- as the molar mass increases, the polarization,
General chemistry 2
CHAPTER 1: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN LIQUIDS
AND SOLIDS
LESSON 1 - Kinetic Molecular Forces in Liquids and
Solids
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY - describes the states of
matter in terms of arrangement of particles, kinetic
energy of particles, particle motion, attractive forces
between particle and intermolecular forces.
- explains the properties of gases by assuming that
gas particles act independently to each other.
ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES -
- SOLID : closely packed; orderly
- LIQUID: less closely; disorderly
- GAS: very far; disorderly
ATTRACTIVE FORCES BETWEEN PARTICLES -
- SOLID: very strong
- LIQUID: strong
- GAS: very weak
KINETIC ENERGY OF PARTICLES -
- SOLID: very low
- LIQUID: low
- GAS: high
PARTICLE MOTION -
- SOLID: particles vibrate and rotate about a fixed
position
- LIQUID: particles slide over each other
- GAS: particles move about a great speed
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES - bonding or
intramolecular forces exist inside the molecule.
- Ionic: attraction between cations and anions.
- Covalent: nuclei and electron pairs
- Metallic: metal cations and delocalized valence
electrons.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES - bonding occurs between
or among molecules.
- relatively weak because they involve smaller
charges that are farther apart.
- usually called as ‘Van der Waals force’, named after
Johannes Van der Waals.
ION-DIPOLE FORCES - results when an ion and the
particle charge of the end of a polar molecule attract
each other.
- Polar Molecules: dipoles that have a positive and
a negative end.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES - Polar molecules attract each
other when the positive end of one molecule is near the
negative end of another.
LONDON-DISPERSION FORCES - explained by Fritz
London.
- instantaneous dipole exerts an influence on nearby
particles such as induced dipole on neighboring
molecules.
- exhibited on non polar molecules and atoms.
London forces, boiling points and melting points
increases.
HYDROGEN BONDS - an attractive interaction between
a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative F, O or N
atom and unshared electron pair of another nearby
electronegative atom.
- highest boiling point; strongest bond
WEAKEST TO STRONGEST INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES:
Dispersion Forces < Dipole-Dipole < Hydrogen
Bonds
LOWEST TO HIGHEST BOILING POINTS:
Dispersion Forces < Dipole-Dipole < Hydrogen
Bonds < Ionic
EXAMPLES: IDENTIFY THE MOLECULAR FORCE
PRESENT OR DOMINANT IN THE FOLLOWING
EXAMPLES.
1. He₃ - Dispersion Forces
2. SO₂ - Dispersion Forces
3. H₂S and CS₂ - Dipole-Dipole Forces
4. NH₃ - Hydrogen Bond
LESSON 2 - Properties of Liquids
VISCOSITY - the resistance of liquid to flow
- the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing
temperature.
- can be measured using VISCOMETER.
SURFACE TENSION - the attractive force exerted upon
the surface molecules of a liquid by the molecules
beneath that tendsto draw the surface molecules into the
bulk of liquids.
- SURFACTANTS decrease the surface tension of
water.
- Higher in liquids that have higher intermolecular
force.
CAPILLARITY - the spontaneous rising of a liquid in a
narrow tube.
- U-shape (CONCAVE): adhesive forces > cohesive
forces
- Downward (CONVEX): cohesive forces >
adhesive forces
- COHESIVE FORCES: attractive force between
molecules of the SAME substance.
- ADHESIVE FORCES: attractive force between
molecules of the DIFFERENT substance.
EVAPORATION - when liquid particles at the surface of a
liquid have enough kinetic energy to overcome the
attractive forces of neighboring molecules they escape
into the gaseous or vapor stage.
CONDENSATION - as the vapor particles increases,
some collide with the liquid surface and return to the
liquid state.
- the number of liquid molecules vaporizing equals
to the number of molecules condensing and a dynamic
EQUILIBRIUM is reached.
VAPOR PRESSURE - the pressure caused by the
evaporation of liquids. Factor that influence this aare
surface area, intermolecular forces and temperature.
BOILING POINT - the temperature where the saturated
vapor pressure is equal to the external pressure.
PROPERTIES OF WATER:
1. Water has high surface tension.
2. Water has high boiling point.
3. The density of solid water, ice is less than the
density of liquid water.
4. Water has high heat of vaporization.
5. Water is a good solvent.
LESSON 3 - The Nature of Solid
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS - whose atoms, ions or molecules
are ordered in well-defined arrangements.
TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS:
1. MOLECULAR - atoms or molecules
2. COVALENT NETWORK - atoms+covalent bonds
3. IONIC - postive ion + negative ion
4. METALLIC - atoms
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS - whose particles do not have
orderly structures, therefore they have poorly defined
shapes.
UNIT CELLS - the smallest portion of the crystal which
shows the complete pattern of the particles of the
crystals.
CRYSTAL LATTICE - when unit cells are repeated in all
directions.
DIFFERENT UNIT CELL GEOMETRIES - all unit cells are
parallelpides (six sided figures whose faces are
parallelograms) and differ only in the lengths of cell
edges and angles between the edges.
