STATE OF ART OF COCOON PRODUCTION

AND ITS ECONOMICS

 CHAPTER I
STATE OF ART OF COCOON PRODUCTION AND ITS ECONOMICS

INTRODUCTION

Southern part of India enjoys favorable climatic conditions for rearing the
silkworm Bombyx mori L throughout the year. In west Bengal the multivoltine silkworm
rearing is practiced even under adverse conditions of temperature and humidity. In the
temperate regions of Jammu and Kashmir, the rearing of silkworm is practiced once in
year.

Silkworm rearing in India

India has emerged as the world‟s second largest producer of silk in the world and
is close to developing international grade silk (Table I). India's progress on the silk front
has been spectacular India continues to be the major producer of silk in the world and
has the distinction of producing all the four varieties of natural silk. Sericulture is spread
over some 60,000 villages throughout the sub continent but is mostly concentrated in
south India among three states viz. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu almost
raising 90% of mulberry silk and west Bengal and Kashmir and other few states
contributing rest of 10%. Rearing practices in India are still traditional and rearers still
use their age-old implements and practices. There is however, a growing awareness
among rearers about the new technologies. In India, polyvoltine silkworms were reared
earlier and the rearing operations begin with the preparation of eggs for hatching or
incubation and linger up to harvesting cocoons. In case of multivoltines the period of
incubation commences immediately after the eggs are laid.

The second phase is brushing, which means separating worms using a feather.
When the eggs change colour before hatching a fine net is spread over them and chopped
mulberry leaves are spread over them. On hatching the ants crawl on to the soft net to eat
the mulberry. A rearer lifts the net and with feather brushed them into the tray. Earlier
four to five feedings per day are of given in regular intervals. Recently the farmers are
practicing two to three feedings per day. The rearers uses tender leaves to feed newborn
worms and when the larvae grow, mature leaves are fed. Central Silk Board (CSB)

11
popularizes young silkworm rearing in south India by establishing chawki rearing centers
(CRC) especially for bivoltine rearing. Rearing of silkworms from 3rd age up to spinning
is called late age rearing. Each stage of silkworm fed with required type and quality of
mulberry leaf. In recent times the late age silkworm reared on rearing racks and mulberry
shoots are given as feeding. This system of rearing is termed as shoot rearing.

Sericulture in India is mostly confined to tropical zone and rearing polyvoltine

oriented hybrids producing low quality silk. The bivoltine rearing is very limited to the
foothills of Himalayas where salubrious climatic conditions are available throughout the
year. The bivoltine strains were utilized mostly as a male component for the preparation
of cross breeds with polyvoltine female parent in the Southern/Eastern part of India
where major silk production is available. The resultant hybrids are known for better
survival and contributing more than 90% of the total cocoon production in India (Rama
Mohan Rao and Kamble, 2009). The silk obtained from multivoltine x bivoltine hybrids
is far from satisfactory and not of international standards, thus do not match the superior
quality of silk produced by bivoltine silkworm strains (Rama Mohan Rao et al., 2012).
Several efforts were made earlier in India to evolve bivoltine breeds for commercial
exploitation. In fact, systematic breeding of bivoltine races was initiated by Harada
(1954) at Kalimpong and isolated a promising bivoltine breed „Kalimpong A‟ popularly
known as KA. Later bivoltine programmes were also initiated from the hybrids obtained
from Japan and isolated three bivoltine breeds namely NB4D2, NB18 and NB7 at
Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Mysore ( Krishnaswami,
1988). Though they are gifted with high survival, they could not be exploited
commercially to a large extent as the raw silk recovery remained low (14-15%) in the
hybrid (Datta, 1984). But those were utilized as male components extensively with
locally available polyvoltine race Pure Mysore (PM) in the preparation of cross breed
layings.

More emphasis was given under Japan International Co-Operation Agency

(JICA) aided Bivoltine Sericulture Technology Development Project during 90s and
quite a good number of highly productive bivoltine hybrids (shell% >22%) were
evolved, by utilizing commercial hybrids from Japan and also bivoltine breeds available
at CSR&TI, Mysore. During the course of breeding, high raw silk recovery, robustness
and production of cocoons with high raw silk quality parameters were taken into
12
consideration and evolved the breeds like CSR2, CSR4, CSR5 and CSR6 were released
to the field to rear in favorable seasons (Datta et al., 2001) and their large scale rearing
results indicated an average yield of 68.98 /kg /100dfls (Nataraj et al., 2002).

Silkworm rearing in Andhra Pradesh

Bulk of the silk worm rearings is of the cross breed (Pure Mysore x CSR2) a
cross between female of indigenous multivoltine breed Pure Mysore and male of newly
developed bivoltine breed CSR2. The entire mulberry cultivated under irrigated
conditions.

Mulberry is cultivated under irrigated conditions with high yielding varieties like
V1, S13, S35, M5 etc., In Andhra Pradesh, 826.510 lakhs of silkworm seed were reared,
of which 52,291 lakhs dfls were produced by state Government grainages, 24.76 lakh
dfls were produced from silkworm Seed Production centers of Central Silk Board and
8.879 lakh seed were produced by private licensed seed producers during 2012-13. A
large number of seed (826.510 Lakhs) were procured from other states/sources. A
quantity of 1680.253 MT of bivoltine seed were produced during 2012-13 and produced
258.50 MT of bivoltine and 6291.106MT multivoltine raw. In the recent years many
farmers of Andhra Pradesh are very receptive for implementation of improved
technologies. Hitherto the farmers were reluctant to take up bivoltine production because
of inherent problems faced by the farmers. For development of bivoltine sericulture,
serious efforts are made through the implementation of different projects. To popularize
and promote bivoltine silkworm rearing, Central Silk Board has implemented Bivoltine
Sericulture Technology Development Project under guidance of Japanese scientists. In
the second phase Popularization, promotion of practical Bivoltine Sericulture
Technology, new technologies were demonstrated with selected farmers identified under
technical service centers located in different pockets of Andhra Pradesh.

The intensive R& D efforts of Central and State research Institutes have
contributed to the sustainable and viable sericulture in the state. The impact of new
technologies has boosted the quality and quantity of cocoons produced in addition to the
increased earnings of the farmers which in turn enhance the rural economy. These efforts
have contributed to the increase in productivity per unit area besides cost benefit ratio.
Even though, there is over all improvement in quantity and quality of cocoons in the
13
state, there exists wide gap between the potential and the actual yields realized in the
farmer‟s field.

Silkworm rearing in Anatapur District

The Anantapur district is a drought prone area though it is a traditional sericulture

are due to lack of ground water the mulberry acreage has not brought upto the
expectations. However due to implementation of Catalytic Development Programme
(CDP) and the Cluster Promotion Programme (CPP) with the support of Central silk
Board mulberry acreage was stabilized as the productivity levels have gone up and the
cost of production has come down substantially.

Most of the farmers in the study area of Anantapur conduct multivoltine x

bivoltine (PM x CSR2), as this hybrid is better suited to the prevailing conditions of the
district. However, those farmers who are having quality mulberry leaves and good
rearing houses conduct bivoltine silkworm rearings of CSR2 × CSR4 the hybrid
developed by CSR&TI. Mysore. Majority of silkworm rearers in Anantapur district
procure chawki larvae and conduct silkworm rearings. In Anantapur the quality clubs
functioned as Chawki Rearing Centers (CRC). Women are involved in the CRC and it
was found that where there is women involvement, the sericultural crops have been
successful due to their great involvement in work (Vijayakumari, 2007).

