The Nature of Religion

Religion as a worldview

● Central commonality to all world religions is the belief in the SUPERNATURAL DIMENSION
● Is the most significant element of a religious worldview is this belief in a divine being or power,
which is greater than humankind and the natural world.
● It is responsible for the creation of the world, for providing a moral framework for human life
and being the ultimate destiny of a human person at the end of their moral life

Different responses to Supernatural Dimension:

- Semitic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) – believe that there is an only single divine
being or power. Also known as MONOTHEISM
- Two eastern religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) – derive from an understanding of multiple
divine beings or powers. Also known as POLYTHEISM

● Transcendent and Immanent religious worldview

Transcendent Immanent

● The belief in a divine being or power
whose existence goes beyond human
limitations and exists beyond the known
universe.
● Christianity, Judaism, Islam are
transcendent
● Example: Muslims believe that the will
of Allah has been revealed to the
Prophet Mohammed and is contained in
the writing of the Quran. This is seen as
transcendent because the divine being
is separate and outside of the human
life and revealed to humankind through
an intermediary.
● The belief that supernatural being
dwells within human being, nature and
sacred places.
● Buddhism and Hinduism are immanent
● Example: Buddhists follow the Eightfold
Path prescribed by the Buddha in order
to reach enlightenment. This is an
immanent religion because the divine
power is believed to be found within the
human and awaits discovery through
following the prescribed path

Characteristics of Religion
Beliefs and believers Sacred Texts and Ethics Rituals and
Writings ceremonies

● Key tenants, ● Most ● Reasoning ● Practical

doctrines or important part behind moral expressions of
values which of the religion decision the aspects
are sustaining and hence, making. ● Involves
to all religions. central to the ● Ethics and prescribed
● It underpins religion. precepts words and
 the religious ● Sacred Texts (principles) are actions along
practice of a contain laws that with symbols
particular sacred stories embody the reflecting
religion for explain key doctrinal understanding
believers. through tenants of sacred
● Beliefs – Ideas historical or allowing for the dimension =
accepted as nonhistorical practical religious
something means, how application. meaning.
considered as people are ● Offers a ● Overall, giving
real or true. It connected to system of a greater
expresses the this standards, understanding
self- supernatural clarifying right of the ultimate
understanding dimension. and wrong. reality.
of the tradition ● Written, visual ● Moral
● Believers – or oral texts principles
Adherent to containing governing a
the religion, truths of a person or
believe and particular group
follow the religion and behaviour
religion. provides providing
guidance. guidelines to
● Sacred – in proper and
the sense of improper
revelation of behaviour.
having a
direct
relationship
with the
transcendent
(divine
power/s or
being/s
beyond the
human)

Contribution of religion
Individual Society and culture

● Personal Search for Meaning: human ● Interaction between culture and

 experience is characterised by a
search for the understanding of those
great questions. Those questions
include: origin, purpose and destiny
● Ethical Guidance: sought out by
people for guidance in the field of
ethics, which enables individuals to
act in a morally correct manner.
Concerns range from bioethics and
sexual morality to issues of social
concern.
● Sense of Belonging: strongest desire
that exist in human experiences is the
need to feel a sense of belonging.
Religions provide a sense of
community
● Ritual Meaning: marks important
stages in human experience. Include
the birth of a child, the coming of age,
a graduation, etc. Such events are
often ritualised in religious traditions
where ceremonies take place to mark
these important events.
Australian Aboriginal Beliefs and Spiritualities - The Dreaming
Nature of the Dreaming
Origins of the Universe Sacred Sites
● The Dreaming ● The
is a term Dreaming is
referring to the inextricably
concept connected to
underpinning the land as
all beliefs and the land is the
practices in physical
Aboriginal medium
religion:close reciprocal relationship
between the areas of religion and
culture. Religion is a formative
influence on culture given the
dynamic every changing nature of
culture. Profoundly influenced by its
cultural context as it cannot be
expressed other than through a
particular cultural setting and
context.
● Religion as a conservative influence
on society: Exert a conservative
influence on society in areas
regarding sexual morality and
bioethics. Often seen to be quite
clearly trying to prevent society from
moving away from traditional values.
● Religion as a progressive influence
on society: Emphasis on human
dignity, it can be readily seen as
proactive in areas e.g. the advocacy
of refugee and indigenous rights,
protection of the environment and
opposition to military action. Instills a
sense of justice in prominent social
debates as a way of attempting to
change community views to embrace
a new approach
Stories of the Symbolism and Art
Dreaming
● Stories of ● The telling and
the learning Dreaming
Dreaming stories is a lifelong
hold truth process revealed
and through many
explain aspects of
the Aboriginal
beginning societies such as
 communities where the s of the kinship, song,
representing Dreaming is world that dance, art, ritual
all knowledge lived and are and story.
and communicate passed ● Some art depict
understanding d. down to secret sacred sites
among ● All land is teach law available only to
Aboriginal important to and the selected group
societies. Aboriginals, responsibi allowed.
● The Dreaming particular lities to ● Symbolism in art
includes sites known Aboriginal for e.g. explains
explanations as sacred s. creation of the
of the origins sites, have a ● The basis natural world and
of the special of the laws which
universe. That significance religious stem from this.
is, how the for particular beliefs, Teaches
world came Aboriginal law, Aboriginal children
into being groups as ceremonie about right and
through the they’re s and all wrong behaviour in
actions of their connected knowledg society.
ancestral spirit with different e come ● Symbolism in art
beings, the events in the from their can’t be taken as
creation of the Dreaming. sacred face value for
physical world, ● Particular stories. Aboriginal art -
the animals groups of esoteric having
and plants Aboriginal multiple layers of
which inhabit people have meaning.
this world. special ● 1st layer - open
● The Dreaming responsibilitie and accessible to
is not s to care for all people
regarded as a and to learn ● 2nd layer - not so
myth but a from these obvious and
metatemporal sites. For requires
concept example, experience
incorporating carrying out ● 3rd layer - secret
the past, prescribed and sacred only
present and rituals such available to
future reality as balance Aboriginal
as a complete rites. ancestors
and present
reality.
Diversity of the Dreaming for Aboriginal peoples Importance of the
Dreaming for the life of
Aboriginal people

● There is approx. 900 Aboriginal nations within Australia and ● The Dreaming is
subsequently there is an enormous diversity in which the important for
Dreaming is expressed. Aboriginals as
● Each Aboriginal nation has its own dialect and every they are
language is esoteric (intended to be understood by a small connected to it
number of people) and every nation’s understanding of spiritually
Aboriginal spirituality will vary. providing
● Each Aboriginal nation has its own boundaries and knowledge on all
subsequently different Dreaming stories applicable to these aspects of
boundaries. Groups that are geographically close will share Aboriginal life.
common elements. ● Establishes the
● The belief in notion of the Dreaming is the overriding rules linking the
commonality binding different Aboriginal nations together. relationship
between
Aboriginal people,
the land and all
things associated
with Aboriginal
people.

Inextricable Connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity

(Inextricable = that which cannot be disentangled or loosed)
- The land is the core of all spirituality
- The is the ancestors and as long as the land lives, so doe the ancestors
- The is not just soil or rocks or minerals but a whole environment and is sustained by people
and culture
- For the Aboriginal people, they belief in the land, gives them their identity
- The journeys of the Ancestral beings shaped the landscape and gave birth to its people –
journeys that are re-enacted in the rituals and ceremonies of the people and expressed in their art.
- The importance of this connection is between the things of creation which is expressed
thought totemism
- To Aboriginal people the land is alive with power and the ancestors who live in it
- Ownership of the land is based upon the division and distribution of ritual responsibility for
land, rather than upon rights to use and occupy the land.
Judaism
Abraham and the Covenant

● Life of Abraham
 ● Sacred history of Judaism begins with Abraham, the first father or ‘Patriarch’ of the Jewish
people
● Responding to God’s command, Abraham left his homeland in Mesopotamia and embarked on
a journey to an unknown place, later revealed to be the land of Canaan (Genesis 12-15).
Abraham’s trust in God and his obedience to God’s command to undertake the journey and to
implement the rite of circumcision, are fundamental to Judaism.
● Essentially, Abraham’s religion was a simple one. The Abrahamic belief reflected a semi-
nomadic lifestyle and promoted a personal relationship between one man and one God. This
relationship was ‘covenant’ – that is, it was based on a covenant, an agreement between the
divine and the human.

● Covenant with the Patriarchs

Covenant Abraham’s Covenant: Isaac’s Jacob’s Fidelity to The Patriarchs:

with the The next expression is in Covenant: Covenant: the God’s promise
Patriarchs relation to Abraham and Found in Jacob is the Covenant: to Abraham
Patriarch occurs in a series of Genesis 17 father of the The land of was renewed
means “the encounters with God has Abraham 12 tribes of Canaan is with his son
forefather (Genesis 12-17). Begins being called Israel - these the land Isaac and
of Jews”. with the call of Abraham to walk in the are the loose ultimately again with
The (Genesis 12:1) he’s presence of confederatio conquered Isaac’s son
Patriarchs called by God to leave God and be n, which are and settled Jacob. Jacob
of Judaism his own territory and blameless. In united under by Joshua (Israel) lent his
are move to the land shown Genesis the and the name to a
Abraham, to him by God. The call verse 9-14 monarchy of tribes of nation.
his son includes - promise that Abraham is Saul, David Israel after Abraham’s
Isaac and he will become a great commanded and the death of steadfastness
his son, nation. Genesis 15 that he and Solomon. Moses. to his God
Jacob. The shows a further his Overtime demonstrated
covenant of encounter where God descendants the land in his
the assures Abraham that his must keep has been willingness to
Patriarchs descendants would the Covenant threatened sacrifice his
is an act number the stars in the with God and son is a model
which sky (Genesis 15:5). throughout captured by for the
welds The first element - the ages and various steadfast love
together Abraham’s descendants that invading that Jews are
God and would be numerous and circumcision forces yet it expected to
the chosen would lead to the is to be sign has hold for their
people, the formation of a great of this remained God. It is from
Hebrews. nation. The second Covenant. an this promise
element - possession of a The important made to the
promised land. This land elements of element in Patriarchs that
is the biblical land of the Covenant the Jewish a great nation
Canaan -> modern day are understand and one of the
state of Israel and the confirmed in of the world’s great
Palestinian territories. response to Covenant. religions
The Covenant is seen in Abraham’s flowed. The
effect -> birth of Isaac. obedience in theme of the
relation to Covenant
the sacrifice begun with the
of his son Patriarchs and
Isaac. continued in
Jewish history
with the
furthered
development of
the covenant
through
Moses.

Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah

- Begins with the Hebrews
in Egypt following the story of
Joseph, having once enjoyed
a favoured status in Egypt,
they have been reduced to the
situation of slaves. The
oppression of Hebrews
reached a highpoint when the
Pharaoh decreed the
execution of any male child
born to the Hebrews. This is
the environment where Moses
was born.
Passover ritual –
- In Judaism “passing
over” of the Hebrew
households during the death of
the first born, one of the most
significant occasions in the
Jewish calendar.
- After the final plague,
Pharaoh relented and allowed
the Hebrews to go free then
later changed his mind and
sent his army in pursuit of the
Hebrews.
- Exodus significantly
defines the ethics of Judaism in
rejecting oppression and
working towards the liberation
of all people.
- Exodus Ch19, the climatic
experience of Moses’
encounter with God at Sinai
begins with a reiteration of the
covenant made with Abraham.
- Great theophany where
Moses encounters God face to
face on Mount Sinai where
- God called Moses through
the burning bush for his
mission to liberate the Hebrew
people from their captivity in
Egypt showing God’s lament
for the suffering of the
Hebrews in Egypt and God’s
proclamation of their rescue
and deliverance to “a land
flowing with milk and honey”.
- The 9 plagues occurred and
the 10th plague - death of the
first born
- Hebrew were to prepare to
escape in haste. They
sacrificed a lamb and daub
blood on doorposts
designating it belonged to the
Hebrews so when the Angel of
the Lord passed houses that
belonged to Hebrews, the first-
born would be spared.
Modern Judaism
Conservative Judaism
· Began in Germany in the
mid to late 19th as a rejection
towards Reform (Progressive)
Judaism and its explicit and
outright rejection of halakhic
practice.
· The core belief is that the
ritual law whilst binding is open
to interpretation and it is up
each new generation to make
the halakhic law applicable to
the age.
· Conservative Judaism
believes that the interpretation
of these laws is ever evolving
and capable of being adjusted
to contemporary needs.
· The variant joined with
- It is a defining moment in the
Jewish tradition and
foundational. In the moment of
liberation, the Hebrews
experience the saving action
of God - God’s intervention in
human history and God’s
concern for those who are
oppressed.
- In and through the Exodus,
the understanding of God’s
intervention as a saving action
overcoming oppression and
leading to freedom. It shows
God’s concern for the poor and
disadvantaged.
Orthodox Judaism
· Orthodox Judaism is
characterised by a strict
observance of the
commandments as they see
these mitzvot as the direct will
of God
· There are two distinct
groups within Orthodox
Judaism:
§ Modern Orthodoxy is a
strand of Judaism which while
maintain Orthodox
requirements seeks to live as
part of the modern world
§ Ultra-Orthodox believes that
the only way to ensure the
survival of the Jewish people
and its religion is to impose a
Moses received the 10
commandments.
- These 10 commandments are
the beginning - Sinai law. This
law is the Torah - the very
heart of the Jewish tradition. It
spells out the expected
response of the Jews to the
requirements of the Covenant.
- Numerous laws governing all
aspects of community life
follow the 10 commandments
immediately.
- The chapters of laws are the
613 mitzvot of the Torah
(including the 10
commandments). The 613
mitzvot of the Torah form the
basis for the actions of Jewish
people relating every aspect of
life.
Progressive Judaism
· Also known as Reform
Judaism, developed in the 19th
century, Germany as a result
of the experience of the
Haskalah (Jewish
Enlightenment)
· Reform Judaism is
characterised by its rejection of
the concept of divine revelation
as a direct dictation of the
Tenach by God.
· This is the notion that the
Written Law is the literal word
of God and similarly, that the
Oral Law is an extension of this
divine revelation.
· They hold the belief that
the Torah was written by
Reform Judaism in some of its
reforms such as ordaining
women as Rabbis and cantors.
Other distinguishing features
include the fact that it holds
services in the vernacular and
includes prayers in the
vernacular at other times when
most of the service is in
Hebrew.
· It also emphasises the
importance of the land of Israel
and the continuation of the
Jewish tradition.
Principal Beliefs
strict separation of Jews from
participating with secular
society. An example is the
Hasidic Jews
· Hasidic Jews are
recognisable by their distinctive
dress which include long black
coats, round black hats, beards
and side locks. Baal Shem Tov
founded Hasidim in the 18th
century among Jews who lived
in ghettos and who were poor
and illiterate as a result of
centuries of persecution.
· Modern Orthodox
communities will be found
involved in a range of
professions and involved in
most aspects of modern
community life. They also seek
to maintain observance if the
Torah through carefully
attending to the dietary, ritual
and ethical requirements of the
tradition.
divinely inspired human
beings. The implication of this
core belief is that the Torah is
inspirational and instructional
but not binding in a literal word
of God.
· His amounted to a
movement away from strict
halakhic observance - this
encompassed a broad
spectrum of laws regulating
dietary requirements, sexual
and familial purity. It also
formalised the existence of a
priestly caste and codes of
dress.
· Innovations made by
Reform Judaism include
introducing religious service in
the vernacular of the
community instead of Hebrew
and the men and the women
sitting together during worship.

● Belief in a single God who is the creator and ruler of the universe

God is One God is eternal God is God is Omnipotent God is Pure in

- Is central to - Beliefs that Omnipresent - Teaches Spirit
Judaism God has always - Establishes that he is all - God cannot
- Has multiple existed and that God is powerful and be described as
nuances: always will exist everywhere hence all knowing having a face
§ Only one God - God is the - Highlights that (e.g. Jeremiah - Spirit is
§ God is source of creation God is intimately 32:19) manifested
indivisible then God must concerned with - Recognised that throughout the
§ God is unique also have existed humankind and there is nothing universe, thus
- Reflected in the before the dawn human concerns that God cannot human beings can
prayer - the of creation - Is seen most achieve and not come to an
Shema, which - Belief is also a powerfully in the nothing that God understanding of
may be described statement about account of the cannot prevent the nature of God
as Israel’s God’s relationship Exodus where through direct
declaration of faith with creation God liberates the means, that is
(Deuteronomy 6:4) Hebrew people knowing God
- Reflects upon from slavery in directly; rather,
Judaism’s Egypt through indirect
monotheistic means or through
nature, which mediated
rejects any form of knowledge
idolatry.

● Concept of moral law prescribed by God (Divinely Inspired)

● Jews believe that God gave the world a code of ethics which are intended to guide human kind
into ethical choice in keeping with their dignity as God’s creation.
● Judaism is essentially a practical religion – it is lived through observance of the law that God
has revealed
● There is no sense of an ever-evolving code of ethics in the sense that the code will need to be
expanded beyond it original form in light of changing circumstances.
● Orthodox Jews believe that God has laid down a set of laws which apply to an infinite number
of situations and will continue to applicable to future generations.
● Us to ensure that human beings live in such a manner so as to enhance and no diminish their
own God given dignity or the dignity of another.
● Most basic formulation of the moral law is found in the Ten Commandments which proves for a
way of relating to one another that does not do harm to or undermine the dignity of the other
● Moral law does not expect Jews to live by 613 mitzvoth but some do apply to everyone
● The moral law revealed by God is expected to apply to all people, while some aspects are
applicable to the Covenant people of God, the Jews.
● The idea of the Covenant
● Importance of the Covenant cannot be overestimated because it is the living expression of the
relationship between God and the people of Israel.
● The expressions of the Covenant in the Tanakh essentially follow the same pattern:
● Being by describing/recalling God’s great acts in the events of the everyday lives of the people
● They contain commands for the people
● Conclude with a list of blessings/curses
● Brings freedom to choose their own destiny under His law, in return it commands the highest
standard of social duty and personal responsibility.
● The maintenance of the Covenant is done by following these laws to ensure the Jewish
tradition is kept alive
● The establishment of the Covenant is the ultimate expression of God’s underlying love for
humanity – God always remains faithful regardless of whether the people are faithful
● God is always ready to embrace the people even when they turn their backs on God

Sacred Texts and Writings

The Hebrew Bible Torah (Pentateuch) Nevi’im (Prophets) Ketubim
(The Tanakh) - Believed that Moses - Includes (Writings)
- Made to received this scripture from God in Joshua, Judges, - Contains
clarify the meaning Hebrew over a period of 120 days Samuel and Kings, the psalms of
of the covenantal and in 70 languages. which is made up of David,
relationship between - 613 mitzvot, 10 of which are the the early prophets. Solomon’s
God and the Jewish 10 commandments Others include Isaiah, Proverbs, the
people - This is the core of Judaism and Jeremiah and Ezekiel Five Scrolls,
- Teach them how to is a symbol of Jewish identity. who are later the books of
life ethical and moral Without it there would be no prophets. Ezra etc.
lives through laws Judaism. - These books are - Referred to
(halakhah) - 5 books -> Genesis, Exodus, mainly prophetic and as ‘Wisdom
- Gives the Jewish Leviticus, Numbers and teach morals and literature’
an identity Deuteronomy. Contains the ethics. - Read at
- Comprises of 24 history from creation to the exile - Reminds people of certain festivals
books and are from the land of Canaan. the blessings and and are hymns
sectioned into 3 - Partly read on Mondays and curses associated with and psalms
categories Thursdays and is fully read on the covenant. praising God.
Saturday (shabbat) - Read every Sabbath
- They are dressed in beautiful
armour

The Talmud The Mishnah The Gemara All scriptures

- Collection of traditions, - Earlier part of the Talmud - To further made for:
customs and laws that meaning ‘repetition’. It records the explain the Tikkun olam-
develops and interprets the opinions of the Tanami (learned conclusions of repairing the
Torah by applying it to the rabbis) who interpreted the the correct law. world.
situations of everyday life. original Torah. This was Was made
- Comes in two versions: discussed by a further group of through detailed
The Jerusalem Talmud (4th Rabbis called Amoraim discussions
century CE) - Covers subjects of seasonal called the
They Babylonian Talmud festivals, the rights of the poor, Gemara
(5th century CE) the laws governing marriage, (complication)
- A simplified version divorce and civil. and it explains
(Shulchan Aruch) was made - Expands on Torah laws and what was
for the lay people at home. explains how to follow them. believed to be the
The Talmud was closed in origins of halakha
500CE. and Mishnah

Core Ethical Teachings

● The commandments of the Torah

● The fundamental source of ethical guidance for Jews is the Torah which encompasses the
Written and Oral law.
 ● Jewish ethics is derived from the covenantal relationship where they were protected and taught
their responsibilities towards God and other people.

613 mitzvot (Mitzvot - 10 commandments (Decalogue) Oral Torah

Keeping the
commandments of God)
- Offers the broadest - Regarded as the distillation of the 613 - The oral torah
application of Jewish mitzvot. provides guidelines
ethical principles and - The 10 commandments consist of the for the detailed
underpin all other positive and negative mitzvot. application of the
elements. - The first 5 commandments deal with the broad principles of
- It represents the relationship between God and the people of the 613 mitzvot to the
foundational tenets of Israel (Hebrews), formulated as positive and day-to-day life of
Jewish ethics. affirmative commandments. Jews.
- The 613 mitzvot consists - The next 5 commandments are concerned - Ongoing Rabbinic
both positive (commands to with the relationship between individuals discussion ensures
perform an act) and and their community. These are framed in that the core tenets of
negative mitzvot terms of what one shouldn’t do - negative Jewish ethics can be
(commands to refrain from commandments. prudently applied to
performing an act). changing
circumstances.
The prophetic vision - social justice and Tikkun Olam (the repair of the world)
Prophetic tradition

● A prophet was defined as one who passes God’s message on to the rest of the community.
● Prophets were individuals that were called by God to proclaim the message that people were
straying from the path laid down by the Torah.
● Prophets advocated a pro-active stance to reforming social structures emphasising the themes
of justice, equality and peace where they were considered as second important comparing to
the observance of law and ritual.
● Prophets were concerned with bettering the plight of the poor, the needy and the oppressed
challenging the authority figures of society.

Gemilut - chasidim Tikkun Olam Tzedakah or ‘hidden Bal Tashkit, ‘do not
charity’ destroy’

● Acts of ● Definition - Repair of ● All Jews are ● Prohibits the

loving the world required to unnecessary
kindness ● It is the notion that if a tzedakah destruction
performed person saves another within where of God’s
for no human being, it is as they are creation as
return for if the person that reasonable another
 person had saved the
example, whole world. for each person will
giving ● It is significant in that individual as not be able
hospitality it is the overarching part of the to utilise
to principle of tikkun process of God’s gifts
strangers, olam in Jewish ethics seeking a to the world
comforting intimately connected just world. ● This notion
the with the idea of social ● Tzedakah is intimately
mourner, justice. stresses the connected
visiting the ● All individuals have importance with modern
sick and the dual responsibility of the ecological
assisting a of rectifying means by concerns
poor or inequalities in society which one emphasising
orphaned helping the poor and gives the
bride. needy acting as a charity. importance
● It is steward caring for the ● Those who of human
identified earth. practice stewardship
as the ● The aim of ‘tukkun Tzedakah over the
characterist olam’ - achieve a hide their earth.
ic that perfected world, or identity so
encapsulat ‘haMascheach” that the
es the ● Tikkun Olam is the recipients
Jewish underlying motivation don’t feel
identity. behind social action ashamed
● Gemilut and volunteer projects when they
chasidim is that work towards the meet their
intimately repair of the world benefactors
tied with through human at social or
the notion action. Aiding people communal
of leading a to take responsibility functions.
righteous for their world.
life and ● Orthodox Jews
having a believe that
good heart performing mitzvot is
which are a form of Tikkun Olam
prerequisite and will hasten the
s of being a coming of the
truly devout messianic age.
individual.

● The book of proverbs - wisdom, righteousness, purity and generosity of spirit

 ● The book of Proverbs is one of the most significant collections within the genre of Wisdom
literature ascribed to King Solomon.
● The book of Proverbs is a collection of short, pithy statements which offer practical and simple
advice on how to live a moral life and behave prudently encouraging moral and upright
behaviour. It is a collection of ethical instructions related to practical living and everyday
concerns.
● The Ketuvim section of the Tanakh is not used as a source Halacha but reflects Jewish values
e.g. the Book of Proverbs.

