
m terms of the principal finite extensions 14
4 /«
11 4- <71 ) ( I 4 l?2 ).
The gradient of displacement at different localities
H .. p in
m ,ai
hnd *. fn simple sheai with shear strain yt , parallel to the
. .

• -Coordinate axis , this can be expressed as dy„/3 v .

 STRAIN ELLIPSE CONCEPT ' DISTORTION AND ROTATION 31

-
En echftlon array -
An en echelon array of ti&ure is ewe where the individual
*
fissures show an echelon side step relative hi each other
%ir* THAI
(1 ,

Finite strain ellipse ^ .

Homogeneous strain
j he dlsp c derived from 4 circle of initial unit radius by
-
a homogeneous strain its m& jui iirnl minor semi axes arc
oi lend Iis I -i ei and 1 + e - . where ej and t. me the prin
1
-
cipal finite extensions ( sometimes termed the principal
finite strains or principal strains; S he eliipticify R is
11 ei )/( I r et ) The principal quadratic extensions arc \
A \ LLND! A ; with A = I I -r tT )-
A deformation such Thai flic form of identical /, shaped
initial markers le.g . circles or squares) have their shaped
modified Into some new but constant form after defor-
mation le g, ellipses oi parallelogram!:1 In contrast a
heterogeneous strain is one where the linal shapes of
the markers vary through the deformed body

Line rotation ( w ) 1 he difference in nogIn between any line direction n before

displacement and its orientation n after displacement ;
K = a ’ — a.

Rotational component of strain [ t o ]
The difference in angle between the onemat ion of the axes
f the finite strain ellipse ( in and the orientation of these
-
axes before deformation ( W ) ; tu = tf ‘ - ff, Where a f 0 the
strain is a rotational finite strain

Volume change or volume dilatation Ai The ratio of the volume of the strain ellipsoid tu the volume
.
of the miii il sphere from which it was derived isec
Session Id)

KEY REFERENCES

Many of the basic references are the same as those rec -

ommended at the end of Session I funher re; fee cnees
r elide mostly to the geological implications of sir inn par - .
ticularly with inspect to boudinage and folding of lavered
rocks showing compete nee contrasts

Boudinage
C. Ioos E f I 947) ,
'

BOFIDHCIAGE. A ni Gettphy T' nion Trans A good review summary and description of field examples
* ot houdms.
28 62fH>32
Griggs, D. and Handin . J l l %U l Rock tic forma cion.
'
This describes the results of bOlidin furmnfmn m laboratory
Gt' fii. $QL\ Am , Mem. 79 . 382 pp. experiments performed with various rocfc materials
Descriptions nf the experiments will he found m pp
355—358, and there are excellent photographs of these
experimentally produced hwdms m plates (> |. ( i

-
Romberg, H . 11955 Natutul .md experimental buudLnage
and pinch and swell structure J Gtol 63, 512-52b
.
Wcgjnnnn . C. E. ( 1932 ) Note sui k boudinage Bull $ m
Gcal . France 2 . 477 -41 9
* the behaviour of the necks between hnudim.
.
This gives one nf the best general modern account if
bondin smiLlure describing field examples and laboratory
model experiments. It also gives a mathematical analysis
of elongation in ductile malen . ds . and a discussion of the
factors controlling bottdin shape .
This paper gives descriptions id the geometric features oi
hoad ms in naturally deformed rocks , discussing in detail

Ptygmatlc folds
Kuenen , Ph H. ( 19381 * Obscrvalions and experiments
on piygmatic folding Bull Comm . Geal Finhmdr 123 ,
11-27 .
Hiis paper gives imiio examples nf plygmulfe structure
1
-
and dkvitsses the possible mew lia hsnK of form alion ,
namely magma inject it sit with buckling, oi shot ten tug of
a preexisting vein
32 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY STRAIN ANALYSE

Ramhera , H . ( 1939) . Evolution of ptygmatk folding f his is one of the most important contributions to under-
.
Norsk GeoL Ttdsskr 39 , 99- 131 , .
standing ptygmatk folds IT presents the first mechanic ]
*
analysis of the structures m terms of shortening parallel
lo competent layers, and points nut that prygmalie folding
and baud in age structure are com pH men tan phenomena
which can develop simultaneously in a dcforming rock
Sederbof m , J. J ( 1913 ) . Liber pt yginatisch e Fa 11 unge n . N . This classic paper gives many examples of plygmntic folds
Jahrh . Mm Grot PaUhotu. 36 . 491 312 . from the deformed Prccambnan gneisses of Finland , and
the folds are attributed to flow in a ifuid rock medium . \