Majority of silkworm rearers in Anantapur conduct late age rearings (from 3rd to
final age) in shoot rearing stands. In this district there are 3750 shoot rearing houses.
Silkworm rearing is conducted in 1335 villages by 21000 farmers and the cocoon
productivity in the district is 57.0 kg/100dfls during 2012-213. The present investigation
is carried out to provide an analysis of the existing system of cocoon production and its
economics.

Profile of the study area

Andhra Pradesh is the second largest producer of mulberry silk (6550 MT) in this
country after Karnataka (8219MT) as per 2012-13 statistics. Sericulture has been
accepted as sustainable economic activity and is practiced in all most all the districts of
Andhra Pradesh. However, Chittoor and Anantapur districts of Rayalaseema region
adjacent to Karnataka contributed to more than 80% total raw silk production in the state
14
(Vijayakumari, 2007). The study was conducted in Anantapur district. Andhra Pradesh is
situated in the tropical zone and lies between 12 40‟ and 19 50‟ N and longitude 76 45‟
and 84 40‟ E. The state has a geographic area of 24.51 million ha which constitutes
8.37% of the total area of the country. Climate of the state is hot and humid with
temperatures ranging from 15 to 45 C. Annual rainfall ranges from 1,100 to 1.250 mm
in the north reducing to about 500 mm in the south.

Location

Anantapur district Fig.1.1 & 1.2 in the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh
between and 15 15‟ Northern latitude and 76 50‟ and 78 30‟ Eastern longitude.

Fig. 1.1: Map of Andhra Pradesh.

15
 Fig. 1.2 Map of Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh

Geography

The total geographic area of the district is 19130 km.The district has been divided
into 3 revenue divisions consisting of 63 mandals viz., 1) Anantapur division 2)
Dharmavaram division and 3) Penukonda division.

Climate

Anantapur is one of the drought prone districts in the rain shadow area of Andhra
Pradesh. The annual average rainfall (Tables VII & VIII) of the district is 579 mm. The
normal rainfall for the southwest monsoon period is 338 mm, which forms about 61.2%
of the total rainfall for the year. The rainfall for the North East monsoon period is 156
mm that forms 28.3% of annual rainfall (October to December). The remaining months
of March, April and May are warm and dry. The normal daily maximum temperature
ranges from 29 C and 42 C. The November, December, and January are cooler months
with maximum temperature around 17.2 C. The aridity index is 73.8 with an average 5
run off events for annum and PETS is 2140 mm.

16
 Table VII: Rainfall (mm) (South-West, North-East monsoon) recorded in Anantapur
district of Andhra Pradesh during last six years

South-West monsoon North-East monsoon

Year Total
Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Normal
63.9 67.4 88.7 118.4 110.7 34.7 9.9 493.7
2006-07
79.2 22.1 18.6 85.6 45.2 74.2 9.2 321.7
2007-08
15.7 73.3 108.0 197.4 94.6 9.4 17.4 515.7
2008-09
62.5 87.4 108.6 177.8 111.9 48.6 0.5 597.4
2009-10
55.3 9.0 102.9 191.3 61.5 67.1 4.0 491.1
2010-11
77.3 107.8 149.7 68.8 72.9 150.8 3.5 626.8
Source: Chief planning officer, Anantapur.

Table VIII: Rainfall (mm) recorded in the study area of Anantpur district during the
years of study period

Actual
S.No Mandal Normal
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11
1
Kalyanadurgam 542.3 662.8 876.2 928.8

2
Penukonda 677.4 938.8 974 951

3
Dhrmavarm 566.7 745.4 576.4 709.6

4
Madakasira 605.8 839 498.8 780.2

5
Hindupur 665.4 849 549.6 884

6
Anantapur 579.7 665.6 618.2 747.2

7
Roddam 631.2 763.2 654.2 616.8
Source: Chief planning officer, Anantapur.

17
Soils

Red soils are dominant in the district and occupy 66% of total geographical area
(TGA), Red clayey soils cover extensively in all mandals. Red loamy soils account for
16% of TGA and remaining 50% area under red clayey soils. Tank irrigated valley
alluvial soils (Saline/Sodic soils) occur to an extent of 12% of TGA and distributed in all
mandals. Black soils occupy 10% area in the district and are distributed in eight mandals
rock lands occur in 12% TGA and are distributed mainly in Beluguppa, Rayadurg,
Bukkapatnam, Puttaparty, Penukonda and O.D. Cheruvu mandals.

The soils have low in organic carbon and available nitrogen, medium to high in
available phosphorous and available potash content. About 40% soils are below critical
level of Zinc and 33% soils are below critical level from Iron.

Water Resources

The agriculture of the district is mainly on Southwest and North-East monsoon.

The predominant Kharif area is under Southwest monsoon. The major river in the district
is Pennar, Chiitravathy, Hagari, Kushavathi, Swarnamukhi and Papagni are other small
rivers and streams, which provide water to various large and medium irrigation tanks in
the districts.

The primary source of irrigation in the district is tanks, wells and canals. The
major irrigation project in the district is Tungabhadra high level canal project stage I & II
with an ayacut of 51771 ha and six medium projects. Apart from these projects, there are
5353 irrigation tanks and about 87000 wells. The gross irrigated area is 154000 ha and
the net irrigated area is 125000 ha in the district, which accounts for 8 and 6.5%
respectively. Out of the net area irrigated 30% is from surface water irrigated and 69% is
from ground water. The area under different source of irrigation is given in Table IX.

Crops and cropping system

The total geographical area of the district is 19.13 lakh ha out of which 69.6% is
the net sown area. In the district 68% of the farmers come under holding I, II and III
categories. The district is more frequently prone to drought. Of the 133 years of record
i.e. from 1976-1877 to 2008-09, 66 years were drought years. The district has 90% under
18
rain fed conditions. Groundnut is the principal kharif crop grown over an area of about 8
lakh ha. The area under this corm increased from 2.5 lakh ha in 1970s to 8 lakh ha by
2000 and maintained at that level ever since with year to years fluctuation depending on
the rainfall. Different crops cultivated during kharif and rabi seasons in the district are
given in the Tables IX, X & XI.

Table IX: Area under different sources of irrigation in Ananthapur district (2009-10)
Source of Irrigation Area in ha
Tube wells & filter points 103951
Area irrigated more than once 32199
Canals 25363
Other wells 14840
Tanks 5403
Other sources 537
Lift irrigation 0
Net area irrigated 119291
Gross area irrigated 151490
Source: chief planning officer, Anantapur.
Table X: Area under Kharif under different crops in Anantapur district during the latest 3
years

Area in ha
Crop
2009-10 2010-11 2011-2012
Ground nut 510874 514077 733796
Jowar 41409 2606 7190
Paddy 32226 34973 37385
Unflower 29262 5916 5506
Redgram 20269 66013 50910
maize 8852 10726 24925
Horsegram 5848 655 1247
Mulberry 2059 1954 -
Cotton 2026 4289 18988
Ragi 2420 1876 1575
Bajra 1722 2010 2602
Castor 1332 4258 29082
Korra 1045 371 1088
Cowpea 466 972 766
Greengram 448 791 785
others 2594 5693 -
Source: ARS, Anantapur, 2012
19
 Table XI: Area under Kharif under different crops in Anantapur district during the latest
3 years