Wisdom Righteousness Purity Generosity of spirit

● God is the ● A person who ● Purity is ● Generosity of

source of lives righteously discussed in spirit involves
wisdom. and with integrity the Book of helping
Wisdom is will live a happy Proverbs from society’s poor
also the life regardless of the and vulnerable
means by their situation perspective of (Proverbs
which a (Proverbs 19:1) a man 24:10)
person ● A person’s lack speaking to ● God will bless
comes to of integrity or another man. those who are
know God. faith with ● Purity which is generous to
● Wisdom is a ultimately lead to linked to the poor and
powerful their ruin integrity is a needy, while
source that (Proverbs 11:3) virtue that has those who do
will bring ● The tongue of a true value and not will suffer
well being to righteous person hence should negative
those who is choice silver, be praised consequence
seek it. but the heart of (Proverbs as a result of
(Proverbs the wicked is 11:4) their
24:5) minute (Proverbs selfishness
10:20) (Proverbs
28:27)

● Importance of ethical teachings in the life of adherents

● Jews are expected to place considerable emphasis on the extensive ethical teachings of the
tradition in making informed moral choices.
● The general ethical direction in the life of a Jewish person is determined by the 10
commandments.
● The general themes of righteousness, purity and justice underpin the specific halakhic laws that
guide Jewish ethical decision making.
● Proverbs divides its message between the good actions required of a good King and those
required of a good Jew. At times, the concepts of king and good Jew are interchangeable.
 ● Kindness and loyalty within the community are the important aspects of the ethics of Judaism,
and wisdom and right behaviour are celebrated.
● The goodwill towards others promoted by the ethical teachings of Judaism as contained in the
Torah, the prophetic vision, the idea of tikkun olam and the book of proverbs ensure a safe and
protective Jewish community and a place in the world where common laws and ideals
encourage close bonds between individuals.

Observance

● Shabbat
● The practice of shabbat comes from the Bible where God rested on the 7th day after creating
the world and Jews imitate this by resting on the seventh day.
● Shabbat is described in Rabbinic literature as 1 of the 3 ‘pillars of Judaism’ (the other 2 being
Kashrut - dietary laws - and laws of family relationships)
● Shabbat is the most significant liturgical event of the week as it reminds the Jewish people of
the greatness of God in creating the world and it also reminds the Jewish people of the
Covenant between God and the people of Israel.
● Shabbat starts on a Friday when it gets dark and is a day of rest where no work is allowed
(except saving a life). Muktzeh are utensils that can’t be handled on the Sabbath. Families will
always eat together on Shabbat. Sunset from Friday to sunset on Saturday.
● Before sunset on Friday, the house is cleaned and special food is prepared.
● Everyone stops their work, adults come home from work early to celebrate when the sun goes
down.
● ‘Work’ (melachah) refers to creative tasks or exercising control over the environment. There are
39 defined categories of work that are identified.
● Candles are lit and wine and bread are blessed
● The requirements for keeping the Sabbath:
1. “Remember the Sabbath day (Exodus 20:8) - refrain from all forms of work
2. “Keep the Sabbath holy” (Deuteronomy 5:12) - reciting the Kiddush over a cup of wine
● Just before the Sabbath begins, the wife lights 2 candles. The 1st candle represents the
injunction to keep the Sabbath and the 2nd is to represent the commandment to remember the
Sabbath. The wife then prays for the welfare of her husband and children over the lit candles.
After lighting, she waves her hands over the candles, welcoming shabbat. She then covers her
eyes to not see the candles and recites the blessing:

Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe,

who has sanctified us with His commandments and
commanded us to light the Shabbat candles.
She then uncovers her eyes and looks at the candles, completing the mitzvah of lighting the
candles.

● A short synagogue service is held to mark the beginning of the Sabbath.

 ● The celebration that takes place on the Friday of the Sabbath is the shabbat dinner. It takes
place at home with family and friends. The table is laid with 2 loaves “ hallot”, like the candles it
represents the dual Shabbat commandments to keep and remember the Sabbath.
● The blessing of the wine is called “Kiddush”, they drink the “Kiddush” from a special cup which
represents the plagues and the Passover. The Father blesses the children in order of age
before the Kiddush is recited over the wine. “Gladdens the heart”.
● The bread (traditional braided loaves of bread) that is eaten on Shabbat is called “ Challah”.
They also say prayers and blessings to their children.
● Men and boys wear a headscarf called a “ Tallit” and they also wear a skullcap called a
“Kippah”.
● On the following day, 2 meals are eaten, one after the morning synagogue service and the
second is in the afternoon generally with coffee and cake. Saturday morning is usually spent in
Torah study at the synagogue - reading a specified segment of the Torah.
● The recitation of the prayer, Havdalah (“division” or “separation”) ceremony takes place to mark
the end of the Shabbat celebration at sunset featuring the a plaited candle, wine and sweet-
smelling spices so that the pleasantness of the Shabbat ‘lingers’ in the work week. It is the
recitation praising God for creating distinctions.
● Shabbat is characterised by pleasurable activities such as singing, eating and time with the
family. Usually Jews attend the synagogue on the Shabbat and many study the Torah.

Christianity
Origins
The historical and cultural context in which Palestine and the Romans:
Christianity began

● Began in Palestine (Jews considered this as ● Palestine became a roman territory

the promised land) and was split between Roman
● Lack of unity due to the disagreement of the rulers.
leadership of the religion caused the ● Pontius Pilate allowed the Jews to
oppression from Romans and Greeks. do their everyday thing.
● Jesus is Christianity’s central figure and was ● Priests (Sanhedrin) took over the
considered the messiah for some Jewish Jewish religion and controlled it.
people such as John the Baptist. ● These priests had much wealth
● Because of the desired location of and took money from the Jews at
Christianity, the land was fought over by the temple through taxes. Etc.
Babylon, Persia, Rome and the Greeks.
● The Jews were being persecuted by the
Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Greeks and
finally the Romans and therefore awaited a
Messiah (as prophecies stated they would
get one e.g. Isaiah 9:6-7) to lead them out of
slavery and to freedom.
● Jesus Christ - founder of Christianity
● Born in Palestine 4BCE, grew up in Nazareth (small village in Galilee) lived and died as a Jew
● Sought to renew Judaism by opposing the legalism of Judaism and returning to the covenant.
● Brief biography can be found in the Gospels
● He travelled the countryside for 3 years teaching any who would listen and healing those who
believed in him. (preaching)
● John the Baptist witnessed the holy spirit descending into him claiming him as the Messiah
● He withdrew to the desert to contemplate his responsibilities and accepting his destiny.
● Called his first disciples at the lake of Galilee with the fishermen: “Follow me and I will make
you become fishers of men” (Mark 1:16-20)
● He made parables to teach people based on the type of people he was talking to. This was to
capture their attention with something familiar through symbolic stories.
● He performed miracles such as changing water to wine (nature), raised people from the dead
(healing) etc.
● Wasn’t self-serving and attention seeking, rather wanting people to follow him for faith.
● Religious and political opposition increased due to his large numbers of followers.
● Important/principal events of his life:
1. Palm Sunday
2. The last supper
3. His arrest and appearance before Pilate
4. Carrying his cross
5. Death and resurrection
6. Ascension
● He is a model for Christian life through his embodiment of the reign of God.
● Announced the reign of God as the realisation of God’s vision or dream for the world.
● Preaches of love, values, justice and peace and was very keen in the service of others.
● Had a prayerful nature and was in frequent communication with God
● The beatitudes and the commandment of love highlight attitude of service
● Strong ethics of standing up for the poor and disadvantaged
● Religious observance needed for the cause of harsh oppression
● Ever willing to forgive, shown in the forgiveness of disciples after abandoning him. Willingness
to forgive seen in the lord’s prayer.
● Jesus as the Messiah
● The Jews believed Jesus was the messiah who was sent to free them
● He would return the Jews to power in their homeland and rebuild their temple.
● He was the prophet, priest and king for his people.

● The development of early Christian communities

● After the death of Jesus, his followers were lost. Until the Pentecost (Acts 2:1-13) showed them
a way forwards and to spread the good news.
● 4 major stages:
 1. The announcement of Jesus’ death and resurrection to the Jews and others at Pentecost (Acts
2-4)
2. The church learning it’s first lesson: the gospel message is not tied to Jerusalem (Acts 6-9)
3. Second valuable lesson: Expansion and disagreement, you need not be a Jew to be a disciple.
4. Church expanding through Paul’s missionary journeys.
● A sect within the Jewish tradition
● Believed they were living the last days before the second coming of Christ (parousia)
● 1st 40 years: churches were scattered and had no behaviour or practice

Peter and Paul

● Palestinian Jews followed Jesus through Peter and Hellenistic Jews/gentiles followed through
Paul
● Peter moved to Rome and became the first bishop of the church
● Paul was first to write teachings, assisted early communities, recognised Jesus’ actions as not
only for the Jews, wrote letters helping communities, communicated Jesus’ ideas, set the
structure of Christianity

Divisions in the early church

● Contained Jewish Christians of Palestinian and Hellenistic backgrounds. Gentile christians

caused disagreement
● Original Jewish nature was challenged by the conversion of the Gentiles.
● Debate of the inclusion of the Gentiles formed the Council of Jerusalem (49CE)
● Decided converted gentiles didn’t have to keep Mosaic law.
● The Early fathers (up to 325 CE) - when church leaders documented/explained Christian
beliefs
● Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus clarified Jesus’ human/divineness
● Caused the great schism

Persecution

● Christians persecuted by Jews (they were a threat to their purity) because of their view of
Jesus as God (sounding polytheistic), association with the Gentiles and their refusal to support
the Jews when they were trying to overthrow the Romans
● Christians also persecuted by Romans (2nd and 3rd centuries)
● Christians worshipped with secret signs (chiro etc) and to meet in private settings
● Romans believed they were neglectful citizens as they refused to serve the judiciary
● Emperor Nero = the worst
● Emperor Constantine legalised Christianity (313 AD Edict of Milan)

Monasticism

● Middle ages
● Founded by st Francis, st Benedict and st Dominic
 ● During the war for the holy land between Islam called the crusades, women and men fled to the
dessert for a life of solitude, chastity and obedience.

The Renaissance

● Popes and bishops built large cathedrals off the christian’s backs (taxes and money)
● Reformation (Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli) questioned church practices such as the
granting of indulgences (corruption)

Christianity: Anglicanism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Pentecostalism, Protestantism

● Mainly began due to the great schism in 1054 and was the split between the Eastern
(Constantinople) and Western churches (Roman) and the Reformation in Europe and Britain.
● Established separate Christian churches where each variant adhered to specific beliefs related
to Jesus, creation, salvation, the afterlife and the scriptures being the inspired word of God.
● The council of Trent (1545-1563) was made to call for renewal in the reformation and tried to
minimize corrupt practices in the church and made the structural hierarchy.
● 20th century: the Roman Catholic Church entered renewal with Second Vatican Council to
prepare for modern times and address issues in the church.

Anglicanism Catholicism Orthodox Pentecostalism Protestantism

● 16th ● Catholic ● Very ● Very ● Developed

century by meaning similar focused around the
(head of universal - to on Reformatio
the Church worldwide Catholici Baptism, n in 16th
of unity sm and the Holy Century
England) ● Belief and Initially Spirit and ● Fight over
King Henry conduct Greek Pentecost had
VII from ● Heart is (hence authority to
● Began affirming: the the name) lead
because of ‘one lord, divine ● Began in Christianity
Pope Leo one faith liturgy the 20th (Pope, etc)
X’s refusal and one (Euchari century in so Martin
of Henry baptism’ st) USA with Luther
VII’s ● Founded ● Use the made his
wedding. by Jesus images Holiness own
So he Christ and (icons) movemen religion
made his anointed of t (19th against the
own by the Christ, century) Christians,
religion Holy spirit Mary ● Baptism calling out
and Act of during and in the their
supremacy Pentecost saints spirit = corruption.
(1534) to ● Important ● Liturgica when one ● Only have
 be re- emphasis l receives two main
married. on ceremon the gift of sacrament
● Anglican pastoral y lasts 2 praying in s (baptism
theology care, hours, tongues and holy
includes: communio has lots (glossolali communio
1. Authority: n of a) n) as they
biblical and (Eucharist) incense ● Gifts of focus on
papal , the and is the Holy preaching
2. Justificatio sacrament fully Spirit the word of
n: salvation s and sung. include Jesus.
through Mary ● Parts of speaking ● Three
faith/good ● Hierarchic the in Main
works al, under ceremon tongues, branches:
3. The role of authority y are prophecy, ● Lutheranis
Sacrament of the hidden healing m (Martin
s in Pope in from the and Luther)
salvation Rome and view of ecstaticne ● Calvinism
4. Priesthood: has a latin the ss. (John
how tradition crowd ● Welcome Calvin)
Eucharist ● See the and are those who ● Zwinglianis
is Eucharist done in repent m (Ulrich
understood as seeing a room and Zwingli)
5. The power Jesus in to make believe ● Chief
of Christ presence it Jesus’ Features:
(Holy and mysterio forgivenes ● Acceptanc
Spirit) believe us s of them e of the
● Low faith and ● Emphasi through bible as
Anglican: good se death/res the sole
stress the works are monasti urrection source of
Word and necessary cism, did revealed
preach for not truth
dimensions salvation develop ● Doctrine of
rather than and it justification
rituals. (like believe in ● Male by faith
Protestanti heaven, priests only
sm) purgatory only can ● Universal
● High and hell. get priesthood
Anglican: ● Strong married. of all
Anglo- monasticis believers
Catholic m in
stress priesthood
ritual and and
sacrament convents
 al (priests
dimension. must be
(similar to male and
Catholics) unmarried)
● Priests can
be married
and
women
have a
role.