THREE KINDS OF CUBIC UNIT CELLS:
1. SIMPLE CUBIC UNIT CELL - has an atom at each
of the eight corners of the cube.
2. BODY-CENTERED CUBIC UNIT CELL - has an
additional atom in the center of the cube.
3. FACE-CENTERED CUBIC UNIT CELL - additional
atoms on each side of its six faces.
PHASE CHANGES:
1. FREEZING - the substance changes from a liquid
to solid.
2. MELTING - back from the solid to the liquid.
3. CONDENSATION - the substance changes from
a gas to a liquid.
4. VAPORIZATION - the substance changes from a
liquid to a gas.
QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS IN PHASE CHANGES:
1. SPECIFIC HEAT - amount of heat needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of substance by one
degree Celsius.
Q = C × m × ∆T
Where: C = heat capacity
m = mass
∆T = increase in the temperature
2. HEAT OF FUSION - the amount of energy
required to overcome the intermolecular forces to
convert solid into a liquid.
Q = m × ∆Hf
Where: m = mass
Hf = heat of fusion
3. HEAT OF VAPORIZATION - the amount of
energy necessary to convert a liquid to gas.
Q = m × ∆Hv
Where: m = mass
Hv = heat of vaporization
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS
LESSON 1: Properties of Solutions
SOLUTION - mixture of two or more substances.
SOLUTE - substances that dissolves in the solution.
SOLVENT - substance in which the solute dissolves.
SOLUBLE - when a substance dissolves in another
substance.
INSOLUBLE - when a substance does not dissolve in
another substance.
MISCIBLE - when liquids are completely soluble with
each other.
AQUEOUS SOLUTION - a solution in which the solvent is
WATER.
ELECTROLYTE - a substance that dissolves in water to
form a solution that conducts electric current.
NON-ELECTROLYTE - a substance that dissolves in
water to form a solution that does not not conduct
electric current.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS - in order to identify the type of
solutions, you will base on what solvent is used. (e.g., a
solution is a liquid solution if the solvent is a liquid.)
DILUTE - solution contains relatively small amount of
solute.
CONCENTRATED - solution contains relatively large
amount of solute.
PARTS PER MILLION - a unit for expressing very dilute
concentrations.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. If 100L of a gas mixture over a metropolitan area
contains 0.0060L of CO, how many ppm of CO is present?
Answer: ppm = Volume of Solute/Volume of Solution x
10^6
= 0.0060L / 100L x 10^6
= 60 ppm
MASS OR VOLUME PERCENTAGE - 2. MASS OR VOLUME PERCENTAGE
3. PROOF - to express the alcohol content of wines
or liquors.
(Volume Percent) x 2
4. MOLE FRACTION (X) - the ratio of the number
of moles of one component to the total number of moles
in the solution.
SOLUBILITY - amount of substance that dissolves in a
given temperature to produce saturated solution.
SATURATED SOLUTION - no more solute appears to
dissolve under the existing temperature and pressure.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION - solution contains less
solute than a saturated solution.
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION - solution contains a 5. MOLARITY (M) - the number of moles of solute
greater amount of solute than a saturated solution. per liter of solution.
SEEDING - the process of inducing crystallization to
occur by adding a crystal to a supersaturated solution.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY:
1. NATURE OF THE SOLUTE AND SOLVENT - like 6. MOLALITY (m) - the number of moles of solute
dissolves like. dissolved per kilogram of solvent.
2. TEMPERATURE - solubility (molecular and
ionic solids) increases with temperature.
- solubility (gases) decreases as the
temperature increases.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
3. PRESSURE - strong effect on the solubility of
1. A solution is prepared by dissolving a 4.00g of NaOH
gases.
in 100g of water. The volume of the resulting solutions is
- HENRY’S LAW - proposed by William Henry
102 mL.
(1774-1836)
A. MOLE FRACTION: convert the given into moles
- the solubility of gases in a liquid at a
Na: 1 x 23 = 23 H: 2 x 1 = 2
given temperature is directly proportional to
O: 1 x 16 = 16 O: 1 x 16 = 16
the partial pressure of the gas over the
H: 1 x 1 = 1 Total: 18g
solution.
Total: 40g
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION - colligative
molNAOH = 4g x 1 mol./40g = 0.1mol.
means ‘depending upon the collection’; properties that
molH₂O = 100g x 1 mol./18g = 5.56 mol.
depend on the amount of dissolved solute and not on
MOLE FRACTION = 0.1 mol./5.66 mol. = 0.02
the kind or chemical nature of the solute.
B. MOLARITY (M): if the given volume is in mL,
1. VAPOR PRESSURE REDUCTION - vapor
convert it to L by dividing the given in 1000.
pressure of the liquid at this temperature.
MOLARITY = 0.1 mol./0.10L = 1 mol./L or 1M
- RAOULT’S LAW - proposed by
C. MOLALITY (m): if the given mass is in g, convert
Francois-Marie Raoult (1830-1901)
it to kg by dividing the given by 1000.
