Graphical Representation of Pulsed-Wave Doppler

Pulsed wave (PW) Doppler uses the Doppler principle that moving objects change the

characteristic of sound waves. By sending short and quick pulses of sound, it becomes
possible to accurately measure the velocity of blood in a precise location and in real time.
Measuring the velocity of blood flow is crucial to understanding disease states. Pulsed wave
(PW) Doppler uses the Doppler principle that moving objects change the characteristic of
sound waves. By sending short and quick pulses of sound, it becomes possible to accurately
measure the velocity of blood in a precise location and in real time.

PW Doppler can measure velocities in multiple areas including:

 Diastolic function (E/A waves)

 Right ventricular function
 Renal artery resistive index and pulsatility index
 Abdominal aortic velocities
 Carotid artery imaging
Continuous-Wave Doppler.
With continuous-wave Doppler ultrasound, the emitting and receiving crystals function
continuously and display information representative of all moving targets in the ultrasound
beam. The continuous mode has no limitation of recordable velocities and therefore allows
accurate measurement of high velocities. The signal, however, is not gated (it receives all
underlying velocities); thus, spatial localization of the abnormal velocities is lacking.

Pulsed-Wave Doppler.
Pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiography uses short bursts of ultrasound with a process
called range gating to facilitate signal analysis from a small area at a specified depth from
the transducer. This sampling area (sample volume) can be moved or repositioned along the
path of the ultrasound beam for examination of the spatial extent of the Doppler signals in
relationship to the two-dimensional image (Doppler mapping). Because the pulsed-wave
Doppler technique sends and receives ultrasound intermittently, however, accurate
recording of high-velocity signals is more difficult than with continuous-wave studies
(because of aliasing). Thus, pulsed-wave Doppler has signal aliasing at high frequencies but
has depth acuity, whereas continuous-wave Doppler has no signal aliasing but does have
depth ambiguity. Hence, these two Doppler modes are complementary, and when they are
used together, each can supply the information missing from the other technique.

Doppler information is presented both as an audio signal and in a video and hard-copy
format. The audio signal is crucial for “fine tuning” to give the best spectral profile. The video
and hard copy are useful storage formats; video recording with sound allows retention of the
audio signal.
Pulsed-Wave Doppler.—Pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiography uses short bursts of
ultrasound with a process called range gating to facilitate signal analysis from a small area at
a specified depth from the transducer. This sampling area (sample volume) can be moved or
repositioned along the path of the ultrasound beam for examination of the spatial extent of
the Doppler signals in relationship to the two-dimensional image (Doppler mapping).
Because the pulsedwave Doppler technique sends and receives ultrasound intermittently,
however, accurate recording of high-velocity signals is more difficult than with continuous-
wave studies (because of aliasing). Thus, pulsed-wave Doppler has signal aliasing at high
frequencies but has depth acuity, whereas continuous-wave Doppler has no signal aliasing
but does have depth ambiguity. Hence, these two Doppler modes are complementary, and
when they are used together, each can supply the information missing from the other
technique. Doppler information is presented both as an audio signal and in a video and hard-
copy format. The audio signal is crucial for "fine tuning" to give the best spectral profile. The
video and hard copy are useful storage formats; video recording with sound allows retention
of the audio signal.

Examples

Examples of pulse-wave Doppler spectra of mitral inflow from the sham operated rat
(control), myocardial infarcted (MI) rat administered with vehicle, MI rat treated with
temocapril at 3 or 30 mg / kg / day (ACEI (3) or ACEI (30), respectively), MI rat treated with
CS-866 at 1 or 10 mg / kg / day (ARB (1) or ARB (10), respectively), the combination with
temocapril at 1.5 and CS-866 at 0.5 mg / kg / day (ACEI (1.5) 1 ARB (0.5)
Pulsed wave Doppler in a normal portal vein. Using the sample volume the sonographer is
able to define the studied volume, 
Pulsed wave Doppler employs elements of the transducer that send as well as receive
signals. Ultrasound is emitted in "pulses" between these pulses. The same transducer
element receives the reflected signal. As every emitted pulse is paired with a corresponding
return signal, it is possible to determine where the reflection has occurred and calculate the
distance of the "reflector". In reverse, by defining a distinct region of interest (sample
volume) one is able to display returning signals from specific regions in the heart. Thus, PW
Doppler has the advantage of being "site specific" as regards Doppler information. However,
PW Doppler has a major drawback: it cannot correctly depict higher velocities (usually above
1.5 - 1.7m/sec). To understand the reasons we have to first address aliasing phenomena.