Principal Beliefs
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ

● The Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries were debates regarding the nature
of Christ, in particular, the issue of his humanity vs. his divinity.
● Docetism - position which undermines the integrity of the humanity of Jesus because it claims
that Jesus is fully divine but not truly human, because he is God merely adopting the
appearance of being human.
● Arianism is the belief that Jesus is superior to the rest of creation but not equal to God. Jesus
was created by God but not eternal like God.
● Council of Nicaea in 325 was called to fight against Arianism. The Council developed the
Nicene creed which state that the Father and Son are of 1 essence and hence Jesus is divine.
Council of Constantinople reaffirmed this decision. Doctrine of the Holy Trinity was formulated.
God is understood as one God, yet within the Godhead there are 3 distinct persons - God the
Father/Creator, God the Son/Jesus Christ and God the Holy Spirit.
● Nestorious (Archbishop of Constantinople) undermined the unity of Jesus claiming that Mary is
the mother of Jesus but not the divine Jesus suggesting there are 2 persons in Jesus.
● Council of Ephesus in 431 CE rejected this view and confirmed that there was only 1 person in
Jesus and Mary rightfully being called the Mother of God (theokotos)
● The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
● The belief of Christians is that Jesus’ death was important to destroy sin and give humanity the
opportunity for eternal life (Romans 8:3-4). Christians have traditionally believed that Jesus
died for our sins. Jesus’ death was then followed by his resurrection and ascension into
heaven.
● More adequate reflections on the death of Jesus highlight the notion that death is an integral
part of the human condition and one that is shared by Jesus.
● The fundamental Christian belief in the resurrection of the body, as evident in the Nicene creed
based on the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
● Whilst Jesus' resurrection and ascension are depicted slightly differently in the Gospels of John
and Luke, both stress the importance of the resurrection as carrying the meaning of eternal life
that overcomes the limitations of human mortality
● Theologians have long debated the nature of the risen Jesus. The difficulty is reconciling the
physical resurrection with the spiritual resurrection.
● John 11:25 tells Christians that Jesus said ‘I am the resurrection and the life. Those who
believe in me, even though they die, will live’. Christians believe that the resurrection of the
body will occur for all at the Final Judgement.
● Jesus’ ascension into heaven (recorded in the Gospels of Mark and Luke) marks Jesus’
transformation to sit at the right hand of God the Father.
● The nature of God and the Trinity
● The doctrine of the Trinity: God is One existing as 3 persons - God the Father, Jesus the Son
and the Holy Spirit as sanctifier.
● The Trinitarian doctrine - 3 co-eternal, equal persons in God, which is the notion of unity within
community. The Trinitarian doctrine was further developed and defined at the council of Nicaea
in 325 CE and Constantinople in 381 CE.
● God’s promise of salvation has been fulfilled through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus
and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, thus God is revealed as Trinity.
● The role of creator (God the Father) is recognised mainly in the Old Testament (Hebrew
Scriptures), in God’s interaction with his chosen people.
● In the other books of the New Testament and today, the Holy Spirit is the principal means by
which God interacts with the world. God the Spirit, revealed in the Church
● In the Gospels, it is God the Son, Jesus Christ who is the central figure revealed in the
Christian Scriptures.
● The difficulty is reconciling the concept of monotheism with the notion of God existing as 3
persons.
● The divine essence is common to all 3 but the 3 persons have attribute/properties which
distinguished them e.g. Fatherhood, sonship and sanctifying power. Once essence means that
the actions (creation, redemption, sanctification) are attributable for all.
● Mutual relations is the concept that the terms Father and Son are not titles but expressions of a
relationship and thus all 3 persons are co-equal
● Revelation
● The revelation or message of God has occurred throughout history. For Christians, it was most
fully given through the person of Jesus Christ. But God’s revelation is also evident in creation
and through the person of the Holy Spirit, interacting with the world,
● God is intimately involved in all aspects of human life and thus God is revealed to humankind in
and through the experiences of human history.
● The revelation is understood to be an ongoing process.
● Christians know that revelation involves God communicating with the world, but revelation also
relies on us to respond to it with a commitment to relationship with God. Revelation is not
complete without acknowledgement of God.
● Even though all Christian groups believe that the Bible is the normative text, they understand
this inspiration in different ways. In comparison with Protestant denominations, Orthodox and
Catholic denominations place a greater emphasis on the teaching authority of the Church, seen
to be adjunct with the sacred scripture in communicating the revelation.
● Salvation
 ● Salvation (from the Latin salus, meaning ‘health’) means the deliverance from sin that we can
only attain through our relationship with God.
● For Christians, salvation will only come to fruition in the final days of the world when they are
reunited with God and is only attainable through the grace of God.
● Essentially, Christians believe that salvation is a gift from God, that is offered through the death
and resurrection of Jesus. This gift only being accessed through faith in Jesus.
● God is the one who saves, God’s saving action (Moses and the Exodus) is liberating and has a
particular concern for those who are the most vulnerable in society. Jesus in his life and
ministry embodies the saving action of God. Christians are called to accept the gift of God’s
saving action through their faith in Jesus and their own actions on behalf of those in need.
● Salvation in Christianity can mean 3 things: deliverance from sin, being resurrected to an
afterlife and being healed through the power of the divine and united with God.
● Salvation is as much a present reality as a future deliverance.

Sacred Texts and Writings

Bible

● Is a collection of books and is referred to as the Sacred Scriptures. The Bible is considered to
be the word of God as it is inspired by God and a recorded of the key events in the story of
humanity’s interaction with God.
● The Bible is made up of:
● The Hebrew Scripture:
● Also known as the Old Testament
● Recognises the Jewish heritage of Christianity with stories of creation, the Hebrew people and
the covenant people between God and his people
● The Christian Scripture
● Also known as the New Testament
● Acknowledges and recounts the life and times of Jesus
● The Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical
● Are additional material contained in the Old Testament
● Are Accepted by Catholic and Orthodox traditions as part of Church Canon
● Contents of the Bible

Old Testament New Testament

Contains 46 books, under the following groups: Contains 27 books, under the following groups:

● The Torah (Pentateuch): refers to the
books of law. These books include the
instruction or guide for living that God
passed onto his people
● The Historical Books: records the
history of the nation of Israel from the
time they reached the Promised Land
until they returned from their exile in
● The Gospels: tells the story of the life,
teachings, deeds, death and
resurrection of Jesus
● The Acts of the Apostles: traces the
spread of the Gospel and growth of the
Church for 30 years
● The Pauline Letters and Letter: were
the letters written to meet the specific
 Babylon.
● The Wisdom Books: the books of poetry
and wisdom
● The Prophetic Books: contains stories
about special people who were inspired
by God to speak out and deliver a
special message to the people
needs of the early Christian
communities and to spread the good
news.
● Revelations: is the last book and if
different from all the others. Vision,
images and symbols are used to
convey the Lordship of Christ and the
victory of Christ establishing the
Kingdom of God

● Importance of the Bible:

● The importance and influence of the Bible can be explained in both external and internal forms:

External Internal

● Religious groups confess that they ● Many Christians continue to

are guided by the Bible. The religious
community in the author of Scripture;
having developed it, cherished it,
used it, and eventually canonised it.
experience the power of the contents
of the Biblical books themselves.
● The biblical books are cherished and
used because of what they say and
how they say it.

● The Bible is the most widely distributed books in human history

● It has been enormously influential - and not only among the religious communities that hold it
sacred.
● Contains salvation history, the account of the history of creation that shows the actions of God
in human history culminating in the life and ministry of Jesus.
● The Bible - normative for Christians, highlights key beliefs and determines principal applications
of legal, ethical and ritual dimensions.
● Provides guidelines for ritual, prayer and worship and provides a model for life action
● The application or the Bible differs across the spectrum of Christian denominations:
● Catholic and Orthodox denominations believe that tradition illuminates the meaning of scripture
● Protestant denominations follow the teachings of Luther who taught that the only source
Christians should turn to for inspiration is the Bible
● Evangelical Protestants also believe in the ‘bible alone’

Core Ethical Teachings

● Christian ethics are based on Gospel teachings but focus on two key relationships:
● Right relationship with God
● Right relationship with humanity
 ● These two key relationships are guided by appropriate actions to maintain and support positive
and healthy interaction

The Ten Commandments New Testament Ethics (The Beatitudes & Jesus’ Commandment
of Love)

● The Decalogue ● New testament ethical teachings are expressed

was a covenant differently from those of the Old testament.
between God and ● The language speaks of what is valued or blessed in our
his people. interaction with others.
● Given to Moses ● New testament ethical teachings are those outlined by
and the Israelites Jesus in his ministry to the people who heard him preach
when they were in and believed in him.
the desert ● The Beatitudes:
searching for the ● Were a revolutionary mind map for Jesus’ followers
Promised Land detailing how to live a good life.
(Exodus 20:2-14). ● Remain guidelines for today’s Christians as to how they
● The first 4 should relate to others.
commandments ● They teach that we all have responsibility to care for
describe one’s others in society.
relationship with ● Much of the social justice agenda of Christian groups
God and the other such as Anglicare and the Edmund Rice Centre emerges
6 are about from the challenge of this text.
maintaining good ● The Beatitudes are the eight declarations of blessedness
relationships with spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the Sermon on the
one’s neighbours. Mount (Matthew 5:3-12), each beginning with "Blessed
● Christians are..."
recognise the Ten ● Describe the ideal disciple and his rewards, both present
Commandments and future.
as] a set of ● Jesus’ Commandment of Love
principles for ● Is a summative statement that draws together all the
ethical behaviour. ethical teaching that went before.
● They outline the ● jesus ‘ teaching is about God’s love for human beings
behaviours that are and their opportunity for salvation through love of God
not allowed and neighbour.
personally or not to ● These three central scripture passages underpin our
be tolerated in relationships with God and with each other. A central
others. action that Christians have to channel their love of
● The Old Testament neighbour is through social justice activities.
had many other
rules about right [Jesus] said to him, ‘ “You shall love the Lord your God with all
living for the people your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.” This is
of Israel. Some of the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: “You
shall love your neighbour as yourself.” On these two
 these additional commandments hang all the law and the prophets.’
laws are outlined in
the Books of ● (Matthew 22:37–40)
Leviticus and
Deuteronomy.

Personal Devotion
Prayer

● Christians are called to be people of prayer following the examples of Jesus as prayer was at
the heart of his ministry.
● Prayer is an awareness of God and a response to the presence of the sacred in our life. It
involves listening, responding, encountering and developing a relationship with God, which
brings meaning to adherents’ lives.
● All Christians denominations have communal prayer rituals which play a significant role in their
traditions. The most important of these is the Sabbath or SUnday service which is the focal
points of the life of the community.
● Personal prayer refers to a religious practice that occurs privately and is, by definition, non-
liturgical - but private prayer may also occur during public worship services. It can also involve
regular activities such as attendance at church services, or it can reflect the prayer that is
conducted at home, alone.
● Forms of prayer:

Prayer of
Intercess ● Biblical tradition of Jesus teaching about prayer includes a strong
ion & encouragement for Christians to ask in prayer for their needs and the needs
Petition of other (Luke 11:10 - 13)
● Some branches of Christianity (e.g. orthodox and catholic), there has been a
strong belief in the communion of saints which includes aspects where those
who have passed are able to intercede through Jesus to God on behalf of
the people on earth.
● The way in which God responds to prayers of petition is at the heart of the
mystery of God’s involvement in human history, some Christians believe that
the degree or quality of a person’s faith has bearing on God’s response.