Crop Area in ha
2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Paddy 19428 24828 4653
Wheat 179 131 43
Jowar 17721 13274 8139
Bajra 45 5 14
Maize 4615 4750 3338
Ragi 1122 556 156
Horsegram 4935 1527 814
Minor millets 0 0 0
Greengram 0 83 81
Redgram 316 0 0
Blackgram 17 559 484
Bengal gram 92996 94240 68154
Chillies 0 0 0
Potattoes 0 0 0
Onions 230 306 118
Other vegetables 1407 747
Groundnut 19507 19993 12875
Sufflower 46 45 81
sunflower 26024 11699 6025
Other oil seeds 0 70 333
Cotton 57 49 0
Tobacco 700 163 27
Others 6621 7842 2590
Source: ARS, Anantapur, 2012.
Spatial and temporal variability in rainfall

The key factor affecting groundnut growth and yield is the characteristic and the
length of the moisture environment during the crop-growing season. The variability in
rainfall across different mandals was analyzed for different time periods which showed
that the variability in annual rainfall is high in Atmakur, Raptadu, Chennekottapalli,
Roddam in the central part of the district and Gorantla, Puttaparty in the southern parts
and Bommanahal, Pamidi and Kudair mandals on the northern side. The South West
monsoon (Table VII) rain was found to be highly variable in the South Eastern and

20
Central parts of the districts with mandals like Mudigubba, Bukkapatnam, Nallamada,
Kadiri and Puttaparty.

Influence of length of dry spell

The variability in the raingall increased in the recent decade in Garladinne and
Singanamala, Putluru, Narpala, Ramagiri, Madakasira mandals, while variability in July
rainfall was found to increase in recent decade in the Western and North East parts of the
district. Rainfall in Anantapur district was found to be erratic and highly variable leading
to droughts of varying intensities and durations during the crop seasons. Drought stress
directly and physically reduces plant vegetative growth thereby reducing cell turgor.
When groundnut is grown under rain fed conditions with a high variable rainfall, long-
term drought stress results in both reduced vegetative and reproductive growth.

Land use and land capability

Land capability grouping indicates the capability of soils to produce field crops
or to be put to other uses based on limitations of climate, problem of drainage, erosion
and soil factor affecting plant growth. Good cultivable lands accounts for 4% TGA and
are distributed in small pockets in Tadipatri, Yellanur, Gudibanda. Agali, Ramagiri,
Penukonda, Puttaparty and Gorantla mandals. Nearly 68% if TGA represents moderately
good to fairly good cultivable lands with limitations of erosion, drainage, soil and
climate. About 27% of total geographical area of the district is not fit for agriculture are
mainly concentrated in Mudigubba, Dharmavaram, Nallamada, Kadiri, O.D. Cheruvu,
Nallacheruveu, Amadaguru, Talupula, Gorantla, Yadiki, Putlur,Tadimarri, Rayadurg,
Gummagatta, Brahmasamudram, Kundurpi and Settur mandals where priority for agro
forestry / Silvi-pasture measures are to be encouraged.

Horticulture crops

Although horticulture is not a major production system in Anantapur historically,

in the last decade there has been rapid growth in the sector driven by the incentives by
the state Government under large-scale ground water exploitation. The area under sweet
orange witnessed a steep rise during 2003-04 to 2008-09. The trend was almost linear.
The other important horticultural crops in Anantapur district are Mango, Banana,
Papaya, Sapota and Pomegranate.
21
Livestock resources and milk production

Population of crossbreeds cattle and graded Murrah buffalos have increased

enormously compared to non-descriptive cattle and buffalos during the last 10 years,
which contributed in significant increase in milk and meat production in the district. This
rise was due to almost 6 fold increase in the sheep and goat and doubling of chicken
contribution towards total meat pool. The meat from the pigs in the lost decade remained
stagnant around 3000MT.

Irrigation and ground water exploitation

The percentage area under irrigation remained 10 to 15 in the last 20 years. It

reached peak in later eighties and again comedown. In the past decade the contribution of
tanks and canals are declining. Irrigation from tanks accounted for 12% of net irrigated
area in the early 1980s, which come down to 6% in 2010-11, irrigation canals also
decreased from 27 to 14% in the same period. However the area under tube wells
increased from 0 to 79% and now is the major resource. Anantapur is the second largest
ground water exploited district followed by Ranga Reddy in Andhra Pradesh. The
reliance on ground water is increasing, which is a matter of great concern as the ground
water status is under semi-critical to the over exploited category.

Cost of cultivation

Increasing cost of cultivation is a major concern for the farmers in the district.
The components of cost of cultivation mainly include seed, fertilizers and labour. In
recent years there has been a severe shortage of labour for agricultural operation and thus
productivity.

Development schemes in the district

Large numbers of Central and State Government schemes are being implemented
in the district since 2008-2009 to enhance agricultural productivity and livelihood
security of the people. These include ISOPOM on oil seeds and maize, farm
mechanization, RKVY, ICDP on rice and NFSM. Under ISOPOM on oilseed and maize,
portable sprinklers, irrigation system, water carrying pipes, plant protection chemicals,
weedicides, bullock drawn and tractor drawn implements, micro nutrients, plant
22
protection equipment, Taiwan sprayers, Gypsum and Zinc sulphate supplied to improve
the farm productivity. Under RKVY scheme paddy combined harvesters, paddy
transplanters, maize de-husker, modern multi crop threshers rotary weeders and drip
irrigation equipment etc., are supplied to reduce the problem of labour shortage in
agriculture. Demonstrations are conducted on system of Rice Intensification (SRI)
Improved package of practices in low land rice and promoted hybrid rice production
technology, bio-pesticides to protect the rice from the pest and diseases under ICDP on
rice programme. Under NFSM also various inputs like seed, fertilizers and other farm
inputs are being supplied. The district is a major beneficiary of the seed subsidy scheme
being implemented by the state Government for groundnut MGOREGA and IWMP are
the major schemes being implemented for land and water development and watershed
management.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The chapter covers a brief review of the important studies on Silkworm rearing
and economics of silkworm rearing in general. As there is little information on specific
silkworm rearing aspects, allied studies have been reviewed. The reviews are presented
under the following heads.

a. Silkworm rearing

b. Economics of silkworm rearing

a. Silkworm Rearing

Studies have been conducted on different methods of silkworm rearing and

cocoon production. The findings of various research studies that are similar and related
to the present study have been listed out briefly below.

Krishnaswami et al., (1971) reported that, the silkworms are being issued to
rearers generally after hatching and rearing is conducted in the young stages in trays and
in the advanced stages on wooden racks (6 meters x 2 meters) arranged in four 0/5 meter
a part in Russia.

Kasiviswanathan and Krishnaswami (1972) gave a detailed package of practices

for mulberry production and silkworm rearing and cocoon production. They further
23
reported that by adopting recommended package of practices, mulberry leaf yield and
cocoon yields can be doubled.

Tazima (1972) reported that shoot rearing method of feeding is done a rule 3
times in a day. Feeding requires nothing but putting shoots on the bed, so labour is
reduced substantially compared with the stand rearing.

Krishnaswami et al., (1973a) reported that shoot rearing method of needs less
labour, which constitutes a major expenditure in silkworm rearing.

Krishnaswamy et al., (1973b) reported that late age silkworm rearing in

Karnataka is practiced by two methods one is by leaf harvesting and feeding and in the
other shoots are harvested chopped into convenient size and fed to silkworms. They also
reported that, the big shoots harvested from the mulberry bushes were straight way fed to
the silkworm. As the whole shoots are placed on the silkworm bed at every feed, the
larvae keep on moving up wards and consuming the mulberry leaves. Since the leaf
supply due to shoot feeding is distributed in three dimensions, there is better aeration of
the rearing bed as compared to the stand rearing. Bed cleaning in this method is also
reduced to the minimum which is normally practiced once each in the fourth and fifth
instar.

