Transistor fundamentals

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of three differently doped regions. These can
have the configuration of n-p-n or p-n-p and the various layers can either be parallel or
perpendicular to the surface. A transistor is an example of a 3 terminal 2 junction device. The
name transistor is derived from the term transfer resistance. The current (voltage) through two
terminals is controlled by the current (voltage) through another pair of terminals. Thus, a
transistor essentially acts as a switch. Another feature of the transistor is the ability to amplify a
signal between one pair of terminals by using an input signal at another pair of terminals. Thus, a
transistor can also act as an amplifier.
The 3 terminals of the NPN transistor are explained briefly:

(i) Emitter: It is a heavily doped region with moderate area. The emitter junction of
NPN transistor is usually kept forward biased when used as amplifier and supplies
electrons to its junction with the base while the emitter of NPN transistor supplies
electrons.
(ii) Base: It is lightly doped region with smallest area through which electrons pass from
the emitter to collector. The base-emitter junction is forward biased and allows low
resistance to the emitter circuit while the base-collector junction is reverse biased
and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.
(iii) Collector: It is a moderately doped region with largest area .It is a terminal which
basically collect electrons. The collector junction is always reverse biased when
transistor is used as amplifier and its function is to remove charges from its junction
with the base. The collector junction of the NPN transistor is reverse biased and
receives electron charges that flow in the outer circuit
A transistor consists of two p-n junctions, each with its own depletion region.
1. Emitter-base junction(JE) - since the emitter is usually heavily doped, the depletion region lies
almost entirely in the base.
2. Base-collector junction(JC)- the depletion region at this junction is usually divided between
base
and collector, since they are comparably doped.
Symbols of transistor are as shown below:-

There are three different configurations in which the BJT can function - common base, common
emitter, and common collector. The circuit connections are summarized as below-

Common base (CB) configuration

In this configuration the base is held common between the emitter and collector. This
arrangement is summarized in figure. Looking at the circuit configuration, the emitter base
junction is forward biased while the collector base junction is reverse biased.

In a NPN transistor electrons, which are the majority carriers in the emitter, are injected into the
base. This constitutes the emitter current, IE. These holes become minority carriers in the base,
since it is doped p type. Some of these holes recombine with the electrons in the base. Hence,
electrons are injected into the base to compensate for that and this forms the base current, IB.
The base collector junction is reverse biased so that the electrons that do not recombine in the
base are swept into the collector and form the collector current, Ic. This current is due to
electron drift as the flow is due to the applied electric field. The ratio of the collector current to
the emitter current is called the current gain or the current transfer ratio(α). Typical values of α
are 0.99 to 0.999, i.e. only a small fraction is lost to recombination in the base. This is a
consequence of the fact that the base region is physically thin and also lightly doped, so that the
hole diffusion length is high. The total current in the circuit should be balanced, so that
IE = IC + IB.
The transistor action arises in the CB configuration when the collector-base voltage (VCB) is
higher than the emitter-base voltage (VEB). This leads to a net power gain in the device. A BJT is
an example of a current controlled device since the current in the output circuit is controlled by
the current and voltage in the input circuit.
Common emitter (CE) configuration
The circuit diagram for the CE configuration is summarized in figure. In this configuration, the
emitter-base junction is forward biased. The base current is the input current and the collector
current is the output. Hence, the transistor acts as a amplifier since a small base current is
amplified into a larger collector current. This amplification is given by the current transfer ratio
(β). If a time varying signal is applied to the base the amplified signal at the collector has the
same time variation.

Transistor Static Characteristics:

There are the curves which represents relationship between different d.c. currents
and voltages of a transistor. The three important characteristics of a transistor are:
1. Input characteristic,
2. Output characteristic
 (a) Input Characteristic
It shows how IE varies with VBE when voltage VCB is held constant. First, voltage VCB is
adjusted to a suitable value with the help of R 1 . Next, voltage VBE is increased in a
number of discrete steps and corresponding values of I E are noted from the
milliammeter. When plotted, we get the input characteristic shown in Fig. below,
one for Ge and the other for Si. Both curves are exactly similar to the forward
characteristic of a PN diode.

(b) Output Characteristic

It shows the way IC varies with VCB when IE is held constant. First, movable contact,
on R2 is changed to get a suitable value of V BE and hence that of IE. While keeping IE
constant at this value, VCB is increased from zero in a number of steps and the
corresponding collector current IC that flows is noted. Next, VCB is reduced back to
zero, IE is increased to a value a little higher than before and the whole procedure
is repeated. In this way, whole family of curves is obtained.

Common Emitter Test Circuit

The static characteristics of an NPN transistor connected in CE configuration may
be determined by the use of circuit diagram shown in Fig. below.
(a) Input Characteristic
It shows how IB varies with changes in VBE when VCE is held constant at a particular
value.

(b) Output or Collector Characteristic

It indicates the way in which IC varies with changes in VCE when IB is held constant.
It is seen that as VCE increases from zero, IC rapidly increases to a near saturation
level for a fixed value of IB. a small amount of collector current flows even when I B
= 0. It is called ICEO. Since main collector current is zero, the transistor is said to be
cut-off. If VCE is allowed to increase too far, C/B junction completely breaks down
and due to this avalanche breakdown, IC increases rapidly and may cause damage
to the transistor. When VCE has very low value (ideally zero), the transistor is said to
be saturated and it operates in the saturation region of the characteristic. Here,
change in IB does not produce a corresponding change in IC.