Shear zones with extension veins

Beach , A . ( 1975} The geometry ofeu -echelon vein arrays lira -echelon veins from a number of different geological
Tectonophysks 28, 245-263, environments are described and their geo rue trie features
related to different theoretical models Relationships
between the amount of dilatation ami vein geometry ate
discussed and the significance of pressure solution as a
source for the vein filling is stressed .
Hancock . 1 Lr < Ili 72) . The
J
analysis -
of en echdon veins. -
Various examples of en echelon veins arc analysed and it
GeoL Mag. 109 , 2fiy-276. ts shown that the angles between veins and the shear zone
containing them can vary between 10" arid iher These
variations are attributed to differences in initiation mech
anism by shear or by extension .
-
Roaring, C (1968 T The geometrical significance of natural This gives a good discussion of the geometric forms of vein
- .
en echelon crack arrays Tectonophysks 5 . 107 - 12.1 arrays with particular reference to quartz filled veins from
the Witwatersr&nd and quartzites and ihe orientation of
the stresses which miglii have produced the structures.
 0 yeajsS i ?
'

SESSION 3

TO
r
An /n froduct/on to
Weterogeneot/5 Sfra/n

Experiments with rhf> simple shear box made with curved formers result
in patterns of heterogeneous deformation. The variably oriented and
variably shaped strain ellipses are analysed using the concepts of direction
,
fields and strain trajectories and the compatibility principles which con -
.
strain the variable deformations are examined The geometric and geo
logical implications of the compatibility principles with reference to dif -
-
ferent types of ductile shear zones are discussed. Methods are developed
for integrating strains to determine tola i displacements across shear zones .
The effects of compatible volume changes in shear zones are related to
the geometry of en-echelon vein arrays.

INTR 0DUCT1QN
We have seen from our laboratory experiments with simple
shear that a non- linear coordinate transformation sets up
rather complex deformations within the surface which can -
not he analysed by a single strain ellipse over the whole
card deck surface. We have also seen that the smaller we
make the unit of our analysis the closer in that dement do
the concepts of homogeneous strain and the strain ellipse
apply , We will prove mathematically later that if we reduce
the region of investigation to that of a point in a hetero-
geneously strained body (mathematically a region winch
has no areal existence), then the displacement gradients
existing at that point may be resolved into the properties
of a homogeneous strain al that point. From the viewpoint
of analysis of strain in geological structures this means that
if we choose a small enough domain to investigate then
*
the strain may be analysed by the strain ellipse concept
that we developed in Ihc last session . How small is " small ' ?
1
direction of the cards, However , if the bedding plane# are
parallel there n - a possibility that the strain will be
homogeneous.
We should state now that, in detail, the analysis of
heterogeneous strain is somewhat complicated However,
because so many geological deformation phenomena are
the result of displacements which have led to hetero -
geneous strain, we must look inro some of the geometric
features arising in such structures at an early stage in our
exploration of techniques so thaL we know how to prac -
tically analyse the commonest tectonic structures.
The aim of tills session is to look at some more or less
easily resolved problems of heterogeneous strain and to
make come to life a very important notion, which we term
strain compatibility . The concept of strain compatibility
places important constraints on strain variation in hetero-

The answer to this question depends upon the scale ot the
overall heterogeneity In Appendix B we prove that if any
intersecting sets of Initially straight,parallel equally spaced
lines remain slraighl and parallel and equally spaced after
deformation then the deformation is homogeneous. In
geology nature generally provides us with only a single set
of initially sub- pa railel markers such as bedding surfaces
or lithological banding. If such surfaces have a curved
form then it is clear that we are in ft situation of hetero-
, of differently oriented and differently shaped si rain ellipses
geneous strain ( see Figure 2.8 ) . If the surfaces are parallel
wc may or we may not have a situation of strain homo
geneity. Inhomogeneous strain could arise by varying the
displacement gradients across the surfaces , imposing het -
erogeneities of strain Mate without changing ilie oiieniatimi
of the surfaces in much the same way I hat when the simple
shear displacemenl gradient was varied in our experiments
this led to heterogeneous strain without changing the
.
geneously strained bodies The basic concept is very
simple and depends upon the general coherence of matter
in a continuum such as the deformed rock masses inves-
tigated by the structural geologist. A rock mass consists
of an aggregate of connected particles before de format ion ,
-
and as a result of a complex but orderly tHsphia menr there
are rules which relate how the displacement gradients, and
therefore the strains from point to point are intercon -
nected. If you were to draw on a sheet of paper a group
it would be almost certain that they would not be com-
- patible. That is TO say , the displacements that each ellipse
implies would noi be mathematically linked—the body
would have gaps or overlaps between elements or differ -
ences in rotations which make it incoherent: the elements
would not join together. In Figure 3.1 wc illuslrale in
simple visual terms the main features of strain compat -
.
ibility Four originally unde formed elements A B C D