Malavazzi et al., (1974) were in the opinion that shoot feeding provides less
nourishment which ultimately leads to more number of unequals.

Ullal and Narasimhanna (1978) reported that shoot rearing is the most
economical method of rearing as labour requirements for the process of feeding and bed
cleaning is kept at the minimal level.

Omura (1980) reported that in the year 1955 onwards, Japanese sericulture
researchers tried to establish platform type of shoot rearing and at that time the labour
power in rural areas in Japan decreased rapidly much more than expected. Most of the
farmers switched from the stand rearing to platform shoot rearing due to higher labour
efficiency. As no bed cleaning is necessary during the whole fifth instar period, the
rearing bed becomes as high as about 40cm at the end of fifth instar. Merits for this
method are labour efficiency, while demerit is it requires a large space for rearing.

24
 Sengupta et al., (1988) reported that in U.S.S.R silkworm rearing at farm level is
done in feeding the branches and bed cleaning is done only on alternate days and worms
are not picked up but some dry weeds are put on the top for the worms to crawl up and
spin the cocoons. With this method Russian farmers could able to harvest 60-65 kg of
cocoons from 30 of eggs or 19 g of newly hatched larvae. Rearing is mostly done on
racks, floor rearing is adopted occasionally one box of eggs (30g) a room having a floor
area of 60sq mts is required for conducting rearing.

Shekarappa and Gururaj (1989) reported that sufficient aeration inside the rearing
building, maintenance of hygienic conditions in and around the rearing house are helpful
in getting successful cocoon crop.

Narasimhanna (1990) reported that in the shoot rearing the bed cleaning is
practiced only once in IV instar and twice in V instar. Expansion of bed is practiced
without even touching the worms, but by arranging the branches on the beds, this method
checks contamination and spread of diseases by avoiding too much handling the
silkworms. In tropical countries 3-tier rack method of shoot rearing is preferred than tray
rearing, the yields by such practice are higher about 70-80 kg cocoons per kg of eggs
brushed.

Gopinath (1994) reported that farmers must change over to platform rearing, not
only for adult worms but even for chawki rearing this will reduce labour by about 90%
save around 20% of leaf wastage, because of better quality and improve ventilation for
the worms 6-7 people can harvest leaves for shoot rearing for 2000 layings as against the
requirement of around 80-90 people in the traditional system.

Sekharappa et al., (2001) studied the aspects of simplification of silkworm

rearing under tropics. They have developed different rearing technologies like a simple
black boxing using black craft paper for uniform hatching, single feeding technology
during young age silkworm rearing up to 3rd moult.

Sannappa et al., (2003) studied the performance of some mulberry varieties on

rearing parameters of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. They have screened different mulberry
varieties and found significant variability in respect of rearing parameters especially
quantitative traits.

25
b. Economics of silkworm rearing

Laxminarayana (1980) estimated the establishment and cultivation cost of an

hectare of mulberry leaf production to be Rs.1,394.8 and Rs.7,541.5 respectively in
Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. The cost of production per kg of leaf wasRs.0.27
while it was Rs15.00 per kg of cocoons. According to Aiyaswamy (1980) establishment
cost of mulberry garden in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu was Rs 2,477.28 per
hectare and the total cost of mulberry cultivation including sharing of establishment cost
was Rs.16, 906.28 per hectare per annum. He reported that sericulture activity provided a
net income of Rs.7,018.72 per hectare. A quantity of 3,830 dfls was reared per hectare
per annum with an expenditure of Rs 16,906 to obtain a yield of 957 kg of cocoons. An
hectare yielded a net returns of Rs706,9 and created an employment of 1436 mandays.
The cost of production of one kg of cocoons was Rs 17.67, of which variable cost alone
was Rs 13.82. The net return from one hectare of cocoon production was Rs.7, 018.70.

Neelakanta Sastry (1982) in his study on cost structure of sericulture industry in

Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh fitted Cobb-Douglas type of production functions
using cost of leaves, human labour, cost of eggs, rent on mountages, marketing charges
and cost of disinfectants for cocoon production as explanatory variables. The variables
selected in the study explained 92.76% of variation in the field. For small holdings, the
variables like the cost of eggs, marketing charges and human labour for medium size
groups, the cost of eggs and cost of disinfectants and for large size farm, only the
marketing charges were found significant and positive.

Chowdhury (1984) reported in a case study on Integrated Rural Development

Programme estimated that the total cost of cultivation per acre of mulberry in the first 4
years was Rs.4105.00 with a net return of Rs.3315.00 and in the second year the total
cost was Rs.4.307 with net returns of Rs.7398.00.

Chandrasekhar Reddy (1985) computed the per hectare total cost of

establishment under irrigation, in Dharmapura district of Tamil Nadu to be Rs.8,860.72.
The establishment required 197.85 mandays of human labour, 22.75 pair of bullock
labour, 2.52 cartloads of cuttings, 61.82 cartloads of farmyard manure and 52.27 kg of
fertilizer. The cost of irrigation was Rs.28.67.

26
 Ghosh (1986) concluded that in both the pre and post technological change
periods human labour per unit of land is reportedly associated with farm size in all the
cases (except in the case of Paddy in 1971-72), bullock labour per unit of land is also
inversely related to the size of holding in most of the cases. The intensity of cropping and
the percentage of land irrigated are negatively associated with farm size both in the mid
fifties and nearly seventies.

Saraswath and Shrivastava (1986) indicated that sericulture was gaining

prominence in Marthwada region of Maharashtra. They reported that the bivoltine hybrid
would give a cocoon yield of 48.2 kg per 100 dfl. The average number of layings that
can be brushed in year was estimated to be 1000dfls with an average yield of 400
kg/ac/annum. They concluded that cocoon rearing would provide a gross and net income
of Rs.16,000.00 and Rs.8,000.00 respectively per acre per annum.

Chikkanna et al., (1989) reported that impact of chawki rearing programme in the
southern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu through chawki rearing
was about 11.88 kg and 8.20 kg /100dfls in bivoltine hybrids and cross breeds
respectively, compared to direct seed distribution.

Subbarayudu (1989) in his study on the economics of sericulture in new areas of

Andhra Pradesh reported that the cost incurred on the establishment of one acre of
mulberry garden was Rs.4175.00. which includes the cost of labour, irrigation, fertilizers
etc. the planting of mulberry generated an employment of 165 mandays, including land
preparation, manuring, preparation of cuttings and planting. Rearing expanses of
mulberry garden per crop per acre was calculated to be Rs.1225.00. The total yield
harvested per crop per acre was 2500kg. Cost of production per kg of mulberry leaf was
worked out to be 0.49 paise. Fixed capital involved in rearing of 300 layings excluding
rearing house was assessed as Rs.1083.00. Cost of silkworm rearing for 200 dfls was
estimated as Rs.2, 673.61 and net profit was Rs.3,927.00

Kerutagi (1991) reported that per hectare maintenance of mulberry garden under
irrigated conditions in Bijapur district of Karnataka state was Rs.18,043.99. The
operational cost was Rs.1026.58 of which human labour accounted for the highest
proportion (Rs.4000.94) followed by bullock labour (Rs.2,349.17), fertilizers
(Rs.2,270.00) and farm yard manure (Rs.1,631.47). The fixed cost was estimated to be
27
Rs.7783.00. The average yield of cocoon obtained from a hectare of mulberry crop in
Bijapur district was 1,001.40 kg. The gross returns from silkworm rearing was
Rs.88969.60 per hectare and this involves the value of cocoons (Rs.84718.44),20 cart
loads of litter (Rs.1,160.00), 67.64 cart loads of stalks (Rs.1.054.32), the net return from
cocoon production amounted to Rs.52,680.16.