- the vapor pressure of the solution is
MOLALITY = 0.1 mol/0.10kg = 1 mol./kg or 1 m
equal to the mole fraction of the solvent
D. MASS PERCENTAGE = 4g / 104g x 100 =
times the vapor pressure of the pure
3.85％
solvent.
E. DENSITY =
2. BOILING POINT ELEVATION - boiling point
elevation of a solution is directly proportional to the
number of solute particles.
3. FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION - the
= 104g / 102 mL = 1.02g/mL
temperature at which the first crystals of a pure solvent
begin to form in equilibrium with the solution.
CHAPTER 3: THERMOCHEMISTRY
4. OSMOTIC PRESSURE - the pressure difference
at equilibrium.
LESSON 1 - Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
- the pressure required to prevent the net
ENERGY - may be in the form of heat or work.
movement of water.
JOULE (J) - fundamental SI unit of work
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES OF SOLUTIONS:
HEAT (Q) - the transfer of energy between a system and
1. PARTS PER MILLION - a unit for expressing very
surroundings due to temperature difference.
dilute concentrations.
ASSIGNED CONVENTION FOR HEAT, Q
System absorbs +Q Endothermic
heat reaction
System releases -Q
heat
THERMOCHEMISTY - the study of energy changes that
occur during chemical reactions and changes of state.
- every substance has a certain amount of energy
stored in the chemical bonds of a substance.
SYSTEM - part of the universe on which you focus your
attention.
SURROUNDINGS - everything else that surrounds the
system.
UNIVERSE - the system and its surroundings as a whole.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY - states that in
any chemical or physical process, energy is neither
created nor destroyed.
THREE TYPES OF SYSTEM:
1. OPEN SYSTEM - one wherein the transfer of
matter and energy occurs between the system and
surroundings; the system interacts with its
surroundings.
2. CLOSED SYSTEM - only energy can transfer
between the system and the surroundings.
3. ISOLATED SYSTEM - matter and energy cannot
transfer between the system and its surroundings.
The system does not interact in any way at all with
its surroundings.
THERMODYNAMICS - the study of relationship
between heat and other forms of energy, particularly the
transfer of heat into work.
TWO PARTS OF THERMODYNAMIC QUANTITIES:
1. NUMBER - giving the magnitude of the change
2. SIGN - indicating the direction of the flow.
WORK (w) - defined as the force applied over a given
distance. It is the energy transfer between a system and
surroundings due to a force acting through a distance.
ASSIGNED CONVENTION FOR WORK, w
System does -w Expansion
work on the
surroundings
Surroundings do +w Compression
work on the
system
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. How much work is needed in a system to expand
from 25 to 50 liters against a pressure of 5 atm? Is work
done by the system or on the system?
Answer: w = -p∆V
W = -5 atm (50L - 25L)
= -125 L · atm (101.3 J/1L · atm)
= -12 662.5 J or -12.7 kJ
Note: 101.3 J is CONSTANT. To convert the final answer
to kJ, divide it by 1000.
INTERNAL ENERGY (E) - is the sum of the kinetic energy
and potential energy found in a system.
- it is the total energy found on the system being
studied; not quantifiable but it also changes as the
system changes.
∆E = Q + w
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. A system receives 450 kJ of heat from its
surroundings and the surroundings do 50.0 kJ of work on
the system. What is the change in the internal energy?
Answer:
∆E = Q + w
= 450 kJ + 50.0 kJ
= 500 kJ
ENTHALPY (H) - equal to the amount of heat flow in a
system with constant pressure Qp.
H = E + PV
CALORIMETRY - the science of measuring heat based
on the change in temperature of an observed body when
it releases or absorbs heat.
- the temperature change is based on the heat
capacity of the body.
HEAT CAPACITY (C) - defined as the amount of heat
necessary to increase the temperature of a substance by
1°C.
C = Q/∆T
Where: C = heat capacity
Q = heat absorbed
∆T = increase in the temperature
SPECIFIC HEAT (c) = the heat capacity per gram of
substance. It is equal to the heat capacity over the mass
of substance.
c = heat capacity/mass of substance
CALORIMETER - the apparatus which determines the
heat flow.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF CALORIMETER:
1. Constant-pressure calorimeter
2. Constant-volume (bomb) calorimeter
LESSON 2: Hess’ Law and Standard Enthalpies of
Formation
HESS’ LAW OF HEAT SUMMATION - used to determine
the heat of reaction indirectly.
- states that the enthalpy change of an overall
reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its
individual steps.
ENTHALPY OF REACTION - the enthalpy change that
occurs in a system when matter is transformed by a given
chemical reaction, when all reactants and products are in
their standard states.
HEAT OF FORMATION - or STANDARD ENTHALPY OF
FORMATION OF A COMPOUND, is the change of
enthalpy during the formation of 1 mole of the
substance from its constituent elements, with all
substances in their standard states.
Reviewer by: Julianne Quintos
Grade 12 - STEM5 magaling