33
 34 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY : STRAIN ANALYSIS

which lit together have been strained to produce four other as a single mass these eight equations are not independent
,
.
demerits A ' H ' C and D ' The distortion of each elemental At this early stage in our study an investigation
id the
piece is indicated by the centrally located strain ellipse . compatibility equations is somewhat
prcmarurc . The
The strains from A ' to IV , B ' to C rind C to D' are important point here is to realize
what compatibility
compatible Their half ellipses share a common plane with implies especially in terms of the
,
geometric property of
the next block, signifying the property of common features elements which enables them
to fit together . We will return
which enable the blocks to fit compatibly together How- to the mathematical analysis of heterogeneous
strain ami
ever , there is no way of fitting the strains ol A ' and D ' : the compatibility equations in the third
book of l his scries
the hair ellipses in block A and D ’ show geometric dif- on advanced methods of
'

analysis .
ferences in shape , size and orientation of their common
half plane The whole body shows strain incompatibility ,
and iri order to exist with the strains as indicated m this QUESTIONS AND
EXPERIMENTS
figure there would have to be .1 hole developed between
block A ‘ and PL We should now extend this concept to
a body with much finer gradational Variations resulting Construction of finite strain trajectories
from a two- dimensional smoothly non-linear displacement
field . All the strain ellipses from point to poinl must show Question 3.1
gradual transitions in all directions into adjacent ellipses Figure 3.1 shows the results or three laboratory
experi-
and these variations must obey well defined mathematical ments. A card deck was subjected
to a variable simple
laws , the so called rules of strain compatibility In mathe- shear displacement producing states
of heterogeneous
matical lerms the variations in the various features of strain strain giving rise to structures known in geology as shear
( principal strain values e 3 and orientations ft ' and rota-
-
zones ( A and B ) and a similar fold ( C ) Before the card
tion r \ ) must tie smooth functions of initial positions deck was sheared some 43 ? small Circles were drawn on
( v . v ) or final positions ( > \ v ‘ ) capable of being expressed the surface . You could set up a similar expert merit yourself ,
in equations like the Lagrangian set ( in terms of ini tin! but . he warned , it does take a long
time to prepare the
position u, v > ) given by circular markers! Asa result of the shear we see that the
circles arc deformed into approximate ellipses : the sTrain
— = y) ~ = f <t x . y )
dx ellipses vary MI orientation (principal axes ft' ) , in strain
ratio (ellipticity R ) and in internill rotation i>o
3C
-fix-; = M * y ) rlf
r Cover the figures with transparent paper and draw the
* long and Short axes of each of the strain ellipses Such a
dff diagram records a direction field of finite strain Now
tiy construct smooth curves so that ihcv integrate these direc -
tions: at any point they should be parallel to the lines of

^ fix
= M- - V )

,
* rtv
the direction field . We will have two sets Of such curves,
one integrating the elli| >sr long axis directions, and an
where functions /i ( rirv ) through to /B(jr , >' ) are smoothly orthogonal set integrating the ellipse short axis directions
varying continuous single- valued functions . The compat- These sets of curves arc known as the finite strain tra-
.

ibility rules arc expressed mathematically as the compat - jectories , Note that they do not join the ventres of the
ibility equations and imply that for the body to cohere adjacent elUpsvs recorded ni individual localities m our
,

A D

3
Hi
Figure 3.1. An illustration of compatible and incompatible
strains.
 A

Figure 3.2L Experiment # ? models of deformed dtcufat markers, A and B are shear zones , C is a simtta? fold. Soe Questions 3. T
and 3.2*
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Figure 3.3 . Metagabbm deformed by a shear zone Caste } } Ods ,t . N Uisi.

Figure 3 4, Fabric trajectories of Figure 3.3. Sea Questions 3.3 and 3,4 .