Benchamin (1992) in his paper opined that in comparison to Japan, the labour
efficiency in India was very less and inferior by 9.6, 4.1 and 6.4 times with respect of
mulberry leaf production, cocoon and silk production respectively. It is also reported that
the total manhour required for the production of 10 kg of raw silk starting from mulberry
and rearing is about 16.6 in Japan as against 127.1 in India, which is 7.6 times more than
that of Japan with regard to the cost structure. Labour alone accounts for 52.4, 50.9, 2.4,
0.24 and 14.4% at various stages of fabric production i.e. mulberry cultivation, rearing of
silkworm, reeling, twisting and weaving respectively.

Dorcen Rose (1992) reported that establishment of one acre of irrigated mulberry
garden utilizes 44.38 mandays and 52.22 woman days. Women labour involved was
more in irrigated mulberry than in rain fed gardens, as it required operations like
weeding, pruning etc. In case of silkworm rearing, the percentage of women labour force
was found to be more in both rain fed and irrigated conditions in the study area.

Isac Joseph (1993) worked out the cost benefit ratio for sericulture and other
agricultural crops and found to be 1:1.42, 1:1.07, 1:1.57 and 1: 2.06 for sericulture,
paddy, sugarcane, cotton and ground nut respectively.

Rajkumar (1994) reported that 83.33% of the farmers adopted agriculture as

major occupation and only 16.67% were practicing sericulture as their main occupation.
The cost benefit ratio worked out by him for different crops were found to be 1:1.30 for
sericulture, 1:1.36 for paddy and 1:1.63 groundnut.

Doddamani (1996) reported that the total cost of mulberry cultivation was
estimated to be Rs.19,776.20 per hectare, of which the operational costs accounted for
70% and rest was fixed cost. Arovind More (1996) observed that for establishment of
garden the main cost attributed for both the crops were preparatory tillage, cost of inputs
i.e seeds, manure, fertilizers, labour, irrigation and chemicals. From the employment
28
generation table it is seen that sericulture generated 777.4 mandays per acre per annum,
from that it can be concluded that sericulture is more profitable than sugar cane and
paddy.

Kumaresan et al., (2002) reported an economic analysis of CSR hybrid cocoon

production under PPBST project in Karnataka, and reported that rearing of CSR hybrids
is highly remunerative and profitable than multivoltine × bivoltine hybrid rearing.

Hiriyanna et al., (2002) studied the comparative economics of bivoltine hybrids

with multi x bi hybirid cocoon production. They reported that the expenditure incurred
for rearing CSR hybrids was higher that that of multi x bi hybrid rearing due to usage of
more inputs but cost benefit ratio wise, CSR hybrids were rated better than multi x bi
hybrids.

Dandin et al., (2004) reported that, under Institute village Linkage programme
(IVLP, 390 farmers of 55 village in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
recorded higher cocoon yield and crop stability due to concept of chawki rearing and by
following recommended package of practices.

Lakshmanan and Geethadevi (2005) analyzed the comparative economics of

bivoltine and crossbreed cocoon production in Mandya district of Karnataka state. Their
study was shown that the net profit earned from bivoltine cocoon production is much
higher than cross breed rearing. However, the major concern is frequent changes in
cocoon price, which is un economical to quality cocoons producers. They opined that
this trend calls for suitable price policy measures to protect bivoltine rearers, which
would discourage imports of silk from China in the long run.

Geethadevi et al., (2006) observed that number of dfls brushed per acre per year
increased from 748 to 965 dfls indicating a significant improvement in mulberry leaf
production due to the technologies advocated. Significant improvement in mulberry leaf
and cocoon yields resulted a quantum lead in cocoon production from 364 to 632
kg/ha/year.

Gururaj et al (2007) reported that the sericulturists of Kodagapura were able to increase
their cocoon productivity from 34.39 to 56.48 kg/100 dfls, thereby increasing cocoon

29
production by 12.22 kg (64.23%). Additional income of Rs. 1800-2500 for 100 dfls was
obtained in comparison to the farmers with traditional practices.

Purushotham,S and Rama Mohana Rao, P (2009) studied the economics of

sericulture in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. The study has shown that net returns
from one acre of mulberry worked out to Rs.52,206/year. The cost benefit ratio of
sericulture was worked out to be significantly higher (1:1.94). Detailed study of the
economics revealed that the major economic factor contributing for the total cost
structure was labour which was 32.54% for silkworm rearing and 13.95% for mulberry
production. Further, they have reported that, important item in the cost structure was that
of equipment for silkworm rearing which was about 11.27%.

30
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter presents the characteristics of the study area. Selection of

respondents, nature and type of data used and analytical tools utilized to analyze the data
under the following sub headings.

1. Selection of the study area

2. Description of the study area

3. Selection of villages and respondents

4. Sources and methods of data collection

5. Analytical framework

6. Classification of farmers

7. Sample size

8. Economics of silkworm rearing

1. Selection of the study area

Anantapur district is a drought prone area, though it is traditional sericulture area

due to lack of ground water the mulberry acreage has not brought upto the expectations.
However due to implementations of CDP (Catalytic Development Programme) schemes
since last five years under X plan what ever the acreage brought has been stabilized as
the productivity levels have gone up and the cost of production has comedown
substantially.

Anantapur is purposively selected for the study as the district has the highest area
under mulberry cultivation and the major quantum of silk is produced from the region in
Andhra Pradesh.

2. Description of the area

Anantapur district lies in the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. This district
occupies first place in sericulture in the state, the productive mulberry acreage is around
21.385 acres covering 21,000 farmers.
31
Rainfall

The annual average rainfall of the district is 572 mm. Rain fall recorded during
the last 5 years is presented in Table VII & VIII.

Anantapur is one of the drought-prone districts in the shadow area of Andhra

Pradesh. The actual average rainfall of the district is 572 mm. The Rainfall for the South
West monsoon period is 338 mm, which forms about 61.2% of the total rainfall for the
year. The rainfall for the North East monsoon period is 156 mm, which forms 28.3% of
the annual rainfall (October to December). The remaining months of March, April and
May are warm and dry. The normal daily maximum temperature ranges between 29°C
and 42°C. The November, December and January are cooler months with minimum
temperature around 17.2°C. The aridity index is 73.8, with an average 5-runoff event per
annum and PET is 2140 mm.

The general climatic constraints of the district are

i. Low and erratic distribution of rainfall

ii. Delay in onset and early withdrawal

iii. Prolonged dry spells during critical growth period.

The general soil related constraints are

i. Shallow depth (10-30cm)

ii. Undulating topography

iii. Low water holding capacity

iv. Hard sub soil

v. Poor soil fertility and

vi. Over exploitation of ground water.

3. Selection of villages

Selection of villages and respondents

32
Anantapur district comprises of four revenue divisions namely I) Kalyandurg, ii)
Penukonda, iii) Somandepalli and iv) Anantapur. There are 18 mandals. For the present
study six villages representing all the four divisions and five mandals have been selected.