Prayers
of ● Involves finding a time and place free from distraction and centring one’s
Reflectio thoughts on God.
n& ● The main purpose of this form is to create an inner stillness which allows
Meditatio people to deeply contemplate the nature of God which may involve the use
n of a biblical image, an aspect of creation, etc.
● Another purpose is to contemplate the meaning of events and circumstances
of life. The person is able to meditate on certain aspects of life in order to
 understand their meaning in the light of God’s love.

Bible
Reading ● The strongest traditions of bible reading are found among the Protestant
and churches, drawing on Martin Luther’s doctrine of ‘’sola scriptura’ meaning
Reflectio scripture alone.
n ● In more recent times, this tradition has influenced other Christian
denominations so that bible reading and reflection is now a widely used
element of prayer
● When using the bible, Christians seek to find inspiration and guidance
through the words of scripture.

Prayers
of Praise ● Is one of the most widely practices and traditional forms of praise.
& ● In recent times, the growth in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements
Thanksgi has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of praise in Christian prayer.
ving ● The purpose of praise is to allow the person the opportunity to acknowledge
the greatness of God

● Types of prayer:

Tradition
al & ● Various people have composed prayers which have become widely used.
Formal Many of these prayers recite or adapt biblical texts - such prayers cover a
Prayer wide range of occasions and needs.
● These include:
● the Lord’s Prayer: Known as the Our Father. Is taken from the occasion in
the gospel where disciples ask Jesus to teach them a prayer (Luke 11:1). Is
commonly concluded in liturgy as well as personal prayer
● The Rosary: Draws heavily on biblical texts with the Catholic community. Is
organised into 5 decades each containing 10 recitations of the Hail Mary. In
the course of each decade, the person is encouraged to meditate on one of
the mysteries which are based on the events in the life of Jesus from the
perspective of Mary.
● The Divine Office: developed in conjunction with the monastic rule of
Benedict of Nursia. Is also widely used as a personal prayer and is entirely
based on scriptural texts, specifically the Psalms.

Informal
and ● Christians across a range of denomination use a variety of informal and
Spontan spontaneous forms of prayer for different occasions and times.
eous ● These include:
Prayer ● Morning & Evening Prayer: Christians have been traditionally taught to begin
 and end each day with prayer. Typically a morning prayer is one of
dedication to God and often includes petitions relating to events in the
coming day. Evening prayer is typically a prayer of thanksgiving for God’s
providence during the day.
● Grace at meals: this prayer at meal times is known as grace and it usually
takes the form of expressing gratitude to God for the provisions of the
necessities of life. It provides an opportunity to pray for a blessing on those
who have provided and prepared the food.
● Quiet times: Denominations urge their members to find time during the
pressured of normal daily routines to spend a period of time in prayer.

● Approaches to prayer
● Throughout Christian history, various notable individuals have developed approaches to prayer,
which have been adopted by others.
● Such approaches to prayer are referred to as schools of prayer because they represent an
approach adopted by significant members of Christian. They usually provide a more substantial
approach than a simple style.
● One form of approach is the taize prayer:
● From the taize community in France a simple, meditative prayer from has emerged which is
now known as Taize prayer
● It involves a process of contemplation based on the chanting recitation of simple mantras.
● Taize prayers also include a strong focus on justice, peace and ecology.

Islam
Origins
Pre-Islamic Arabia as the Cultural context Historical context
cultural and historical context
for the development of Islam

● Islamic communities ● Medina was an agricultural ● Tribes held

(umma) developed
around the 7th
century, triggered by
the life of
Muhammad
● Islam dates back to
the creation of their
first Islamic
community (umma)
● Developed on the
Arabian Peninsular
(now known as Saudi
settlement different areas
● Mecca was the centre of ● The lands had a
trade and commerce long history of
● Consisted of tribes, some warfare between
of which were nomadic and Jordan, Syria,
travelled to find areas of Israel and
vegetation and water for Palestine and the
their cattle (Bedouins) Persian empire
● Tribes followed a route to (Iran) and
follow trade. This helped Byzantine Empire
spread religious beliefs and (Turkey)
had spread Christianity ● Medina and Mecca
 Arabia) (Orthodox, Nestorian, became more
● Most significant Monophysite) and Judaism attractive for
Islamic cities are ● Jinn was the name given to nomadic tribes to
Mecca (Makkah) and the tribal spirituality as settle, and other
Medina each tribe had a belief tribes who had
● Syria, Jordan, Iraq, system (animistic beliefs) already settled
Israel, Palestine and and worshipped deities and didn’t like this.
Saudi Arabia did not symbols ● New wealth and
exist as political ● Religious practises such as commercialism
entities during the pilgrimages and resulted in
time of Muhammad. circumambulation were increased status’
● Language: Hebrew adopted by Islam and classes
and Arabic ● Christian and Jewish ethics ● Tribes stressed at
● Islamic land is an had no impact on these their way of life and
extension of the tribes (the tribes were values
lands mentioned in unethical) ● Ka’ba (cube) is
the bible. ● Muhammad’s society was Mecca’s most
known as transitional religious site and
society due to the sudden was built by
changes Abraham and his
● Due to tension tribes son
began becoming restless ● First dedicated to
with their spirituality the one God but
● Tension as they were not was taken over by
sent a prophet like their polytheists (Allah
God (Christian God) had was worshipped as
sent prophets and the supreme god
scriptures to other religions among other gods.

The Prophet Muhammad

● Muhammad is not the founder of Islam ● Hadiths are traditions that provide
and is only human, he had a concern guidance on everyday actions in oral
for justice at a young age. and written form.
● He was delivered the final message ● Examples of Hadiths include:
from Allah (he is the last prophet) to
humankind by the angel Gabriel in a > Marriage
cave.
● ‘When a man marries, he has fulfilled
● ‘Islam’ means surrender
half of the religion, so let him fear go
● All muslims want to surrender to the
regarding the remaining half.’
will of Allah and the Prophet
(Sayings of Muhammad. By Prof.
 Muhammad is this example and is a
model for life for all muslims Ghazi Ahmad)
● Islam ensures that Muhammad is not
> Right of Wives
worshipped as they believe worship is
for Allah only. ● ‘When a woman observes the five
● There is evidence that he was a wise time of prayers, fasts during
and capable leader in business Ramadan, preserves her chastity and
● Received a revelation from the angel obeys her husband, she may enter by
Jibril (Gabriel) when he was living in any of the gates of paradise she
solitude and reflection wishes.’ (Sayings of Muhammad)
● He displayed faith, willingness and
trust to Allah
● He became the leader of Medina due > Divorce
to his forgiveness and wisdom in
overcoming anger. ● ‘The lawful thing God hates most is
● Ensured the practise of almsgiving to divorce.’ (Sayings of Muhammad)
the poor was performed by everyone.
> Clothing and Adornment
(It was like a tax)
● Muhammad’s actions became a ● ‘Cleanse yourself, for Islam is
guiding source of Islamic law (sunna) cleanliness.’ (The Lawful and
● Sunna covers traditions (hadiths) and Prohibited in Islam)
practices of Muhammad.

The development of Islam under the leadership of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs

● Caliph comes from the word Khalifa meaning ‘successor’ and was assumed from the
successors of Muhammad as the political and spiritual leaders of the Muslim Empire.
● Islamic armies were successful in overtaking neighboring cities under these Caliph’s which
expanded the Muslim empire
● All these Caliph’s were close to Muhammad and maintained Muslim orthodoxy after
Muhammad’s death
● They are known as ‘Rashidun’ which means ‘rightly guided’ and are:

Abu Bakr ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab ‘Uthman ibn Affan Ali ibn Abi Talib
- 632-634 CE - 634-644 CE - 644-656 CE - 656-661 CE
- Father of - Father in-law to - Son-in-law to - Cousin and son-in-
Muhammad’s youngest Muhammad and a Muhammad law to Muhammad
wife close friend - Collected material to - Tensions resulted
- Entrusted by - Highly effective produce the definitive in a civil war and
Muhammad to carry military leader and text in the dialect of political upheaval
out important tasks political administrator Arabic (was finalised - Hu’awiya accused
- As a wealthy man he who grew an empire in 650 CE) Ali of murdering
put personal fortune - Extended the empire - Favoured his tribe ‘Uthman
into the service of the through Palestine, which resulted in - Split between
umma. Syria, Egypt, Iraq, tension because of his Sunni and Shi’a
- Had to restore Persia to Armenia distribution of wealth began
stability to the region - Established a council to them, rather than
after the death of to choose the next everyone.
Muhammad Caliph
- Began a process of
writing the first written
version of the Qur’an

● The Sunni and Shi’a

Sunni Shi’ia
- From sunnat al Nabi meaning ‘traditionalist’ - ‘Partisians of Ali’
- Accept the authority of the caliphs - Seceded from the main body of Islam
- 85% of Muslims and is the normal pattern of - Reject the authority of the first three Caliphs’
Islamic belief - 15% of umma
- Believe Muhammad was the last prophet and - Are controversial
the Qur’an was the final revelation of Allah.
Principal Beliefs
The articles of faith explained in the Aqida (creed) as:
Tawhid - Existence and unity Angels and Jinn (evil) Books of Allah
of Allah (God)
● In Islamic thought, ● The books of God are
● ‘Belief in Allah’ means angels are spiritual the revelations that
a declaration and beings, created from God made to his
commitment to the light, sinless, have no messengers, who
belief that he is One. gender and don’t eat came with his authority
● The word Allah has no or drink. Angels are to preach his single
plural or feminine the purest beings unchanging message:
form, so many created by Allah and that he is One, and
Muslims prefer to use submit to his will in that he sends
this name in English everything. messengers, each
since the word ‘God’ ● Angels are referenced with a book presenting
can be used in in Hebrew Scripture as knowledge of himself
multiple senses. messengers between and the law that he
Muslims Tawhid humans and God. Jinn wishes individuals to
excludes the concept are spirits and forces live by.
of the Trinity or triune that can be ● The Qur’an mentions 3
God. ● In their myriad ranks revealed books by
● Allah is transcendent, they constantly praise name: the Tawrah
beholden to none and and celebrate God and (Torah) given to
 in need of no partner
or associate.
● There are 99 names
attributed to him in the
Qur’an: they point to
an indescribable divine
being. It’s forbidden to
represent Allah in a
visual or symbolic
form.
● If there is only one
God, then he alone is
the creator of all that
exists, but was not
himself created; he is
‘The Eternal’.
● Muslims should
worship Allah alone;
no-one else is worthy
of worship, no other
being should be
associated with Allah.
● The shahada or basic
Islamic confession of
faith states, ‘There is
no deity but God and
Muhammad is his
prophet’.
Rusul (messengers) or Akhira - afterlife
prophets
● Rusul are men chosen
by God to take his
revelation to different
peoples. There are 25
named prophets in the
Qur’an many known in
the Tanakh celebrated
as figures in history.
● Allah has sent
prophets to different
societies at different
bear his throne.
Although invisible to
human eyes, they may
take on human form
having diverse tasks.
● Angels accompany
human beings in their
lives, guarding them,
helping them in their
difficulties, protecting
them against the wiles
of Satan, and
recording their good
and evil deeds - these
angels are
acknowledged during
daily salat.
Fate/predestination - the
decree (qadar)
● Every human who has
ever lived is brought to
judgement before
Allah, and punished
for their sins or be
rewarded for their
goodness. In this way,
life is a test (Sura
67:2)
● The world exists in 3
layers:
1. Heaven/Jannah -
Moses, the Zabur
(Psalms) given to
David and the Injil
(Gospel) given to
Jesus, son of Mary.
● The only one of these
books that existed in
the form in which it
was revealed and
claims universal
authority is the Qur’an,
the book given to the
last of the prophets
and the seal of
prophecy,
Muhammad.
● The Qur’an is now the
most reliable book of
Allah.
● On judgement day,
everything is as God
foresaw and decreed it
would be. For others, it
is whatever God
decrees on that Day.
● Everything that
happens on earth is
believed to be
preordained by Allah’s
will.
 times. Thousands of
prophets have been
sent to deliver
religious messages to 2. Earth
humanity. 3. Jahannam - Hell or
● Prophets such as
Jesus or Moses are
relevant to Muslim life,
as long as it is
recognised that of all
of the prophets,
Muhammad holds the
distinct place of being
the last, and of
completing the
messages sent by
God.
● The Qur’an names 25
prophets. The rusal
are prophets who have
delivered holy books.
Belief in prophethood
is closely linked with
belief in holy books -
kutubu’llah
● The 6 most important
prophets are: Adam,
Noah, Abraham,
Moses, Jesus and
Muhammad.
paradise where good
people will be
rewarded forever
hell-fire ruled over by
Iblis (Satan)
● Allah knows the past
● In sha-’Allah (If God is
willing) shows the
recognition of his
power and acceptance
of his will for them -
people cannot do
anything unless
approved by God;
however, they still
have a free will to
choose.
and future actions of
every person,
individuals have the
free will to act for good
or for evil; he doesn’t
force them to do
anything - they do
have control over their
fate.

