= ELITE SERIES ED)

NEW KINGDOM EGYPT

 EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW

ELITE SERIES 40
NEW KINGDOM EGYPT
Text by
MARK HEALY
Colour plates by
ANGUS McBRIDE
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Artist's Note
Re;lllcrs Illa~ I,.~lre til noLI: thaI tho,; origin;11 p;linlings
from which Iheco1uur pblcs in this book Ilcre
prl'parcd arc :!.\'aibbk lilr pri\':!.IC ~1c. All
rcpruduction copyright whatsoC\"cr i.. rClaincd by the
I'lIhlishns. All clI'luiric~ should he :aldITS"l'c! m:
SCMpil1 (jalkry
1'.0. Box -+75
I !ailsham
Ea;.t SUSSl.:\' BN27 lSI.
The 1'1Ihiishcrs reg:rt"1 Ih:1I thl'~ 1',llIClIlcr inln nu
l"Cln"'s1'1Olldcncc UP'lI1 Ihis 1l1;lltt'r.

ISBN 1855JllOllO

Filll,~t in lir"'JI Ilru~lIl II\" Tr:ulc.<il'....,b LId.. I'mmc. Ackllo\\' Icll~clllcnIs

SUIl'e",,1 .
Graphics reproduo:d with permission ()f"'irehinl
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 NEW KINGDOM EGYPT
INTRODUCTION
It W;lS in the hillel' p:.trt of the second millennium UC
that the allcient Neal' East wimcsscd:l prolunged and
af times birrcr COlllest hetween Ihe gre"1 powers of the
day as they vied for cuntrol ;Illd domination of the
Eastern ./\1cditcrr:mC:lll scabo,lrd or Levall!. While
such;1 con\Crgcllcc ofimper;;11 ,lmbitiulls, centred (111
the lands we know today ;IS $) ria <lmllhc Lebanon,
rdkcls the shared perception of the "ilal cconurn;<;
impOf1;lllCe of this ;\I'C3 in ;mcicll1 rimes, it can nut
totally :l.l:l.:uunl for tlu: prolungcd interest of Ilillilc.
j\litann; and Egypt in the reg-ion. This is certainly
true of the I:ltter power. 'J'lu; '''ingdum of lhe '1''1'0
L:Ullb; had lraditionally "iewed lhe IcHilorics of the
Le\':IIH :is fjlling within its 'sphcn: or influence',
Ilowevcr, thc presence nfEgyptiall armies camp.lign-
ing as far norlh as the Ri\cr Euphr:Hcs between the
16lh ,inti I3lh CC11lurics Be, comcslin!!-' control of
sUl:h str.lleg;caU) impol'lant cities :IS Tunip :tnd
Kadesh (sec map). againsl first the K.ingdom of
.\'Iil;lllni and lalcr the )-lillitCS, mliSt he seen as a r,ld-
il.:;ll departure [mm the military polil.:ics of the.: Old
ami Miuule Kingdoms.
Such ;l hislOric;d divergence aruse.: dire.:clly from a
Tilc 1;",.,>(;i"II." ><'ollnd... ifl :,Ire:lliv ill II ."/,,/e of
t/'t·lw;1(1 ,,(till' IIwnll")' U( dt't'un;')()!>'itiml b.\' t/,C /inw
file t'IIr1\, 1611I-<,:cn/Url He if "':1 "Will/nilit'd,
I.:ing .'icqcncllrc '1'''0 iJ !>·lIfll't· 'in/f 111:11 it \I''''i
illdk:rll' that lu' (Iit·d in n'('UI'I'red :,ftcr I", dllg
1m II it' fi#ll/ing the 11.,1.:.<;;0.... /}(:Ctl "/"lfIdOIlCd rm tI,(·
,1":11......;... ofrIlc rcmain.. b:l/lldidd. (c. cI M"hd.")
S/lIIlO'S tllllr Ille ool/.' 11':1$
3
dl:ll\g"l·1! Jll'rn'plion Ill" E~~ pI". "l'l'UI'il~ lln·tl~ 1;,1- Db4 !.ll,1 Smcnl.hl..llT.
Im\ Ill;.:' 11 ... l'l'llhlr~-ltln1; ·d"llIil1.,li"n·;\1 Ilw lund..; uf l-'h1 1.152 ·1·UI:llll.h.llllllll.
flITCij!1l I"llkr... I.ntmn .I~ Illl' II~ L....I~. Thi..; l·\I~.'ricnt.:l; 1.1:;2 U4~ '\y.
t,f fill'ei~11 rule W:IS .. Clllll1.11 li,T Ihl'I:~~ pi i.I" .. ill '11:m~ 1.l4X I.HO IllIrl.'lllh:lh
\\J~' rtll" priJwip:d CllllWtjUl'lll'l,: \\.h. hll\HH·r. thl' I'lih Ihn:lst\
IrJn~llInll,llilln f,f E!!~ pi IllI11 .1 11l1h1JT~ .. 1:lh· h~ Ihe 1.\111 1.\18 R.lIn.I ........·... I
ph:tI~lllll~ tIl IIll" 11'\\h I)~ IM!>l ~. 'I'he hal"lll'''III~ tlf I Ill" UIN un4 Sl·llll."':l.llI!':u;.:n.... 1l1 ClIl.I;II1.md Ihl'
Te"fIlITl·t-...' II I he ~1.11(, JUtl1 h, II" U:.t.· ill I he 111.1inh:l1:lOn: 1,,·I.Ill!.
~1.1l(1 ,kplll\ Ilh:m of ;1 ptl\HTlul !>IJntlinf,: :lrl1l~ \\.I~ un.f l1.\i Ibllla..........· II.
~lin;l"tl,1 Ilm.lrtl, 11ll" "".'I·\lnI1;: III' .111 .lj!~rl.· ..... i\l· 1.·I.mn B.llrk nl (!,ltk 1J
fnrc'f!l1 1",11\'\ \\ hlch :--.1\\ 111~' '·I1ll"r~l.·ncc t,f I.;!~ pI .1-..1 1.'1 !IH 1\::.1I"c rre.lI.\ hl'l \\ l'l n I :~~ 1'1 .md I III Ilill ill"
Ih'lr"uj!h~(IlIlf,: lI11l>l'ri.lli ... llI· ptl\\t:r. In .1 \l'r~ n::11 1136 HH ,\h·rnqll,lh.
!>cn:>\' il \\:I~ Ihi.. 1r:.\1l~l.l1iulllll Ej!~pI ill III .1 1Hilil:lr~ 1222 uno I'nind III Tlirmlll!.
~I:UC. \\"11 h ,Ill Ih:1I pr~... I~nl "n I ht: illll.Tn.lllt 1l1:11 :.t.Tnl· 111111 1)~n:Hi'~
inl hI' .1I1t·it·lll "'eiT ",:lSl,lh,1l i"'llll' tI. 1I1Iin.11 illj!, if lltll HUH III)I'! Scllmal.hll·
ddi ninj!, li':lllIl'c' ,1' \\"hal i.. 1..1 l1nl ! hl' . '1.'\\ I... ill;!l\.11I1· llllN II fill ]{:11l1.t ... W' III.
perillli "j Iwl' hi .. lur~. I.' 11UlI III \ .I .. i"n or· ."1':1 l'cHpll...... (."I1.qbl· III .... l·;\1"
E.I .. lcrlll)l)liticllllnICl",
1113 IOX5 Ibm:I..;M·... '\ I t:lHl vI" .... l"\\ I... in,;:'df .. n.

CHRONOLOGY
(·I'hl.· dll"'ll'III';!~ Ihal f"II'I\\" " ...l·... 111,11 "lllpl"~L'tl in

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l'1 r,H TIlt' II d..... n<: I;ltx llllli TIlI ..1 E::~ pI
1~lh I)~ 11:1:-.1:,
cl5ill \1ll,r..i... l.x:nJllll·" Jlll,II~ .. ,h.
c1565 \l11,r..i..;el;pd" till' I hl.:-t ..... .\
II." .•
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cI54f.-1 ~!.fl \mcn'lphi ... \ k:ld~ pos:-ihlt: I.'JIllp.ll~n
inlo S\ ri...
1:'15-1.'1 51l TurhnlO"i<: I ,·l\i!·.t~I.·" lulu·... of
l...in~dll111111 .\Ii\'\IUll IIl':II' Ri\l'( t.uphr.II'·....
cl51!. 1:i1l4'J'1lIhm"..isli.
1511.1 14:-12 11:II!>hcp"lII.
15114- J 4S11 ·1·IIII\1Il,,~i ... III.
c14~l H,lIllr llf\ le;:.iddo 1'1',,111 14Xl TIIlIl111l1... i 111
Inl,IIIll""'! Jnnu:llellllp.ti;.::n, illill \ ... i;i B.lllk...
•1~.111l!>1
.\III.111lli.
H5U- H2:, \ml'lluphis II 1"< .. \lil1u(·... I.'UlI1(·..., \Iilh
(\til.fluB. (~lInp;lit:'n~ III S\ n.1 ,u\l1 C.lll.l:Hl
14Z:\- H17 Tlllhmu!>i... 1\' ('l"lt:\' m.ldl' \\ illl
\ lil.ll1m
14\ i _!Jill \ nH'nllplll~ III
1J71J 1.H,! '\n",:nupIH ... I\ (\l.hl'n;llen). I·.... hp.....· 1,1
~ lilJlHll I{i..e flf (·..-lllllitt· bnpln' tll1lkr
"iuppiluliulH...... l
THE RULE OF THE :\Ionet he less, the relat ive slowness of their ad \';\nct:
sOlllhwards from the Delta secms to supporl Ihe

HYKSOS argument lhal the process of l:lkeo\er waS gmdu.ll

ami lhal it did nor \Urn on thc possession of U\Tr-
whelming milit;lry superiority, It sccms far more
Any understanding- of Egypti:l11 imperialism in Ihe reasonahle 1O infer that the superior milit:lr~ tech-
Nt\\ Kingdom period must be founded on lhe n:lli,'c nology of the Hyksos was but an adjullc.:t 1.0 their
response 10 the cxpcricOI.:c uf fun:ign rule durill~ the n:ploitation oflhe polilical weakness of the late Mid-
Second Intcrmcdi:atc Perioo bcl\u.:cn 16·HJ ;\lld 1532 dle Kingdom, the eollapsc of which was fmally
Ue. The tr.\llitional image of the I-Iyksos descent on broughl ahOlit hy their uwn SlH:eess. :'\Jul\\ithsland-
Eg~ pI, in which Ihe military l'oupcrioril)' of these pre- ing, the Hyhos, h:\vinfj: established thelllsckes in
dominantly Scmitit: 'wnqucrors', symholised hy I.ower I~gypt, eschcwed ;lny furthcr expansiun south-
their cmplu~ men! of bronze wcapons, chariots and wanls-:tlthoulth reducing thc resl of I':g:ypl lU V:lS-
composite how, sprcatlin~ fire and destruction before saldmll" Their capacity to lllaintainthis holJ ('lVcr the
them and rllthlc...s!y subjug;.ning Ihe 'Kingdom of the rest of Egypr was llndoubtedlY:1 consequence of thc
Two I.antls·, i:-. ~;(ill one thal h:IS ;tttral.:liuns for Ill,lIly. dTecrivcllcsS llftheir militar~' forces.
In il.~ ~illlplicity, Ihis ,1I,;(,:OUI1I scn'cs the desirahle All hough relr-tnlcd as the legitimate rulers of the
need for;j comprehensible and precise explanation as whole country, the Ilyksus kings of thc ISrh Dynasty
to huw E~ypl succumbed inlhc SCl.:ond Inlermediate lolcmtcd rival claimants, Ihc most imporf:1ll1 ofwhieh
Period 10 forciltn rule. If is, howcvcr, likcl) 10 be ;1 was the 17th or Theh;\n dynasty ofnati\'e J~gypti,llls,
falsc image. The rc.llity is probably 11100'C pl"Usaic .lIld A lorm;t1 bordn defining: thcil' respective territoric.:s
certainly less dram,llic, was eMablished, :lIld hy the lhird year of the reign of
The tcrlll Ily!.:sos was firSI cmplo) ed (according to Kamosc the last phar:lllh of the 17th Dynast) -by
the Jewish historian Josephus in his OllJlrti ,-Ipill/INII) at Cllsae, ncar modcrn As)'ur in Middle Egypt. Fur
by thc E~ypti:1ll historian \1:methn. who translated it the Theb;tn dyn.lsts the continued diminution 01"
10 me;:1ll 'shepherd-kings'. Ii is thus all inaccur,lIc n;llin: E~yptian power \l;tS fUrlha compounded hy
rendering of the earlier designaliull of Ihese inter- rhc loss of Nuhia :tnd its valuable l1al111":\1 ami human
lopers hy thc Egyptians of the time as hilw/t klwsul or resourc.:es as the rulers of ellsh (southern :'\Jubia,
'rulers of foreign counlries'. ,'\s such it was employed eXlending tll the southern cnd of the second catar.1L:I)
b~ them to refer spL't:itic'llly 10 the ruling elSie of the exlenucd their own power norThwards,
invaders, whereas the term II~ ksos h:1S beL:Ollle syn- Whilst arc.:h'leo]ogy has revealed :1 rel:lIi\"c1y aus-
onymoll~ with Ihe whole people. len: eullun.: ill 'J"hebes ;IS:l consequence, in the p<.:riou
Therule of the J-Iyksus can hc seen as the climax of of pe.ICc hetwccn I-Iyksos ,Ind 'I'hebes trading: links al-
wan:s of i\siatic immih'T,lliun ,llld infillmtion into thc lowed the nali\·c Egyptialls to :u:quire .he benefils of
north-L<lstcrrt Oeh:\ of lhe Nile thaT arc known to the knowlcdltc and techniques the im'aders had
have ou:urrcd frtl11l the hlle 12th lJynasty onwards, hrought with them from Palestine:llld beyond. It W:IS
and which had becomc widespread by rhe !:lth Dyn- due lu the llyksos that hump-b.leked Zebu c:mlc
ast~', Retaining their distinctive cultural identity, made thcir ;lppe:\r:lllCC in Egypt. Ne\\ \egclahlc and
lhese i\siatiL"S beg-.1Il in ,Ill opportunistic.: fashion to frllit cn,ps were cult ivatcd; and the produCI ion bef:"lI11
insinuate lhemselvcs into Ef:"yptian soc.:ieTy. amillhi- uf higher-qualiry ponery amI lincn arising from the
lllatcly III assert their own polilkal idelllity and illler- introdllction of ,lIl improved polter's wheel and the
L"Sts amid the growing weakness anu virtual anard\~ vertical IOUl11 , It was, howcver. the difTusion of in no-
of the late ,\llidd1c Kingdom, By 1720 Be thcy were VatiOllS with more ohviously military applications.
strong ellough to havc g;\ined conlrol of lhe IOWll of suc.:h as bronzc-\\"orkin~. which went fill" 10 compen-
A\'.\ris in the north-eastern Delta, the site sub- sate for thc tedlllulogic:11 b.lckwardnc...s of J\'liddle
sequenlly bcc.:oming til!.: capital of lhe IlyksM king- Kingdum Egypi compared to the rest of thc.: Near
dom. Within 50 y<.:ars.\ lemphis. the .lncicnl northern East. With sllL:h expertise the Theban kingdom cOllld
capital of Egypt, hau fallen lU them, begin to nplnit and masler the production alllilise of"
,
 'l'I,i..; I:... n·""",;al iI.H' ""JIS
l'rc.,;~"'(..."J h.1 Anwsi.~,
timmkr('(tl,... J8tll
I). mu"', '0
J,is mll/1Ier
Q~'<TII :1I1/10tt'p. Th.·
......nln· p:l/ld {If, ,Itt' b/;uft'
•.;Im,,!.. Imusis ill rIle ..1(" uf
dCS/);Urll;lIJ.! JJ" t'1It'1J1.', i"
.,JJ prob:lhili,> ;,I-l.d,st's
""";Irri"r. TII... .:I 11:11(";1(1 i:!J
"nlll7.(;' in/"i<1 "ifh ~(Jtd
IIII<1d,J,c,;wJJoou,/5iO
lie:.

6
bron'l.C \\e;lpOns, chariot's aod composite btm~
which they had acquired from their foreign over-
lords. and which were the key to the continued
Ilyksos domination OHr them.
:Vlorc imporlantl), the b;l1t:ful experience of
foreign rule h;ld done much to sh;llter a tr:.u.litional
mindsct expressed in the Old and Middle Kingdom's
prcsumption of the superiority of Eg)ptian culture
and the security of the state in thc face Hf extermll
Ihre:lls, The perception tl1;11 Egypt's boundaries in
the cast were not im iolable W,IS to result in the
formulation of a str:Hcg~' that was to govern Egyptian
militury und foreign policy in :\'ubia and the Levant
for the nextlhree hundred ycars.

War ofLihcration
The beginning of outright Theban resistance to the
rule orlhe Hyksos may date from the rei~n ofSC(IC-
ncnrc Tau II, whose exten"i\'e1y dam:lgcd skull
strongly poinrs to his death in hattie" II is \\ ith his son
K:tmose, howc\'cr, that the lirst explicit attempts
were made to 'liberate' Egypt whcn the decision wa~
tuken to open hostilities against the Ilyksos king,
Apophis. It is dear from the steb on whic.:h Kamose
recorded the details of his t:<I111p:lign th;1l this ,lg-
grcssiun was t1ireeted as much ag"dinst those Egyp-
tians who had collaborated with rhe foreigners :IS it
was ug:linsl the H)'~sos themselves: ., .. I Sh.lll burn
up their p1:l.ccs, made into red mountls forever,
l":c:tust of tile J,lm;lge whic.:h lhey did in this p;lrt of
EgYPI, tht:}" whu g:l\e themselves over 10 servin!!: Ihc
Asi<ltit.:s, after they h:ld abandoned EgYP1, their mis-
tress.' The SCllIltllents expressed bClUkcn the emer-
gence of a distim:tivc sense of Egyptian nat;on:llism
3nd a deep feeling of resentmcm against those who
had colluded with lhe enemy. Iml(.'<:d, whilst the
Hyksus themselvcs pnwidcd (he core ofthcit :lnn~ in
the form of Clitc chariol troops and some inl;ll1lry, the
bulk of their forecs wcre native Egypt i,IIlS supplied hy
those Lower Egyptian nOI11:1I"I..:hs whu OIl"l;\ el~ Slip-
ported Ihem,
One Offhe: IIIOSI imp",.fant lI:1s" brOil"'''' III,.dc ril,In',I
wnfribmiolls "ff/It" (/lr ,wrcII/:l1r. Tile [!fJld-
Hy/.sos III t.'''YI''irm l'"llIIn: l'l}\'l',,"d Ililt 111111' cn:'/1
"';IS klll./,,·k,Igc ,,1'/"011"''''_ sllg/:......t tlmf f1lj.~ I";','; tIll'
Iforking. cntlbling fhe: ';QrI "fll"'''pOIl "warded I,y
Eg)'pfj:IlIS fQ pr<)(/lIt,c till' pl/;lr:mlls (fir broil .e:'."
thrusfing dllT:1Jcrs likc /lIis ~.,; ",he: }{uld uf \',dour, •
one In cquip their solcliert), (Ilrili,~11 :\I1I$l'um)
This 1)t1r/hol/Jur w(';'I'on

7
Nubi:. lI':I,~:I rc:/:iutllJr all.dfian ,.o/dit·r.~, .,./,~,
/!N',1t i"'I'0rf:lIlcc;/I t"~~ "'edj".': .";Illit:.r ill grandiusl: l:bims Illiuk by IIll: kill!! lin this raid. it
N~'", Kill/:umll w", 11 .~ullnT l'ppCllnllll-'l' tfl ;'.'Ill,i:/II al:hie\'ed litlle e'\cept to ser\'e nuti..:e ul"j'hch:ln intent
or1[01/lllml Of/lc:r raIl "risVtl~'rs illuslnucd JI('n:
rn;If~·ri,,/S. :/1/(1 "'/IS ruin' :mel ~'''''IC".<;iI-ely etll"'''.' ~'eI to rid Eygpt ufthc fiu'eigners, It fellllot to Kamose.
bY:1ll dri.·cr;,~' 1':1.') ,)/;:11I liS S(:vuts amI skinllidlcrs hllWe\'er. but lu hi:-- younger brother AnHlsi:--lin'llly tll
IIlftllillistr:ttiou; it W/I,~ II/:om III AlltIlO"'l', l-';UH~' (rUlll
r~'f::lrdl.:d:IS" IlOmJ til;S rq~iml, (C d :\I"hdyJ free Eg'~ pt of Iheir dum inat iun,
n'~"'lIifillg grollnd lor Ilalin~ liN defe:lteu the Egyptian allies or" Ihe
H}ksos in .\Iiddlc f.l:!'YPI, i\musis allll the Thehan
The e,ltupaign "amuM,: l:llI1H:hed in his third }C,lr flm:es took ~ 1elllphis befure beginning the lln:lI aJ-
\Ias in the tradition:11 Egyptian fashion of a waler- \ance inlo Ihe eastern Delra in order If) lay siege 10
horne 'IItad:. supported by lrib,,1 mercenary troops Aval'is, An inilial \\illerhorlll: operatiun was fullu\\cd
li'om .'J ubi,l {\I'hll elll he ident ifieu as Ihe Medjil} ) up- up by it prolonged siege. Our only conlemporanl.·tlus
crating along the hanks. These soldiers had been aCCOllllt oflhesc C\CllIS is 10 he fuund in th!.: biu~raph­
eXlcnsi\'cly employed ,IS scout» ami light infalltry ietl record of Ihe ('~Iptain llf a \ (;SM:I in thl' ser\'i..:e of
sinr.:e the late Old Kin~dom, and were in the \';ttl of the kin~ whose nanll::sal...e he was. Ilis desoiption of
the Thcban aSS:1lI11 on lhe southernmust Ilyks4Is cvents clearly demollstr:ltcs lhe amphibious nature of
stron~hllld :11 Nefrusy, Th,H J..::aT1\osc·s :lttad may Ihe Egyptian operations. Ah-muse, son of Ebetl, ldls
h,l\c WIllC withuut \\arnin~ i:-- implied hy Ihe lack of us thaI',., I \\':lS taken onlhe shipNIII'/hcrn, because I
all)' suggestion that the Theh:lns eng.lged thc main was \'alianl. Thus I llsed to accompany Ihe Stl\er-
em:rny furces in bailie. Indeed J..:::lllltlSC'S accounl of elg'tl (to \\hom be) life, prosperity, heahh! un
till,.' Cilpture uf many II}kso:o, ships 1(I:lded with wea- foot, folluwing his c'\r.:ursions in his chariot',
pOllS, :lnu Ihe impunity with which he sailed P;ISI Ihe \Ve :Ire here presented wilh one of the first refer·
\\:llls of their capital (If A\'aris in the eastern Della, cnces III the l'mployment uf chariots h~ the Eg~plian
slrongly :--uppllrt» such ;\ vic\\'. Contrary 10 the more forces, The inference is, ho\\'e"er, that apart frollllhc
8
n:hidc carrying the king, the sllpporling forces oper-
aled on (001, amI lhal in lhe~e early days lhe ..:hariUl
(orce ,l\"aitlble 10 lhe Theham, was prohahly {Iuil..:
smllll in Ilumber. Indeed, ,I slighlly earlier reference
!O lhe Hyksos chario!s (Ill !he ":lInuS{: stela implies
thai Iheir capture was greatly prized, Ah-mose con-
linues:', When the town of A\'aris was lx:sicv;cd,
then 1 shuwed valuur on fOOl in the pn;scm:c uf his
Itlaiest~. Thereupun I \\3S :lppOinled 10 the ~hip
Appel/r/1/g 11/ Mal/phis, Thcll t here was fighl illg on I he
waleI' in the c:l1lal Pa-Djcdku uf A\"aris"' The 1;lIc of
the H~kstls L":lpil:11 is dc."c.:rih..:d hy Ah-mose: '.
..h aris W,IS despoiled, Then I carricd off spoil from
there: one man, thrL'C W(Imen, a Inial uf fi,ur persons,
Then hismajcst) g':1\'C them In me ti,r sl:l\es,'
Althoug;h A\".lris h.ld f:tllen Am/lsis did nOI bclic\'c
thai EI,Q pI \\as entin:l~ s:lfe. )-Ie pursued the retreat-
ing Ilyksus into southern PalcslillC, delermined lH
dcstroy an~ rcsidll:ll c,:.lpatily to mounT a COllntcT-
nffem,ive, The fc,cus ufllH:ir stand agolinsl Ihe Eg)p-
tian advance was the ti'rTre"s of Sharuhen. The
strenph of the site was ~llch lhat il took Amusis Ihree
~C'ITS to li,r..:e the deCem:es and dcslroy the Ilyksos
forces ooll1cd up \\ithin, Clearly (;o11\·ineed th:ll Ihis
\iCl\JfY had elilllin;lted ;ll1y immediate thrc'll frOllllhe
cast} the amI) n..:turncc.\ lo 1::g) Pl. and was Ihen
marched sourh and employed in the sllccessful rccon-
quest of .'Jubi:l. With Ihe !IJrlller Middle "ing-dom
fMtres.<; of Buhen at rhe northern end of the sec.:und
CIl<lT;lel rcoccupied ,\llc,1 rebuilt, Ihe Eg~ pi ians nlpidly
re,lsserled rheir rule uver lhe region.
It was in recognition uf his achie\'cmelll in rellnil-
ing Ihe t"\\'o hl1llis th,ll Amusis Wits honoured hy lalCr
generations in ha\ing established the IRth [)~n:1sty.
l3y his ejectio11 or the Ilyksos from Egypt he had ele-
vated rhe kingdom 10 become lhe ~rc;Hc:-.t in the :"!ear
East. Inheriting; the malllie of the Ilyksos, J\mosis
was now adnowlcdg;cd as overlord hy the states of
Palestine .lIld Syriil, IlU doubt ..:ncHllraged in their
declarations by a military dcmonstr:lIion hiler in his
reign Ihal tuok him as Elt, !\urth:l~ Uj;lh~ (Phocnici:I),
It is \'ery likely that there was" lacil acceptancc rhal
all Asia a~ tar as the I':uphrates now rig;hl1y conSli-
tllied Eg~ PI'S ~pherl' of influcn..:e, 'I'he prujection uf
military power f;lf beyond EgYPl'S elstern frontier as
the hest ami most dTe..:ti\·e method for her defence
now hccatnc a ke~slilne of her pulil'y in dealing wilh
:\11 JWlIgli i 1III.'H nl t illg :1 fllrollj!/lfIIl! lilt' Nc..
111I;1 ofillfi./11Ir.\ e,,(:orl;I/!' Kjflgdul/Il'criotl, II et/I/'m.'"
"'':III/J('/"Io; (J{ tilL' t;(~/h(,r"c t'unll'ri:'"L' spel" ;//1{1
rr:ldillg cxpcdiliull ,~"1l1 ".1' /lrfll,y.L'-/lcmJL>J I,XL';
H:I/... llq~ut to ,!I" 'LlIId of l,ruIL'("Ii(m i," pruvided />,~
"utl!', thesc "re filL' ."hurt nllllld-fOP/JL'/1
flC"L'rtJICIc:,,,,." .",llk/d. '/'lIL'l>oldiL'r Iu IIIL'
rCf'rcl>cllr;,tin, or/he dm.·t·· n.'llr of/IlL' n{fjet'r C:lrr;cs:I
cflln"a/ trrH·'/J." Ilia I /;,rnn'c/ L'ompusitr bOil' in i,,, L~I,n'"
lilt' ('on' ora/to'arlln·, ;lIoll~
wilf,If"'l/rd,,'rs, ' •
9
1C I.cyant, and goes far til explain her invo]'Clllcnt
lere O\"CI' the next filur ccnlUrics. The corollary of
THE LIMITS OF
Jeh a poli!';)' W,IS the cxistcno.; of an army suited to
1C lask ami a slale urganised for supporting warf,ue
CONQUEST
n a large sc:dc.
In the pcrivd of l,x:unumil.: n;cun:lolrm;liun ;1Ilt! pul- Whilst 1l1I.:rc is lillie disagreement ,lnlOng schul;lrs
icall.:cntralisatiun Ihal fulluwed, ,Ill.; fuumb'iu!ls of that the Fgypti,lIl Army W,IS employed in Nuhi;1 hy
1C Egypt ian Illi litar)' Sl.atc, ahle to sustain a powerful Amcnnphis I, I he SUCCL'Ssor 10 l\mo.<;is. the evidence is
rmy and .1 widc-r;lllging impcl'hli policy in I\ilcslinc ;nnhivalclll as to whether he campaigned in Ilalcsline
nd heyund. were I'lid. and S) ri'l during: his reign. Such that lhel'e is suggests