The selected villages are as follows

Sl. No. Village Division Mandal

1 Nijavalli Kalyandurg Kundurpi
2 N.Venkatampalli Kalyandurg Kundurpi
3 Kondapuram Penukonda Penukonda
4 Beedanapalli Penukonda Roddam
5 Chalakur Somandepalli Somandepalli
6 Vepakunta Anantapur Anantapur

The above six villages have been selected as they represent the Anantapur district
in terms of climate and geographically. For the purpose of benchmark data, all the
sericulturists available in the six identified villages have been covered and collected the
data. A list of sericulturists in each village was prepared in consultation with the
sericulture service centers of CSB and technical service centers of Department of
Sericulture, AP. Bench mark data from all the sericulturists in the six selected villages
have been collected and analyzed.

4. Source of data

These sericulturists were interviewed personally by using a schedule prepared for

the purpose. Data pertaining to the sericulturists, input use, total output and prices, input
availability and opinions of the sericulturists on yields were collected. Every efforts was
made at the time of the interviews to convince the respondents that the study was
undertaken purely for research purpose and the information provided could not be used
for any other purpose, keeping in view the objectives of the study the data pertaining to
October to 2008 to September -2009 period were collected form the respondents.

5. Analytical frame work

Cocoon yield data collected from the farmers was subjected to simple tabular
analysis to compute the cocoon yield pattern in different months of the year and also to
compute the cost and returns in silkworm rearing.

33
6. Classification of farmers

Farmers have been classified as holding size I with less than one acre, holding size II
who have got 1-2 acres and holding size III who have got more than 2 acres of mulberry
holdings.

7. Sample size of the study

The observations covered 3273 crops in six villages in the year during October 2008-
September 2009.

8. Economics of silkworm rearing

For calculating the economics of silkworm rearing the data was collected
through random sampling method from 60 farmers from six villages namely Nijavalli,
Venkatampalli, Beedanapalli, Chalakur etc, (10 farmers from each village). It was also
observed that the sericulturists in the study area frequently purchased/sold mulberry
leaves if there was a deficit/surplus in their requirement. The price of the mulberry leaves
is highly competitive and varies depending on the factors like prevailing price of cocoon
and leaf availability. Hence, it was found necessary to value the mulberry leaves on the
basis of actual exchange prices rather than on the basis of the actual cost of cultivation.
Data obtained regarding the purchase price/sale price of leaf as well as quantity of leaf
purchased/sold was used to arrive at the cost of kilogram of leaves.

In cases where no purchase/sale actually took place the price expected by the
farmers for the leaf produced was employed as proxy for leaf price. The mulberry leaf
price varies with the season and hence the purchase price /sale price was clicked
especially for the lost crop. The physical input and output data were computed for the
selected samples. The input used and output obtained per crop, per 100 dfls.

Operational costs

a. Cost of dfls: The cost of dfls was calculated at the actual price paid by each
farmers plus the incidental cost incurred on the dfls procurement.

34
 b. Chawki raring cost: The cost involved in rearing the earlier first two stages of
silkworms.

c. Cost of mulberry leaf: The actual quantity of mulberry leaf consumed for the
silkworm crop was multiplied by the computed cost (per kg) of leaf for each
sericulturists. The purchased leaves if any were accounted at the actual cost.

d. Cost of human labour: Human labour was valued at the prevailing wage rate paid
by each farmer on per manday basis. The cost of family labour was imputed at
the wage rate paid to the hired casual labour. The manday equivalent of women
and child labour were worked out by using wage ratios.

e. Hire charges on mountages: The actual cost paid out to hire mountages was used
in case of owned mountages the cost was imputed at the hire charge rates
prevailing in the area.

f. Cost of disinfectants: It was the cost of all the chemicals used to disinfect the
rearing house. The actual purchase of all the chemicals was considered as the
total cost of disinfectants.

g. Cost of other consumables: It was the actual purchase price of the consumables
like news paper, paraffin paper.

h. Interest on working capital. This was computed at the rate of 8% /annum on the
cost of dfls/Mulberry leaf, human labour, hired charges of mountages,
disinfectants, consumables, harvesting cost, and marketing cost.

i. Marketing cost: This includes the cost of transportation of cocoons to the market,
the market fee and other incidental expenses incurred in marketing of cocoons.

Fixed Cost

a. Apportioned cost of rearing house and depreciation charges of rearing equipment:

The apportioned cost of rearing house for lifespan depending on the type of
construction was included under the cost. The rearing equipments comprise
rearing stands, mountages, uzi nets and leaf cutting knives. The depreciation

35
 charges on each of the equipments used for each individual farmer are calculated
as follows.

Purchase /construction value

Annual deprecation =
Expected life of the assets

b. Interest on fixed capital. The annual change on fixed assets and equipments was
charged at 8% /annum. This was then apportioned based on the number of
cocoon crops raised/year.

Returns from silkworm rearing

a. Cocoons: The main product of the silkworm rearing is the good and standard
cocoons and these were valued at the actual prices realized by the sericulurists at
each sale of the produced cocoons.

b. Gross income: The gross income realized from silk cocoon production consisted
of value of total cocoons produced and the value of the litter.

c. Net income: The net income from silk cocoon production was estimated by
deducting the total cost of cocoon production from the gross income.

36
 RESULTS

Results of the present investigation are presented under the following sub
headings.

1. Mulberry cultivation

2. Variety of mulberry

3. Types of rearing houses

4. Disinfection methods

5. Incubation of silkworm eggs

6. Chawki rearing

7. Late age rearing

8. Spinning

9. Harvesting

10. Marketing

11. Analysis of status of cocoon yield

12. Economics of cocoon yield

1. Mulberry cultivation practice

Most of the farmers are practicing wider spacing ranging from 2‟×2‟, 3‟×3‟ and very few
farmers are using row system. Some farmers are even practicing Indo Japanese system of
5‟×3‟×2‟ (90+150) cm × 60 cm which is popularly known as paired row system (Fig.
1.3)

2. Variety of mulberry

In Anantapur area V1 variety of mulberry is popular. The other varieties also available
they are S36, local K2, S54. Very few farmers were having K2/M5 variety with row
system of plantation (Fig. 1.4).

37
3. Types of rearing houses

In Anantapur district most of rearing houses are constructed with brick walls and
the roof is fitted with asbestos sheets (Fig 1.5). Normally the rearing shed size is either
50‟×20‟ out of which 40‟×20‟ will be used for silkworm rearing and the remaining space
will be utilized for shoot preservation purpose.

4. Disinfection methods

The sericulturists are using 2% formalin or 2% bleaching powder for disinfection

of rearing houses and also the rearing equipments.

5. Incubation of eggs

Most of the farmers obtain chawki larvae from chawki rearing centers (CRC). In
CRC‟s silkworm eggs are incubated to obtain uniform hatching and the eggs incubated at
optimum temperature (24°C to 26 °C and humidity (70 to 80%). Eggs incubated hatches
in 10-11 days depending upon the breed. Two days before hatching the colour of the
eggs changes to a distinct dark spot this is called head pigmentation stage. At this stage
all the eggs are to be kept in darkness at the pinhead stage. This is called black boxing of
eggs. Due to black boxing the embryonic growth will be uniform and the larvae hatches
uniformly. After completion of 48 hours the eggs are exposed to light in the morning
hours to ensure good hatching. When larvae settle for 2nd moult the batches are
distributed to the silkworm rearers.