Sacred Texts and Writings

The Qur’an The Hadith

● The name Qur’an means ‘the recitation’ and it is the ● A hadith is a narration on
holy book of Islam and is believed to be the literal the life of the Prophet,
word of Allah. Muhammad. This is
● Muslims believe the Qur’an to be sum of divine distinguished from the
revelations received by Muhammad. These sunna, which is the details
revelations spanned over a 23 year period, from the of the actual life of
time of Muhammad’s first encounter with the angel, Muhammad.
Jibril (Gabriel) outside Mecca in 610 CE until his ● The Hadith is the second
death in Medina in 632 CE foundation text of Islam.
 ● The Qur’an consists of 114 suras (chapters), each Along with the Qur’an, they
one divided into verses. They range in length, date are the basis of islamic
of composition and underlying messages. (not jurisprudence and show the
written in chronological order) life of the Prophet as one
● Suras are sequenced from longest to shortest and worthy of being taken as a
this order is believed to be divinely inspired. role model.
● The Qur’an has a unique status in Islamic tradition ● They are source for
for no other revealed group which has been prayers, meditation and
preserved in such an authentic form. spiritual insight, as well as
● Being the words of God, it must be handled with an elaboration of the
reverence and always kept in a place of honour. ethical values taught by the
● Muslims see the Qur’an as a miracle and the proof Qur’an.
that Muhammad was a prophet and should be the ● It is believed that the hadith
first and last words a Muslim believer hears. As was compiled by devoted
Muslims recite out loud the Qur’an they are to put individuals who put the
their whole heart and feeling into it. To hear and words and actions of
speak the Qur’an is to hear and speak to Allah. Muhammad into writing
● The Qur’an was one of the first books written in the around the early 700s
classical form of Arabic and the actual recitation is instead of allowing them to
important and a holy experience. Any of translation continue circulating through
of the Qur’an is merely a interpretation and not the oral tradition.
literal word of God. ● There are 2 kinds of hadith:
1. Sacred hadith - words of
Allah that are not part of
the Qur’an
2. Noble hadith - details of the
actions and words of the
Prophet

Core Ethical Teachings

Islamic jurisprudence

● The ethical teachings of Islam reflect the beliefs and teachings of Islam.
● Islam ethics stem from one key principle: “To live wholly and fully in submission to God’s will”
● A Muslim must ‘try one’s hardest” (Jihad) to establish good.
● Islamic ethics emphasise on right action between believer and Allah = vertical dimension and
between believers = horizontal dimension.
● The worst a Muslim can do are the following:
● Kufr: disbelief in Allah
● Shirk: associating anything else with Allah such as an image
● Tugyan: not being able to trust Allah and acting in a contrary way to nature
● Jurisprudence: the science of the law or the science of interpretation of the law
 ● Sharia’a: is the code of law for the Muslim way of life that has developed form jurisprudence
● Shari’a regulates all aspects of life
● Muslims therefore do not see a distinction between the sacred and secular life
● Fiqh: legal decisions based on the process of jurisprudence
● Developed out of the need to make jurisprudential judgements in the face of rapidly developing
situations which went beyond what was explicitly provided in the Qur’an and tradition.
● The Sources of ethics for Muslims in order of importance are:
● The Qur’an: the revealed word of Allah as given to the prophet Muhammad
● The Sunna and Hadith - actions and words of approval of the Prophet.
● ijma’ – consensus view among religious leaders and Muslim scholars
● qiyas – comparison with teachings of the Qur’an or Hadith - analogies drawn from the Qur’an
● The interpretation of Shar’a is not uniform among Muslims:
● Sunni Muslims generally accept all 4 sources and consider the rulings of Ijma and Qiyas
binding
● Shi’a Muslims have traditionally opposed Ijma and would abide by decisions of Ayatollahs who
are moved by divine wisdom to make strict rulings based on the Qur’an.
● Core features of Islamic Ethics:
● Arkan al-Islam: The Five Pillars of Islam
● Moral codes are embedded in the Five Pillars which are at the core of Muslim faith and
practice:
1. Recitation of the creed of Islam
2. Prayer - requirement to pray 5 times a day
3. Fasting - obligatory during Ramadan
4. Charity - voluntary and obligatory
5. Pilgrimage
● Fitra: the natural inclination inherent in every human being
● This is a person’s basic nature
● Ut us the basic nature to be good
● One’s heart seeks constantly to direct a person to seek the higher power outside oneself

Expression of Faith

● The Five Pillars as the expression of the faith of Islam

Shahada Salah (Prayer) Zakah Sawm (Fasting) Hajj (pilgrimage)

(Almsgiving)
 What is it? What is it? What is it? What is it?
● What is
it? ● The ● Means ● Done ● Done to
● An name for purificati during Mecca
Islamic the on and the and the
creed obligator growth month of Ka’ba
declaring y prayers ● Minimum Ramadan because
belief in that are is annual (ninth they are
the performe payment month of holy
oneness d 5 times of 2.5% Islamic ● Begins
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and the (dawn, personal ● Fast from twelfth
acceptan midday, wealth food, month of
ce of late for the drink and the
Muhamm afternoo poor, sexual Islamic
ad as n, sunset introduce relations year
God’s and d by from (lunar)
prophet. nightfall) Muhamm dawn
● States ● Direct ad. until Practices and
that link ● Made as sundown Meaning:
‘There is between charity, ● Shows
● New
no God believers more obedienc
beginning
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● Practices and are less
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Meaning: e putting
Meaning: Arabic. people
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● ‘Fasting riches
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 during a Meaning: ● Purificati Perform
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call to testify ● ‘And mind of throwing
prayer that (especiall bodily 7 pebbles
● Said Muham y) those desires, at the 3
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waking the establish ning in Mina
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● Recited Come to regular ss and times in a
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Muslim's prayer Qur’an times direction
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● A ● There ● Establish the Ka’ba Walk 7
declaratio are ed by and times
n of their positions Muhamm retrace between
most used for ad in the steps of Safa and
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belief on a mat and ad.
● Celebrate and are Sunna ● 7 times
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Religions of Ancient Origin (SHINTO)

Origins of the universe

● Shinto is a religion with Ancient beginnings. This animistic belief system was already present in
Japan by 500BCE.
● Shinto creation stories tell of the history and lives of the “Kami” (deities)
● The story is told that the heaven and earth were made up of In and Yo, who formed an egg-
shaped mass without clear limitations.
● Heaven was formed by drawing out the cleaner, more pure part that rose to the top, while the
rest settled down to be the earth.
● The earth required more work because of its impurities and so took longer to develop than
heaven.
● Following this, 8 deities formed. A reed that sprouted from the earth became the god Kuni-toko-
tachi no Mikoto. Next, 7 more generations of male and female kami were born.
● First Kuni no sa-tsuchi no Mikoto and Toyo-kumi-nu no Mikoto, both pure males, were born.
Then came:

Uhiji-ni no Mikoto, Suhiji-ni no Mikoto, Oho-to nochi no Mikoto, Oho-to mahe no Mikoto, Izanagi no
Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto.

● When a divine couple, Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto descended from heaven, their
union produced the islands of Japan becoming the parents of the kami. Their children became
the deities of the various Japanese clans.
● One of their daughters, Amaterasu Omikami (the sun goddess), became the dominant deity
where it is said that she gave birth to the first emperor and is therefore the ancestress of the
imperial family of Japan. Her descendents unified the country. Her shrine is called Jingu and is
at Ise.
● Her brother Susano came down from heaven and roamed throughout the earth. He is famous
for killing a great evil serpent.

Principal beliefs

● Kami - “god” or “gods”, deities or spirits. The Kami are the Shinto deities.
 ● Kami must be understood through actual experience - not captured through words.
● Believers revere “musuhi”, the Kamis’ creative and harmonising powers. They aspire to have
“makoto”, sincerity or true heart. This is regarded as the way or will of Kami.
● The priests preside over rituals and ceremonies after first purifying themselves by bathing,
abstinence from sex and certain foods.
● All life comes from the kami and humans are children of the kami. Nature spirits - animism and
polytheism like indigenous people.
● Unlike most other religions, Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of
religious law and only a very loosely-organised priesthood.
● By presiding over rituals, the priests meditate with the kami to bring harmony between people
and nature.
● Shinto doesn’t have a fully developed theology nor a moral codes. Shintoists generally follow
the law of Confucianism.
● Their ancestors are deeply revered and worshipped.
● There are “Four Affirmations” in Shinto:

Tradition and family Love of nature Physical cleanliness Festival and

ceremonies
They must be Kami reside in nature. Ablutions must be “Matsuri”. The joyful
honoured. They are Most shrines are built carried out before occasions with lots of
the main mechanism in special places e.g. prayers or when colour and activity.
by which traditions are the groves of trees, approaching a shrine. Worship and honour
preserved. The main beside a waterfall or at Purity is at the heart of given to the Kami and
celebrations relate to the edge of a village. the understanding of ancestral spirits. It
birth and marriage. Nature is sacred, to be good and evil. brings the community
in contact with nature together in a happy
is to be close to the and joyful manner.
Gods. Natural objects
are worshipped as
sacred spirits.

● Shinto displays a positive attitude towards life and the nation. Pollution including decay, bodily
waste that must be cleansed and split blood is a defilement. Through time, this concept of
purity developed into the modern attitude of the need for each person to keep his/her heart
pure.
● For purification to be effective, ritual words must be recited by a qualified practitioner.
● The desire for peace which was suppressed during WWII, has been restored.

Supernatural powers and deities

Shinto deities
● The Kami are spirits associated with Amaterasu:
particular places, families and communities.
● In Shinto there is no sense of the ● Is the sun goddess
supernatural or of one supreme ● The most important deity of the
 transcendent god; instead there are the Shinto religion and ruler of
kami. Takama no Hara (the high
● These spirits are not regard as gods, celestial plain)
neither are they regarded as all-powerful, ● The domain of the Kami or Spirits
each having its limitations. The kami are
seen as protectors of the different aspects Fujin
of nature, of families and of land.
● Was the god of wind
● The kami are associated with particular
● He is said to have been present in
locations such as a distinctive rock by the
the initial creation of the world
seashore, a grove of trees or a waterfall.
The kami may be the spirits of deceased Hachiman
ancestors, emperors or prominent military
figures, or the spirits of important animals ● One of the most popular deities
such as tigers. ● The patron deity of the Minamoto
● Generally the kami are benevolent but clan and of warriors
when angered they can become vengeful ● The God of War
and must be placated.

Rituals

● Traditional Shinto practice include pilgrimages to sacred shrines and celebrations of population
festivals.
● The Shinto attitude underlies many of the basic structures of family and culture and is most
readily apparent in the social life and personal motivations of the Japanese people.
● Shinto is maintained as a religion primarily by the institution’s of the family and the state not as
a separately organised independent church.
● In keeping with values, rituals should be carried out in a spirit of sincerity, cheerfulness and
purity. It is intended to satisfy the senses as well as the minds of those taking part.

Sacred
spaces: ● Prayers were offered and rites were performed at natural shrines, such as the
sacred sakaki tree; even now every Shinto shrine still has a specimen of tree.
Each family or clan had its own kami and all the members of the community
were united in a spiritual relationship as being “children of the kami”.
● Shrines don’t need to be buildings - rocks, trees and mountains can all act as
shrines, if they are special to kami. Most shrines face towards the south or the
east. The north and west are considered to be unlucky regions. In special
places of pilgrimages and worship kami can be found.
● The Japanese see shrines as both restful places filled with a sense of the
sacred and as the source of their spiritual vitality. They regard them as their
spiritual home and often attend the same shrine regularly throughout their
lives.
 ● Japanese people don’t visit shrines on a particular day each week- they go at
festival times and want the local kami to do them a favour such as a good
outcome to a surgical operation.