Sl,m .." in gre:ul'r del:,il :Ire

IH'apOnS:lS carril'c/ by tilt,
irrf:lIllr.,' ;1Ilht, prt'l';OIlS
illwurlH;tl/l, lypiC'11 of tile
earl,"18111 VyIllISI.". Tile
primary otTens;"e "'1.':lp01l
i,~ IIII.' l,rOIlZC 1IIIIt/(o:I,\:c,
TI't' 1,,"1' d"1!1!t'r (h-(r) ;,~
<::1...' ill I,rml%t', ami
rC"rL"'crll.~ all inlcnllt'r/i,uc
... t:I/J1.' bcll,rt, lilt,
appt':lr:IIIH' of, lie 10/l}[
Mr:liglll sword illlroduccd
to Ek"pf lilte ill tile lVew
J-:inge/orrl pcr;IJe/ bJ'
S/lcre/cn IIIcrc{',mric." :"Ind
fIle 'St'll l'co"/c:s', (c. d
,\':111(/.,)

10

tnat all Egyplian arlll)' lllay h~l\'e adyanced ~IS far
north as the cit}' SI;IlC ufTunip un thc River OTontes.
If this did occur, ir perhaps indicates Egyptian rcco~­
nilion orthe need fur:1 demonstration ufslrcngth in
the face:: of the cmel'!:dng ptlwcr of the Ilurrian King-
dum uf Milanni, whose principal foreign policy
objcctive was 10 become tht: contrul uf Syria, a terri-
wry rcgardl~tI b) the F.~)pli;HlS as failing within Iheir
own sphere Dfinlcrest. Indeed.lhe succession 10 the
throne of Egypt on the death of Amcnophis I, in 1625
UC. of a miJdle-aged anti experienced general. sug-
gests ~Ill aW;lrcness lhal power ami secllril) had
hecome .~yn()nym(lus with the l1laintt:l1:1111~e :llltJ
employmellt ufherarm~ in dcfclll,;C ()(her interesls. It
also implies Ih,l1 the :ll'm) \\;\s ;t1re~ldy a much more
powcrful ~md signil'ic:lnt institlllion in Eg~'ptiall so-
eiel)' lhan it e\'er had becn in Ihe carlier Old and .V1iJ-
dle Kingdom periods. This \\'~IS 10 h;t\C;1 signific~llH
impact on internal political de\'c\opmenls within
Egypt in the centuries ahead.
The ycars following the accession ofTuthmosis I
witnCSS(.'(1 a vigorous outburst of Tllilit~lry ;H:tivily as
""lrow...tick... lI'crc ollC or lI'cre reglll;lrly C1ll1./'lycd
til..· u/(/e.';' \I·..·;l/wflS lI.';l·d I,>, IJ)' i,./:1/I try II'"i I t /,... ell(/ of
I/'l' f.e.' p' i,I/I.... nl'spite t/,... :\,'CW Kill~dmll. (C d
tllcir,>.imp/ici,.' ,1J"'ir M,.'I(I.~)
l·fli:ctin·lll'S... IlIC:lfI' ,/lt·y
the new phar~lOh took lhc Egypti;lll army further
ahcld than e\'er before in its history. Indeed. this ph;l-
raoh was to l1efine the limits oftcrritory conquered hy
Egypti;lll arms. Although Tmhmosis I did nOI idclU-
if)' his enemies by name. his employmenl oflhe tcrlll
~:th:lrin, 1:lIer llSl:d by lhc Egyplians to dl'Sign;lle
1'\'1 ilanni. scr\'es fO demonstrate thai his forces clashed
succe~sfu lIy wit h t hose of Ihe new power. II is phlce-
ment ofa stela, carved into the side oLl111uuntain, on
the hanks of the Euphrates was a formal me;lIls of
asserting E~}'Pli:lll control O\'cr ~1111and5 10 the 50mh
oflhe ri"er. Thi~ dcmonstration of might, somc 1,300
kilomell'cs from Eg:~ pI, was ell1ulaled hy his cam-
p~lign in .\"ubia. Ad\'ancin~ nearly 800 kilomelres 1(1
the south orThehl'~, TulimlOsis reached Kurgus. up-
stream of the Fourth C:lI~lf;.ICt oflhe ~ile.
Significantly. th,.-lOe ;\lhallCCs did nul result in any
pcnnallenl occupation of the tcrritory conquered.
"
 ~"....

'1:ll'I"I-A~U" !.(~­
.
(,.-
= .'
~--

rOO;'f

_,0,,1<' ...'_ II!IC ""~""

'."0._ ..".... I,,,.......I

•• 1.......,. <' r~,..-~.~

• ,\1;;:..

r .,*,", .. '11"'''' .<.If

,.,~. -I ll..... ,.,.:, .,.....

. .-
"

°l·here wa... nl) atlempt III re\ i~e the pnlit:y initi;tted by
i\nlUsis \\herchy th<.' PCtl) st~lles IIf S~ri:. and 1';.1-
L':'-tinc werc lefl fre<.· to rule Ihel1\!:>el\ es ~.m.l indulgc in
their continual internecine \\arfarc a~ ll)n~ as the}
paid Iheir Irihutc to Egypl. J\t best th(:fic EgYPli:Ul
c:\pnlitions lllUS! bc seen as prc-t.:mpti\c t"'Jids or
reactivc rc....ponses 10 pen;ei\ed threat~ to Egyptian
interests militar} delllonstnil iuns designeli 10
cnsure foreign recognition "f th(l~e intcr(.'St..... :llld a
forceful rcminder til I)alcslini:lll and Syrian \'ass::als
not W W:l\'cr from lo}ah~ lU their o\erlurd. It had to
await the b'T:I.ndson oflhe firM TUlhmosis ror Egyp-
ti:ll1 intcr<.'SIS 10 beM.'Cured b} :a formal imperi:ll policy
rccogniM.·J as ·empirc'.
,
Neilher during the reign of t\ Illcnophis I IIr "lOut 11-
lllu~is 1 W:I~ ,\lil:llllli sirong enou~h to lIndermine or
dest:lhilise Eg~ pli:lll :lulhurity :llllon~ ils \':lSS,1JS in
S}ria or P:1Je~line. U}' Ihe lime of TUlhmusis III,
howe\·c... Ihe military IhrC:lI frlJlll ,h:ll direction was
sueh Ihal Eit} pi had little choice but 10 relinquish her
polic)' ofloosc hegemony and tre;ulthe formal road 10
empire.
The Kingdom of.\lit:uHli
'I'he origins of the kingdom or1\lilanni la~ in the uni-
6c:ation 01':1 number of ~mall Slates in norlhern iIoleso-
potallli:l in Ihe sccund hal( of Ihe 161h cent un RC
The hl.-.Ir1I:md o(lhis new l.in~dom was inlhe regiun
of the Hahur Ri\er, where its capital ufWashukkani Ahholl~h they did nOI irUI'Olluce Ihe chariot 10 lhe re-
\\:11> locatcd, :llthough the ex:u;t ~itc has p.'t til be gion, it was their laclical clllploylllclll of this weapun
loc:Hed, Whil~l the population and culture of these in co01bin:uion with their de"e1opment of armour for
peH}' st:llCS and of ,\ t itanni \\ ere predul11ill:lIH ly Illlr- hurse and l;fCW th:1I did lllllch 10 influence nut Hnl~
ri:m. the appearance of names (If Indo-Ary:m origin Ihe olrlllics uf Egypt blll also Ihuse of Ihe Ilill itcs and
suggl'StS Ihc dominatiun uflhe nati\'C popul:ltion h~ a Assyria. Ahhou~h hronY-e "L';l!c ami lamellar l'XKly
l1on-llurrian chariOl-m\ ning military aristocracy. armour M,"('IllS 111 h:l\e heen a Ilurrian il1\cnlion dal-
The na01($ orthe ~ods \\orshippcd by this small rul- ing to about the 17th ccnlur~ BC, 11 was first encoun-
ing da~ were non-l-I11rriall, :lIlll point 10 a \er~ lered in (Iuantity being "orn b~ lhe 1I/(ITI)'(IIUm of
strung: rel:Jtiollship wilh Ihe Aryall ill\"adl"fS of India, t\ litanni. The :mnnur p:lntJpl~ uf Ihe noble and wyal
That thcir power and stalUS was a direct L'Ol1M.:4uellee t\liranni "'''TI}'(/11l11l \\a~ \cr~ \alliable and suphiMi-
oflhcir militar) sUf>\:riorit~, and thar such was \ cstl"d
in their chariots and horsc:.. i~ indicated hy their 1hhuul'h Iht'll.l'k.~!1· colered: Ihe." werl:e.":lrrie.-d
illtroduccd tll(:' l."f.mlpf)Si't, ill CISCo'" It., j~r:JIlIr)' :IIul 011
names. For n:ample. Tushr:ltIa. Ihe name oCthe kin~
Ix.... tU£[E)pt.r/lC'f'WIt' Iht' ,.~iJ",--.. ufc11;lriol.... SI"n'
of l\litanni who corresponded \Iith Phar:loh Amen- 0014 didnol dis;lppe:lr tu'''$l:UuIJ be l'nHlu.....-d in
aphis 111, tT311Slatl"S :IS 'owner of teniblc chari(m~', frrmll/~h;"tfdjdditt Ih... 1.111:'" rrullllx,rs fur tht' hl/lk
KinJ[Jllln. II hilt· "l('
'\~... w ur,hc nrdu:rs, "hill.' Iht'
and Biridash\\3 mL-JnS 'pc",sL'ssing gTl..-JI horscs', CoI- pCllrtrdti, ... pow·er"fl/ll.· "I ;.iI"bk e."VlJlfHl...i,c #Hms
Iccti\c1~ this charioH)wning :lriswcT3cy were called mrllpusi,(' 14 ('''IJOII 1I"11S ""'''' firs. lu ,he.' eh;,riufn'.
lJttJc,ni~b/(, it ,,";ts ,iml'- IIhcre.·tllcirpe.....(r,j';n~ -
IIIl",.y(UUlU. a \\unl wh~ origin is hclic\'cd 10 mean
colIsumill/t.I.,bcJllr 1,"14 cr II as nt'l.'e."S.'J';lr.., tu
'young warrior. i"tclIsi,'c 'flld ...,,,c.'n!l·i, c 'u pi..f«' m:lri~ :UlIlU M-":l!f:
proJIK·I'. Sm.'h 0011"$ II ere i1rmUllr. (C d ..\ I:lhd.., )
The '-'Ontrihuliun oflhe l\tir.lIlni 10 the hi~turr of :llso St.'Il,.it i, I' '0 1II0iswr...
warfarc in thc;l1lcicnt I\L'ar East c,mnOi hco\'t,.·rSlalnl. :11I(/ could 11llr" 1I11/1'SS

Il
c.ued in de~i~n (sec.: Plale I~). :ami OCl..1ll1C Ihe me:aSlIre
:againsl which mher NC;lr 1':;ISlcrn pf)\\CrS modelled
their own; j\I;I:Il111iall influcm:e is dearly diM.:ernihle
;nthe armour oflhe F.~YPli:lll ch:lr;ot :lrchcr in !'I:lle
B. That lhe F.~;)PI;;Ill~ rl.'l'>peeled Ihe If/(myamlll and
their equipment highl~ <::111 be ~ugcd hy the frcquenl
referem.:e 111 their Gtpillre as hooly in Ihc annals of
Iheir eampaign~ in Syria and P:llcSline. It is alslI indi-
cued in Ihe wa~ Ihal dn,riHls and assol.;:lled equip-
mcnt filmlCd a .. i~n;ncaTlt proportion of lhe dowr)
!>Cnt b~ King ,\rl:lIal11a let TUlhmosis IV \\hen :I
diplomal;c marriage sc:lled a tTl.'3I) bel\\Ccn ~Iilanni
and Egypl in Ihccarly I . h h cemury Be. It is Iherefore
nOI ~urprising Ihal Ihe E,n pli:lI\~ \ ie\\ed \\ ;lh al>)>«.'-
hensiun the riM: Hf lhi... formidable milir:lry I)()\\cr
This sn:,ion f)f rdit:f:.hl,l"'$ nunlber :o,ill t":lrn 'he
btc:r SCll' Ki"gdolll clnsc- ',;1
hro".-.c: "/r;1\ e: ulilcr.>
comb", itlfol/llr) oflhe 11(1\1' c,npJoJ Ih(' lh(lllCSh
(ime: of'he: 1l..J I I Ie: (If ..r •...id.lc· :o"vnl ill
Q,uJc:sh. V"liit, 'hoSt: addiliollio Ihc"'llCar :lnd
ilJll...',....J,aJ rolrlirr Jllt.'\ fWIl shidd, (C d M:lhd~ I
........r 'c.\lilt: '"....ul .
prOlIX'I;"",II'hile"
with which the~ woultl. helitre lung. he emhroiled in
inc\ il:lble eonfliu,
Beyond \Iilanni, the Ilurrian cit) siales uf S)ria
and lhuse ruled hy Ilurri:ms and non-Ilurrians in
r:l!t... . . line al~1 emhraced :lIld emulaled the 1II(lr~I'(/1II1lI
~ystem and the milil;lI'y leehnology :lSSOCi;lled \\ilh it.
Thcir milil:ar) cffLX:li\'ene~s gues some way to explain
Tuthlllo~is III nL'Cding 17 :ll1nu:lIGlmpaigns mer a
2n-~ear perilKI in unlel'lo COlllr()II':lle~lincand S) ria.
The Ruad w Emllirc
If during the rei~ns (If t\mcnophis I :llld TUlhmosis I
I\lil:anni had )el 10 maLe il:. po\\er slrongl~ felt,
E~) pLian innuence in the l,c\'anl showed :l m:lrkcd,
albeit sclf-induL'Cd, decline under their rWlI suc-
cessors, Tuthmo~is II .lI1d Ilatshepsul. Ouring the
20-)Io-'::Ir rei~'11 uf Halshepsul no F.l-rypliall milir:uy
cxpcdilion \enlurcd ttl Ihe I.c\'anl. wilh the conse-
quence Ihal h~ Ihe lime of her de:lIh there nOb a
marll·d decrease in thc lribule recei\Co frum Egypr's
Lissa Is in S) ri:l, In the f:lee oflhi:-. pcreei\l'd naning
of Eg~pli:lll power, ~til.llllli Illmcd npidl) I() a~rl