' * '

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experimental model. Finite strain trajectories offer an
excellent and practical me thud of recording cer tarn feal ures
of strain variation in a heterogeneously deformed body ,
Describe the genera! geometrical features of ihese trajec-
.
tories Note especially I he convergence or divergence of
adjacent curves of any one set . for high shear values . Discuss any problems arising from
Question 3.2
Record at each point ihe dliptidty ( R } of the strain ellipse *
and make a contoured map of variations of R through the
structures. Tire strain trajectories constructed in Question
3.1 show convergences and divergences between ad jacent
trajectories, ( an you see any relationship between strain
*
trajectory geometry and changes in values of RIJ Make ri
graphical plot of dlipticity R ( abscissa ) and ellipse orien-
tation # ' . The data points should fall on a single line , Why ?
Question 3.3
Figure 3,3 shows a shear zone passing through a meta-
gabbro consisting predominanti v of amphibole ( dark ),
feldspar and quartz ( light ). In the shear zone the shapes
of the statistically equi-dimensional mineral components
arid mineral aggregates seen in the walls of the shear zone
show' significant changes; the mineral aggregates show a
preferred orientation, and the intensity and preferred
orientation of the mineral fabric varies through the sherir
zone. What do you think could he the significance of these
,
features? Do you sec any resemblances between these data
and the geometric features of simple shear zones we dis-
covered from Questions 3.1 and 3.2 ?
Now cheek your results and conclusions m the Answers
and Comments section (p, 43 }. then proceed to Question
3,4.
Calculation of displacement in a shear zone
Question 3.4
Figure 3.4 shows lines connecting ihe crystal fabric orien-
tations of Figure 3.3 known as fabric trajectories . Draw
lines connecting points where the fabrics have the same
direction . These are known as isogon lines ( lines joining
points where the surfaces have equal inclination ) (sec
Figure 3.5 ): here they are termed fabric trajectory iso-
gons. Are these isogqns parallel ? If the fabriconemation
reflects ( he changes in orientation of the long axes of She
finite strain ellipses, and the fabric trajectories coincide
with the I + et finite strain t rajectories, draw a shear strain
o isogon
a dipping sandstones . The lavas contain spherical to suh
b isogon f
& .
e isdgonj
,
. rJ
b \
^ JZW
c \JL
Figure 3.6. Method of sogort construction. Isogonsjoin points
'
of equal inclination . 3.7.
INTRODUCTION TO HETE 3 OUEME 0 US STRAIN 37
v , distance profile across the shear / one to indicate how
the simple shear strain y varies across the shear / one. For
this construction you will need to use the graphs obtained
experimentally in Session 2 relating strain ellipse orien-
tation 0' to shear strain / ( Figure 2 ID) and Equation 2. -I
this calculation of y from fF .
When we have a shear zone shear strain \ . distance
profile we cun integrate ibis graphically ami reconstruct
the total displaeefeient across (lie walls of the shear zone .
F 'he technique is to draw at different points across the zone
the orientations of lines that were initially perpendiculai
to the zone (after a sheer of y they will be oriefiled ar on
angle tan ' y to the shear /.one walls ) , We can then graph -
"
ically integrate these directions to arrive at a total shear
displacement (sec Figure 3.0) . Can you devise a. mathe -
matical method for making this integration directly from
.
the shear v distance profile -'
s —»
I f
( f
OW 22•
rmmmim
0 60 shear zone
0 - 5.7 2$
wmwtw
|/ M i
a- W 9* fl i / / f J I' I I f I I I
r i l l
I f
Figure 3.6. Graphic integration method for determining the
total dhiplac&rnent s across a simple shear zone
If you have tone st is a very good exercise to make sheai
v . distance profiles across the experimentally for med shear
zones illustrated in Figure 3,21 integrate these for the total
strain and see if this coincides with the actual total dis-
placement recorded in the experiment ,
Now cheek the answers La this question before pro-
ceeding to Question 3.5.
Question 3.5
ITie geological map shown in ihc upper half of Figure 3.7
illustrates the exposed surface outcrops of deformed basic
lavas and dyke rocks over ) am imconformably hv uniformly
-
spherical ealdle filled vesicles . They arc cut by a shear
.
zone In this shear zone the vesicles are elongated bori-
zdntiilly and shortened horizontally. Hand specimens have
been collected at six localities ( A to ! ') and the appearance
of the deformed elliptical shapes of the vesicles on polished
horizontal surfaces is illustrated in the lower half of J igure