Pulsed Wave Doppler Tracing of mitral inflow

Aliasing phenomena
Aliasing is best explained by the analogy of a clock. Let us assume you are observing a
clock at 15-minute intervals. Obviously you will note that the hands move in clockwise
direction. However, if you were to use a longer observation interval of 40 minutes you would
gain the impression that the hands move in counter-clockwise direction. This is exactly what
happens with pulsed-wave Doppler when the velocity is too high. The interval of the
ultrasound pulses (pulse repetition interval) is the time interval between your observations of
the clock. When the pulse repetition interval is too long relative to the velocity of blood flow
(in other words, when the hands of the clock move a long distance between observation
periods), it will not be possible to determine the direction of blood flow.

Clock analogy explaining the aliasing phenomenon

Instead of using the "pulse interval" the scanner displays pulse repetition frequency (PRF),
which is the number of pulses within one second. The PRF limit within which aliasing occurs
is known as the aliasing or the Nyquist limit.
 Specifically, aliasing occurs when the velocity is more than one half of the pulse repetition
frequency. In this case velocities above this limit will be displayed on the tracing opposite to
the true direction of blood flow.

As mentioned earlier, PRF is an important aspect. To a certain degree the PRF can be
increased to permit higher velocities to be displayed. However, the maximal PRF depends
on imaging depth (the depth position of the sample volume). The higher the depth of the
sample volume, the longer the PRF must be (as the ultrasound wave takes longer to travel,
one needs longer intervals to observe the returning of the wave). Therefore, the maximal
velocity which can be displayed with pulse-wave Doppler decreases as the sample volume is
positioned farther away from the transducer. Other factors that influence aliasing are:

 Depth
 Width of sample volume
 Velocity
 Doppler frequency

Aliasing will occur when the velocity exceeds the Nyquist limit. The Nyquist limit is equal to
one half of the pulse repetition frequency. Use the baseline shift to "stretch" the Nyquist limit.
In summary, the advantage of PW Doppler is that it is site specific. Its disadvantage is that
higher velocities cannot be measured.

Low resistance
a. On ecig device, there  appears warning sign displaying “Ohms Too Low” or “Low
Atomizer”. Under such situation, the power supply of the mod is not normal and the atomizer
cannot work.
b. As a resistance measuring index term, for example, low resistance/low ohm, ultra low
resistance/ultra low ohm.
Resistance is the most important parameter index, it has influences on several aspects such
as the taste, vapor, mod.
Normally, low resistance can be interpreted in two ways: a. “low resistance” often mentioned
by vapers (huge vapor low resistance coil)  b. when there is something wrong with the
device and on it there displays such warning.
This is a general term of what we normally say about low resistance, huge vapor data, huge
vapor coil and etc.
Though there is not a set index about how low a resistance can be called low resistance. But
according to the common resistance of most vapers, the generally-said low resistance is
resistance around 0.2Ω.
Apart from low resistance, there is a word named ultra resistance. This word is about the
resistance below 0.2Ω, such as resistance between 0Ω and 0.2Ω.

High Resistence
High electrical resistance is the opposition to current flow within a circuit. Electrical
resistance explains the relationship between voltage and current.
A high electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the flow of
an electric current through that conductor; the inverse measure is known as electrical
conductance. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (O).
The property of high electrical resistance has important applications in electrical and
electronic devices. It is often used in electrical resistance corrosion probes to monitor
corrosion in semiconducting environments such as oil, gas and the atmosphere.