.
its control over Syria as far as rhe l\lcditcrrallcan
coast, \Iith nlflSt of Egypt's former vassals no\\ ae-
knowlcd!!ing the killg in \Va~hllkk:tni a!'> their
overlord.
'I'hc re,ll measure of Eg) pi i;11l wC;lkncss, ho\\"(;\,er,
em he seen in thc manner in which the king of
Qldesh on lhe Ol'OIltcS had cxpantlcd his dumain in
S) ria anti thell SUlllhl\anl into Paleslinc with 100ai
impunil). On ncws of the tlc:uh uf I-Ialshepslll in
1-+1'1211(: he or~:lniscd ;tll alliance ofcit) Slales in Syria
:md Palest inc to challenge Egypt ian Pll\\ er in Canaan
by seizing theeity ofi\'\cgidJII. \Ve must inli.:r thai the
King of(~dcsh h;td the 1;lcit, ifnot open, support (If
his 0\ erlunl in Washukk:mi lilr this prtl\"tK:'llion. ','hc
city oCnJpied :1 srrategic position astride the main
tradc rmllc bctwl.'el1 EV;YIH :ll1d MesopOI;lmia, i\"ol
only did this 11:1 \'C eeullumil.: implicatioll!'> filr the I..ing-
Ullin; hut the :mdacirr of the act itself promised, UIl-
Ic~s dc;t11 \Iilh quickly, to undermine the credibility
of EgypI's rule amung her \-:Issals in Canaan. :\1 risk
lIas the whole Ilfher sel.:llrity po"irioll in C'maan and
thc intcgrity of (he easlern bunlers uf Egypt it~c1f.
The fil1'ei~n pulie) init i;lled b)' TUI hmu::.is [II as :1
response, and the military campaign!'> undertaken III
rcalise ii, hC:lr all thc hallmarks of an llllderl~ ing
grand sLr:tll:~Y de:trl} !iJrmttl:lleu in au\:mce :lnd
designed 10 addrcss the sit uat ion Eg~ pt 11()\1 !"ound it-
selfin, 'I'hc polie) (If lea\ in~ I assals to t heir own de\-
iccs upun pa)lllent or lrihule turned un the
willingness of the Egypti.m ph:I~lohs to undert;ll..c
re~lll:lr al'nletl dcmunslnllions in Palesline and S) ria.
In the absence of such reminders thc llel..lt:: :llleg-iam.:es
of SYI'i:1ll and Palcsrini;l1l tily st;lIes could no longer
be :lssuretl, SUdl ein,:ulllstalll.;Cs now ohl:lim:d; and
also scr\·ed tv demollst rilte hO\1 different \\ as t he sit u-
alion in the l,c\':l.llI from Ihe rime of /\mHsis, when Tlli.~ khnp~sh I'I:IfC_~ from
Ihe policy \\";IS uriginall) furmulatcd, Egypt was nu\\" "Il'IOlIt' Nt,,,, Kingdom: rIu:
II"C:lr.IQn lI"as IJIlfIlt,d fur ;(Ii
npl}()sed by :1 major power in 1\ 1ilanni where none had s;m i /llr;(." (I) ,Ilt' (OI'CIt.'!t 0"
existed hefore, a powel" ahle to challenge her preten- all :11I;111:1/, :lI.uJ, f1/H'iflll.~h'
siolls to SllZel"lillt~ o'er the rq~ion. i\lit<lllni \lilS "'U IJSfiI :lS:l /i·/as/l;l1/: .
lI·cH/xm. Relief... /i'OJll lilt'
Jetermined to undermine E~~ptian rule in the ,ime I}( R;IIII:1$n'S HIs/lUll'
Lcvant by seizing CI cry oppOrt unit y to cxpll'li I Egyp- slldr \O'C:I/1fIll.~ bcing
emploj'e./ /II ./('(':1/1;(:11('
tian weakness. .'it'll f>':1Jp/t' "r;.~(m<-'r.~. TI,('y
Tuthmosis III dearly saw lhat Eg)pt's situation II t're c:I.·fl'lJ.';in'/.I' 11$<-'(1 "-"
die fgYl,,;;1/I Army
required ;1 flilldalllelHal shift in her strategy. I,oose 1/lruu~/lUr" 1IIl' Nt'll'
hegemuny was nu lung-cr appropriate; what \\'.IS "·;ngdmn. (Ur;,is/l
,\IUSI'lIIll)
required W:lS;l rceog"niS:lbly illl perial polir.:), l',il...'Sli nc
:Ind Syria were 10 be cOl1lmllcd and rebellion pre-
Frum till' tilllc o(lIlt· thc: Itlllr-spukc:d" /ltTI.
dt,ft';1f uftll(" Hd':"m.~ until :11,/",";:11 dill rim... "cre: diflcrcnt W;IY Ihan when ulili:>.ed. for eX:llllple, to
till' t'ml nfrllc ;"rh ('('IIIl1n built ill [l!."I)/, mallY lI'crc describe Ihe 1'c1,l1ionship or Romc IH the terrilories
1Jr. r:Il.'1'1 i:lll c"ariols . }til'ell as IriblJf(' f).'
lJ'rrutll~h' rcst:mblcd 11I().~c: (,';1O,1I1II;1C :Iml 5_"1';;111 she conquered. i\t besl Egypt':>. attitudc til hcr \,:lssal
nftfl::i; Gm,umilc: ,·:I.;;'''allJ·. "krc ,ht' dlarim i... lerrituries (.';Ill be descrihed ,IS indifferent, The mili-
mCI/Wl'S, ..11':11'/1;'0/11 Ill(' bt:j,,/; c1IIplu.\,(,'4.1 for
Ii);hl""cigfll rlt:'... i;:11 01'1111' hunlilll!. T/lc dr;, cr II",,, t:try campaigns of'rut hmosis wcre designed '0 ensure
/H"K!I :I (11111/:/1111'11/:11 II'ounl;'}/(: rcjtl.~ :lrullml/lis ;1 more eflCCli\e eOlllrol u\cr lerritoril'S se...n to be of
cliJ.;iiflJ[ui...ltifl}! lea IIIIT of lI":li,"', fredll}! hi... ll;Jlld.'· tIl
"II dl"ri()/s prior'" ,11(' ...II()()/ hi... "Illl'. (t.,,,l/rlt·s."
\'aluc for security reOl:-.tJnS and ;IS 'milch cuws' from
rci;:11 ofTm/HllUsis 11' i... J'irchirellmok...) which the m;lsimum cconomic benefit could he
extraCled in lhe furm or 'll1llll:lltribute. In:lsnluch:ls
\cnted by the impositiun of milit;u'y garri~lIls, ;\fld TUlhlllu~is lit saw !'vlilanni :lS:I thrc;lI tOMH:h a polic)
administered by provincial !'ovt.:rnors under the hc as:>.llllled [h:lt il W;IS sc1f-i.. '\'idellllhat it \\mlld in-
direct eOlltrol uf the pharaoh. The loyalty of vassal c\'ilabl~ lead to:l direcl dash or ;ll'Ill:>. hetweCllthe two
rulers was 10 be fUriher elll.:oumgetl hy rcmo\'in~ their great J'!1l\\erS, It is a measurc of his ~cl1ills that all his
sons 10 Egypt as hostages. camp,ligns in P:I1cstine and Syria were conscious
It is dC;lr, ho\\'c\'er, th;lt even TUlhmosis III never steps lO\\':lnls cnsuring: [hal lhe incvitable conf'run-
envisaged the regiun being tutall~ subjug;lletl ami laliun wOllld bc broughl ;lboUI on his lerms.
perm:llleTltly occupied by the army. Slleh a grandiose The demisc ofll:l1shepsul ;Illuwed Tuthmosis III
model uf empire was probably beyond Egypt's re- IH exercise sole rule as ph:lmoh fur the first time in his
sources, :Inti was not Ihe apprupri:lIe mechanism Itl 22-ycar reign. Ilis respunse to the ch:lllenge uf the
.lchicvc her more limited objl.'t:lives. In Ih'll sense the hustile eO;llitio!l was typical of tht: Ill:ln: measured,
Icrm 'empire' is used of Egypt's va~;i1tcrrituriesin;J but very r.lpid. In shol'l order he led the Egyptian
16
army inw Palestine 10 do hanlc wilh the cncm) furce.
Althouf(h illacti\e jilr some lime, lhere is no douhting
I hal under Ihe command of this d vnamie and remark-
able king, who is rCj.,rardcd hy many as Ihe grearest
pharaoh l<J have occupied thc lhrone of Egypt, the
arm) was superbly trained, equipped, and \\ell prc-
p,!rcd for the COlllesl of arms f,lcing" it. Alxwc ;111, il
must hc assumed th;1I it was hifl"lliy moti\;1ted,
gO\'crncd as il was by;1ll ovcrwhelming desire to \'cnt
its profcssional frllslr,lIion on the cnemy :llld redress
the cOcct of lhe ye;lrs of self-induced we:lkness th;ll
had brought Egyptian power and preslige beyond its
a
borders 10 such sorry pass, II would seem mo:.l
apposite at this point, with Egypt Ull the road lU
cmpire, III explurc very briclly thl' wa~'rhe Male had
e\uhed 10 service tIll' needs of the military. ami lU
examine in olliline Ihe army itself.
THE MILITARY
STATE
The head of Ihe Eg~ plian SI;ltc ;llld commandcr-in-
.:hieJ of the armed furces (army ;1Ilt! n;l\,~) was the
ph:lf:lOh, who, as suprcme warlord, exercised ah-
solule control (IVer the machinery Ill' ~o\"crnmenl and
resources of the kingdom, and was thus able to wield
unhindered power in the pursuit of his aims, The
martial n:llllreofthi~ power is rclln;ted in the inscrip-
tions and pharaonic ieonognlphy oflhe ISth :lnd 191h
Dyna:-.ties, where Ihe king is depicted in tradilional
~lylc as sun god but is :llso portraycd as an inGlrnation
of the war god i\lnnlu ami The personification of
Eg) pl it:.c1f.
Prcp,lr;ltion for Ihis role heg,1Il e;lIly. with lhc heir
apparenl reccivinl!:l lIistim;tl) military nlm.:alion at
lhe hands of \'elenms appoinled by the pharaoh,
Expertise was :Ic(luired in ,Illthc arts <tfw,II', from the
handling: of weapons ,mll ships to l:lcti(,"S, Slrategy :lnd
adminislration. In a society which hilt! acquired a
vcncration fur martial virtucs the prowe:.s of the
pharaoh in till' usc ofille ch:lriot :lntl 00\\ \\as high I)
esteemed, Indeed, it is cleal' ,hal Tuthmnsis III, his
son Arnenophis II and olhers werc \'cry proud uflheir
skill with lhese weapllll:-', which wa:-. dearly necessary,
as in w:lr the pharaoh a...sumed 101;11 cOlHrnl of lhe
army on l:ampail;n, Nol only did thi:. enlail the
plur;loh defining lhe str,lleg) ;md pl;1ll of C;ullp;lign
but also his personal involvelllem on the field ofh;\l-
Ilc. TUlhmosis III, Amellophis II :lnd Ibmassc,'i II
\\ ere all renu\\ ned fur Iheir leadership uf their l:hariot
corps in haltle, :lnd their personal hra\'er~ :.eems
ne\cr tu havc been in queslion,
The l:uneentr;Uiun uf power in the hand:. of lhe
pharaoh me:lnt that he alone controlled the diverse
machinerr Hf gO\'crnmenl. Clearly such responsihil-
itits dl'manded mtn of great self-confidence, intd-
lCCI, stamina, abililY and visiun. As in Ihe case of rhe
kings uf i\SS) ria, Ihe fOrl une~ of Ihe sl:lte were heavily
dependent un thl: qualil) of whurnsuc\'l:1' Ol;cupied
lhe tlmllle, It was indced forlunale for I~gypl rhat
during Ihe period of Ihe Nc\\ "ing-dom lhc Ihrune
\\as occupiC(j by tine ph,lraoh of genius ;lnd many uf
Ic:.ser, hUI ntlncthcles~ \er~ high, calibre,
The reorganisalion nf lhe SI:lle under Amnsis sa\\
the emcrg:em:e of' thc professiollal milir;lry as a dis-
linet CI:-II: in Egyptian :-ocicty, The maintenance ofa
standing arm) ahle III deplo) Ihe rull p;uwply of
\\eapons and resoun:es eonsislent \\ith late Bronze
Age w;lrbrc required the ere,lIion of new ,Idminis-
tl~lti\'c ;lllli (,'Conomie structures within the st,lle,
Thus tllc provision ur\cr~ large qU:lIltitics ofbwnze
\\'C;lllOIlS, such as klwpl'sll swords and vasr numhers of
;lrrowheads, could only be sust;\ined by ;1 stale
bureaucracy ,hal u\'ersaw the pro\'ision of the raw
materials fill' the melal, amI arsenals lhal produced
the weapon~ thcm:"c1ves, This ranged frum lhe pru-
dUClion of shields, duriots and bows in Slale work-
shops. to ships filr Ihe navy in Ihe dod:y:ml at
lI<i1cmphis. These ;1(;1 i\ it ies :Ire well :II tesled in a 11 1I Ill-
tlcr of paintings from tombs of the Ne\\ "ingdom
period. In addition. no st:lle could support :1 chariul
arm unless il made arrangements li)r regular horse
sllppl~, Whilst it i:. dear Ihat numl)CI's of horses \\ere
captured in bailie hy Ihe EgYlui:lll ann). :lnd ~ivcn as
tributc by v;lssals in Pale.<;tinc and Syri:l, the Slale pro-
vided slLld fums and g:razing: l~lIld in order to ensure
lh;Hthe army h;llI all the hurses it nceded. When con-
sideration is gi\enlo Ihe rcsuun;es necessary 10 !,llS-
rain Egypl's standing: army, then the phenomenun of
war prvviding the means 10 SUSI:t;n W:lr heeomes very
dear, II prmides;l :-.ignillcanl insighl inln pharaonil:
mlltivcs fiu' 1:lying' hamls on Syria :lnd ,uhia, hIlt hIlI'
which \\ere eXlreme!) ridl in re...ources,
17
 The structure of the military atlminiSfnllion in the
e.lrly New Kingdum mirrored thaI of the civil
administr:ltion. The garrison hL':.ulquancrs of the
northern army corps b~ at \'lemphis and thal filr the
south al Thehes, each under the command Or.l scnitll'
oOIl:cr of the army; latcr ;I third lIas added, anti
Uamasses LI added a fourlh. I':ach was named alkr the
god of the region in whit:h il \\as b:lsed, thaI in
Thebes being namcd for i\mun, in ,\ lcmphis fi,r Plah
and in llcliopolis, Re. The arm)' furmed in the 14.)th
Dynasty :lnd hased at I'i-R:unasses \\:ll> named for Set
(Sulckh). The genemls in command at these t:enlres
wcrc ch;lrgcd with the lraining of recruits, \\ ith lheir
"
MJppl) to lIlilit,lry unit.. ,mt! g;ll'risUIll>, and the pru-
\ ision of royal esenrts and p:tr:ulc troops, Ih,'{;unl:- uf
recruitment and stocks of milit;l["~ ~llpplies and the
myri:ld 'II her "dminislr;lli\'ctlct,lils 1:1) in the hantls of
the milit;lry scrihe:-, \\ho were under the conll"ul of
the ~ing's St:rilx: of Recruits and the ChicfSt:rilx:s of
the Arm). They in thcir turn answercd lu thc pha-
raoh's \ izier, who also m'crsaw lhe wurl of the 'g-cn-
eral st,lIT' of Ihe arlll)'. This milit.lr) burc:lUl.:racy,
imbued with :111 the scribal traditions of Egypti;1ll
:ldministralion, maintained ;1 ,hor"ugh ami up-tlt-
date record f,rt he :lrm)'~ strength. It was this admin-
istrali\·c eniciency which goc... some \\":1)" to ac-
couminv: fUI" Ihe status of lhe army of I::gypt in Ihe
'Jew Kingdom as one Ilf The mUSI formidable tlf The
I.ale Brunze A~e.
il is ;1 llIC,ISUI"e of lhc atlr,l("lioll of lhe :ll"lll~ ;IS ;1
c;trcer to the YOUllP: men of EP:YPI th;1l denullci;llions
of the milil;II"~ lif'c arc f"requcllIly 10 he found in the
SdlOUI wriTing..:; or New Kingdom scrihe!'.. Indeed. ;IS
the demands on the army im.:n:ased so did Ihe uppor-
lunilies for advam:cmcnl Ihrou~h ils ranks for
\\c;l1th~ and 100dy alike. While those or high birlh
could secure positions in clilc ullits sueh as the
dl.lriot corps. :lble commoners cuuld ;\\:hic\e pro-
motion 10 olliccr Stalus, No heller illllstnllion of this
c;ln be offered ,han the l':.lreer of Horcmh.lh. who

.... . l/llu.m;:lI ";1:.'pl

llcquirccl" cI'HritJI anll ill
fh,' II-:,I.T or t11(' efef,-:" uf
lilt, 111 I."."" 111,' Ii III i, ,'rI
'll':li',~hilin' o{flOn,c."
prcn'lIlce'-if!>' r:lpill
l:.\p:'II.";fJlI. 1/ ",'''' flnf."
ru"':lrds 11ll: ,'ud uftlu:
re;!!" "fTur/llllU."i." 111 tlllll
if n,-:.dH:d" I,,,'!!" _"j-,.,.,
H"rs,'," ,n'r" "'It' I'" tIlt'
lIl"sr \'<l/III:d lonll,,, /If
1HJ<,r,\ fhun ,·:unp:li)..'TI!>;
ulwlllcr "",jill' snlllTC nr
SlIpl,l." U·'I.!> frum
tritwtc-in thi." flit-lUre wc
.'it't' IIf"U hurses brill/!
hrflugl,r III F,[!ypr. A I,w of
si/!"i/imm;e: i." I1Il' ,mrli,,1
illw,:e fit' file eIJillJ "n Ille
."Iwu/d"" ..r,lle Ii!!un' fill
Ih" rigll/, I'ru1l1 111" 1'1:1;..'1'
nrTurl.mn."i,,, 111 nnwurds
C:m;w/I;I,' :md SI'ri:m
,"1.....;;,1 rukr." II "~l' rC:</uirl'd
/(J .'it'III'Iln'ir !;4JllS W f:.gypl
US hQSllI;Il'S fix ,I>t'ir Q'III
r;nm:ll,cll:u'iour. TlIe.w:
wns wen' brulI}!ht lip ",itll
£g,,·,"i'JII roy'" children 'Ifl
!>en'l' fheir Jora "tICl s':lf1(1
IJllh"I'Orl'jl orr/Ie kill/;'.
(IJrifi.o;;/, ,"II,n'lIm)

.... Rq::Inh-d :II>' /lle ;.:re:u,·sr

I'lm,.,ml. c,'er,n fK:cul'.l' dIe
rhrum' Ur£/f.'"lJI,
7"Ullmlflsi." IIJ crmducrl'<1
IIU Ic.~s dlllll 17 t:1I11l,J:li/fll.~
;11 C:mllllfl :H,d.s, ri,1 If>
".~."crt l.i!>'d(JIllil/~,/i"" "r
Ill" J,C'·'"It. 1Ii." '''qfidd"
('a"'/J:li~'1' dl'IIIIIIIS,r;/"·.,,
qU:lIi/i,·." ,111I1 IImh' ir
ulldl·r.~·I''''(''''''C wlu' Jr(. is
Wflll"/;m,'!>' rcfi:rrni ") liS
,11(' ,:,,,,'t~''''flllllf:llldcllt
£1:."1'1'. (c. cI M"/ll('"
hc~"n his army C.lreer :1":1 St.·ribe amI cndc(1 up :lS pha- the pr.u:t it:c (If l..-sl;lhli:-hin~ III ilitary colonies Ihruul;h-
r:lClh. Olhcr pharJuhs who l~.ln their l.i1fl.'Cl"l> in the (lut Eg~pl. Ilo\\'c\'cr, al()n~'1.ide Ihc rq,'lII:lr ;Irmy
:lrlll~ indm.led A), RalllaSM.~ I :md, as \\c ha\c aln::ld~' scrvcd tho·:-c l..i1lkd up hy ~ollscriplinn, Ih~ir n:lm~
Sl..'Cn, TUlhmo<;is I. Bra\Cf) \\.1:- \Cf) frcqucnll) lx'in~ dr.l\\n from thc distrk1 rc;:"i:-tcrs Lxpt by the
rc\\ :mJcd h) thc '\'Jlour of gold.' \\ hich \\;1..";:1\\ arded St:rilx: of RecruiL..;, The .\ liddlc "in~dom draft rollio
in the form uf I{ukl urn:llllents :Illd \\capons. uf flnc in c\cr~ hundred eligihle had inerea~l.'(l sub-
(Ah-muse: Sj>c-JL:s ofbcing gi\'cn it t\\ ice h) Amu..;;s) MJllliall~ IO\\':lnl!> lhc dose of the Nl'W Kingdom
J .:lI1d ~r:lIllS. s!;l\c:-, amI a sh:lrc in thc l)("tty of periud, su th:1l in lhe rei~n of R:llll:IS:-CS 111 olle in
l.'llllpaign pro\idcd many an ;11I,;cl1li\'c for \oluntar~ C\'CI')' ten men c1ig:iblc fur eOIlM:riptiun \I.Il> \:allcd 10
cnli:-t 1111.:111. 'I'hc CllSte natul'c tlf 1hc E~YPli,lll sl:llll! ing the culour:-', 11 i:- de:lt" from a !lumber of eOlllcmput"-
milil:ll'Y W;IS rcinfun.:cd b~ the lendene~ li,r military ary :ICl,;tlUlll:- th:lI in ~tl1ne t'loSes the (;UI1St:l'ipliun \\:IS
M:r\'kc to bL'COllW hcrct.lilar~ as son followed father Illorc like impl't-:-slllcnl, \\ ilh 1)(ltlies Ill' ;Il'mctl troO\)S
intn thc r.lnks. This \\as foslered and clU.:uurJ~cd by prL~lIt to enfurce Ihc call-up and sCP:II':lIC Ihe ehflM'n
men frullliheir f.1milicl>, This is m)( ~urpri:-inl:"; h~ the:
'11,(·II.I...i." ,,(,he ",mr:ITI Twilltw"i,,"', ...1"",'" ,lit, time of Ramas.~ I1lthc largc number tlf men hcin~
vu,,-('r ur,./te C:uM,,,,i,c' ~"'Cllt;;11 ft',lIl1~ :11111
cin ,"'ales .. ~ Ihedil(' apIH:;Jr:mn' fir ,IIcs,' con'tCriplcd into Ihe arm~ was ilsclf s~ mptum:llit.: uf
('h:,ri",r, 11Nnlll :1_" Co",:!;",i/(' • (,hid,,,. :lItcl the military dan!!crs (.Icing Eg~pt on her \er~
nmri~al;nu, 'IlIi" C.\·:lllll'/(o, their ere.. ~. (t-"in'bird
ml.clI rrmn 11t~ rd;.,r~ ,m 11<1.,4, horclen..
lIlt, ('h;,ri", bod,' I)r

10
 THE NEW
KINGDOM ARMY
AT WAR
The ;lrmy th;)1 Tuthmosis III led HUI hc~und the
frontier fOrlrcs~ of Silc to do haltlc wilh fhe enemy
ctJ,alitiull:1( .U..:[;iddo in 14M2 Be dillcrct! liuh: from
th,1I .:tken fun her !lnrthwanl h) Ram;lsscs 1110 I.:on-
front the Iliuiles:lI Q'ldcsh one hundred ant! cig:hl~
)C:lrs bier. \Vhik the army (IrRam.. s:,c~ was ..:crlainly
larftcr, dcpluying four field armies rather than IWIl.
and while the appc:lI'ancc of soldiers t:h:mgcd ~onll':­
\\ h:1t 10 lake :U;CHl/111 of tcdmic:11 dc\'clupll1CIlIS ;Inti
the Icssum. ufulmhat. there \\';15 in ,llllllhcr n:spcclS a
remarkable cuntinuity.
\/UlwilhM:mding lhe ill1rodul.:tiun uf the ch'lriol.
Ihe Egypli:lIl standing army uf the en' Kingdolll
W,IS, like its i\tiddlc Kingdom prcd<:ccssor, mainly all
infanlr~ forl;C. In this the EgypTi~n :tI'nl) diflcred
from those of l\lil~nni or Ihe Syrian ami Canaanite
l:ity sT:lles, \\hose primal') arm was lhe ch~lriolry.
This rdlects what wen: undoubtedl) hlO \ er} strung
'ld".mla~cs the E~YPlian ;\l"m) l,;uuld nploil. ReI,llivc
10 her uppunents Egypt's large j>fJJlul,lIioll allowed
Ihe deplo)lTlell1 of:J large infantry lim:e; ~Irld the ex-
perience flf ccnlUrit:s in the urg:lI1is~llioll ~\lld disci-
pline of large budil:s of Illen Irall:-bted Ihell\~ehes
n;lIur;llIy In Ihe army.
The infanlry
The in(;mtry were of Iwo :-nl"ls. The ,!fehers,
equipped either \\lth lhe nlder Sl;IVC 01' newcr com-
posite buws, would hc deployed in lillear fOrlnation
but employed aeeurding: IU the nalllre of The uppo-
sitiun. When faced b) li~htly prote(;(cd Iroops SUl.;h :l~
lhe Lihyan:-, massed vlIlle)s alone \\ere frCllucnlly
sufficient to elkcl Ihe Ilcce.<;;sary level of destruelion.
:\b'OlinSl lllorc he:l\'ily :mlled and prutl.:clcd inf:ullry
Ihe archers wlIuld hc l.:lllployed III deli vcr hca\'y
(o\ering: lirc lor the close cOIubal infantry, \"IlClwn as
II,,£-hllt-Ilft or 'I he sl rong-:trm 00) s'. These would ad-
vance rapidly, discharging Ihcir ~1}(,:,lrs in the proCl.:ss
beforc c1osin~ wilh :1Il enemy :llre:l(ly softened Ill' by
The supporting: lire ufthe archers, and sellill~ to wilh
their brol17.(.' ""IOPi~,'" sWHrd:- or tong mace :l~es, While
Ihere W,IS clear cu-upentliOll betweeo Ihe:-e Iwn
br:lIlc!ll.:S of the ;l\l~nlry, lhcl'e is nu eXlant C\idence
III suggest they operated logelher in c1n:-e comb:lI
flll'm,uiollS, Infanlry flf eilher :-url were normal!)
deployed in cump;my units uf approxim:llc1y lOU In
250 men, distinguishable on Ihe field ufhaltle by the
comp;lIl) st:md:Il"lI; the morale :llld slat us of e;leh
CtIlllp:lllY \\ :IS enhanced by t itks closely rel:lleli til Ihe
illlage~ on the siandard, Ex:uuplcs include Ihat 01';1
~llhi;11l company under Amenuphis II called 'Aut! in
~uhia', :lnd others under Amellophis III c:IIlcd
't\ bnilCSI in Jusliee' and 'Splendour of Aten', 1\10\ e-
melll cOlllml W:I:- effecled h) signals from war Irum-
pelS, eX;llnples of whicll h:t,"c I}(,:ell reeHvercd from
tombs.
The chariot arm
II is clear Thai ~iven till' centnl! rule uflhe inl;llllry in
lhe Egyptian arlll) iT would hcCtlme a primar) lar~el
fur the mass ehariotr)' of Ihe Syrians and (:an;lanitc~.
Ideally lhl.:y ,\Uuld :llTcmpl In surprise the Egyptian
infantry \\hen \ulncr;\bly strung (lui lin lhe march.
(miceli, il was in order IU delly thelll eX~lctl) Ih;1I
uppol'lunil) lh:11 Tlllhmosis 111 eho:-e to :l\oill the
obvious line of 1ll;lreh, through either the northern Ill'
southern ellll") POilUS inlo the V.tle of Esdradull, on
hi~ approach to .I'v'egiddo, Illl\\'cvcr, :-lleh :1 taetil.: W:IS
used \ cry sUl.:ce~sfull)' by the Ililrites at (~Idesh when
Iheir llla~sed chariots cr:lshed inln the :Irlll) curps of
Re. Eg) pli~1ll inf:lIllry, while able III deploy to receive
eh:trillts, depended Ill;linly lIn thei.' own I.:h:\riol units
lH tlcfcmllhclll from Ihe enemy's. It can be SCl..'1l how
\er) diffcrcm was The Egypliall lise of The chariot al'm
from lh;1\ of the lI/(m)IIIf/lIII, :\ prim;lry rule was Ihe
:-uppOrl and protection of rhe illf~lllry, b) dcnying
enemy ehariotry lhe opporlunil) of sllrprisin~ rhlo'm
oilihe march oroI' allowing Ihem to h;lI'ry the intulIr)
from :1 distance ami reduce their numbers Ihrough
allriliull h) long-range archery.
The Ilylsos had heen the great mentors fur Ihe
E~yplians in dlariul warl:lre, :md while the I:ltler
dre\1 quite freel) llll Ih(: lechnology of t he (::IIl:lanites
and ulhers in Ihe development of 1I1l.:ir fI\'1\ ch:lrim
arm it is apparent that from carl) on il de\dnped in a
dislinl.:t;,c1~ idiosyncratic f;lshiun. 'I'his \\as ref1cclcd
in lhe dc.'iign uftheir chariulS. COlllp;\red tn those of
Ihc I Iilt lIes, !\ Iitalllli. and Ihe lI/(lr~r'llIIlI/ uf Syri:1 :1Ilt!
Clll:lan lhey appe:\r quile delicate, (:\el1 errett' fur
"

.,,
..-
~
-
-<Oft
wal'fal'C. This impression was dear!} more :lpparcnt
,h,m rcal. ;\ h~l\') chariol is designed for the charge
and c1osc-ordcr cum bat; the weight or lhe machine is
itM.:lf \l;lrt of ils offensive pOl'cntial, and presupposes
lhe avail:lhility of Open terrain 10 allow acceleratiun
and momentum ttl huild up during the charge. SUl.:h
vchide.... wuuld be IUlally inappropriale either for lhe
primary tasks required uf Egyptian chariotry or fur
the lerrain uf Egypt 01' Canaan. While Egypl ian
chariot units were employed in scouting ;lhc.ll! of the
"
.... A rclicrrrulII tllf:
't-"'/"c uf,ltIlllll ", K'lrfl:II.
in "
05/1(111':-' Tulllfllosis
lrigllly s,yfi.~cd im"JH'
hulding h.",fll·/m;r t!l"
."',llt:!): ufC<JlIlw/I m:lck
(:tlp,;I'(; b,\' lIi." CilUlpiliJ!fI....
(C d '\""Illy)
~ ,ll,lIuugllllle fir,~1
"ropL-rl.. recordt.·d lJSt" "f
Iwr!l't""t.·11 tiS l.11\''''n' d:lft.'s
10 Iht.·A,«SI·ri"f1.\i in ilw 'hi,
Cl",turv lie it i.~ elL'ilr th",
f/,c ff.!-i"/lti:III:O' t'IIlI,J().n-d
rillt'rs ill 1~lri(JIIS ruk.~" Tile
1Jl<)(/d illllSlmtcd Iwn'
''''(L~ fr(J1Il ,/'t't\nmnm
Agt.·. Cunlr.l.'1t rltis with flit'
inl1lgc frum the ItIl1lb ur
lIon·tIlfmh, i" "hid, tile
ric/cr,,,ilS ill Idlal i.~L·;lf1t.'d
r/.c 'dullkc,' sC:lI: ;lsIri,/(o
ti,e Iwrsc:~ rWIII' lI'i,h"ut II
$lddJc dm1l. (C d M"J'dy)
:uJ\'ancing army they l:uultl nut ;llways ensure that
enemy unilS in hiding \\ould be discu\'cred; thus
rcal:tion time when atlaeked was l:I"udal. If supp"n-
ing eh:l .. iot~ were to prutel:t the infantry rapid accel-
eration to meet the charging: enemy was Vii'll,
I .ighlweight chariots: slll:h as those used by Ihe Egyp-
1i:lllS could rllUil such :l rule. -I 'he lightweight but \'cry
stUI'd) design alsu rellcels the nature of Ihe terrain
over which they wcre nUr'm:llly employed, Dcserts
and upklnds arc nul :11 all slli!,lblc for hc;!vy r.:;h;lfiots
(as lhe Assyrians dis(:O\crcd), :md ;IS thc Ev:ypti;lIls
hot h t ra\'el'~ct! :Jnd fought o\·cr such tcrmin in Ev:~ pt,
Sin.li and Canaan, the th.lriot ntclkd lu be suitcd ror
lhe I':\sk.
II i~ dear lh.lI 1;ICtil:s te) meet their he.. v~ brethren
..... ~ '11'1
in their opponent's' annies wcrc well dc"elopcd and
Sllcl.:L'ssfully emplo~cd hy Egyptian chariot unilS.
They \\ere abu\"e all designed to exploit the inherent
~pecd ;In<l 1ll,lrlOCU\ rabilil)' llfthe I::gyptian m:Jchines.
COIll;tct with lhe hC,lVier armcll and armoured
chariots of the Mir:lllni and Ilillites lIid ;11 ka~t sec
the emerg:CIl(,:e of ~ix-spukcd \\ heels to accommodate
the \\'ei~ht of the more he;1vily prolc(:teu crewS lhal
we find depil.:ted in laiC 1l'11!l- ami 19th-l1}nasty
paintings, F.H;n Sf), the cssential virlues ufthe E}l,rp-
li:lll \'ehides wcre preserved.
Thc E~yptian ch.uiols \\(Hlld charge the enemy
dl;triolS in \\ell-spated line .Ihrcasl. Dist:mcc Ix....
t wccn each machine was quilC dclibcr'lle, to allow :1
"'Ipid whecl ,lIld lurn Urll.:e the cnemy linc had been
pcnctr:lfed. ami to prc\ ellt tno c1use ;1 paS-<;;lge
through the line by the em:m) , The inlemion was to
usc arcilcry:1I longer mngc .mel javelins;ll short range
10 C'lllse as mllch hanlC as possible. If the ferocity or
the .HI:lc\.: c;luscd lhe ellcmy 10 hreak off, then lhe
r;lpidly pursuing F.gypli'lll~ could intlict hC:I\')
c.\suallies,
F.s,')elllialto thc ef/ixti\·cness of the ch;lriots were
the li~htl} armed l.:h:lriol runners, These lruop~,
I:quipped with how ami j'l\c1in, fulfilled a numl.x.:r of
funttions. Fol1o\\ill~ Ihe dlarge lhey would capillre
01' de:.;p:\lch enemy crewmen, ;In(\ where possible res-
elle those of their own \Iho hat! crashed, Most im-
13
 would h,ne included c01llingenls from the city SI;lIc!'.
ufS)ria and Cll1:lan. Others arrived in the E~~pti;ln
army h~ ;l mure cin.:uiwus rUllle, ha\'in~ SI:lrted Out a~
priM)ll(:rs of \\:11', whose oh"ious fig-hI in~ pOlenti;llled
to their being incurpnr;lled into Ihe army, TheM:
included Nubians, Libyans ;llld the famous Sherd,,'n,
one cOllling-e111 of which was <:mploycd .tS :1Il elite
guard infantry unil by Ramasses II.