6. Chawki rearing

Silkworm larval stage from hatching to spinning is differentiated into 4 moults

and 5 instars. The first two instars i.e., till the end of II moult form hatching is called as
young age (chawki) rearing. At present most of the sericultrists are availing chawki
worms from the nearest chawki rearing centres. In Anantapur area the farmers collect the
chawki worms from the Govt. CRC at Penukonda or the Private CRCs located in
Hindupur area, which is about 06 and 35 Kms respectively from the villages. Hence the
incubation and the block boxing was done at chawki rearing centre and the chawki larvae
will be collected when the worms settles for 2nd moult or in some cases immediately after
2nd moult. The success of young age silkworm depends on environmental and nutritional
38
requirements. There are two types viz., (1) Box rearing and (2) Shelf rearing. In box
rearing plastic trays of convenient size (2‟ × 3‟) are used. Paraffin paper is used in the
bottom and to cover the young silkworm larvae to maintain temperature and humidity.
Both types of rearing methods are followed in many CRCs.

7. Late age rearing

Rearing of grown silkworms is termed as late age rearing and proper care,
maintenance of hygienic condition and good quality of mulberry leaves are necessary to
get good quality and quantum of cocoons. During this stage larvae need comparatively
less temperature and humidity than required for chawki stage and it is the maximum
feeding stage. A separate rearing house with adequate rearing space, sufficient
ventilation and light is essential. This will enable effective disinfection and also to
maintain required temperature, humidity and other hygienic conditions which helps to
get good cocoon crop.

Methods of late age rearing

The rearing of late age worms is conducted by various methods and farmers are
adopting methodology depending upon their space, infrastructure what they have and can
afford as per their economic condition. The silkworm rearing can be of 2 types i.e. (i)
Tray rearing, (ii) Shoot rearing.

(i) Tray Rearing:

Tray rearing with bamboo rounds trays

In this method (Fig.1.6) mulberry leaves are harvested and then fed to the
silkworms. The leaf rearing is done in wooden or bamboo trays in 10-12 tires stand. Tray
rearing method is very much popular, as it needs less space for conducting rearing.
However, this method of rearing is laborious and labour requirement is more for bed
cleaning, feeding, leaf plucking etc., hence most of the farmers are shifted from tray
rearing to shoot rearing which is labour saving and cost effective method.

39
(ii) Rack/shoot rearing

The stand rearing is carried out in wooden racks (Fig.1.6) consists of two to five
tiers. Each tier is measuring 38' × 5‟ or 38‟x 6‟ depending on the space available in the
rearing shed. In this type of rearing the entire branches of mulberry are used generally
after II moult. It is also evident that shoot rearing method needs less labour, which
constitutes major expenditure in silkworm rearing. In shoot rearing, feeding is done 2 or
3 times per day according to the season.

8. Spinning

When the silkworm larvae attain maturation and it will spin the cocoons. During
this stage the silkworm larvae become translucent and stops feeding and starts in search
of space to spin the cocoons. This stage is called spinning stage. During this stage the
matured larvae are collected and transferred on to the mountages.

Mountages used

Generally three types (Fig. 1.8) of mountages are used for cocoon spinning 1.
Bamboo chandirike 2. Plastic collapsible mountage and 3. Rotary mountage. Most of the
farmers use either bamboo chandrikes or the collapsible mountages for mounting the
mature silkworms for spinning the cocoons

9. Harvesting

After spinning is completed the cocoons harvesting (Fig. 1.9) is undertaken on 5th
or 6th day. But most of the farmers harvest on 4th day. The harvesting is generally by way
of hand picking or with the help of machines in case of rotary mountages.

10. Marketing

After completion of harvesting (Fig. 1.10) the cocoons are loosely packed in
gunny /nylon bags and transported to the cocoon markets situated in Hindupur,
Dharmavaram in Andhra Pradesh or Ramanagaram in Karnataka.

40
11. Analysis of status of cocoon yield

All the farmers from the six identified villages have been followed for their
cocoon yield for one year during october 2008 to september 2009. Analysed data has
been collected and presented in Tables 1.1 to 1.13 and depicted in Figs. 1.11 to 1.22.

Farmers have been grouped into the catagories based on their dfls intake and
analysed. Data (Tables 1.1 to 1.13) indicated that in the identified villages brushing of
dfls (intake) ranged from 25-300 per crop per farmer. Most of the farmers reared 50 to
150 dfls per crop per farmer (with the frequency of 27.37 to 62.31%). Number of farmers
who conducted rearing in a month ranged from 127 to 459 depending on the mulberry
yield and the season. Highest number of farmers (459) conducted rearing in October
followed 365 during September, 356 during August, 285 during July, 283 during
November, 272 during march, 260 during December, 240 during April, 239 during
February, 235 during January, 162 during June and the minimum number of farmers
conducted rearing during May (127).

Further farmers have been classified into 6 groups based on the dfls intake per
crop and the frequencies% have been worked out and presented in Tables 1.1 to 1.12 and
depicted in Figures 1.3 to 1.9.

Further, data revealed that general intake of the farmers ranged from 50-150
/crop/farmer with frequency percent 26.5 to 62.31%. Very few farmers (2.09 to 7.07%)
conducted rearings with below 50 dfls /crop/farmer. And also very few farmers (0.37 to
4.92%) conducted rearing with above 200 dfls/crop.

Number of dfls reared in the selected villages in a month varied significantly

from 13140 to 42090. Maximum number of dfls reared during october (42090) followed
by 40755 during september, 37950 during August, 35650 during July, 24065 during
April , 23295 during March, 22750 during November, 20755 during February, 20375
during December, 19085 during January, 14545 during June, and minimum number of
dfls were rared during May.

Data (Tables 1.1 to 1.3) indicated that the cocoon yield per 100 dfls ranged from
20 to 110.4 kg indicating large variability in the cocoon output per unit. Results further
indicated that maximum cocoon yield /100 dfls was obtained by the farmers whose dfls
41
intake was below 100. Cocoon yield of farmers whose intake was 50 below ranged from
54.79 to 74.13 kg /100 dfls.The cocoon yield ranged from 50.82 to 63.16 kg /100 dfls
with farmers whose dfls intake was 50 to 99 dfls, 50.06 to 57.94 kg/100 dfls with farmers
whose dfls intake was 100 to 149 dfls , 49.5 to 54.9 kg with farmers whose dfls intake
was 150 to 199, 48.5 to 52.6 kg /100 dfls with the farmers whose dfls intake was 200-
249 dfls /crop, and 48.02 to 58.23 kg /100 dfls with the farmers who‟s intake was above
350 dfls per crop.

Irrespective of the dfls intake the variability in cocoon yield range is very high in
all the groups (Fig. 1.16). Cocoon yield /100 dfls ranged from 20 to 110.4 kg in october,
30.18 to 108.08 kg in November, 30.45 to 109.25 kg in December,34 to 106.8 kg in
January, 34.09 to 101.4 kg in February,40.40 to 104.04 kg in March, 30.22 to 106 kg in
April , 31.9 to 97.3 kg in May, 32.58 to 100 kg in June, 45 to 96.4 kg in July, 30.04 to
95.85 kg in August and 33.5 to 100.25 kg in Septemeber.

Cocoon yield variability in different land holding farmers.