Kami
dana: ● Devout Shintoists will perform morning and evening rituals before the small
wooden kami dana or ‘god shelf’ in their home. The kami dana functions as an
alter on which the devotee keeps various religious artefacts and figurine of
some prominent deity, ancestor or emperor.

Purificati
on Rites ● Shinto rituals and personal practice that cleanse both body and mind. Water
and salt are commonly used as purifying agents. These rituals are always
performed at the start of Shinto religious ceremonies and before entering a
shrine.
● The concept of purification originates in the legend of the god Izanagi who
washed himself free of pollution after visiting his wife in the Land of the Dead.
● The Oharae is the ceremony of ‘great purification’ - it is a special purification
ritual that is used to remove sin and pollution form a large group. The ritual is
performed at the end of June and December in the Imperial Household and at
other shrines in order to purify the whole population.
● Shubatsu is a purification ritual in which salt is sprinkled on priests or
worshippers, or on the ground to purify it. One notable use of salt in
purification is found in Sumo wrestling when the fighters sprinkle salt around
the ring to purify it.

First
Shrine ● Hatsumiyamairi is when a newborn baby is taken to shrine to be placed under
Visit: the protection of the kami. Traditionally the baby was taken to the shrine by its
grandmother because the mother was thought to be impure form childbirth but
nowadays the child is often taken by the mother.

Shinto
Weddin ● A shinto wedding is a small-scale affair involving the couple, their family and
gs: their close friends.
● The bride normally wears a white kimono with a white scarf symbolising purity.
● The ceremony begins with ritual purification, next prayers are offered for the
couple to have good luck, happiness and the protection of the kami, then the
couple drinks sake - taking three sips each form three cups poured by the
miko and the groom reads words of commitment.
● The ceremony ends with an offering of Tamagushi and a ritual sharing of sake
by everyone present.
Shinto
funerals: ● Death is seen as impure and conflicting with the essential purity of Shinto
shrines. For the same reason, cemeteries are not built near Shinto shrines.
● The result of this is that most Japanese have Buddhist or secular funerals and
cremation is common. Shinto funerals, when they occur are called Sosai and
are largely developed from Buddhist funeral rites.
● The funerals are usually conducted by lay people not priests (because the
contact with death would be too polluting for priests) and do not take place in
shrines.

Shinto
festivals ● The word matsuri can refer to any occasion for offering thanks and praise to a
: deity at a shrine.
● Festivals centre on particular kami, who are treated as the guests of honour at
the event, hence the meaning to ‘entertain’ or to ‘serve’
● The processions often feature a mikoshi, a ‘divine palanquin’, used to carry a
kami. This is a yearly festival called Rei-sai.
● The mikoshi is often described as a portable altar or portable shrine. The
procession of the mikoshi is effectively a visit by the kami to the local
community that is devoted to them and is thought to confer a blessing on that
community.

Significance:

● Importance of the ritual is simply the ritual itself.

● Taking part in a series of actions or behaviours is a religious act that ‘does’ religion, provides a
holistic religious experience and strengthens the participants’ relationship with the kami and
with other members of the community
● Taking part in certain ceremonies teaches the participants ethics or taking part in a ceremony
which asks the kami for a favour or thanks
● Teaches the participants that they can have a relationship with the spiritual elements of the
world.

Influence in the society

Influence on Japan

● In the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries

● Was the established state religion of Japan
● Believed the emperors of Japan were the descendants of the first Emperor (Amaterasu’s
grandson) and the native Japanese people were descendants of the Kami
● Brought forth worshipping of all creation
● It was a polytheistic religion/society
● Formed through reading, storytelling and myths
● Was a holistic religion (engaging with all the senses) which united everyone due to similarities
● Independent religion for people to find their inner spirituality and share a worldview.
 ● Believe Kami spirits were in the surroundings, therefore formed a uniting appreciation of all
nature and care for the environment.
● Encourages optimism and provides peace within their own soul as well as bringing the
community together at ritual shrines to practice these together.
● Shinto was also reason for spiritual festivals such

National

● Challenge the beliefs of other religious cultures

● They are a very accepting religion, therefore accept the beliefs of other religions allows them to
fit together understandingly and without conflicts.

Taboos

● Taboo is a social or religious custom prohibiting/restricting a particular practice or forbidding

association with a particular person, place, or thing.
● This includes impurity or spiritual pollution which repulse the kami
● Blood, sickness and death are regarded to be pollution (therefore they got the buddhists to do
their dirty work)
● Ritual purification (harai) such as fasting, recitation of scriptures, walking on hot coals or simply
washing can get rid of spiritual pollution.

Seppuku

● Having profound social disgrace is a motive for seppuku ( harakiri), which is the practice of ritual
suicide.
● Performed by those who think they’ve failed to maintain standards and by doing Seppuku they
hope to demonstrate loyalty, sincerity, to redeem their honour and achieve perpetual (never
ending) life

Kamikaze were a group of Japanese soldiers who purposely crashed their planes into allied naval
vessel. Due to their sacrificial death they hoped to earn eternal life in the kami world as heroes.
The role of women

● Women ruled tribes as shaman’s who united religious functions and worked as administrators.
● Successors of female shamans are found in miko or female shrine attendants.

Cultural Authority
Shrine Shintoism Sect Shintoism
- The majority of shinto. - The minority.
- They would practice devotion at - They are a charismatic group who
public shrines and were keen on the arise in social crisis and recognise
safety and happiness of people by apocalyptic signs.
the blessings by the kami when - One of the largest Sects is the
human politics coincided. Tenrikyo Sect.
Human search for meaning

● Not a way of explaining the world as it has no god, no founder and no sense of exclusivity
(being hard to access)
● The purpose of shinto is to accept the validity of other religions
● They are based on acceptance and see everyone as good. Though they have no text of proper
morals, they believe that in order to please the kami they must do no harm and their actions
must only benefit others.
● Emphasis is placed on right practice, sensibility and attitude.
● They have a series of beliefs and practices associated with their shrines in order to
communicate with the kami spirits.
● Shinto is a grassroot religion, where individuals can identify closely with.

Religion in Australia pre-1945

Arrival and establishment of Christianity and TWO other religious traditions in Australia
Christianity

● Coming onto the shores at Sydney Cove on 26th January 1788 were followers of the Church of
England, Catholics, Methodists, presbyterians, Jews, deists, agnostics and unbelievers. The
arrival of Christianity in Australia is linked to the colonisation of Australia by the British.
● Christianity first arrived in Australia 1788 with the first fleet part of the English penal colony of
NSW.
● The officials in the party were mostly English and the Church of England was regarded as the
established religion of NSW.
● For the first years of colonisation, the Church of England was the dominant denomination and
was closely linked with the British government.
● Rev. Richard Johnson, a minister of the Church of England was the first chaplain to the colony.
● The history of political and religious divide between the English and the Irish ensured that the
bitter rivalry continued to affect the life of the colony (Sectarianism) since the days of the
reformation. It was not only religious differences but because England had invaded and ruled
Ireland since the 16th century.
● Life in the colony was harsh. Many of its inhabitants were unruly and harsh punishments were
commonly used to keep the convicts under control.
● The first governor, Arthur Phillip, supported the Church of England insisting that all convicts, no
matter what beliefs, should attend that church services on Sunday. Marriages in the colony
were not considered valid unless performed and recorded by a Church of England clergyman.
Many refused to legalise’ their union.
● Early colonial Australia was marked by this imported sectarianism and by swings between
official tolerance and intolerance.
● Catholic and Jewish convicts were given no opportunity to express their faiths. Non-conformists
were ignored.
● Governor Macquarie’s replacement in 1821, Thomas Brisbane was mainly supportive of the
Church of England. He broke the monopoly on government gains giving assistance to Catholic
 and Methodists ministries to help reduce the ‘barbarous ignorance and total want of education’
of convicts.
● Governor Darling in NSW and Governor Arthur in Tasmania continued this policy until 1836
when Governor Bourke accepted the passage of the Church Act, providing government
subsidies for salaries and church buildings becoming the 4 officially recognised Christian
denominations in Australia: Church of England, Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian.
● The first Australian Catholic mass was celebrated in the new colony in 1803 carried out by Fr.
John Dixon who was also a convict. He was banned by the governor from further priestly
duties.
● Church of Rome (Roman Catholic)
● Australian beginnings - the Catholic church was Irish convicts. They were there because of
their poverty and English oppression -> rebellion.
● Irish Catholic were give more piety than others in the colony. Father John Therry became
advisor, banker and confidant of the Irish Catholic community. His many battles with the
authorities eventually lead to the loss of his official commission in 1825.
● In the 1860s, 12 religious orders entered Australian dioceses to set up schools, hospitals and
hostels, Good Samaritan sisters (1857) and the Sisters of St. Joseph (1866).

● Non-conformist churches (Congregationalists and Methodists)

● A number of missionaries from the Congregationalist Church - sponsored London Missionary
Society arrived in NSW in 1798 having fled unrest in the Pacific Islands. They assisted Samuel
Marsden, the colony’s 2nd Church of England chaplain to start the Christian institutions in
Australia.
● Methodist ministers were active in Australia from the early 19th century. The lack of clergy
didn’t hold back Methodism. All streams of Methodism had a strong commitment to evangelism
as well as missionary work in Aus. and Pacific.
● Methodists were heavily involved in education, hospitals, homes for the aged and other social
welfare concerns. The Methodist denomination disappeared in 1976 when Uniting Church was
formed carrying most beliefs and concerns.
● Presbyterians or Church of Scotland
● The 1st Presbyterian service in Aus held in 1975 by Thomas Muir, a Scottish elder and convict.
● John Dunmore Lang arrived in NSW in 1823. He demanded that privileges extended by the
colonial gov to the Church of England should be applied to his church.
● 1830 - Lang instituted a migration program to bring Scottish tradesmen to Australia. He
sponsored a significant number of Presbyterians to emigrate to Aus to escape the poverty of
Scotland and ensure a Protestant ‘character’ to NSW.
● Lutherans
● South Aus founded without convicts in 1836 attracting many who had deep religious
convictions and chafed religious discrimination in Europe.
● It was a haven for Lutherans escaping religious persecution in Germany.
● 1837 - Lutheran missionaries worked with Indigenous people in Qld, South Aus and NT
spreading to PNG in 1886.
 ● Greek Orthodox
● Sydney Gazette of 1818 mentioned Greek Orthodox adherents in Eastern Aus.
● Greek nationals took part in the gold rushes and by the end of the 19th century, Orthodox
communities were in Sydney and Melbourne.
Judaism
● Judaism has been in Aus since the First
Fleet.
● By 1820, there were several hundred Jewish
convicts. Many came in the late 1820s as
free settlers, many merchants and organised
worship in 1828 in a private house and in
1844, worshipped in a synagogue in York St,
Sydney.
● During the 1830s, services were held in
homes such as Phillip Joseph Cohen who
was authorised to perform Jewish marriages.
● The 1st Jewish institution, the Chevra
Kadisha (or Jewish Burial Society) in 1817.
Also in 1817, the first minyan which is a
quorum of 10 Jewish men were formed.
● As Jews migrated to other colonies, by the
1840s there were congregation worshipping
in Hobart, Launceston, Melbourne and
Adelaide.
● With many Jews taking part in Australian
gold rushes especially in Victoria (1843),
congregations were established in 1864 in
Brisbane and 1892 in Perth.
● Western Australia had no organised Jewish
community developed until the end of the
19th century even though Jews had lived
there since 1829 onwards.
● Anti-Semitic programs in Eastern Europe
and Russia (1890s) & the Nazi regime’s
attempt to exterminate Jews in Europe ->
increase of emigration to Aus peaking in the
1930s and late 1940s.
Islam
● Islam could’ve reached Aus with
the Macassan trepang fishers
from Indonesia or contact might
be older in the 16th century
visiting Western Aus before
1788.
● They buried their dead here and
some practices were observed
by local Aborigines but their
beliefs didn’t have a great
impact.
● Pakistani, Afghani and Turkish
(Afghans and Muslims) camel
drivers were brought to Aus in
the 2nd half of the 19th century
to assist in opening up the
inland.
● Camel transportation → seen
as effective method of
traveling the vast desert area
of aus interior.
● Their work on the overland
telegraph line (completed in
1861) is commemorated by the
central Australian train - the
Ghan.
● Many of these Muslims returned
to their own countries at the end
of the 19th century to rejoin their
families.
● In the 1920s, there was the end
of the camel transport industry
-> Muslims HAD to leave
Australia.
● They built the first Aus mosques
in Adelaide about 1895, Perth
 1905 and later in Broken Hill and
Alice Springs.