The field armies

On e:lmp,lip:n, the :lrlny corp:-. mentioned 'Iho"..·
would al:I as sell:'contained field armies emhracin,; all
arm!'., An ,Hh:ln("e into cnemy IcrrilUry would sec
these field :lrlllies sep;tl~llcd by some IOkm bUI within
:.upporling distance of e,leh other, l:Ulllnlllnic;llIUlls
bein~ maintained by rider!'. or chariulS. Th..· lo~ic of
this org:'lIlisation is :lpp,lrent given Ihal Ihe prindp;11
lactl!.: of the oppositiun W;IS the elllploymelll of skir-
tllishin~ eharil)lfy to strike at an alh;11lcill~ arm)' on
Ihe march. The short dist'lIll.:e bell\een each corps
ensured that in Ih" n ent I,rlhe prolel.:ling charilllS of
one heinp: ~mep' :IW;ly, ~lIpporl coul..1 he Illovcd (01'-
w,lnlljuiekly tu hclp Ihe inEmlry nO\\ under atrack.
This, hu\\e\el", did not al\,'''~ s \\ork, as at Qldesh (!'.ee
diag"rams).
The armies could eilher he empluyed in COllcerl lU
form a single hody for h,ltde; or sepOlrated, \\here
III ,11., Imk(' nnri f:uJ,,·r:.. 111,' ,'umpns;,.· bUlI'"t reli,'(
need dem:lllded, to address individual tasks, wilh
d.';ul•. llla·n""/ri 11 ,1/ Kurll"l. SIIOI..... '.;... :lh;J;',~' urders for later rC:lssembl~. The sdf-cont:lined
crnb:.rll.,d "1'0" " 11II1l,b"r IU slllXJt I,i.'" bUI.. I;",,, 'I
nature of Iheir organisation is dearly indicated in :l
ur,·mllp"igm' If> I<Ul'pn·.'·.'· /llIlI in): dmrim a",/
rt:bdmm ill C:If"';u, ,111./ /.H.·/lt·tnll" '·"I'Ix-·r ill):"'." descripliull uf;l L~lmpaig:n undertaken by Seti I in
,"iyri:l, .-t 111:/11 ofgn':11 u""'d ,,_.. rarg"'.... (c. d llorthel'11 f)alcstine in ;1!)(lut l:i IRBe: ' ... Thereupon
1'1t.1·l<iell ...,n'lIglll, /1(' \I·a.~ JIll/.d.l)
n'lIf1l.'m·d /f)r iii... ...1. ill l.-i til his majesly sent the firsl ;Inn~ uf Amlin, "I\li~hIY of
Hows", ttl rhe town of Ha1l1alh; the firsl ,I rillY of Re,
!l1)r1,\ntly, they \\en: III he pn:pared to receive oppns- ., Plenliful uf V:llllu1''', In Ihe tClwn of Belh-Shan; ami
in~ charim::. ,IS the~ penetrated the 1':g)pti;lTllillc and the IlrSI .. rmy orSclh, nameJ "Slrung: IlfBo\\s" III thc
10 lll-al Wilh as m:l1lY as possihle hefure the~ euuld town ofY,lllO:lIll'.
whcel anu rcturn. The much more rapid turn of the Although lTt,my ph,lraohs bO:lslcd orlhei!" prowess
Egypti;lll vehicle:-. mcanl that the encmy could be in forming the army into;\ hallie line and lOok greal
caught betwecn ch.. riors and runners. care with Iheir dispositions, ,he E~~ pli:ms ;ldopted
Ihe eo1t\enlional t1epluymclll uf the inf,tIllry in the
Auxiliary troops centre \\"ith the ch,lriots on the flanks, It \\"as rare tur
1\S with ;111 othcr imperial powers of the andent Ihl.: E~ypti;lIls to :Il:t in OJ defensivc EI!'.hiun 011 Ihe
\\urlt.!, the Egyptians etllplo~ed rar~c numbers of hallieficlullnless, ,IS ;11 Qldesh, they di(] not pussess
auxiliary trlMlpS. We have alre,ldy referrcd tn Ihe the init ial i\ e and had t he baltic forcell llJlll1l them.
~lcuj;IY, who wcrc used eXlensively under the carly It is clear IhOJlthe~ pI)s~esscd the me:ln!'. tocomlucr
'\Je\\ "in~dolll. Other foreig:nlroops included Ihose sie~e \\;lrfare, On the ,uh"lItcc tu\\an.l .\Ic~iddo
whu served ftl fulfilthcir \'a:-.sal ohlih'":ltions, and Ihese Tuthmosis III tlct,lchcd troops under the CO!llI1l;1JHI
of his gcncralDjehul)' 10 lay sieg:e III the cilY of Jan a;
Amosis laid sieg:e 10 Sh;lruhen ftlr three years, and
TUlhmosis 111 IU ~1cg:iddtl for sc\'cn munths. When
SiL'gCS are illllsimied in 1111.: ann:lls, as in l\ lcrneptah 's
l..':lmpaign in Palcsline, the principal mel hod uf
ast':llllt is sh{l\\ n a:-. hieing hy selling h1dde~, :lnd b)
infantry :I.lIcmpling 10 breal.. inw Ihe t:il) by u~ing
a\e~ on Ihe \\Ollden g".Iles. \\ ilh Ihe lar~e number of
furlifled t:itics throughuut I)alestinc and (".;1I1:lan it is
underst:lndable Ih;1I Ihe Eg) pi iall:> ~l\\ the haltlefield
as Ihe I1lL.lnS IIf fim.:ing a mililar) dl..-cisiun and, like
H
uther pc)\wr!o !ouch a., The !\s,c;yri,llls, Ihe) tried tu
:lwlid sieges where IXIS~ible.
The ml\'Y
The use of ri\·er \e,,>scl .. ami ships in Eg) plian warfare
i:- as uld as eunfliel in Eg) pt it..;clf. In thc Ne\\ King-
dum the 'na\"y' ".IS nOI :-.ccn:l~ a scp.lr:lle sen icC" but
as:ln imq;nl p;lrt ur llH: Jrlll) ami ";1." emplu)ed
exten:-i\c1) in amphihiuLL' upl.'f3tiun". \\ e ha\c
3Irc:u.l) mClllium:d such 01)Crations ocing cunduclcd
by K:lIno"e ami Amw.is in the warab.....insl the II) l.'iCIS.
TuLhnm"is 111 had a lar{Z"c Ilccllmilt:1.1 the royal dock-
~Jrd:ll I'erunefer, ne;lr ~Icmphi", these \ essels bt.:ing
cmplo)cd to lr:lllSpurt elenu'llIs of the :lrlllY alung the
l.VilSI lu purl.... in lhe l,eb:ll1on on a number of nc-
ca"ioll!; in suppurt of hi" operalions :!g:-Jin~t the c.il~
slates nf SOUThern Syria allll.~1it:lnni it..df. .\I:my of
these :.hip:. \1 ere adapted cargo \cssels.
The best i11l1slration~ of Ep:~pti;ln \I:lrships in ac-
liull ;11"1,,' 10 be found un Ihe wall:. of the tempk :\f
J\!edinel Ibbu. "hieh del;lillhe dele:lI ora Ikel (If
\'essels helonging: tu the 'Sea Pcuplcs' during thc
reign of Ramas:.cs Ill. 'I 'he cre\\:. of such \'c:.scls \\ cre
infalllr~ companiL'S dcsignalcd lutrain and then scn·c
un :.hip:., ahhvugh those \c:-.scls depi<.:tcd Oil the
l\ttdinel Ilabu reliefs l.":lrried a erc\\ uf ahuut fifty.
ThC" \\ hole l"re\\ werc lrainetl 3" lllarin~ and. al-
thou!!h l.'S.'>Cnlial1~ fighting men, duuhletl up ,L.. the
oarsmcn and gener:ll :.hiphanJkr...
10 comhat some 20 of the cre\\ \HlOld he t1c1cg-.lted
to ro\1 lhc \e:-.sel while the remainder funned the
comh:ll lruups fur the enl"(llUltCr. Pulling direcll~
lU\\3nls Ihe enem) \l.1>Sc1s, thc nurine!'> wuuld usc
bows :lml slin~'S In fOIke rhe dccks \\ hile a numocr uf
the ere\\ \\ollid lhro\\ grappling huul.... inlo the ri~­
ging \\ ith the uhjl.'CT uf either c;lp~il:ing ur hnardinp:
the eoem) ship. Iflhe !:tiler, then a" Ihe HMd.. c1oM:d
a number uf marine.. l.. . rr~ ing spears fur du:-.e-urder
thruMing \\ould hUJ.rd .he enemy \'l.'S5OC1 under cOler
Ilf an.:hery from Iheir 0\\ n :.hip. It is a Sl..'Cnc from Ihis
h:lltlc th.lt has bt....'n illu:.traled in PI:llCj. The dcfe:lI
111 ti,t· rd;"." <If'''II/I'''IIJ.~iN .. /lt~·III:1l1 <ISSlllllt'tl its
1\ ' F.1l.' 1" i'lII I:II:1ri",... bt:J::I II IO·';I/Id"nl si.\-.",JoI,l.t·d (urm.
/(J IhrtJlI olt/heir This C\':lIl1plt, 1111.';
ClfI:l:mi,c d",r:u'lt'r :mll rC('fl,·cn.·1I frum ,ht· tmull
:1......'""t';1 ,"ort' "" I j I t' uf' 11\'11, tIlt' (ailicr.i,,·';, ..
SI.' It-. IJj' ,lit· t'lId nf1lit> or 'n·It:f1uplli.~ III. (C, cI
reigll "It' ":/1:.' ''';:111 dmrim .\Jahd.l)
"
of fhe Sea Peoples :If the mmllh of Ihe Nile \\;If; ,I
COflSequem:c of a carefully Iail! trap in \\hidl the
I':l;y!)t ians herded fhe enemy \ esscl~ I()\\ :\I'{\s Ihe
shore, wherc ranks of archers poured ,ll'rO\\~ 01110
their deds, .\1.111)' of fhe Sell Pcoplcs' vcssels were
eap~ized; 1a1'~C numners of prisoners were lal.:en, and
man) olhers drowned, sUl.:h delails hcing carefully
rendered inlhe ,\tcdincl Ilahu reliefs.
THE BATTLE OF
MEGIDDO
It was not only ;\,lpo}eoll who Ill:lde war \\ ilh his sol-
diers'legs. Within nille days or le,l\ ing- Eg~Jlt TUlh-
1llclSis III and hisar1lly had rcached G:IZ,1 in sOlllhern
C:.lI1aan, The m:m.:h Ihl'Ou!!h Sin,li hy Ihe rU,lu kno\\ II
as Ihe '\Vays of Ilorus' sUbbests :1 marching" rale of
anout 15 miles per day; however, Ihe nile of march
slo\\ed to abollt eighl pCI' da~ there:ll'tcr, pcrhaps
indie.l.livc uf fatiguc, ur of Gin.: being cxen:isl:d as the
a<h':lI1ee reached rerritory rc~ardcd as pOlcmially or
aClually hOSlile. The nl'cd lu dl.:taeh units under thl.:
reJuulnuhk gcnnal OjdlUly 10 placc -'alTa under
26
siege !)llinlS 10 \\ ide SUpplll'l fur Ihe coal it ion in south-
crll Cm'l;ln. It is :Ils{) si~wilicarH Ih,lt 'l'ul h11ln~is felt it
T1cl:eSsary 10 lx:siq,~e to ,I eity Ihat lay aSlride hi:. COlll-
munications and possible line of retreal.
The approach
Arriving in the \'ieinit)" of 1\lq:dddo hy mid-l\by,
Tuthrnm,is l.oulkd ,I council uf his senior slalr u!1lccrs
10 di:.t:u:.s the opliun.. ;\\"ail:ible IU the army. Critical
stlld~ of lhe texl t1l:seribin~ lhe cunferenel.: and thc
baltic (cll'\'nl on the \\ ,Ills of lhe '[\'mple of Karnak)
su!!"~t:sls thaI it is \'cry much ;\ dcvice for projcctill~
Ihe \.. ing in a hcroic role. NOl \\ iIhstallli ing. t hl: subject
mal tel' 111'1 hl.:ir deliberalions was the choice or ruUle
intu lhe Pbin or!':sdradnn, where l\ leg-ilion wa~ ~i'l.:d.
Of lhe Ihree, 1\\'0 offered less dillicull approad\\'s,
Thl.: third, the :\runa 'road', was lhrough a Ilarrow
and dil1indl pa~s on:r the rid~e that W'I:. presumed
(ceI'l~tillly h) the cnem~ cualililJll) 10 be tou difficuh
fill" an army lo 1l~1.:. II:. principal ad\':mla!{1.: lay in its
HI'I'C tin, Miler ('\';11111''''''' n:tcmlill{; lil,-" ;1'-(/ Ii-"",
Ul"l:I/C Ili,1I-l)\"Imsl,
l"I'ar;Ol.... 1l/,~, 'n'c", 'crcxl
till''V""I' till' ('a b, whirll
nilS l'm/lu,1 (·tllu 1ill'ml.I
Irmll tflillbs. :In' sllllw" 011 rile Ilrcl,cr wlicli tl,c
di...pb.1 i" II", C.iru diariul ;ull'll/lI'cd:1/ .liP('I'<I,
:\IU...CUJll. l'rOtH;"cflt Oil (C d Malid.l)
/XI//I is I/n'/ar/:"c;:mb-mil
dirl.:cf approach 10 Megiddo itself. lor il would allow
thc :lrlllY to debouch onto Ihc Plain of Est.lraclon less
than.1 mile from the city. The sClltimenls ahmu the
Ihird romc were, :ll.:col'ding to lhe repn1"t, unanimous
among lhe pharaoh's generals: lhey believed thallhe
t.Iangcl1; outweighed the ad\'.uuages. To go by this
way me,ltH th:ll 'hurst: must follow horse, and man af..
ler man'; 10 hc c'lUght when slrungoUl in such:l man-
ner \\',IS :1 recipe for disaster,
The discllssiun of the opl ions eou lei llOl, however,
have laken pl:ICe purcly on lhe Icvd of ,Ihst~\etinns,
Tlllhmosis and his generals must h:l\'e knnwn,
through reconnaissancc, Ihal the (.'(J;llilion fi.lrccs,
p'lrlicularly their ehariuny, were t.Ieplo) Ct.1 to co\ er
rhe appnmehes of Ihe IWO e:lsier rOUle;; 10 !\!lcgiddo,
in p:lrticubr the one from '1",\,II1.Ieh. They would h.lve
been ideally p1:u.;cd to allack lhe Egyptian forces as
they entered the plain, The 'll"llly corp!> would h:l\'C
been surprised while on the march, scpar:llct.I, .md
vulnerahle til the mass t:hariot ;lll"ICks of lhe /IIar;-
.1'11111111, whose intentions were nol only to inni!.:t ;1
suund l.h:feal un the Egyptian chariot unils,
but-once Ihe latter's effectiveness had hcen scverely
il1lp:lired-lo hegin ,I process ofallritioll of the in fan-
Iry by long-range archery, Thus, cven hdllre the
Egypli:lll army was finally able to deploy lor b:lItlc,
the encmy coult.l h:l\'c inflicted vcry heavy losses.
Canaanite tactics werc well known to the F,gyptians,
and not wilhslanding Ihe 20-ycar hiarus in operalions
in the regiun there must ha\'c heen plenty of officcrs
present who had personal experience of fighting the
1II(1"~11'1I11111 in CIIl:lan.
'rllthmosis c1carly hdic\ed thal the benefits of the
morc difficult route lilT oUlweighed the disadvan-
tages, and was perhaps confirmed in Ihe correctness
or his own view hy Ihe vehemclll.'C wilh which his own
generals argued lheir corner. Iflhey were prepared In
risk thc luss(..... cm,liled in appru.H:hing Megiddu \ i,1
one ()f Ihc 01 her t Wit routes rat her than I:lke t hc Arllll;l
road, hu\\' much more likely was it thai Ihe enemy,
lhinking in thc same way, would have len Ihe more
difficult rOllle undefended? By lhc timc the cncmy
T/I;.'>l!rt1pi,i<' 1!; "'":> ;J n :11 IlIl' C.\'Irellll' rcar "ftlll:
l',n:clkm IJrllfik I';clI'of":1 cah I;:' IT Ihe n·llieit';'
dnl";m orrl,c .4nlllrna Al!l·. n'm:lrl.·abk lunl;lI/r
CJl~lrl.\· showlJ is IlIl' $i.\- 1:lciliry. a [",,'lOr ofIVC';I'
StWl.'lOCJ ",'Icel ;Ifld tl,e (,·;I."C i/npurt:llll·..· in E;ryplian
ffw tlu: coml'w.itc Imll', ,·h:,riOl t:,etit·s. (FireIJird
Til..: ,,/;ll·t·/IlCII/ uf tile :....Ie Hnnl.:...)
27
t;m/cr "Imn"."
.-11II(',,,,,,lIi ~ III ":1!.1 IH
rc.~,dl .."(1 iI.~ 'lpOJ[..'C .. r
II "~j/IJi 'l1Id pOll ..·r. . 1"ro:,d
"lie- It:ll> t,' pc.~, ...... ,,;t II
,\1;t'"I11;; '''t·/:lnd... ur"~r
·..·nl/'in·· "en: (/ui..':\o<.·..-nl.
(C d \l:I/ld.\)

It was ill 'he reip! ,,,,ti
aftcrm:uh url,i_~ ...uC'C'C1>...nr
.
,lmt'rlfI/,his II' (·llo/,ew.tell)
!h.1 t ,.~~.,It: crmceru.'1
funu..t I ;nlmrds 'I." il \\"'1."
com'lI/sed 11.1 n:tiJ[iflus
n:"ulll/iun :md poli,ic:,'
had disl;O\ered his errur the Egyplians would have
!--':Iined the hl,:ncfil of surprise amllhc army wl)uld he
deployed on the plain. re;\d~ fDr hallie :and h:ning
enlailed nnnc of Ihe los...es allcndant llIt usin~ Ihe
other fOutes. ",olwithstanding the continued doubt:.
of his officers, '!'mIU1lllsis ann'lunced hi.. Jel;i!'>ilm in::l
manner thai ~i"cs some insi~ht intn hi" grasp of psy-
("hulogy: ', .. ~\1~ majl'st~ shall pruCl'Cd upon this
Aruna road! Let him of~ou \\lto \\i..hcs o.Jme in Ihe
followin~ of Ill) majcsl~! \\ halc\cr their doubls
::loom his plan, their lu)alt~ tu their lnrd. a.. hc \'cry
well !.:new, W:l.'i nOl in doubt"
O\'er the fullowing tWO days Ihe arm~ J.scended lhe
hills thai led 10 thc t\runa ro;ad. but it \\a..... llnl) in the
c;lfl~ huur.. uf Ihe third da~ Ihal the 3ctu::t1 pasSdge
Ihrough thc pa:.s tx.".... n. 1\ t il!> \\ idest the pass i" hUI
30 ((.'Ct widc. It i~ intcresling IhJt :l number of t:om-
menta tors, in remarkin~ hm\ diffit:uh the route W:l.<;
for chariots, Sl.."Cnl I(J ha\c forgotlen that one of Ihe
majur \ irtUl"S ufthc E~~:) ptian Jl,:,>ign wa... irs lighrncss:
it is certain I) more than eCll1eci\able lhal many were
Glrricd Jnd the hur.;\.... led through sq):lratd~. The
paSs:lge of Ihc wholc arm) took M,mc 12 huun.. ami it
was not untillJle in the c\cning that il \\3:. cnl'::lmpcd
on Ihe plain. E",:n as the Egypti,Ul arlll) puureJ uut
from Ihe pass Iht: It.i.uling clements t:llItld l'>CC t he main
enemy forces rushing hat:k 10 Cfl\'cr the ilpprOJeh\.~ to
:'\lcgidJu, so thilt b) the time night feU the coalition
arm~ lay in fmlll of Ihe E~ypti:lll lines ami in rmnt IIf
the cil~. The pharaoh'!,> gamhlc h:HI paid on: (mel t:IC-
licll !'>urpri!'>c had heen :Iehic\'ed.
ThaI the Egyptian camp was on edge Ihrou~hollt
the hours of d:lrl.nes:. is dearly implied by the text.
The po:.sihilit~ of:1 night altack l;ould not hc dis-
counted, allllthl.: phal'aoh delllanded uf Ihc semries
th:lt they' ... he slc:ldra.e;t, he :.le:ldf:l:.I! lk \ igibnl, be
\ igihlllt!' His unlers thai ;lllthe Imups prep:lre them-
sches and ', .. maLc )lIur \\capuns l'e:Hly, sinu: one
(thc pharaoh) will cn~I~C ill cmnhal \\ilh the
\\rctl:hed cnelll) in thc nwrning' !'>uggc..t1> Ihal many
had a skcplcss nigill. While Ihe infcrem.'C is th:,t the
pharaoh W:l3 optimistic abuut the outcome. such pos-
itin: fedings may nol ha\e becn shared h) all. Should
,.....,I(:'iOIl. It u..,s during tI.i." thl' baltic he lost then rel,'cat would hcc:.trel1lcl~ dif-
IlCrind III:H "'t·lli"i't·s
ficult, with lhe rcar of the Eg)ptian :lrl1l~ hutting up
dt."truyt"t1 tile IH'"'cr of
.\1 il" ""; "lid ... /11..·'1t"t·d :1_..
tilt' dOllli":ulI IH,"er ill the
a~":IiI\M the hill.... Thc !'>oCllM: of J. g:':lmble. J deL;~i\e
1.("nUlt. (t: cI.\lr,hd.I' cncounler in \\hich a \er~ ~'Teat dC311urned on the
OllK"'UI1lC, i.e; IUSI amid the triumph:llist language em-
ployed in the n,lrr-.l1i\·c. As far ;l~ we kno\\ it was the dcpluymem. bUI carries with it thc implicalion thai in
firsl m;ljor b:lIlle in whil.:h TOlhmosi~ \\:lS in U\"l.:rall the nUWe!llenl to their position~ Ihe ann~ paraded
('"Ommand-and uf:m arm~ th31 had nO! fou!thl a p:1~llhe ph:lr:toh. It is not inCflncehahlc Ih:lI thi~ 1001.:
major engagemenl for M)l1le 20 ) ('::In>. place, The .,pecl:u:le of Ihe Egyptian :lrm~. rcsplen-
dcnt in full uniform wilh armour glillcring. horse
The deployment plume.; and fla~"S flottering in lhc hreeze. slamlard!!o
The fullo\\ing morning Iht: phanoh ordcrc(1 lhe l.":lrrictl alofl, \\ilh \\ar trumpcts sountling. t1rum:o.
dq}lu~mcnt uf hi~ army. Resplcndelll in his \\ar IlC;Iling. and Ihunderous shouls of acclaim as lhe~
chariot of line guld and ek:clrum. and wearing- thc Il:l<;scd lhc phaT'.loh '!!o ehariol, Illa) well ha\c h.ld a dire
'hille' or w:lr enl\\ n, he is described as being 'adurned impacl on Ihe morale uflhe enem), who \\cre Ihcm-
with Ihe 3C(.'OUiremt:nls uf (.'"Omb:lI. like I lor us. Ihe seht,:s deplll~ ing In their pu"itions for h;lItlc, NOI the
~lig:hty of Arm, :1 lord ofaclion like o\lonlU, the The- IC;lst reasun for TUlhmosis ordering such ;l parade
ban, whilc hi~ father Amun Ill,lde .;ll'ung his arms.' \\uuld h;l\e been thl.: impact nf the speclacle on thc
The cniglll;llie phra~e 'NU\\ a charge was laid upon Eftypi i;lns thcmscl \'CS. mall) of \\ hum wOllld he see-
the encire ,lrTlly to pass hy",.' dcarl~ refers to this ing cumhat for the first time: theatre h:IS its p:lrt to
pIa)' i II war. and i rsuch a parade d ill precede the h;llllc
/llllllllhcr ,,( fe'l (un'S ill lflt' rill\' carr)' sf:lIlclllrd.~,
/lIi,~
lim'lIm will/-: Irmll 'I II'hid, "lff/II'cd r;IJlid Ihell it Ill;!)' well h,l\'c pl.l ycd ;1 rcal part in its outcome.
rdicfi"" '01111, 'II Td/.....,l- ielt'''' ifi.,u i"" of TUlhmu!!ois di\idctl his ,11"111) illlU three di\·isiuns.
!llIliIrll,1 II rt' 'If i,IICrt,,·t, "un'I"lIIit'!<' fJll lilt,
Tht, first fuur 6/furt-s on hM/fdic-IeI, TI,e /""H:r The northern wing: \\;11' ;lIlchored in pusiliun t'tJ Ihe
flIt' ri/f/ll uf fhe upper rt'1!iSfl'r dt·I,ic:t.~ d(ose- nurth-wcsf lJf ,\Ie~iddu. 'I'ht: ph,tr<IOh c(lmmamled
N:"~i.~lcr arc Inrcign <'Umbal i"limln,
su1llicrs ill l:.."1=ypri[l1l (C d .\I,J/ld.') , Ihl.'l.:elltre; and Ihe SOlllhcrn \\ in~ W;l~ 11K:aleJ 11n:1 hill
~r, icc, T/,C rellmilllJer in In Ihe MIUlh of'the hl'Ool.: ofQjna', Thc cncm~ fon.-. cs

)0
werc (h.:scrihed ,1:-' \;1>;1, numbering no fc\\ er than :UO
J..in~:-., eaeh wilh his uwn ann): 'millions ofmcn, and
hundrcds oftholl~mdsurthc chiefesl of :tlllhe lands,
Mandin~ in their chariOIS.'

The ballle
lJelails of the actual bailie arc sparse. hUI Ihe O\'cr-
\\helming impression is thai shorlly ;lfter it beb"3n.
\\ilh a forceful d\arge h~ the ph'lr.lOh with his
chariot, from Ihe centre, Ihc encm) line 3imply
folded up under Ihe .ld\·,1I1ccoflhc EgypliJn forces, A
\\a\c of pani..: M\..:pl through the cl1,1lilin" army. with
\\(:apon~. L1.juil>melll, chariots and hun.L~ heing ahan-
doned as hL'adlung Ilight turned inlo roUI. The s:.lf..:t~
of the w'llled cil~ was denied, as the inhahitant' tlf
l\1cboiddu duscd il>; greal ~ICS 10 stOll thc Eg)ptiam.
emering. Therc then fulluwed the ludicrous Jiight of
knotted shect... heing: lu\\ered so that al ka!>t the high
and might) amung Ihe defeated, including the king nf
Kalksh and Ihc rulcr of \tegidl.lu, ..:ould lx: r~cucd
by scrdmbling up the \\alls. \Ian) othcrs u\\cd Iheir
S3h'alion to the ;mraclilln:-. of the V:lSI qu:mtilies of
bout) they h:lI.! ,lhanduned: " , , if only hi!> m:ljl'Sty's
army h:ll.1 nol gi\en their hL...r!., III L'3pturing the pos-
M:ssinns uf the enemy, the) \\nuld h:l\e L'3ptured
Megiddo:ll Ihis lime... .' It i.. cle;lf Ih;11 Ihc official
narml i\ e rel:ugn iscd th,u this \>reaJ..dHl\ n uf discipline
had rohhcdthl: phar:wh elf lellal "ictor~, as .\ Icg:iddo
could ha\e Ixcn stormed :111<1 1:lken in the n~suhanl
panic Some h:t\'e M:en in this brcaJ..du\\ n of diSl.:ipline
'n,l' 11111111111 i lit'd Ii.~. turt7>' Hiltitt'/lOlI cr "ml r"i,,;<'
cvidence or the pc",r discipl inc elf Ihe Ei(ypi i,ln ,Irlll~, fI(St't; I, ,ht'l><:cwul f;f(~/" '10' s':lIIdiflg' rfl/'rt'·
This is not .1 sclf-c\ idl:llt l:undusion: there arc tuu p/lar.wllortllt'19t/l t'lIlillCllt'C in 'he Nt'"r Em".
I), 1I:1~", II IIv nl:/(/(o i' II (C clMIIIJd,l)
many olhcr l:xamples Ihrou~hout hislOI'~ (If \\c1I- 11:''''ic t·iIllCl'r1l ""'1;,\'
disciplined and professional armics sllCcumhing to fun'i}."'1 pll/it·y IrI nmlrflllf
like lemptation Wdling-loll's mcn;1I Vitori.. in IXU
spring at OIl!,;C 10 mind.
'I'ul hmo..is p1:lced the l:il) limier siege and ordered of C:lnaall quiesl:cnt fut' \ il'luall) the rest (If Ihe rcign.
that it be laken:11 all cnst~, '.. , fur the rukr of e\er~ Thl: major husiness ofTu,lullOsis'l':llllp;!igns in the
nurthcrn L"Ountry is in Mc~iddll, and it~ . .: apturc is Ihe nc\t 20 )c:trs, huwever, I.ly in his (.'OIl1l:~t with
L':IplUre HI' :IthouS:lIld citics', A moat \\ ,IS llug around Mil:lnni fur 'he eUllIrul ufS) ria.
Ihe cil~' and bc~und Ihis;I \\uodm palisade was con-
structed ttl M:al in the populace, It \\:I~ nut unlil some 'I'he Campaign ufYc:lr Thirly-'rhrcc
scven month!> taler, in I)I.'Cemher I4-X2 IlC. th:1I Ihe If .I\lcgiddu \\:lS une Hfthe Ihree most impon:lnt hat-
eily surrendered. TIll.: boot~ liMed \\:I!'- \ a:-.t, hut pride tles fought h) the E~~rti:ln arm~ in the Nc\\ l':ing-
of pl:IL"C \\ a!'- ~i\"en III the 2,04-1 horscs Ihal \\ ere taken dUIll period, olle of the most interesting, and musl
and used 10 s\\ellihe breeding stock in E~yp1. pcrsol1all~ S'Jli~f) ing lilr TUlhl1lu~is III, was Ihc t1m-
The \il:tur) of I\lcgiddu \\:l!> of great impunam:e. paig-n of Ihe thirly-third )Car Clfhi:-. reign (14-71 liC).
lis impact W:IS ccrtainl~ MIOicient 10 rendcr Ihe whole Immen!>C encrgie~ Jlld l:thours had been c\:pcllllcd tn
prep.ln.: lhe ~gyptian army, no\\' h'l1Ilc-h:m.lcned, Iu
al last cuntest with· ... thar wretched ,\liranni;lll foe'
in Ihe land of IVlit"nni itself.
The previolls years had seell the E~ypli.m .1TlllY
longage<.l in a systematic redlll.:l'ion of the puwer uf the
city stalcs of the t:elllral Syri:m ellast ami hinterland
as " Ill:eessmy prelude 10 Ihe assault lln .\'lilanl1i.
Althou~h neither Tunip nOT Q..lc!csh suel.:ulllbed 10
lhe Eg:ypti:\Il ;lS~lUhs, their pl/\\er was sufficiently
redw.:ed for Tuthnmsis 10 recei\e rich tribule fmm
other city st:llCS formerly under their sway.
In the late spring of 1471 UC large numbers of
Imops were hrought hy se;l to Syri'l. disembarking ,It
\'ariuus porls. These juined up with the hulk uf thl:
:Inny, Ilhidl had marched northwards l"nlm Egypr.
Using timber from the lilrcsls around Byhlos, pon-
loons were construCled 10 :lHu\\' the arm~ 10 11l,Ike
pass;lge ,lCruss the fa:'I-f1owing: Euphr:lIc.<;. II:t\"ing
t:rossetl the Ri\'cr 01"OIIle:-.. Tuthnwsis ,\lld his .11"my
had their fir:.t successful el1~.,!:!emel1t with tWOJlS uf
.'\'1itanni tn the west uf the cil y Ilf j\ leppo. C:lrehel11i~h
W:lS the uhjeeti\"e, and it was here that Ihe Euphrate:.
W;lS hridged, using the pontoons lhat h,ld been so
laboriously transported northwanl un ox W,II;0l1s. It
was also here that the ph:lr,lOh realised .1 long-held
ambition to elllu1:lrc his ~r;lI1dElIht:r, :Ind phecd his
UI\II stela ;tlon~side Ihat of the lir~1 Turhrnnsis.
.1\ larchinl; south\\anl alon~ the h;lnl:s or the river the
Egypri,lll:' r~.leheJ:ls far il.\ Em;!r hetilre crossin~ back
mer it. The b(x)l~ lhey had t:lken was \er~ poor, ,111(\
tbe failure to dr,1\1 J'vtit:l1lni into a major b.ll1k sug-
gests lhat the kin~ in Washukk:1I1i saw thi~ EgypTian
filra) as twthing more than a raid in strength, \\"ilh
liltle ur nothin~ hUI prestige to be ~pillCU,
.Vlil.mni ne\'er obJigeu TUlhmosis III wilh the
grell hanle he wuuld so dearl~ h:l\'e lo\"ed to fight.
Other campaigns in later years \\"ould euntinue In
ensure Eg)ptian cuntrol tIIcr the region; hUI Ihe real-
ily oflhe hlSl 12 years nfhis reign, when old ,lg-e pre-
venred him taking the field ;llld the tribute frum the
region ceased 10 flow, W,\S th:11 Eg:~Ptian contrcll so far
north was cphcmeral. II was simply 100 l~lI" ;IW,lr from
lhe home h,lSC to ,11101\ permanent control llJ be
ensurcd. Ur thc end of his reign, it was e1e:ll" thar
J\litanni was once more encl'O:tching upon Ihe n:gion,
negating the immense cffcms expended by this liol1-
he.lrlcd ph'lr:luh in :lllempting III bring- Ihe region
penmlllently under the SW:l~ ofEg~pl.
Rapprochcmcnl with !\'Iitanni
It \1.1:. ,I truism of Egypt's relations wilh the rulers of
its \';\ssal st,lt~ in the l.e\";ll1t tllal e.n;h tI\\'l'd their al-
lq,!i:lnee to;\ p,lTlieular pharaoh who had e:lrned their
f(.'Speet, :l1ll1 not 10 Egypt itself. So il \\a~ th:tl !\mc-
nuphis II set out on Ihe rU,HllO S~rja ttl suppress the
re\olt that had hroken out there follU\ling: the death
Ilfh is fal her in 1450 B(:, and rn il11llOSe his own stamp
on the rq6on. '1'\\0 GllllJlaif::lls, in the third :tnd
se\enth yell'S (lfhis reig-n, saw his armies operating in
the vicinity of Q~l(lcsh on the Ororltes. The 6rsl or
these was memorahle Iv,. Ihe ruthless m:lllncr in
which t he rebellion \\'a~ Mlppresscd, with Amen(lphis
himself executing the rin~deaders; six of their hodies
were exposed al Thehes, \\hile the ~C\"cnth was hung:
I\) l'tIl on the walls of Napal:l in :'\ uhia as a g-rim \\:tl"ll-
ing 10 other pot'elllial rehels. IIi:. last militar~ filf:ly
was 10 suppress a rebellion in C;IIl;\.lll.
Not\1 ithslanding the olliei:!1 histllries uf the reigns
of;\mellophis II and his SOil 'I\lthlllhsis IV, it would
seem thal Egypt was sluwl y lu:.ing: grtlund 10 1\ t itanl1i
in Syria. It \\as the tempor..lry re-emergence on the
scene in northern Syri:t oflhc IlittilCs and Ihe t:olk~­
li\"e thre.u to Eg:YPliall and .\'1it;\l1l1ian interests in the
region th;1l prU\ idcu the calalyst for thc rapproche-
nu:nl ht.:t\\"CCll the I\\'O grc;11 powers. TUlhmusis IV
\\Quld seem, huwen:r, In ha\"e bcen the prindpal sui-
lor. The peace Ircat) was scaled by diplolll.uil.: mar-
riages; ;\nu hy the reign nr Amelluphis III il is pllssiblc
10 identify a louse statlls quo .1llJ accepted spheres of
inl1uence defining Mil',l1\ui ,md Egyptian inlerests in
central S) ria, ahhollf::h the power ufthc latter in this
region w..s sluwl~ waning.
The rci~..., of !\menophis 111 :.aw the high Iloint in
the we,llth, culture and presti!te of New hinp:dom
Eg) pl. 'I'he peace wit h .\ lit;lnni .Iud the quiescence of
Ihe Canaanite \as~als lent an ,lir of perlllam;llcy to the
inlernation:ll Silll:llion. The Anurna tahlets, whieh
dale frum Ihe reign of Amcnophis III .. nd his son
Amcnophis IV (Al.henaten), nOI only inc1udl,.' sam-
ple:. of diplolll.uic letters hut ~ive .. unique insight
into ClIla:ln in this period. The squ,lbblcs hetween
the rulers of the petty st,lles of thc re~ioll ,\I'C set
,llongside ;lccuunts uf dillicultie:-. in eoturollin~ the
nlulladic SUlli and the landless Ilapiru. One ol"lhc
lahlets among" Ihe I\marna lCllcrs hear~ the namc of
Suppilllliulll.IS. king: of Ihe Ilillitc:., in whidl he ex-
j)1"esses hi~ hopes th.1I the .1l11ic:lhlc relatiuns cst'lh..
 Early Nc,,' Kingdom Infanlry
I: Archer
2: Nak"tl'-40 c1ose-eombal infanlry
3: Mcdjay

..\
,••
o
,,•
~
I

'/
II
 -,

I
i • •

I
J
I
!
 1&2~ Egyplian dose-combat infanlry
3&4: Lib}'an IriballO'arriors

,.
2

F J
 3

.... New K" .' ct.rioI

Ulri_
Z,_
3:a.riot.-
/I
c... _ dnollC
III••,dip;,;il
lishe(l hetween the land of Ihni :md Egypt 'in the
rl.:i~n uf the ph~lr'loh's fathl'f' ean hl' maintained. It was
t hi~ man mure th,1Il ,IllY ot hn who dominated the !·hh
el.:ntur~ Be. By his grl.:at military e:mlpai~ns in Syria
he recast t he map uf the alleiellt '\Jear East, drawin~
funh from Egypt her last and ~re:l1eSI military effort
to scum: her imperial imerests in the l.evanL
as I\lit~lIllli before them, the~ encouraged their new
\':l:.sal:o. III foster dissension amongSI those st;ltes :o.lill
lopl to Eg) pI. Ne\"l·rthcles~, The S;Hlle rationale [hat
had led TO I~~~ pti,lJlS cOJllesting with I\lilanni u\"er
Syri;l still oht~lincd; all that had ehan~ed \\;IS The llame
nfthe threat. As E~~pt still claimed ~uzerainty mer
the l.c",tI11 it W,IS mercl~ ;1 lllilller of lime befure an
Egyplian army tramped norll\\\anls on(;(; more. It
was not until the accession neSeti [in lJlH Be that a

THE HITTITE dctermined altempT \\as made h~ the Egypti;lns 10

rccO"cr their position and pn.:stigl.: in c.ma:m ilnd the
THREAT [ .e\"anl.

The eampaiglls llfSeli I

Even as the peoples of the Ncar Ea!':t \\itne~sC(lthe Thi:o. ne\\" kin~, the sewml uf the 191h DYlla~fY,
rC\'i\",11 .lIld c"p'ln!':ion of 1I1C 1-1 ill ilc rc,tlTll, it \\ ~t!': par- etc;lrl~ iOi~n;lllcd his ;Imhit inn III re~tl)re EgypT's pres-
,lllcled by the demise of the Kingdom of .\Iilanni. Tigc as a ~rl'at pIJwcr in !ht: adoptiull of the tillc
The laner power, wracked by illlernal pO\\cr strug-- 'Repeater of Birth' till' hi~ Horus n:lllle. In the four
g-lcs, was unable eilher tu resist thl' military ;Issaults of cillllpaigns he f()lI~ht, of which three \\ere in Cal1~I;1ll
Suppiluliurn;ls ,md his ilrm~ or IU withstand the and Syria, he laid thl' liJllllllatiolls fill' the gre:H 1.:011-
expansion of the !\ss~Tians into their eastern tcrri- tesf o(;IfITlS betwcen his son Ibm:Is.<i(:S II and the Ilit-
IOrie~. Thl' t:ullapse uf ~1it'allni saw the Ilittites t:lke tites ;\1 (tldcsh some I~ yc;trs tiler. Ilo\\"c\"er. hi:.
etHltl'CJI (If all ufthc flJrrner western IUrI ufher empin:. billtle with the Libyalls in \'1.';11' Three ufhi:. reign \\iI:o.
Although the Egyptians were the numinal allies uf hut the prelude I(J increilsingly lllJ.jor prohlems th:l1
Milanni. their o\\n intl.:rnallroublcs pn.:dudeJ any \\ere to affliCT Egypt's wesTern borders ;11 differellt
interference in thl.: eVt:nts detl'rmininl{ the futun: of Times Ihroughout the 11)th Dynasty.
Syri,l. Exploiting The (Ipporlunity pnIVided hy reports Ilf
I)urin~ the period WhCll Suppiluliuma!': wa!': a nomadic incursion into fhe northern Sinai ;\lId t:ull-
redrawing- the map of nonhern S) ria, I':gypt W,\S pre- fliet hct\\"ecn a number of cities in eastern Canaan,
occupied hy the religious I'clol'l1ls of Akhenatcll and Seti look his ilrlllY ea:.!ward~ acrtlss [hI.: bonier in the
thl; rl;al;tions to them following hi:o. ,kith. I.ittlc ;It- firs! year of his reign. Howc\"cr. his IllCl\l'ment~ alier
teluion seems to h;l\c been paid to 5)'fia, although dealing \\ith these lairl~ minor military prohlems
Thi~ is nut The same :.IS saying [h~1I there W~IS indif- suggCSt thai they were nc\er anYlhin~ more than a
fert.:nl.:e; Ihere was a strong concern thai E~ypt rel;lin guise til cO\er an assault on ~l number uf cities in the
control lIn:r the territory 1x:tween U~ bios and U~ll'il Lebanon. It would ~eelll that this \\a:. envis,lged hy
for trading purposes. Ilo\\,e\'cr, the means to chal- Seti ,IS fhe Ilrst St,lp:e in il IOIl~cr-lcrm !':tl"iltcg~, for in
lenge I finite power;1l thi~ lime \\l;l'e se\ercly nlr- Year '1'\\0 rragmenl;IfY e\·idence sug-gest:o. that the
t;lilcd h~ major economir.: problems that precluded Egypfian arlllY Illmcd further north illlo its old
an~ cspcnditure IJll militar~ eampaig:ns. The polifi- sfamping grounds ofSyri;I,llld ass;lUhcd lhe eil~ tlf
cal, reli~iou!': and economic ferment in the wake of the Qldesh. This was clearly seell h) the Hinitl's as a
reign uf i\khenaten ~a \\ a preoer.:upation wil h inlernal pro\'(]eaTion, It was in all probability Seli's intelllioll
affairs th;1\ l:.Isfed some 40 ycar!':. E\'en !':o, pocket:. of 10 initiate ho:.Tilit;es WiTh the nol'lhenl puwer in Yeilr
~tability in Canaan, where certain eilie!': remained Three, had not Illore pressing llla1ter~ drawn his at-
loyal 10 Egypt while man) others \\ere thnm ing off tention III Egypl's \\'eMern horder wiTh thc eruption
their allegiance, bely Ihe vicw that "II wa!': chaos of ~I major incursion by I.ibyan tribes into the king-
beyond Ihe oonlers of the kingdom. dom. The Eg) pli,lll \'il.:tor) wa:o. sufficienl tl) prn'cnt' a
In Ihe wake of the sad of \V ashu kanni the Iliu iles rcpeal ;tttempt untillhe reign ufRama~se:.11.
pushed funher inll) cl.:ntral S~'ria. In the s;\me manner In Year FOllr occurred Ihe major cla~h with Ihe

"
Iliuitc!>. Although dctails arc sketch}'. it would seem
that a major b,utlc rook place tH the north of (~\dcsh
in whieh lhe EgYJllian!> cbimt:d a great \'iewry. M:lll)'
IlilliIC." Wl.:rl.: said 10 ha\'e hl.:t:n killed and Seli
returned to Egypt wilh much huoty ami m:my
caplivcs.
In t'Ommon with many aCCQUIHS of Egyptian oper-
ations in Syria during Ihe time of i\'litanni. il i!> the
infl.:rl.:nee we can draw from Ihe silent:c thai is imporl-
al\l when considering Egypt's retltions with the Hit-
tites in the rcgion. :'\lOlwilhslanding Sl.:ti's daims 10
ha\'e inflicted a major defeat on the Hittites :lnd cap-
tured Q;ldcsh, Ihe f:lct that he entered into a trcalV
with Muwatallish implies Ihat the Egyptian posilion
in celllr.11 Syria was al hest tenuous. It would seem
lhal thc treat)' rl.:eogniscd both I-fillite and Egyplian
sphen:s ofinfluem.:e in the region, !lUI did nOI demar-
calC dear and formal huundaries. NC\'crlheless,
Qtdesh mUSl have been gi\'en lip to Iht: Ilil-
lites-otherwise we ha\'c no way of accounting Itlr
Ihe dim:ll:lic haltle for tht: city fought in the reign of
his son and sueCl.:ssor, Ramasscs II.
THE BATTLE OF
QADESH
Ram:lsses II was about 2S years of age when he
ascended Ihe Ihrone of Egypt in 1304 lie, absolute
master of one of the world's great powers. lie was
young, vigorous. able and resourceful; bUI above all.
nr
full of :unbition 10 emulate his illU~lrious forebears
thc early 181h Dyn,uay hy extending Egypt's north-
ern frontiers to encompass again Ihe territories of
ccntral Syria, notwithstanding that those territories
lay firmly wilhin the Hittite sphere and th:ll such W:lS
l:lcitly recognised by the trl.::Ily agreed with Hani by
his father Seti I. Ful/ilment of his ambition meant
Ihat Ramasse!> accepted the inc\'ilabilily of war wilh
Egypl's powerful northern rival. Although he wa~
unable 10 engage in military operations in Syria unlil
Year Fuur of his reign. it is app,trent that frOI11 an
early date much energy was expended wilhin EgYPl
in preparing the arlllY for its coming contest wilh
Ilani. This included adding a fourth tield army to the
order ofb;lltlc, and the e:\panSi0111lflhe eastern Oell'3
eity of I)i-Ralllasses to :lct as lhe !<lrward suppl) hase
for E!:nptian operations in the Levant.
In the :.pring: of 1301 Be Ramasscs led his army
nOl'th":ln]s to the J .evant for the first lime. Their
p;lssage along the Phoenician c.:nast is traceable by the
inst.:riptions he left:1l the ports of Tyre anu Ryblos.
Reaching: as far as Simyra, Ramasses Ihen turned
inland and attacked lhe kingdom ofAmurru, a known
\'assal of the I Huites. With the Eg) ptian army at his
l,.rafes and the Hillite army !On f;lr dislanl 10 offer sup-
port, lJellteshin:l, the ruler of Amurrll. had lillie
dlOic.:e hut to inform !'v!llw;ll.tllish thaI it was
Ram;lsses 11 he now acknllwlcdged as his su~el"'lin.
The ph;traoh had nl'1\\' ere:lled the conditiolls fur a
future att.tck on (,ttdcsh from lwo dirn:tions, one
from the south through the Reba Valley and the
other from Amurru itself. Both would be employed in
the following year. The camp:lIgn completc,
Ram:lsses and the army returned to Egypt with the
young phar:toh greatly optimistic about the likelihood
of regaining the 'lost' tcrrilories ofcentral Syria in the
filllowing year.
The l.Jillite response
There is no duubt lhal ,'Vluwal;lllish saw the Egyptian
c;llllpaign as the first stage of a conccTled attempt tu
recovcr their position in l:cntf;tl Syria .md lhcrr.:ancr
extend their power into the nOTlh orthe region. Cn-
willing to stand passively by and sec t he whole 1-1 iuile
position in Syri;l demolished, Muwatallish resolved
upon a strategy lhat would put paid 10 any further
Egyplian ;lspir;ltions in the region. The military cam-
paign now planned for the following year idemified
two major tasks. Amurru W;lS In he rel;o\·ercd; and the
Egyptian ;lTtny l;iven such a tfUum:ing that Ram;lsses
would he denied the means to reJlise any of his wider
political and territorial ambitions in the region.
Ir was clear many m011lhs before Ihe b:lItle took
place th:lI (~l(lcsh would be the arena of contest. The
Egyptians had contended ownership of the city wilh
IVlit;mni and then Hatli since the d;lyS of Tuthillosis
Ill. Such cunsislelll and prolonged interest in the site
arose naturally from ils strategic position: not only
W;lS it the ke)' 10 Ihc Elculhcros Plain and therefore to
Amurru, it was :tlso the door to the Syrian Plain, and
muSt be central to Ram:lsscs' aspirations 10 extend
Egyptian rule into northern Syria. It has also hcen
suggested by a number of commentatOrs thai Q:lllesh
was actually agn:t.:d upon in advance h) the rival con-
teslantsas the venue ror their haule, as indecd h:td the
time. 'rhe exiSTence of a measure of protocol concern-
ing battles in the ancient pcriod implies that prior
agreement can be inferred by the proximity of the re-
spectivc contestants at Qadcsh al a particular lime
late in the month of May I.JOO Be
.:\Ot withstanding, the site gave immensc ad vantage
to lhe Hiltiles. Muwalallish was operating in territory
under Hittite control, supplied by loyal vassals and at
the end or rel:lli\·e1y short lines uf wmmuni<"'3Tiun,
whereas the Egypli;ms would be opcr;lting somc
1,6lKlkm from their home base. Funhermore,lhe city
itself was large enough to at:I.:OmmOdale the Hinitc
army should thl; battle go :1g"J.insl them. It was alsH a
very STrongly fortified position. beinp; enclosed h) a
moat and surrounded by the River Qrolltes itself.