Issues related to the development of Christianity in Australia pre-1945:

● Sectarianism
● Sectarianism refers to rivalry or division along religious lines. This may lead to violence,
discrimination and persecution.
● Sectarianism may be due to social and political reasons as well as religious reasons.
● In 1788 (the first fleet) there war rivalry and bitterness between the church of England and the
Catholics in England and Ireland.
● The church of England enjoyed many privileges
● Stemmed from two main sources:
● Protestant reformation
● 16th century
● Bitterness between Catholics and Protestants in all walks of life
● English occupation of Ireland
● A political issue however religion featured strongly, thus, sectarianism
● With establishment of the colony in NSW sectarianism was a major issue as the Church of
England was the main religion and Catholics were a small minority who were treated harshly.
● Everybody (regardless of religion) was expected to attend the Church of England Sunday
worship.
● Catholics were not permitted to have a priest as the Church of England feared this would bring
Sedition. (as from the 1795 uprising led by Irish Catholic clergy)
● Castle hill rebellion took place in 1804
● Irish Catholics were seen as ‘scum’, uneducated, immoral (de-facto relationships) and
irreligious (refusing to be baptised)
● Catholics wanted to establish Catholic schools but the government made it difficult. Though
Catholic’s pushed forward.
● Employment problems in the early 1900’s where businesses were run by Protestants and
employers didn’t trust Catholics.
● Discrimination of Catholics regarding employment. This was also advertised as: ‘Catholics
need not apply’
● The public service didn’t do this as many Catholics worked there. Thus, Catholic schools held
an annual public service examination to provide secure employment.
● Conscription
● Catholics and Protestants fought over conscription of WWI.
● Government wanted conscription, though for it to happen there needed to be a successful
referendum.
● Protestants = for conscription
● Catholics = against conscription (though also some Protestants as Catholics were only 10%)
● Softening of sectarian rivalry during the great depression after WWI & WWII
Social welfare

● Major focus within religion during the 21st century, developed 19th century.
● Provided by Christian churches (1788-1945)
● Allows spiritual guidance and physical needs
● Assisted immigration scheme of Irish because of the Irish famine (1850’s)

Educat
ion ● Sought to assist disadvantaged as it is Christian ethos
● 1866 by Mary Mackillop and Father Julian Tennison Woods founded Order of
St Joseph to teach children
● Public Instruction Act allowed Catholic schools to survive.
● Was expensive though increase of free settlers with religions made this more
popular
● Prior 1862: church provides bulk of education
● (1825) School Estate Corporation Charter gave Anglican church 1/7 land grants
aka. Unfair
● (1836) Church Act promoted building of churches
● Smaller denominations missed out
● Government realised importance of religion through its morality, education and
social welfare.
● Church act benefits all denominations as the Church of England was no longer
the established church.
● Congregationalists disagreed as they believed education should be secular
(seperate from religion)
● (1862) Public Institutions act removed state aid and made it free secular
education aka. Compulsory
● Established Catholic Education System and the Pope Pius IX rejected secular
education
● Schools taught by nuns
● By the 20th century: low fee Catholic schools (thx Mary Mackillop)

● Social services from Catholics

Sisters of Charity (1838)

● professional nurses responsible for pastoral care at a
Female factory that helped women and children
● Visited hospitals, prisons, Catholic orphanages, taught at
schools, ran education and visited homes.
● Established St Vincent’s Hospital (1857) for the sick/poor
regardless of religion, providing a refutation of sectarianism
 ● Opened St Vincent’s school for Girls (1858)

The Friendly Brothers of

St Patrick (1854)
● Taken over by St Vincent de Paul society
● Provides assistance for the poor, homeless and aged.
● Organises visits to hospital and prison
● Gold rush caused population to increase
● Established their first orphanage in 1857 including
classrooms and outhouses to teach trades.

Order of the Good

Samaritan (1857)
● Established by nuns to work with prostitutes
● Supplied for the poor with food and clothing, education and
pastoral care
● Duty to look after the poor and dispossessed after Pope
Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical.

Social services from Protestants

● Increased social services for the needs of Australians

The Benevolent Society of

NSW (1817) ● Followed the society for promoting christian knowledge and
benevolence
● Still existing and provide for needs of community
● Volunteer district nursing
● Opened the first asylum for the poor, blind, aged and infirm
● Established first Australian maternity hospital (1866)
● Lobbed for free legal aid and old age pension

Anglicare (1815)
● Worked with local parishes to provide social welfare.

Sydney Rescue Work

Society (1882) ● Aimed to help the poor, women and children.

Central Methodist Mission

(1884) ● To combine social action with the gospel

● (1901) Archdeacon Boyce made sure slums were cleared, pensions were provisioned and
changes to labour laws were made. He also established a scheme to help unemployed men
with homes.

The contribution of ONE religious tradition in Australia to each of the following pre-1945:
Rural and outback communities
 ● Christian Ethos
● Christian denominations have traditionally recognised that rural and outback communities are
placed at a distinct disadvantage because they lack access to many services available in the
urban centres.
● The role of Christianity in rural and outback communities pre-1945 was mixed and sectarian in
nature.

Bush
Brotherh ● One of the most significant chaplaincy movements to emerge in the 19th
oods century was the Anglican ministry in remote country areas.
● Scattered parishes, the vastness of the Australian continent and the slowness
of the Church of England authorities to create bishoprics meant that there was
little if any church supervision in the bush.
● The brotherhood's relied on clergy recruited from England.
● The St. Andrew’s Bush Brotherhood was established in 1897 in Longreach,
Queensland by Nathaniel Dawe.
● There were a number of different orders of Bush Brothers but all operated on a
similar basis of an almost monastic life, committed to:
● Temporary vows of poverty, chastity and obedience
● Periodic returns from the bush to a community house for spiritual
replenishment
● Obedience to a warden or principal (often a bishop)
● The duties included:
● Giving religious instruction in schools
● Holding services
● Administering sacraments.

Bush
Church ● Was an attempt by the evangelical Sydney Anglicans to capture the dioceses
Aid from the influence of the bush brotherhoods with their strongly Anglo-Catholic
Society stance.
● Social services (such as education) were entirely under the control of Catholic
nuns and brother, who had established convent schools in places the married
Anglicans clergy had refused to go.
● A mission to the bush was also an escape route for conservative Sydney
evangelicals, who besieged by the increasingly liberalising forces around them.
● The BCA was launched on May 26, 1919 taking over places where the
brotherhoods had failed, particularly the settled rural areas and townships.
● The BCA developed a reputation for health-care services, its hostels for young
people and its innovative use of aeroplanes.

Australia
n Inland ● Founded by Presbyterian Minister John FLynn who went on a mission to
Mission shearers in 1909 and in 1912.
 ● The organisation brought a range of religious, health, pastoral and other
services for Europeans in outback Australian.
● Flynn used the modern inventions of the wireless and the aeroplane to
establish the Flying Doctor Service in late 1920s to provide reliable medical
assistance for people in medical ned in remote areas.
● The School of Air was an offshoot of the introduction of the wireless in the
bush, providing education to remote areas.
● As the successor in the Uniting Church to the Australian Inland Mission,
Frontier services has sought to work with and empower communities and
individuals to overcome the disadvantages of living in remote locations for
more than 100 years

Education

● Critical Issue
● Education was critical issue for all religious groups but particularly for the Catholics who felt
disadvantaged in the colony. The sectarian tension allowed Catholics to create an educational
system which allowed them to maintain their values.
● The critical effect of Christian on education up to 1945 can be seen by examining 3 key pieces
of legislation

School
Estates ● Was instituted with the intent of providing resources exclusively for Church of
Corporat England schools and churches and thus reinforcing the Church of England as
ion the established Church
Charter ● Its provisions were that if all colonial land grants were to be reserved for
(1825) Church of England and churches.
● Achieved its purpose with the Church of England obtaining large areas of land
under the patronage of the colonial government
● Other denominations were concerned that the legislation made no provision
for their efforts in educating their children

Church
Act ● Establish in 1836 by Governor Burke
(1836) ● Provided a “pound for pound” subsidy for all religious groups - every pound
raised by the denomination for its schools the government would contribute
the same amount
● Was put in place to continue the dominance held by the Church of England
because they had the greatest capacity to raise the money.
● The immediate effects were as intended:
● The Church of England gaining the greatest benefit due to its greater capacity
to raise funds from its communities
● The long-term result of this legislation was however, unexpected:
● This was because the Catholics through a great deal of determination,
 organisation and sacrifice managed to take advantage of the provisions of the
Church Act
● The government was pressured to change legislation so that Catholics could
not take advantage
● The act contributed to the rural vs. urban class divide because churches in
rural areas, being smaller in number, were less able to raise such funds and
subsequently received fewer benefits.

Public
Instructi ● Act was introduced in 1880 by Premier Henry Parkes
on Act ● Provided for an education which was free, compulsory and secular thus
formalising public education
● Hardships occurred as Catholics were over represented in the poorer classes
which meant they did not have the same resources as the Church of England
to maintain their system of education
● The Catholic School System only survived as a result of the dedication from
those in religious orders.

● Mary Mackillop
● Co-founded the Catholic educational facilities with father Julian Tenison Woods, the Sisters of
St Joseph who were devoted to caring for and teaching disadvantaged children in South
Australia in the mid-19th century.
● Mary Mackillop won papal support for her independence from interference by the Australian
bishops
● Her greatness was recognised in her beatification in 1995 and in 2010, her canonisation to be
Saint Mary of the Cross, Australia’s 1st Catholic Saint
● During these years, prior to 1945, many other Christian denominations also developed schools,
many of which continue as significant independent schools today. To provide education for
rural and outback communities a number of these schools included boarding houses for
students.

Public Morality

● Refers to the attempts made by the more conservative elements within Christian
denominations to enforce certain moral values through legislation.
● Despite the well intended attempts at social control, public morality legislation was not always
successful and in fact, it has contributed to society’s ambivalent attitude towards religion

Sabbataria
nism ● The fact that the colony was set up with the Church of England as the
established religion provided for the strong influence in the colony and the
demand for Sabbath observance
● The government’s requirement of Sabbath observance was the compulsory
attendance of Church of England services for all convicts both English and
 Irish
● The intention of this requirement was to seek to improve the moral character
of the convicts
● The strong stance of Sabbath observance supported by the evangelical
groups of Christians resulted in legislation abolishing recreational activities
along with servile and commercial labour on Sundays.

Sexual
Morality ● Christianity had a very significant and clearly identifiable effect concerning
sexual morality
● There was a widespread opposition from all Christian denominations
towards extramarital relationships, homosexuality and divorce.
● With unified religious opposition to these perceived instances of immorality it
is not surprising that laws governing sexual morality were quite strict and
divorce laws ensured that it was difficult to terminate a marriage in any
circumstances

Temperan
ce ● Mostly sponsored by the desire of Protestant denominations who wished to
Movement reduce alcohol consumption
● Some conservative elements believed that total abstinence was necessary,
calling upon men to take a pledge to abstain from alcohol
● Women were often used as sponsors of the movement as they were most
frequently victims of alcohol related problems
● Despite the influence, legislation to prohibit the selling of liquor in Australia
was never achieved as the Church of England and Catholic Church
authorities generally saw no harm of the drinking alcohol, in moderation

Gambling
● Christianity was influential in the banning of gambling in early Australian
society because gain by methods other than honest labour was denounced
by most Christian denominations
● The Catholic Church, however, did not hold any moral objections to
gambling providing that it was not excessive

Censorshi
ps ● Christian attempts to control ideas can also be seen in the troubled history
of censorship
● The prohibition of the sale of certain books and magazines, the banning of
some plays and films and the cutting of the text of various plays grew out of
the Christian conviction that were certain forms of behaviour that were
intrinsically corrupt or blasphemous and that should not be published,
performed or broadcast
● In general these attempts at social control, often referred to as wowserism which were viewed
negatively and led to gradual lessening of religious influence on society.
● The public morality debates also heightened the religious tensions between the Church of
England, The Catholic Church and the conservative Protestant denominations in early
Australian society