III rhi.'i/':I;tIIcd rdi"rrrlJlll 5 ,"r;:. liS amI

8c;t·:.I- Wali ill Nuh;,1 'I
ruXllllJrillCe (,X,s!>'ibly
R:lnl:l.~.~c... Il) lelJd...
or
rclln·... CJI r,1I i \'c!>'
(.1)II(Jut·rcd ·f1C/Il;C... illw
'h ...· prcl>cn ·c ufSc'; I. '\10...· '
:1 rt:
C'lllIi,mjtcs. :/J/holllfh till:
fmc jnlfllcdi:UcI.r In Ih ...·
rCllr IIf 11lt.·I,rincc ;... II
Ub)':m. (British MIJs...· llm)
 The army (Jr~anised by thc Ilittite kill~ was lIlIl' "f
the larg:cst ner :lsM:mblcd by the kingdum of I1;1IIi,
Ilowcn:r. no dOCUlllcnt has l.:Ullle 10 li~hl from Ihal
source llctailing: either it:-. make-up or S1l"l·ll~th. ,\11
srx:eu\;llionl.:()nn·rnin~ Slh.:h m:Hh.:r:-. musl rcst s{Jld~
upon the detail.... provided h~-Ihe ,-arilllls E~~ ptian ac-
l.:ount:-. Ill' the (~llksh c;unp:lign (t his and mall Y 01 her
TTl;Eltcrs to do \\itl1 thc h.lttlc \\hieh I,;annot he
explored here "ill be so in a ftJrlhcoming Osprey
C(llIlPIII:r~1I title). RalU:t:-.ses speaks of the J-1illiles and
Iheir IX :!lIied ;lnd \assal states l1c1ding .1:-' mallV :1:-.
",7l10 i,:harioIS and .17,000 fOot soldier...
Openin~ moves
'I'hroug-houl thl' mOllths lit" "'larch :Ind .\prilthl·l,;it~
()f Pi Ram:l:-....es hCc;lllle the :I:-.sel11 hi y puint ICIl" lUle or
the largest :lnnics en:r raised b~ the I·:gyptian:-., Unil:-'
Were alloGllnllU OI1C "fthe IOllr tidd :lrmies (:11:-'0 re-
ferred 10 in tlll' text:1:-. di\isiuns), :--':oliee;1hlc \\:IS the
increasing. liSle" of forcign troops in the rq!ul:tt' ;lrm~;
indeed this was to hel:ollle e\"(:n more markcd in Ihe
centuries ahead. Apan from the :"Jubialls ,lnd Shcr-
dCll.l.ib~;lIlsand Canaanites were now inlhe cmploy
of the ~tanding army ,IS mcrt:enaries, Thc Eg~ pti;m
char:lctcr of lhe anll~ \\;1:-. bein!! diluled nut jll~l tn
inerl'aSl' manpowcr hill :llso in pursuit ufa ddibcralc
polil:~ ttl di\'l'J'sif~ the elhnil.: b:ISis tlf the army ;IS
much;'ls possihk. The tlltal streng-Ih oflhe E~D ptiall
fOrl:l' was in the regiun of 20.000 men divided equally
among the fulll' field armies, Ch;lriot stn;n~th is nol
!,;:i\cn;ls a ~q):Jr:Ue fi~ure, hllt h~' this dalc Ihe Egyp-
ti,lns lllU:-.1 h,l\'c hel:n ;lhle III mll~ter a "cry signilkant
fClree,
Ll:a\ lng r.g~pt .Il the cnd of April. Ihl' :lnl1y totll.
the l:U,IM road 10 (j;\Z:I. \\hel'e Ralll<lsses divided his
forl:l:s. Turninl; inland with the hulk ufhis :ll'1ny, he
1011u\\ed the route Ihrough C:lIla;Ill, Ir:lVersing: the
eastern side of l.'lke (i,llike and l1lardlin!! \i:1 the
southern cnd orlhl: Anti-I ,ebanon rangl: and entering:
the IId:la Vallt'~ 10 rcach Kumidi. The smaller ofthl:
1\\ II liu'ecs, clcarl~ an dite unit <inti one which \\":l~ to

On/.I " fr:l}:III"lIt n'''''li",~
(lfth<' rdid.... ill ""rllaJ.
dewi/i"t: .";(" i 1\· !>"('n/lld
cmlll':,iJo:Il ill ('(',111',11 S"ri:"
ill ,,1,idl/lt:;1/ I:u·k('d Ille
!tn.-a I I.·i." ul'll"cks/l u1I1II('
Urmllcs, "'/1(' image sl..",,~
,11(' pl"'nwl,:... <'Imr;').
1r.IIlIl'lill,!! Ili.~ "II('lIIic,~
IIl1d.'r" ..". I1Il;u('\ /..'1' til/..'
Ulllcmlle 0(,11., il/.ad., iJ is
c/;;:;II" tlml 1>., .Ile ,'-11(1 "rllr\
reiJo:II ll;ulcs/r 1:1) '~'llmrdy
II i tI,i" Ill/..· IIi II it e s"Jll'rl.· uf
;1l/llJl·II/..'/..', ({.'. d ,\I:IJI</.'")
pl:i~ :1 decisivc role in the baltic, h;ld heen del;u:lu:d to
:uhalKe north\\anls from Gaz:l alung thl' eU;lst mad
to Phoenida, Their t:lsk W:l:-. to l'l\SUrl' Ihe IUY:llt~ IIf
lhe Phoenil,;i:lI\ I,;O:ISt,11 cities h) :l sl1(m of force,
11t)\\c\er, their line of lllarch from lhe mast was
inl:md III brill!! them to Q_adc~h "i:l the Elellthcros

<'
Valley in '\murrll. The pharaoh had ml duubl im-
pressed on their commander the need 10 arrive on a
specific date, :lnd lherein hi)' lheir imporl'ance to
Ra1ll:lsscs' str:llcgy. II is dear when eX:lmining suu-
:-'Cllllcnt C\'cnIS Ihal the IlittileS wc.;rc un;lw.lI'C "flilis
dct'H.:hcd unit.
IdcllIified in thc Qldcsh in:-.criplions as simply the
',Vei/rill', thc question nccds to be .Isl.ed whu c,al.:tly
they wcrc. The tcrm itself nU'::IIlS 'yolln~ men' ,lnU
suggests that Ihc~ wcrc:I (;r,u;k ClIu,ltlilC unit scrving:
in thcst;lnding ;Ifllly ;Im! Whll:-'C loy.II,)' 10 K'll1l'IS'<;C~ II
was beyond qucMion. It is most likely thaI lhe~ Were

.. '~!Zypr;:lIl.~;c1!t'lIll"tl"'d,~
Uffil<-'period ;In· "'<--11
,:o11Vll'1I ill rlJi.~ Uluslnui""
in wllidllh(' Ilrm'·Qf
H.;1IJ1IIS"'C.~11.~tor;ll.~
11s;/IJ.clQn in sQllfllcrll
CIIIl"III1; rile IlrI;S' llt-picls
'ill: dilTcrClltplJlI"'C.~ofIllc
siege ;11 Oil'" ,:ocellI:. .4.r IOll'er
left the J-:gypt;:l1I b:ullt·
lille lul\";III('cs UII the \\'1111...,
dear;ll/{ Illc CI1(·Ill."
in/,.,I/r)'. '1'11(' I,tlllck un II/('
d/." I,rupe:r r;lke.... 1,I"c<'
11';11, !>'cllli,,1' f:u/dcrs; tilt,
:lsc.·mling ;111:/1111'.1 prUI ..."
Ihcfll!>'cll'<-"" lI'irll S/lidd."
'''/I/lll; :lcrO$$ Illeir bilCkN.
I. hite bdJlg g;vclJ 'cm'crill/!
fire' ".' "n:hers N/u.ttJtill}!:lt
r/,<-' blllt/clilcrus. Or ireI'
'1'£101'1' :It/em,,r W"'ur
,/lrnllgli rIJe cit.1 /f:lrt'S wi,lI
,lldr II.H'S. (Fir.:llir<lll.mJ.s)
l/I(/r~)'IUIII/IC\lllipl>nl a!> a \\c1I-;lrIm:d n~ing culumn
with c.:h:ariol':-'. c.:h;ll'iol rllnllcr~ and olher suppurling
int:.mt I'}. ;ahle 10 Ir:l\'c.:rsc.: Ihe greatc.:r dislallc.:c tCI atlesh
and !olill reach the \ icinil~ ofthc cit) 011 the appointed
da~" II is. 11(I\\e\er, of sume illleresl Ih:u some C0l1l-
mellt:lInrs lu\"c :-.ugge:-.led Ihis unil was in (;lel lhe
fourth :lrOl) di\ ision named fur SCI.
F.ucl1~ one month ;Iflcr Ie,l\ ing Eg~ pi Ramas.,~
\\:I!> enc:'lml>cJ with the di\"i"ion of Amun on Ihe
morning of day 9 of the third month uf Shemu (late
.\1a)) on Ihe "amu'at c1-llarmci ridge 10 the Mluth of
(~dcsh. From thi!> \:lnl:lbrc point lhe \:llle~ lay ahead
\\ilh the cit~ it~lf in sight. AI this poinl the IIthl"r
field J.rmi~-Re. Prah and Sct lJ.y to the rC;lr (If
i\mull :Ilon~ the line uf march and scparated b~ ahout
nne iff'r (:Ibollt If).5~m), ,u..::cunling tn standard oper-
aling procedure. Striking' Glmp, R'\ln;b~e!> and Amun
descended frum the ridg:c. tr.l\er~ed lhe rore~1 of
1.:llmi :lnd hcg:an cros.<;ing IhcOrontcs by the fonl at
Shab!un;\. It \\as then Ih.1I two Sha~u-bedouin
(\\holll it i>; gencr-J.lly :\Ssumed h:ld heen ddi~fOIlc1~
sent out h~ the Ilinite king 10 misinform Rama!>scs)
apl>C3rcd and flOcred the inform:lliun Ihat I\lo\\3tal-
lish ,lIld hi~ :1fn1) \\ erc nn\\ hcrl' nC'J.r <1;1dc,h, hut in
Ihe land of Aleppo to the nClrth urlhe cit) ofTunip,
some 120 Illilc~ di~tant. If true, Ihis \\Cluld place
Rolmasscs in :1 \cr) :-.trung pc"-ilion: he could collL-C:1
hi>; anllY. cmurc Ih;H it \\;l~ rcslcd. :lOll bL- r,-";ld~ for
battlc before the Iliuiu:.'s arriH:d. In short. he cuuld
do lulhem t:\.aetly \\halthe~ intended to do 10 him.
 1/1 almllf I1H He ."·f-·fi I .. :l,~
"hli,:e" If) t:lke I'ullitil·..·
an j"" ,'J!:I im" J.i" 1,. II
'ril,..·... "n "ll." ,n·.lit~1"1I
IJflnkrflfl·:J.~JJt.I" flli...
/minted rdi•.: ffrfJIn A"l"Imk
I,..· i... se"'11 in "re (:I"ssil'
rrilllllplml 11O."C, SII.ill",:
rl,e Lilly;lI'... will. Iii...
khtlpcsh. i\flJ.~, arc Jl:lh'd
c.n·cIl' ti'I":' k,ul''''1" lI'I:IIIIIS
!,,./.C;/f!l: olllers II car ,. l,il1..·
dl);,k a." " IJlC<I...UI"C or
"r,,{('clillrl (sec I'b, .., F).
(IJri'i"'Ii ,\Iwlt:um)
Sub:-;Clluem c\"t:nts can only be undcrsllM.d if we
,1l:l,;Cpt (h~H Ramasscs, thruu!,(h gullibilit~ lkri\ ing
fnull blind IlJll'imism and over-confidence, ,lcccptcd
thi~ infurmatiun withuut ljucMiun. It \\uuld cl'1'lailll~
~cm ,hal nu reconnaiSS:lIlt.:e was ordered as \crifi-
cation. If !'otll:h was the C:lSC. Ihcn the uutcomc Wa'i;l
mailer of ~lbsollJlc ncgligclH:c. While historians fre-
4ucntl~ lay the bbmc ;11 thc fecI of narn;ISSt'S, it is
\cr~ hard to helie\'l:: lhal the sCl'ccnin~ furce of
chariots or horsemen which normally 1110\ ul aheHI uf
the m:m:hing army \\crc in this c:t'ic :lhscnl. Such
forces operated :IS a maller ofcourse, ,lIld it would not
ha\'c heen the I,lsk ufthc ph;lr'lOh 10 OI'der th;1I such ,l
normal uperational pl'Ol.:cdure be Glrricd (Jul, If il W;IS
nul abscll1, then it may wcll be lhat the ll\Cr-
eonhdcm:c of Ihc pharaoh was shared hy the whoit'
al'lll) ami lhat its ~cm::ral cunduet \\:Is remarkably
tard)'. Suhsequent C\CntS Illa~ aIM) scrve lu sug:~cst
th;lr rhe :mll)' fielded hy R;lm;lsses II W;l~ uf:l luwer
qU~llity than that dcplo~ed h) 'l\lIhmw,is II :1I
!\Iegiddo, ;lnd that ils professionalism W:l'i open tu
question. It seems that if such ;1 l'ecOl1nais'iance had
bccn Glrried out then lhe prC!'oCllce of l\luw:Il:lllish
and his large ;)filly in such close prll:\imit~ tu the cast
ofQ1(lesh must h,l\e heen detected.
i\s it W~lS, l{;lm~lSSI.'S ;Hh';lllccd lill'thwilh. With the
division of Amull he estahlished Clmp sli~htl~ 10 the
nurth-\\cst of the t.:it) , in ignorann' 01" the pre'icnce of
the llillitcs c;\Tcfully screcned on the j;.If !'oide "rthe
Orontcs. 'l'hc di\'ision of Rc was hy llOW heginning- tl)
crosS lhe Shabtuna tunl (sec map 1). While scouts
might han hecn l1oticc;lblc by lheir absence earlier,
their aetivitics now g:lVC Ram:lsscs his first imimatioll
Ihat all W:I!'o far from well. \Illwat:lllish, h~I\'ing rc-
cei\ed infill'mation th:ll Ramassc!'O W:lS :Hkal1cing 011
Qldesh from. in :111 likelihood, the vcr\, Shasll-
hedouin who h~ld mi!'Oled R:lrn<lSSeS, dcspatched his
own scouts 10 locate the ph:mloh '!'O eX;lcl position. If
Lake Huns
~ HITTITES
~
o
,
o
.
•
5
5
W;IS two of Ihese So.:uuls whom lhcir Egypli:l.ll \';lllla~e point or the c~mp of" Amlin the ~cene Ih"l
cOlintcrparlS nuw captured. Beaten, lhey wen.: now unfoldcd must havc heen despcr:\te (() behold.
Jrag~eJ in frOllt orlhc ph<1I';lOh: Behind the lines offlceing- infantl") tr) ing: 10 reach Ihe
'Then s;liJ I lis ~1:lj(;st~, "Wh;ll arc you?" Tho.:y re- shield w;111 of Amlln. hug-c numbers of Ilillite cha-
plied, "We helong-to tho.: rulerofl lalli! IlesCnllli-llllt riots could be ~een hllrtlin~ lowards the camp, raising:
to Sl.'t.' where Your Maje~ty was." Solid Ilis j\'ttjCSlY to a w;lll of dUi-I. their Ihous,l1lds of hurses' hum·cs
them. "\Vhere is he.lhe RulerofHalti? Sec. I heard it poundin~ the h;lnl earth like thunder. Countless
said Ihal he was in Ihe hmd of Aleppo, norlh of Egypli;Ul inbntry were ridden down or ~pcared from
Tunip." They replied, "Behold, the Ruler of I hllli hchind by the chariut crc\\ s. The w;\\·e tlf panic then
has already come, tog:elher wilh many foreign lands cngulfed the e;11l1p of Amun. the defendcrs :Ih;lll-
lhat he hrought as allies Sec, they arc poised duning their P(J~iliuns and weapons as thc Hiuilc
armed and ready 10 li~ht hehind Old Qlde~h?'" chariotry broke in from thc weSlcl'll sidt.: (map J).
Walt.:hing thc t.:abmity from his OWIl c;lmp. which
The b;ulle \\:lS i-Cl apart from th:l.I of ,"-mUll, Ram;ls~es acted in
Thc reaclion "rthe increduluu:. phamoh was lOcal! an perhap.~ Ihe only wa) (lpen to him iI' the rOLLt \\:li- 10 be
immedi;llc conference with his senior officers. the prc\"cnlcd frum dc~eneratillg inlo a disaslcr. Don-
outcome uf which was the dCi-patch. POSI haste, of the ning hii- hattie-armour. he mountcd his ehariol and
vizier sourh\\'anl~ 10 demand the rapid ctlilcentratiml prcp;lrcd 10 goo into ;lction ag:;linst the Ilirtitc charinrs
of the divisions of Plah :IllU Sel on Q~ldcsh. Until \'inually sing-Ie-handed. ~Io\'in~ 1(IWanls Ihe enemy
their arrival Kalllasses must depend on Ihc power of at speed. while al rhc same lime ;lppealing: 10 his flec-
the divisions of Amlin and Ke to resi:.t all} immediatc in~ rmops 10 rally. Ihe ph;lraoh attacked lhe enemy
Ilinilc :l.1tad. III this hc W;lS to he disappninled. i\s Wilh Ihl' assislant.:<.· ur perhaps onl) hi~ immedi;lIe
Rc marched across Ihc plain lnward~ the Cllllp of chariOl-oornc Cllll)Uragc. I.aun(;hing- themsel\'e~ al
l\mull, J'Vluwatallish l:wllehcu a major attack a~J.inst
the tlank or Ihe cXlended. mal"l.:hing dh'isiun (map 2).
EmerginK fr(lm Jead g:rnund and covcr,;l mighl~
,
hllSI of Ilitiitc t.:hariorry poured 'It.:ross Ihe OroIlICi- tel
•
lhe immediale SOuth of(~luesh itscJf"nu cr:t...hed into AM UN •
the nank Hf Re, The prolective screen of Egyptian
ch,lrims W;IS simply swept a\\a) by the slll..'t.'r weight or
the Ilillitc chuge, While thc exact sizc oflhe Ilillitc
IClrce is slill ;lll1altCr of grcal disputc. it is dear Ihat il
\\;IS suflicielllly large ltl oyer\\ hdm thc di\ i:-illll ofRe;

hO\\c\er, it could not ha\"eapprnaebed in any way lhe RE

\';lstllgurc of2,50(l chariots implied by R;lmasses ;Illd
seemingly 4uOled in ~ueh;111 uncritiL'.III;\shioll hy so
m,l1ly commenr'llors ..The nuliull Ih;)t ;ll:tl'~e Ilill'ilc
demdullenl rather than lhe full charilll forcc \\as
invol\"ed rcnders their rapid lransit acro:-s lhe
Omntc.<; ford quite credihle. II also places Ihe 'single-
handed' 0Plllli-iliotl or R:I1lKISM:S Ialcr in the pro-
ceedings within lhe hounds of eredibi1il~ as wcli.
With their own proleCli\c chariotr) \·:lnquishcd
the cohesion of Ihe Egyptian inf.·lIllry comp;lllies
who wcrc tOlally unprepared for eomhal e\ap-
orated, and blind panit: led l\J Ihe disintegralion of the
wholc of the division, with thl' ~lIrvi\'ors f1eein~
nunh\\anls lowards the camp of Amun. 1,'1'0111 the
52
 . •,
R R
• •
AMUN
~ AMUN ~-
(,~),
(;)
the IlillilC eastern llank,tht: small numhers urE~Y1)­
11:\11 dl.lriOis proceeded Iu wreak haH)l,': ;lJllllng lhe
enemy, whose own I:Clhcsion ,Uld momentum was rap-
idly dissipating.
Ctilising 10 the full the n:marbblc speed and Illa-
nueuvrability of the E!'D pI iall chariots. Ra1llasscs ;Ind
his few supporters bcg::m 10 pid orr
Ih<: enemy in
I:ll'gc numhers. With a (crocit) hol'll of lkspcr:llion
the philrauh ,lOci his suppm'lcl'S :utaded. turned ;lT1d
attacked :lg;l;n ,\I IC;ISI six limes. In the swirling melee
it is \"Cry po~siblc th;\11hc 1-littilCS wen: nol ;\\\arc uf
thc small size uf the force :mucking them. From "
vantage pllitll o\"erlooking the C:llllp of f\mull fwm
;leross Ihe ri\'cr. :\JIll w'llallish cc)uld sec hl)\\' Rarnasscs
was heginning to rectify Ihe situalion; and ordered a
second W:I\'t: ofchal'iols across Ihe ri vcr Ie) SliPPUI'l Ihe
firsl w,lve, whu wcrc now in trouble.
Onr.:e :1golin we arc faced wilh the problem uf num-
bers. II is unlikely Ihill the Ilillite scclInd wave con-
t:1incd as many as 1,000 chariots. Re:lction time for
MlIw:lI:lllish was critil;:l1 he had to gel chariots
across [he Gronles 10 allack Ramasscs :11 oncc. Ilc
u:.ed Ihuse he had to h,md, which in all likelihood
~
~
0:.
(& REI I .
•
,
meant thc aristucr..lIir.: eluoura~l,; whu l'lllrrolllH.lcd his
persun and whll wcrc :.haring his view of Ihe
phar:luh's COUllIcr,ltt'lck. They r.:rosscl1lhe Gruntes,
blll instead uf making for R:1Il1;I.SSI.:S IH::nled instl:ad
fur his l::llllp in the hope of dislracting him from his
h:lrryillg uf the first ~rou p of Ilill ite ch:lriots (map ~).
110\\ ever,lhe appear:mec Oil the scent: al this mumcllI
"fthe Nc'uril/ prcvented lhis. They :lIlacked Ihe I Iil-
lilc reinlim.:t.:lllents, ,\11(\ were bter joined b}
Ramassc.:s. In the slIhsnlucnt cunlcst fcw of the
sccond W:l\·C flf Ilittite ch,lriotry escaped bad across
Ihc riH;r (map 5); amI many or Ihosc ~\;lin were of
high nl1lk from among the Ilitlile and allied SI:lIeS
scn ing j\ III \\ at:lllish.
B~ the end ofthc (by The ph,lr:lOh had m,magecl to
recoup the situ,lti(lIl. The division of i\mun 1\:lS I'C-
assclllblnl, :mu lhal of Prah had :1150 :Irri\'cd al
O?desh hy a forcecl march. In the afterm:Hh Hf the
baltic il would secllllhat Ra1llaSSt:s Illily have \isilcd
grim punishmcnt Ull mallY of his HOOpS in the divi-
sinns ()f Am un :lnd Re, 1\ ho in his eyes had committcd
Ircason ag:linst his person by running :I\V:l)-. i\c-
cllnling to some scholars there i~ evidence Ih:lt on the
51
 northern empire was swept awa~ in the Iide ufhlllll;11l
mi~ratiunlha( covered the Near East al the he~innin~
ufthe 12th celltur) 13(:. By then, huwe"cr, R;llllaSSe!.
NE'ARIN II h,ld alreuly been in his gra\e fill' nearly 50 yeus.

• THE SEA PEOPLES

'I'he ueath ••fthe Phar;lOh .\'lcrncptah in 1223 13(: is ,.
signilicant marker in the history of the New King-
dom, IiII' therealier t~gyptiall decline was \'cry rapid.
PTAH Merm.:ptah had left a kingdom Ihat in terms of size
corresponded ruughly to th;tl of his father' ,IlHI was
still outwan.lly puwerful, 'I'hel'e:lfiel' dynastic strug-
gles chamcterised the closing: years of the 19th Dyn-
;Isty prior to the accession of Selhnakhte, the first
ph;!r'lOh of the 20th Dymlsry. in 1200 Ue. Ilis SllC-
O":SSUr', Rarn;lsses III, the last great pharaoh of Ihe
New J(inp:dull\. S,IW the I1n;11 disilllCl,rraliun of
Egypt's empire in Canaan and the LCV;lllt ;IS, alung

day fullowing 11110: barrie he urdcn;d a dl,;l,;imalion

:UllOng his troups in full ,"lew of.he Ilillite king.

Aftermath
An offer frolll 1Iv.; (Iiuitl.: kinf,!: of ;\ mill'''f) dis-
cng:\gcmcnt lill lhe hasis of peaceful cl~cxi~lcnCl' was
,u.:cq)lcd by the pharaoh. While no hard ami fast lcr-
rilClrial dClll,lrC;.llion followed. Rmnasscs nevcr ,lgol;"
c.:ampaigncd in r'ceugnisably Ililtilc IcrrilUl')'. Al-
though he was cngagctl in :\murru some three YC;lfS
aflcr<tadcsh this was clearly nul seen as a Pl"l)\'111...11;on
b) the Ilillites, who hy now had more immediate
problems to (,lee in the ri:-.c llf Assyria on their eastern
frontier and those territories 10 The north uri blli.
It \\,;15 in YcarTwenTy-Onc ofRallusscs' reign lhal
a lilflllal trcaty of peace was sig-lH.:d belm.:en E~ypt
and I hutL Sealed by the Illarri;lge of the dauglHer of
lhe Hiuile king III Ramasscs II, the tre:lly encom-
passed hoth a mutual defence pact ;J\HI a lormal
dem;!rc;llion of theil' respective territuries in Syri,l.
Whilst Ramasses was never to clllulatc TUlhmusis
Ill, he inaugurated a trealy with the kingd••m ofll"tti
that wuuld he upheld by bUlh powers umil the great
with tlw whole Oflhc Nc:!r Easl, th~ r~g;cl1l 'las <:llll- ofall Ill' these ct hnieall~ di \ ersc peuples. Ralll:lsscs III
\uls~d b) a mass im"asion of di~po...scsscd 'naTions' had lo ~(up t\\'o furl her :\ltempts at il1\ ~t~iOIl from the
Imuwl1 <:ulle<:li, d} as '"I'h..' P~l)plc~ of th... Se;I'. \1 est ;n 119J :Jill! liS, UC bU1 the 1l10st serious lhre:!l

Some lIf those identified hy Ramasscs III \\CI'C lICcurn:d in Ye~lr I':il;ht of his reign, when thc whole of
;111'l~d~ known 10 the Egyptians, In the fifth ye;lr of the lul1g-e~tahlishcd pulitil.::J1 order of the Ncu bl'il
the reign or .\Icrneprah (r. 1221) Be) a coalition of .:;cemetl 10 t1i"in1cgr:llc: '. The iilreign countries
peopk~ ~ltl(;mptcd a mass invasion of Eg} III frum rhc made a g-re:lt l:onspiracy in their islands. All :IT unee
we~1. The) c1e;trly <:allle 1U ~<:ll1c, 1'01' Ihey brought the lands \\en: n:mll\ed and SGltu:rcd in lhe fnly" No
with them their Ellnilies, their c;\Itlc :lIld household land could stant! hcfllrc their ;lrms, from Halti, "ode,
pl)sse<;sillll<;, :'.Jati\"e i'\orrh f\ frican tribes of old Eg) p-
tian a<:quail1tallee (nutabl~ Ihe Libu, IVleshwcsh and T/l-.; Ike:i.";1 l"l'IIC()llllfcr slwII'/>' R,.III,. ;;c... p/llll!!i/l~
"ehck) had allied themschcs with uthers \\ho::;c uri- lIellll'l'/l I~}!YIJ/ ami ",,1/; illl" IlIe 111:1 ofllittill'
gin is thollg'ht 10 h,ln: been the l,;11:lsl and isbnds oflhe l'amc' ill Ihl' rdj..... ,lJr cllilrlflfS ,ifill furdm: ,I.c'/I,
R"'Il:I!<Sl·.~'II. 1110111' ,,(,hc 'I,.. 111(' \"II/our <J fI.i,~' "rill '
Aege:11l and Asia .\liI101'. Tlw<.;e identified included II/o... t (Tkomtcd I",t IIl-S ,,( ,,; rc:lrc::u /J,lek ;IC·.·O...... till"
the Sherdcn, Sheklcsh, l.ukka, TLlr~ha and Aka- tl.t" 1I"dl'1l1 ""rid Iht, Ril c'r ()"'IIlIC·S. "hidl /'H'p."
yDlm,: 1,/1:,r;IOIJ iHl(/lIi... round (hl<k"I, itself AI IIIl"
\\a:,h:1. They h,ld pen~lrat,,'d ~l~ 1':.\1' intu E~)pl a... lhc :lrIn., came f,c·riloU';I.I' W""m ofrh('I'it'IIIIT
F:lI'afra oasis and the ClIlopic hrandt of Ih.., Nile dwu: to '0"11 dis;,src·r. In .\ / U lI,1 r'lilish Sf:l m/s \I I lit
IIlmll·nJII.'" rdid.:; ,If 1Iil>' i,,"mll'," i",,,nte'" to
hell)]'c the ph;lt~lOh defi:ated them in banle. dit1i:n'n/ ."irc·... ill f:j..")'I)/ tl,c' inll'I'\'(:IlC in tlte.o d/;lriul
The \lJ'ig:in of Ihc blcr wa\'e of 'Sea Peoples' is plmm,," IIC'I (;/'tllCk~ leli h,urk "'I tIll" ",ilt",. Il'/IIJ..
dC'laikd 1leCOIIIII... of,llc
thought to ha\'e bcellthe same gencral arC~I, although c':IIlllmigll. 'l'hl... sec'IlC',
there is srilllll11Ch scholar1~ debatc abour the nri~ins 1i-')11I I II(' 1.1I.\·ur te",,,/(-.
Carchcmish, /\rzaw.l, :lnd :\1ol:-hi):I, hcin~ CUI oIl' at like uf whieh had nC\'er threalened Egypt before.
'UlC Iillll·. 1\ C.H11p was sel up in ;t pl:u.:c in 1\ m urru (I he This 1"1'/:" ,'1/ l!/tlSS,' \\as dearly hclieved to be ahso-
l.eh'lIlon), They desobled the people, ,lIId ils land llllcl~ lleceSS:lrY. :\n initial line in southern Cllla,lll
w;l:-like th.lt \\hich h:ls ne\er come intv being. They manncd by ~lrri~Jll t'rnop~ :tllli \ aSSallll'lI'~l'ffllll/l did
were cuming IOw;mls Egypl, while Ihc fla111e \\:lS pre- nul hold, for the main land dri\'e hy the Sea Peoples
parcd heforc them, Their Ic.lgue \\~IS l)ek..,cI, Tjeker, \\as almost certainly halted on the horders of E~YJlI
Shcklcsh, Denyen :md "lcshwcsh, united lands.' itself. In the hattie whieh nnw oo.:lll'red the E~~I)(i;ln
The Sea Peoples' ad\,;\ncc 011 Eg) pt W,IS h) land line comprised infalltr~ and chariots wi,h SUppOrl
and waleI'. The uhser\'aliun madc hy Ram;lsses Ihal frum SllI.;rden ,lllsili,lries, These ,m.: shuwn dashing
'this was I.:crt'ainly ,I ~re:lt cmergelll.:~ :Ind all had 10 go wirh the encm~, somc of whul11 arc in Ilittite-type
10 Ihe defenec of their l1;1ti\c land' pid:s up the 'Jhscr- threc-man hca\'~ chariols. The image of the innders
\.Ilioll made earlier :thmll Ihe le"eI of call-up hcing as :IS a 'pcop!culllhe movc' is well cunveyed all thc \\all:-.
high as tlnc in tcn al this limc. Ck::trl~ Ihis invasion uf l\lcdinel Ilabu by lhc w,ly the Eygpli~IIlS arc seen
was percci\cd as;1 \ery gre.1l danger, on:l SC'.I!c the li~hling amnn~ the ox-dr;1\\11 c;lrt:- containing the
\\ omcn :l1ll1 ehildrcn of the Sea Peoples.
The all.ll:k by SC.I, li!..e that hy lallll, W,IS alsu
" "lIS ill rile '" "'11/ ,'-firsl wflU 'I'l·rcck;.r!,'
n~ar {If 1/1..• 1'''';1:/1 {If ''''I'wrb'''d II.,' II;c ri.~itl~ rouled, Ibm,lsses st',ltes (h;1I the b.llIle ~lctually rook
·R:lIn:I.~.~('s II lil:U ,il..· 'cold pmr"r .. r.'lssyri:l 011 tll"';r place in the muuth orthe lJelt~1 itself. The E~yptian:-.
11':'1" ben,·cell f:~., pI ami "':ISft'rll /)(Jrtler.~. IlIil,~Ir;llnl
11:1 r t j ..." ... t'/llkd I,,' III(' IIc:r<.' ;$/,,,rl "fIll..· 1'''1'.' 1.>1' seem til h;l\e mohilised c\er~ son of cr,lft: ' ... I
.~jglli,,}! "fa I'e".....:".t·;u... III..· trC;I/\' ;nll:ll/\ 1,,,,;;1/1 causcd thc river mmllh 10 be prepared like ,I strung
,...'t'''b.."j.~jlll!:1 lIIutual 1'.mdti,r;lI. 11Ie dll'lom:uit'
{rourh'r ill .""·ri". Th ..· lill1#U:1 Ir;HI(';1 "ftllt' Ilgr. w,lll with \\arships, tr:lllSportS and men:hantmen,
pnH·i...iom' :r'/su ,,·/If;Ii/..d,, lIi.,·..·'lI'cred In' (hey were manned cntirely from bu\\ Itl Siern with
mll/w,l ""'t-rlec p<lel, ,I,i.o; 'Irdml·,,',,~j,;'''':11tl'l:
bei,,/: urnu .,'/Il;11I t,,'
IIi f/; f e cllj,; ,,(I Iliff u.~"s.
brave tif.:!uing' men, ,IT\ll their we<lIWlls.' Once lllon.:
the temple al 1\lcdinet llahu provides the visual
... i~nitic;/llt .... tu Ill(' l1;flir ....~,
soun,:c lor Ihc hall1c.1t is dear thallhe Egyptian ships
planlled lu drive the enemy ,'cssc1s close 10 tbe :-hun;
su that cmplaced ,m.:hers cHuld r.lke tbe ships with
arrows. Fur a mure del ailed ,llx:uunt of this batlle sec
lhe c(Jmmentar~' on 1'1atc J.
De:-pilc the overwhelming victories claimed by
Ramasscs lhe mere r.tct lhat these in";ulers \\ere able
to sc1l1e in lhe euast,ll towns ol"P;llestine is tcslimon~
10 the impOlenceofEgypl 10 deny Them. A lillIe nlllre
than:l ct,:n1ury hiler Ihe t1e:lth IlfRarnasscs XI brought
TO ;1 duse the 20th D) nasty. and with it Ihe :"Jew
Kingdllm Period.

THE PLATES
11: f::lrly New Kingdum In[Hllry
As wilh many other ,lSpects uf life in ancielll EgYPl,
,he euntinuity wilh The past is clearly seen in thc
appear,mce of Ihcse early New Kingdom inf'lIllry.
Except lor the :u.:quisitiun of a numher of new
we'lpons like the brunze-ht;;lded axe ,md Iht,: HWpl'Jh
sword, these three figures would not havc heen uut of
pl,lCC in the .Middle Kingdom period. NolWilh-
slanding, the bulk of the annies urlhe pharaohs ofthl.:
carl} ISlh Dyn:ua), wOllld have comprised soltliers
whose .lppe.lf<lIll:e wHuld have Ix:Cll ;lImost itlemil.:al
10 those illustrated here. 1\2 i:-. a typical example oflhl:
c1osc-l.:ombat inf:lI11ry referred II) as Ihe md·!tw-/lu or
'strung-arm boys'. All arc dcvoid of any form ofbod~
pfllieclillll,thc nnly concession being the provis-ion of
a flap or stiffelll.:d linen malerial 10 covcr the gruin
arca, as in figure 1\2. 1\1 and A.l hOlh carry the sl,lve
bO\\, the more mmplex and expensivc l.:OmpOSiICl)(lw
having yel to filler down lU the huge numbers uf arch-
ers in the infalltry. A3 is an eX:llllplc uf the famous
,\rlcdjol), cxtensively used by Kamose and Am<lsis in
Ihe war of IihenIIi011 :Igainsilhe Hyhus as skirmish-
ers ami scuuts. I.aler The I'erm Medja}' wa:-. USed In
designate Iheir function as protectors of Ihe royal
tombs in the V;llley ilflhe Kin6'S at Thebes.
JJ: E'Jrly New Kingdom chariot .Hld C:"CIV,
c14.10 Be
Until the reign of TUlhmusis IV (14-25-I·H7 Be)
Eg)"ptian chariots had cvolved lillie from Ihoseuflhe
laler Ilyksos and Canaanite I}PCS that were their
""IC 1I1U1I11nJ' (If J>/w radii 'll·n·rt"clt-,..... fI,e h~'r
,\lcmqll,,11 (r.1lJ6-23 IIC). 1,lwr;lf/li CJI"/liC {V,·",
AJtlwlIJ[h lIe ilccJllc,ull<:cI KillJ[dwJl toc:'I,npai.l:n;n
'Ill clllpin: fUlli!> .~II'T'·I'i.~flrs til,' "Id st:llllpillJ[ }!rllllrld...
,,/1I1fl.~t ,I.~ /;'rJ[" ;/,~ II"" CJf {/ftllc /.<T'HII. (e. d
IJi.~· fil fI,er. lit' "·II.~ .·''''hd.v)
models. They \\cre l.:hara<':lerised hy IOlll'-spoked
wheels and eXlrcme lighlness. Allholl~h this parlie-
ular chariot dr,lI\s upon an illustration from thc IOmh
of L"serhel, a royal scribe in Ihe reign of Amcnophis
11, the following dt:l.lils :lrc hased upon ;1 l:hariUI of
this period in the Museum nfFlorenl:C. In prolilc the
bud)' of Ihe \'ehide is cssentially an open wooden
fr;lme. Although the original tn;l!eri;l1 has nOI sur-
vived, the whole frOlll' of Ihe cah extending: 10 Ihe
lowcr sides \\(lulJ havc been covercd in le;llher. The
hcighl of lhe cah cxtended to ;Iboul halfway Up the
Ihighs of the crew. They would h;we SUKJlloll a c.lb
base madc of le;lIber thongs. The pl:lcclllcnl of Ihc
axle rod:lI the rear uflhe vehide made il very stable
and m:mocuvrah1c. Analysis of the \\'(K)d:- llsed in
Ihcsl.: ch;lfiots (sud,;ls elm fur the pole, tyn.'S nfpinc
57
 I

It lI'llS un fht, oordt'rs ur 1Jrisofll'~ ':IJ.:e" ill rlre

f:gJ'l" il.'.clr,II;1f R:lllllJ.'i.~e,. . h"lIk. Tlwsc'ill (/1l'1c.>lH" :trmour fHund in the palace of Amellophis III .11
111 ddeafcd rllc rlfrcmpfcil nlllJ.. lIrt' Oem ('II, Pcl(~~/
nl:l.o;s irJ\'<lsiulI b)' 'lie 'Sc;/ ,,,,eI Tjckkcr: 'fl'f).'ic lI'it.11 Thl:bcs arc "bout 115mm in length and come wa
p(:oplc... ', III (/Ii... rt'''deri,,!! Iwrl/(:d JrellllCt.s arc point al thc hollum. Thesl: scaks were sewn until ,tll
Ihull 1)1/(' ,,(,Ill: relicti>.)1/ Ilt>rnmlly, a/,II()Ilj!IIII()(
the r.'III/II(' \1';/11,; :It c.\'('Iu...i\T/I' ;Ih'milicd <IS
111llkrgarrnen\ of leather or doth. The weigh\' of the
,\Icdincf 11:llm f./!.",,,i:l1I .'t1l(,rth'I! \;<lr';"rs. armour \\.1:': quitc considerable and uncomlol"Table TO
;11/;1 III ry nllllllllll :I ml (C. d "'"Iuly) wcar, hut such ;t price \\as \\onh paying for pro-
prCpilrC IV ('.\eCl.'utc
to.;\iOll against lhc pellctr.Hillg power of a wmposite
bow, Around his neck the archer wcars a hl:a"y
and birch lor paris ofthc body) points to allced til illl- hronze eullar; his helmet, also of bronze, is similar to
pOri such materials frum ahroad, as the) wen: not that illllstr.llcd in Phuc E, No Egypt-ian repn:Sl:n-
natil'e lo Egypt; that such woods came in quantity lation exists showing lhis panoply being worn in
from the Le"ant perhaps explains, in p:ll"1, the ~eat haltle lUll much oflhisequipmelll nu) have bl:en ;rn-
exertions made by the pharaohs ofthc New f\:ingdom pllrled 10 Egypt as Iriburc. The lwlj('// or t1ri\'l:r would
to conlrol it. The horses used to pull thcse "chides h:l\'e heen pourly protected rdali"l: lu Ihl: .tn:hl:r. The
were small, nne buried at Thebes being: no mure lhan unrart llllate Canaanite !?t:ing ridden duwn is a I ~ pil::d
alxJUI 12~ hands high. peasatH levy c:tllcd up to support the 1/1It1"lJ'iI/1II1/ in
,vtiralllliall :md Can.t:lIlite inlluem:c is \leI') dead) b:lllk.
discernihle in the armuur wurn hy Ihe )'C1/f!lJl' or
arl:her. Thl: brom~e corselet worn hcre W.1S 111.1<lc of as C: Enemies ofEgypt: Milium;
m:tny as .. 50 scales, althl)ugh others with variablc-size :\lthough the Egyptians and .lVlilanni never mel in a
sl,:a!l:s have many more; those oflhe bcst qu.llity had bailie as Illomenluu!'> as that ofQ.a. dcsh, it i!'> de:!f th,H
smaller sctl~ :tnd ltl:tny of them, Examples of scale contact with thcm h:td'l m:ljor impact fill lhe Egyp-

58
111:1 IIi"III.' sl.dised ;Ill~gc
R,ulla.'iseslll i.'i IHlrlmJ"ed
pre.'iCIII ;,,~ nl Ilk!> or c;"pl i I'C
Sea "~"(Jple!> If} rill" f!m/,'i
fllllUlI >Hul ;\11/1 1m I/le 11'11/1
or rlic U'mplc al ;\lcclillcI
II"b". ·nlt· WI' lillc' "n'
;d...' II,ifh·d ,,!> Sca I'co/,k
k;ldcrs. llic' middle mil'
I).·/I)"CII lIt1c1I/IC'[XJIt<Jf1l
"delil·I~llle... e I,dll" rhe
lilrd'...· :lr... or Ihe lilfe,'
Pililist ;nc,".

,.

.
..... . ....
~

rians. Foremust among: their military innontions was
the /IIlITh'fllI/lII, ~l mililary aristua:u.:y whidl in h~lItlc
provided Ihe t.:utting edge Hf the IIurri-IVlil:mni:lIl
army. Illustrated hcre is an C1ite IIltm:VtllIIlII chill'iot
(;few and their vchicle.lloth wcar heav) scale armour,
Ihe innuence uf which is c1earl~ di:-.t.:crniblc in the
Egyptian palloply in Plale B. The hody armour uCthe
archer comprises approximately SUO klrge scale.... for
the hody, 500 smaller scales for the arms, and about
200, smallcl' still, for thc helmet. Such a p;moply WilS
vcry expensive to produce. lie L';lrries .. pu\\crful
composite hcm. 'fhe dri\'cr is equipped in more ur
less the same fashion, amI carries a shield, ,\'litannian
innovatiun (.":.lJl also hl.: seen in the lise of armour for
the ch:.lriOl cab and on lhe horse it"c1f; the horse tcam
illustrated here wcar~ a Sl.:ale :lfmour 'CO;1I', The
weapons complement of a Mit'annian chariot com-
prised IWO bO\\ S, t\\'o t! ui \'crs, a long spear and a
chuiot shield.
IJ: Egypt jan jlllilIJtry clt-'spatclljng <:rt.'W of
'Caml;lnitc tWlr;YlInnu dmriol; reign ()fSC1; I
Egyptian inf.-mtry began to ch;mge in appear;lllcc in
the carly 14th century He with the introduction ofa
rudimentary form of body armour; the tnrso \\';IS lH)\\
protected by stillcned textile h;llltb, as was the
unshielded shoulder. Helmets also begin 10 make
Iheir ;lppearam;e among thc infantry, ;lS illustrated by
D2: sug-gested malerials for thl.: helmet indudl.: tex-
tile, le;lther, or more pl'llbabIY~;IS shown
here~bronze. Both men arc wielding vcr) long IWo-
handed Ihrusting swords, lhe weapon measured
about .. metre, and was el1lplll)ed in ils \';Irious guises
throughout the IHth Dynasty. In this L":.lse the infan-
tr)' arc usin~ their weapuns tn dl'Sp;lleh the crew of a
crashed Can;lanite lIum)I{/1/I1/l chariol. Such soldicrs
would also havc been employed in the garrisons in
C:ln:lan during lhe !\rn:lfl1<l pt.:riml.
The fllllriytllJIIII of the ti111C of Seli I rode ch;lriot~
th:ll were hea"ily inlluencell by Eg)jltian dcsigns,
although budy armour, whcn worn, still rneals the
influence ()f the kingdom Hf M itanlli. The 1/t1ll'(I'W/1/1i
wcre always stron~ oppositiun for the l':gyplians.
/';: Egyptian field mu.<;jd:lIIs ami !U,Hul;'rc/
bearers
1"01' the lllanoell\Te of large fClrmations on Ihe ban le-
field lhe Egypi ians relied ll!'XIIl Ihe pas..;;ing of signals
by w;lr trumpel'S. Alt!HIUgh they were only capable of
produf.:ing ;1 lew basic notes, Ihe.'>e wcrc clearly keyed
to inst'l'llClion~ such as 'adV;lllcc', 'retre;lI" etc. As in
Olher armies down through history, the drums would
110 doubt ha\c accompanied the infantry inlo balllc.
diclating their rol\e of :Idvancc, ;IS wcll as being: em-
ployed in morc pacific tasks such as a~eompan) ing
marching troops on parade. It is known Ihat entry
ill to hattlc by the Eg:ypti;ll1s W;\S accompanied by
much noise from {he instrument's ;IS well as from the
battlecrics and sonb'S of the T'roops,
SI:IlHhmls in the Egypli;lll army r;mged from lhose
employed at the he;HI of the field ;Irmies represellting
the gods Amun, Re, Ptah and Set (in the time of
Ram;lsses II) 10 lhose carried by thl.: st;mdanllll:arers
in the chariot and infanlry units. As in all ;trmies sut.:h
IOkens fulfilled a number of roles, Cle;\r1y, unit
identification un the hattlefield was neces....lry for
command and t.:onll"ol; the standard was also import-
ant 10 unit muralc and status, Th:lI (;:Irried in the
bearer and numbered l::.J is all animal mutif, exact
mClIling uneerlain. F.5 is;lJl ostrich plume (;;Irried hy
Ihe ch;lriotry and high-ranking onicers, E6 a t.:Ullllllllll
fan smndard, and Ei lhe war ~od .'lnnru.
F: 19th-l)J'lm... ty infil1Jtry jn hallie w;Ih LjbY;l11...
By Ihe early l1)th Dynasty I::g~,ptian c\ose-colllhat
troups h;ld aCljuired the appearance that was (I) h\!<.1
ulllillhl.: end oflhc Ncw Kingdom. A dislingllishin~
feature of inf:llltr) of this period whkh sets thcm
apart fmlll those or tht, l/ollh Dynasty is Ihe :::.tripcd
hC;lddolh. The shield has becollle larger ami more
rel;t;lIlgular than th:lI shown in Plate I), ;tnJ :llluwed
infantry hodies tn presclll ;1 'shield wall' \\ hen nt.:t.:ess-
ary. :\lbny reliefs ti'om the period shuw tht'se shields
sl u ng :ICroSS Ihe backs of inr:lI1t ry eil her on thc man.:h
or in bailie, parlicularly when two hands were nceded
tl) wield the m:ll.:t.: axe, :IS 1'2 is doing. The ~hields
\\ere ;Ilso slung acmss the b:lck wht'n ascending st.:;tl-
ing ttdders in a siege, Other we;lpons l":.lITicJ b~
infantry include Ihc bronze i'//IIPI'SIt, which b~ this
period had bccullle large and very lilrmidahlc, Illdi-
\iduals \\'ould also ha\c cmployed lhruwsticks as a
mat IeI' of preference.
Throughout Ihe Il.Jth Dyn;tSI) the Egyplians h;ld
Ifl deal with irruptions at:ros~ thcir Wt.:stCl'll border.'>
by I,ibyantribes. l\S can be seen, attire ufallY surt \\as
minimal; must Libyan warriors wore 1l00hing except
1;1lI00S ami a leather phallit.: sheath. The hair \\as llor-
m:l1ly arranged and t.!et.:uralcd with nSlrit.:h plumes
whkh may h;\\'e indicated .'>Iallls. When dOlhing of
any sort was worn it W;IS nOflllally in the IiII'm of a
hide doak that fum.:tiunet.! as a body protector. Sig-
nillL":.llltl~, the warrior 1'hO\\ n as F4 wields;\ s\\un.l at.:-
quired from Ihe 'Se;1 Peopk'S' ami very similar to
those used hy the Sherdcll empluyed by Raillasses II.
G: LHC New KjngdQI1l ch,lrjot, rdf,rrl or
R"m;/ssc:; II
Cumpared to thai in Plate B, this chilriot shows ;I
"'''C.'M'I' b.luJc.-a"he
III/IIU/I o('''e Vi'c.',ou,"
"I.ln' II(rc:r tI,C illl'.,dc.'''''
11:ld IIccII c/c(c."Uc.·c' ,m 'mul.
Thes.: t1I (I ; 1Iu.~·, nil i",,)O
"id,. 1>11/ Ihc' dc·'.liI o(,/'t'
F.lOP';;1lI ;11111 .x." Pee'I,It'S·
\IIIrships. mid lin.' 11g:lin
(rom ,\Ic'dim" I-J.lbu. T'le
or·i}:iml'illus'r:I,iulI'.i
I,ru, illt· thc' i"."I,irruiml li'r
our 1'/II'c).
"
numoer of significanl difTcrenl.:l.'S lhat ilillst....Ite the
wa}' the Eg}J)lians rl."Spondcd to the technic-.JI chal-
lenges posed hy their enemies, The three most sig-
nificant features \\ere the aduptiun uf a six-spoked
wheel, a ht.'2\'ier C3h and armour for the ho~, The
s\\itch frum f(lur lu six spokes C.lll be dOlled 10 the
rcipl of'l'uthmosi!> IV. and uccurrctl asa consequence
of the grm\ Ih in wcight of the cab :IS it tOO became
stronger to carr} the heavicr armoured ere\\ :md
gre:ltcr weaponry necd<.-o tu contl."St \\ith the hl."3\ier
Iliuite dl:lrioL'i. Eighl-spoked wheelo; \\cre tried at
the beginning uf thc 14-lh century BC. but six spokcs
became the norm thercarter. The horse armour arose
OUI of the need til prutect the Icam from missiles tar-
geted specifically al them; 1,"lr an ar..:her in :l chariot
~lppro~ll;hing an enemy \chide at full tilt the horses
made a far larger target than the cre\\', and wounding
ur killing a horse would in all likelihood ":;lUse the
chariol tu cr~h. 'I'he [ask ofdispClsingoror Clpturing
the ..:rew would be left to the chariot runners (G3).
\\ho followed Iheir own \"ehicles into hallic. While
lhe driver G I wco.lrs textile armuur and cnrics a
shield. the archer G2 is dressed in a scalecorsclet \\ ilh
the sc:alcs stitchl.'tI 10 a textile underg-.lrmenl. Com-
pared with Ih:1t \\orn by thcehnioteer in Plate B this
amlOur "QuId hil\C heen mUl.:h lighl'cr, hUI nC"enhe-
less strong and effCCli\c. The rc!ali"e comfurt of this
lightcr p.1noply would no doubt ha\'c bt.'Cn most wel-
l."()mc in the high tempc.....I1urc:s oflhe '.,"l.':Ir East. The
'helmet' would ha\'e heen m3de in Ihe S:1I11e manncr
a.... Ihe eorselel.
H: l.lIter JVCII' Kingdonl arcber..;, lind tnOUtJfL-d
mC!i;.'icnl:fcr
U)' the Ibmasside period (IlJlh :md 201h Dyn,lsties)
archers we.·c wholl)' equipped with the composite
bow, Thc :-landard Egyptian I':lctic of emplo)ing
massed firepower would now have had :1Il even more
devastating effect on the balliefic!d. That archers
were sliH nOI expt."Ctl.-o to dose wilh thc enemy is e\-1-
denced by their general hid of body armour, al-
though a number of reliefs show archers \\l.-.aring
striped jerkins that on other figuTl.'S arc assumed to
represent Sf.::ale armour, HI dates fmm Ihe reign of
Ramasscs ITT and is based upon a relief al Ihe temple
of~lcdinell-iabu.
Allhough Ihc Eb') ptians did not emplo) battlefield
I... . "alry,
it is c1C'.Ir Ihal horsemen ne' crt hele:.... fulfilk'tl
"
a number ul" important tasks. They \\crc employed
essentially to c:lrr) ml.....sages frum nne IKlrt of the
hattlefield to another, and ~a1so for forward rcconnais-
sanl."\:, I)rotection is prmided b) a form of textile
aml(1Ur.
I; Enent;<.'S ofEb'TPt: U1C Hiuitcs
NCJlwilhstanding the pcjorali\c labelling IIf Ilittitc
soldiers ~ 11IU111yor 'women-soldiers' b) Ramasscs ll,
un aCl.'Qunt of the way they \\ore their hair, it i~ dear
that. the Egyptians found them "er) formidable oppo-
nent:.. It ilo 2150 dear thai guile and ingenuity played
as greal a role in their military expenisc as did the
qualit) of their arm}; indeed, the near-dcstruction of
the Egyptian army al Qldesh is te.-.timun) 1,0 Ihal.
IliustT:lIcd here is Ihe three-m~lll chariot.lhe primary
offensi'·e we:l\lOn of Ihe Ilittite army, The major
sources fur the appearance of these vehide:. arc the
Qldesh reliefs of Ramaloses II, which elc:lrly det~lilthe
,"ariely oft~ pes employed, reflecting lhat for this bat-
tle .\'hm'at:lllish deplo)cd chariot!> belonging to \"as-
~Is and nUllY states allied to 'Iaui. That illustrated
here has irs (.':Ib made of wood and, unlike Ihe Egyp-
tian types, has ils axlc mounled mid-way along the
bod~. \\fhil..1many of the ~desh reliefs shuw boTSl."'S
lacking armour, other source. do show it hcing \\orn
and in a st}le similar to thaI formall~ empluyl.-o by
1\ litanni, Thai around the body is bronze sc:a.tc
annour, \\hile the eovcring around the hC:ld is slud-
ded fabric,
The cre\\ illu:.trall..-c1 here comprises a drher.
shield bearer and ;Irmoured spearman" The first 1\\0
we:lr lightweight tC:l.tile amlUur, the laller a bronr.c
helmel and scale body armour, The t1iSlim.:tire Hit-
tite shields shown herc a.·c ck':lrly 10 be seen on Ihe
Q1desh reliefs. Although the kingdom of llani was
ultimately to be swept away by the Sea Peoples in
aboul 1190 HC the rdief... of Ramas:.cs III arc dl..':lr in
det:liling Hitlile-typc three-nUll chariots in the land
hallie on the border of Egypt. Where poss-ihlc Ihe
EgypliJns '\ould allempt 10 usc Ihe superior sp<.'Cd
;Iud m:lOocuvrahilit) of lheir own chariots 10 a\oid
close combat \\ilh Ihose oflhe IlillilQ" Ilowc\'er, if
lhl' llinilcs t.'3uglu the F.g)ptian ehariotry off guard
thc shecr momentum of their heavier vehicles ma)
wdl ha\c bt.-en dccish'c, It is precisely this situation
which led to the rout of the di,·isiun of Rc at Qadcsh.
Gaughl un the march and unable to manucU\ re the
1':g:yptial1 chariol:- were S\\a111pct! 1)\ Iheir heavier
Ililtitl: counterparts.
J: The 1m va 111;/ tIle with I he 5(';1 People.'.;
d 19U IJe
Although Ramasses III sl;llell un hi:- in:-CI'ipt ions al
"Iedinel Ilahu lh;ll hoal:- or11lany t~Pt:s \H:rt'11l0hil-
isctllo clinIc..;. 1he St~;l l'l:ople..;· allaek on I he mUlII h of
lhe Nile. lhu...e 1·:g:ypli'1Il \c:-scls th.H 'H:luall~ fuughl
in lhe h.1111e \\ere dearl~ wal·ships. \\ hile the Sel
I'euple:-' :-hips ;lrc depicted \\ ilhuut oars il is dcar 111,11
thc~ mu:-' h;l\'c had Ihcm: lheir simple square ..ail
meanl Ihal tllt·y were una hie 10 lac\.., :llId \\as lhcrt'-
fore a SIIJlplt-menl II) ,he O'lrs rather Ihall;1 Sullslitule
fill' them. The Egyptian ,Inisl may h,l\e tlepietetllhe
enemy \csscls "ilholll oars l>CGlUse in cumh;ll Ihe~
wuuld h;l\e bl'en :-hippc(t, since Iht' oarsmen, llllli\..e
their I':g:yptian c'Iui\alellts, dmlhlt-tl as fighring: 11ll'n.
The SL~1 Pl'uplcs' douhle-ended ships wilh Ihe hird's
hl:.\(1 ;If the Pi'll\\' \\ crc proh;lhly mllch 1c~s manuel! \ 1'-
ahle in h:nrlc Ih;lIl Ihe F.!,O ptian n::-scls. Indeed. Ihe
rdier.... ill uSlr;He one Eg:~ plian vessel bad-M:1I11 i Il!-:" as a
t-'T:Jpnd linc "lla~etl in the cl1cm~ rigging: i~ pulled
bac\..\\al'lb in Ilnkr Ie) e'lpsize Iht, \e:-sel.
E\en allu\\in~ fiJI' Ihe pnlp,l~llldisl nature of the
I\lcdinci I [;lbu relicls il is dcol1' th,ll lhe Eg:) Jllians
inllklcd f'carrul clsllahics 011 the Sea Pcople:- \\ilh
Ihl'ir cumposile ho\\:-. ~i\'enlhc \'cr~ ];Ir~l' numbl'r of
dead hllllic:- depicled in the \\':ller. NOlice'lhlt, hy Iheir
ab:-cnn' arc :lny llU\\'S among the enemy ne\\'s. II ";IS
1hcrclc,re;1 majl H' la(;1 ic fill' the E~~ pi i,lns tIl ~t ami I,n:
:Ind ill this ;ll:t il H1 r hc~ \\ crt' hel pnl h~ archers tlperat-
in~ li'olllland; Ihe Egyplians herded lhe Sea I)eoples'
\-cs"c1s c1llse in shun' to alle.\\ the :lrellt'r:- eJn Ihe he.lt.:h
to add Iheir firq)o\\er lu lhal orshiphorne 'll't.:her~,
J{: ""he.: Se.:a fJf.:up/cs' 1:ltlcI invasiun
It is dear frum inscriptions descrihillg the bnd lighl-
ill~ .. g:lin:-t the Se;l Peoplcs Ih;1l the ill\:Jsion of Egypt
\\ ,IS carried out b~ \\ hok CIJllllllUllilies amI nOI just by
w.u'rilJrs, Tht' rdicfs graphically dcpici Eg~ pI i.ln
Imops figluin~ their cnemies among ox-dr'lWll carlS
carrying nOl tlnl~ soldiers. bUI WOlllt'n and children:ls
\\el1. We t.:an only surmise Ihal in :-tnpping Ihis
human tide Ihe 1'~g~pli,lIls inflicted hen}' loss on Ihe
ir1\.Hlcrs. _'\e\l'rrhclcss, their rccoil inlo (:;111;I;ln lert
Ihem slllncielUl~ slrong 10 ()ccuJl~ Ihe eua...rline of
Pak':-I inc and dcn~ 1hose lerrilUries 10 the Egyptian:-.
While Itl11lasses III \\'as ahle to fl'eonl, in appropl'i-
ard~ humhaslic f;,shion. his defc:.1l of IIll' Sea I't'opk's
Oil the wa lis 11ft he tcmpll: al .\ Inl inet I-Iahu, the event
il:-dfis Ihe lasl great milil:lry success of New Kin~­
limn E~ypl. In the ycom. Ihat tillluwcd, the dedim' uf
rill' forrner g-re:ll plm er \\:l:- \ er~ swi ft. :lntl lerminal.

INDEX
( 1("1,,, ,"" ,', h' ,II I," " .. " "" .",' .1"." II II> "<tId)

12'11 Ih1'.,_)\~, .\""',, 1"'NI) 1.... I", .,'''~w." 1..11.).; ~,. 1

1:1,10 I),".",,~, .\1111"'" I•. 1'1 11,,1 ,,"
1.',,1. (lId,,,, ...) Illtl''''''4 '\IN,ph" i Ihlll, l!i
t"l, l'l1... I~n'l Ih'1;\,.." I ..' ,m 11,'" ,,,,1,,,,,... (W, "IN""\
Ix,l, Ih",,,,, 'J .II'".",,, I :\. I I 1:",.,.,,1 1-,. :.!:.!.:l. :.!'-" '21 ..:11. n
1",1, lh".",\ I.'l. Ie, ,"110,. '''.'I1''''''.nu,· ,,( I. ".. "I". \1,>:,,1.1.,: <..!... h,,_j,
:!(hh Il,,,,,.,, rd. -" \,,,,, ......,. ""to.. I I t~OI,lot"'H,I, :1:.'
\"",., fl"."t \10').;,,1,1,,21;") ,II,,,,,,, """"',.2:1 I. r:
."III'II,i..".II;'''', ",illl.", Ix 1'1 \.__11'.' 1.1. :.!!'. ,1I.n" .1.< i . .'1-'1. 1:1, lu. to. :!I. 2fi. 27, I~, C. c.:
I..h-'lI""'- ("'·""'I".,ml/'l-!., "'''1 \" 10' ~, ,h'-ul1<,I,,).;, I
-\.hh"" I'· l.l'''·'·11 (i .'1"'...".. · 'f....' .. 2 I. 30. !,h """"'1";"" . . . )
\k"".,_,h., "il...Y. "",,,I,,,,,,,,,,, ..,,,,,,, ( ",.,,,. -,
\kl ...".III·1I \n' \m",,,.phi.. l\· .\,." ',' '"" 1'. !. ( ,,,I. -,
\1"1'1'" :12 ....,., (i. 10
·I..tno-l" '1'1". I III 11 I2. I I \, (1'11,,,.,,,10) '."0 Ili.• Il, (I'll,,,"'" ',11'1
\""-'"'I'I'l,1I I. :!1. 24. :12 Hid"", '.!:., 2(;
\11"'''''1''''' III 1:\. '.!1. 2M. 'I'.! Iil'l.t:. \ .,1"', 17. \1'1
\11"'''''1'1"" 1\ 29. :l:.!. l!i Ikll"·,hito., 17 1').;11";'''' n,k. ,.",.", "j 12
\"" ...,.. G 1'l.~', Ill. I:;. I•. :.!!', II,nd,,,I,,•., t:1 1·.1'·'11),'·1".1'1...., 17. I."
.'t11I,I"lIi, 'Il~' '1"·'.Ho<"''' 1'1, :.!,'~l, I...,... (''''''l''''''1 13.:!1 II 1'.1""" 'I'.!
6J
t .... h."'lull _hl"Kuldu
1"1'101";11,'.<. R,..., 71." II. 't!
c ~,ltl,.· I.,l. I.Ol
(~" •• ""h. IIC
II....'" R,...., I 1
, 1"1"'" ",1"' ,l:!
1I.'hhqlo'm II-I"
11.,111 _llolult..
11..1" 1" ,Ii. III
Ihm I. 1"1,:.'1. (.....
IX' ",.u, ...."h tK'I"
' '.1 56
110",',,,10.," I'I"'~I, :!:\
I Ii. lit 2'
Illl,. m'"lwlt 1111
11\· " '·IH......·,
",1.""1\ :.!1. A n. F
10..,.1.·.11 .(
"'1IlJ.: "I 11
10..,,,,,...... '" .~
"''''"1:''' II
1.,1".,,,. IX 5lJ-1 f
I "l"', Illi ......
M.,,,.·,I", "
h....I.... '1 11.,1", :.!.•
M,.. I"" !'t.:!I.A
M,-,.:"Iclo. Ir,..............',
H..mlo.-.~ "'~,II
M''''I''OL' ',.11. III
" ..."."'.""" IX
..... "1....",,,;ih.'fI '1'<.'1" .....·.I.·',..""'T.", 11-". 7
~1"''''"1'I.,I, :!:',. ·d. ~'." 7 ......, ('::<0,11 I~
"''''''1'''1."",., I.... ::..,·'1",.11..1,.,· ',1
",,101...'" .1."'" ,I! Ii ....·III~l.-"I_ 1"",46-7 I~.')O.I
\10•."" .. ·C. II·I!>.....;, II ....., I',. C ";h,,,,,I ,,'I. :.!)
",,"'" ij.:.."11 Ii Sh.llo h 11,1",.. -or,
hh",.II.,II,.I, \1 ..7 " ...·"k" II-il., '! I. 11'1. "". r.. ,
....../... 11 ..,"....; c.!-.. I....I•. 1\o.uk ..1 ~hlp' 1!'H'
~"'l:'" ..~,rl.Jn· ~ I-", 19
"'.,10." III II ...." 2 I
..... ,./,.. \Ill•• ",,, .......II:r.C, ...~.
•.I. ""I"" "t'!
·.'I~' ....·I'I... I"I"'m.... :\~, I'.
"..."",.,1,..". ~~"l"""" .... ".·llo /10:'"11 li'l
1~..·.I.1 ,... t",., " ....'m' or,h.· :I~
I\"h.... " II 1'1. \lI .,.. ,,,1, I_I. 15
'it".,·I, Ill, 1'.!.I',.~:•. ·Il''.! 1·..l'I
c)".",.... It".·, 11.1"•• I,!. 17 ...~"I ..,t..!..KI.·,h.t\.,"k ...
I'., 1I1"ell" {\""",'1 I .•.",... I, '!i
1·.,1....1111<· 'i. '1. 1'/ 12. I.·,..... I', I••' 11\' .... I·r.
I',.,.'n"·(," 2:, n... I~"" '" 7. 1'1
I'I"",,,,.,.,IH rh"I"" r,. 11. I."
1',.lt,llI."...·" 11'1. Ii, 11'1 Ih"."o:I,. l., II
1'1..1, ().:, .. Ij I~ I,,,ul' .1. II. :I~
Io",h., "it.. r,;
/.1... 1",10 .... 1. '! 1.:12If>. 'II! r",l" ...,., t'"l
. . ~, Il.. ,1<' ,.1 II,', I ,....,.. 1".10",."" I II·I~. 11....·11
,",,, 'J.: "I I'. r",I"'H"j, II I'
lolllolll<..-l.' III I~. I I_ " .. 17. 19. ~I. 22. :!I~',
It""."..... I ...~) .ull... " ... \Io-,.:." .. Io, ..... ;.~('
R.'1lI.",,·.1l li..... I.:.!1. 16-7 11.,[.1 •. nlll~"gll' ...,to""" \1,1.""11 'J:!. I'.
R..m.' 11I :.!O. 2,"'... ~", ltuhlll\"b 1\ II
R.o" .." XI "i
R'·IX· ..llli'l l >;"", ,'.
.... ,11.· 1(".. , "'1;·' 11'1 ..... 1 \\.""lUllollIl 1'\ F. \~ I!,
:-tnl 01 ,I..· \,,, (1110-1 1.'( ... ~'p"n.G 7. i. 10. II. I-t I:,
·s. .• 1', I'Io...·:.!'J-b.·.! •. !>lt59.61 J K
....., ..." I.",' i'l. '!:..... ,....,.lil.J 1..,1 ..." ...,,, "

_ _ _ _ _ _ _-=C..:O..:M..:P..:A-=-N ION SERIES FROM..:O=-=S'-P.:..:R=E..:Y _

MEN,AT-ARMS CAMPAIGN
.\1, "'" ".. iI.,1 ",,",' ,h. ,"".. .,i"""",. ,,,,,1,.,,,,,
'~''''''''''.,I",'' ,," (•"" ,,, .""h." ,l.u,,,· _" ,,.",,,, •~ 10,·" .. , " d," "",',, ""I" ,'" , '" ,",,", ".
""I "'1"'1"''''''' "I tl" "."kl, 101:101"'1: ""." I"'" ",,'d I"''''' ,,' 11" ~ .. " I, ,~"!,,,~,. I"" ,l , "',,.,,'" , ..,., 'MI ,11, ,," ."" .. " ''', I." 11"11 "'.'1"
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 mmD ELITE SERIES mmIJ
MILITARY MILITARY

A series of books on the history, organisation, appearance and equipment of famous fighting men of
the past and present; and on other aspects of military history which demand fuller and more flexible
coverage than appropriate within QUI: established Men-at-Arms series. The Elite titles covcr subjeclS as
diverse as the Ancient Greek ciry armies and the Western and Warsaw Pact forces, in the
popular Men-at-Anns fonnat but with extended text and captions, about 50 photographs and diagrams,
and 12 full-colour plates.

OSPREY COMPANION SERIES

MEN-AT-ARMS
An unrivalled source of infonnation on the history and appearance of the world's fighting men.
Each 48-page book includes some 40 photographs and diagrams, and eight pages of full-colour artwork.

K"EW Vt\;..JGL:ARD
Key units and weapons systems of 20th century warfare, with a S[rong emphasis on armoured vehicles.

CAMPAIGN
Concise, authoritative ac.counts of the great conflicts of history. Each 96-pllge book contains more than
90 illustrations including maps, charts and colour plates, plus a series of three-dimensional battle
maps that mark the critical stages of the campaign.

MARK HEALY was born In 19S). He has a Maste.-'s dqrfllin PolitIcal TheoIOlY from Bristol University. He
k by profession a sctoooiteacher and k head of the HlHTlanltles faculty In a larp school In SoilriSiWt. He has a
nlHTlber of othw tltles P'lbllshed on the ancient period Inch.idirl. the Elite title on The Ancient A")lrlonl. H;, other
"..at Intere'lit I. the modem period and he II the author of the Camp.!:!!!!; title on Kursk ''0. He I. married with
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ANGUS McBRIDE Ms established himself as one of the world's most respec:ted mUltMy artists. and has
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ELITE SERIES TITLES

.....
I THE PAAAS: M1TlSH Al"'lIORNf
,
1 THHJS !"IMINE COiIPSSINCf
FORn~

"H~
J THl VIKINGS
4 us AAMY Sl'ECLOJ. fOIO;.CES 19u....
J SOVIET llLOC EliTE FORCES
4 flUNOl KlktiGN l£GION
PAJl.ATlIOOJ'S
7 THE ANCILNTG"'EEKS
• lSIV.ELl DfH.NSE KlkCES SINCE 191)
, THE NOil.MANS
10 WAASJo,W'ACTGI'l.Ql..t,lOfOl'l.CfS
I I AAO£NNES 1,.4' PUU AND
" I!>RAW Eun UNlfS SINCE 1948
19 IHE ClIlJSAOES
10 INSlQ( THE US AAMY TOOAY
11 SOlOlf"'S Of THE fNGUSH CIVIL
WAA (21' CAVAlo\T
11 MEOtEVAl. SIEGE WAMAAJ.
Sl(OI'l..Z.ENV l ' THE ZULUS If VIETNAl'1 Al"'101tNE
11 ""SIC)( THESOVI£T AAl1Y 100AV 21 WOi\l.D ?fCw. FOiICES INSIGNIA JO ATTlLA ANO THE NOMAD HCllIDES
I) lJSAAl"IVAANGfI'l.S 1"1"1 U THE SA/"lUAAl )I us AlI.l"IV AlI'l.BORNE
I. THE IlIl.iTISl-l AAMV iNTHE t9tOl 14 THE 01.0 CONlEMPTI8l.ES )1 aiIJnSH FOI\CES IN ZULlA.4NO
IS THE AiU"IAOA CAI1f'AiGN IS8f IS SOUllEI'l.S Of THE ENGlIStl CIVIl )1 ~·EAST ASIAN Sl'EctAl FORCES
14 NATO AAl"lIES 100AV WI<" (I): lNfANTI'l.Y I. AfI'l.IKAkOlU'S
11 KNiGHTS AT TOUiINA/"IENl' I'TANI(WAACLNTMl.fI'l.ONT U [AP.LV SAMUIW

ISBN 1-85532-208-0

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