To study the effect of land holding on the cocoon yield, farmers have been
grouped into 3 catagories (Table 1.13). Farmers whose land holding is 1 acre and below
are grouped under holding size I (HS-I), from above one acres to 2 acres farmers were
grouped under holding size II (HS-II), and the farmers whos land holding is above two
acres are grouped under holding size- III ( HS-III) as the average land holding in the
study area is 1.25 acres.

Data (Table 1.13) indicate that 1587 farmers are small with less than one acre of
land holding, 1608 farmers are marginal with 1-2 acres of land holding and only 78
farmers are comparatively large farmers in the area with more than 2 acres of land
holdings.

Results of the investigation revealed that during different months cocoon yield
range of small farmers was 58.32 to 66.19 kg/100 dfls , medium farmers recorded
cocoon yield range of 49.78 to 56.25 and 48.25 to 52.6 kg /100 dfls. Overall average
cocoon yield of 60.97 kg/ 100 dfls was recorded with HS-I, 54.03 kg/ 100 dfls with HS-
II and 50.68 kg /100 dfls with HS-III.

42
 Observations indicated that the 49.13% of the farmers are medium farmers
48.49% are marginal farmers and only 2.38% are big farmers.

12. Economics of cocoon yield

As cocoon production involves two distinct activities namely, mulberry leaf

production and silkworm rearing, the cost of mulberry leaf production and silkworm
rearing were separately worked out. Since the size of the mulberry land holdings the
mehtod of mulberry cultivation and the number of crops /year varied among the sample
farmers, the information collected from each rearers were normalized to same standard
reference untits. The cost of mulberry leaf production was estimated for one acre/ year.

Cost of cultivation of mulberry leaf

Mulberry leaf production is round the year activity. Therefore, inputs are to be
applied to the garden periodically,The details of cost incurred by different group of
farmers namely HS-I, HS-II and HS-III are presented in Table 1.14.

As mulberry is a perennial crop the establishment cost of mulberry was

considered as fixed cost and the annual cost worked out by apportioning the
establishment cost for 15 years, considering the economic life period of mulberry garden
as 15 years. Approtioned cost of establishment of mulberry garden accounted for
Rs.1650.50 in HS-II farmers Rs.1645.00 in medium farmers and Rs.1675.25 in HS-III
farmers and average approtioned establishment of cost of mulberry was Rs.1656.92 in
HS-I. Cost structure in different land holdings are described below.

Holding size I

It was observed that an amount of Rs.23711.70 was incurred for cultivating

mulberry leaf from one acre of garden/year. Of the total cost Rs.1566.25 was incurred for
bullock power, Rs.6125.00 for FYM, Rs.2835.00 for chemical fertilizers,Rs.7750.50 for
labour, Rs.650.75 for plant protection chemicals. Cost incurred for other miscellaneous
expenditure was Rs.1500.00. Interest on working capital worked out to be Rs1634.20.
Approtioned cost for establishment of mulberry garden was worked out to Rs.1650.50.
The total maintenance cost was worked out to Rs.22051.20 and the total mulberry leaf

43
production cost was Rs.23711.70. It was observed that cumulative mulberry leaf yield
was 15715 kg /acre/annum.

Holding size II

Results indicated that an amount of Rs.1500.45 was incurred for bullock power,
Rs.6100.00 for FYM, Rs.2800.00 for chemical fertilizers, Rs.7800.00 for human labour,
Rs.640.00 for plant protection chemicals, Rs.1550.00 fior other cost per acre/annum,
Rs.1631.25 was worked out to be as interest on working capital.And 1645.00 was the
apportioned cost of mulberry establishment. Total cost of mulberry leaf production per
acre per annum was 23666.70. Data indicated that the cumulative mulberry leaf recorded
was 15500kg/acre/annum.

Holding size III

Data(Tables 1.1 to 1.13) indicated that the expenditure incurred for one acres of
mulberry and per year are as follows. An amount of Rs.1495.25 was incurred for bullock
power, Rs.6200.15 for FYM, Rs.2895.25 for chemical fertilizers, Rs.7790.00 for human
labour,Rs.675.00 for plant protection chemicals, Rs.1600.00 for other costand
Rs.1652.00 for interest on working capital. Apportioned cost of establishment was
Rs.1675.25. Total cmaintenance cost of mulberry leaf was Rs.22307.65. And the total
cost of mulberry production was Rs.23982.90 and cumulative mulberry leaf yield
recorded was 15250 kg/acre/annum.

Average cost of mulberry leaf production

Overall average cost of mulberry leaf production was worked out to be

Rs.23787.28. Of the total cost, Rs.1520.65 was incurred for bullock power, Rs.6141.72
for FYM, Rs.2843.42 for chemical fertilizers, Rs.7780.17 for human labour, Rs.655.25
for plant protection chemicals, Rs.1550.00 for other miscellaneous expenditure. An
amount of Rs.1656.92 was workedout to be apportioned cost of mulberry and
Rs.22130.36 was the total mainetenace cost of mulberry. It was observed that a quantity
of cumulative mulberry leaf/acre/annum was 15488.3 kg.

44
Cost of cocoon production

The cost of cocoon production from one acre of mulberry/annum was dipicted in
Table1.15. The cost of cocoon production is made up of two parts namely, fixed cost
involving depreciation on rearing house and equipment used and interest on fixed capital
and variable cost which includes cost of human labour for silkworm rearing,
procurement cost of dfls, materials used for disinfection , marketting ,mulberry leaf and
interest on working capital.

Holding size I

Data (Table 1.15) indicated that an amount of Rs.5625.00 was incurred for
procuring dfls, Rs.2600.00 was incurred for materials required for rearing
Rs.16777.97.00 was incurred for human labour and Rs.320.00 for transportation and
marketting. Interest on working capital worked out to Rs.1939.35 and equipment cost
(depreciation and interest on fixed assests) worked out to Rs 6857.40 the total rearing
cost worked out to Rs.34119.82.

Holding size II

An amount of Rs.5287.50 was incurred for procuring dfls/acre/annum the cost of

materials worked out to Rs.2550, cost of human labour worked out Rs.15771.30 and the
transportation and marketting.cost worked out to Rs.295.10. Interest on working capital
workedout to be Rs.1912.31 and equipment cost which include depreciation and interest
on fixed assests worked out to Rs.6750.25. Total rearing cost worked out to Rs.32566.46.

Holding size III

For procuring the dfls/acre/year an amount of Rs.5175.00 was spent.An amount

of Rs.2500.00 was incurred for the cost of materials used in rearing,Rs.15435.70 was
incurred for human labour used for rearing activities and an amount of Rs.300.10 was
spent for transportation and other cost. Interest on working capital workedout to be
Rs.1872.86 and Rs 6775.50 was worked out for equipment cost which include
depreciation and other interest of fixed assets.

Average data (Table 1.15) from all the three groups of farmers indicated a total
rearig cost of Rs.32915.04 for one acre of mulberry/ year. Of the total cost an amout of
45
Rs.5362.50 was incurred for the cost of dfls Rs.2550.00 was incurred for the cost of
materials Rs,15994.99 for human labour and Rs.305.00 was incurred for transportation
and marketting. Interest on working capital was worked out to Rs.1908.17 and the cost of
equipment workedout to Rs.6794.38.

Percent cost of different variable in the production.

Data indicate that, irrespective of the group of farmers the trend in the percent of
total cost of different fixed and variables cost are almost similar. And the results are
presented in Table 1.16 and depicted in Figs. 1.20 to 1.22.

Mulberry cultivation

Average data (Fig. 1.20) of cost of production of mulberry indicated that the
human labour was the chief input in the production of mulberry leaf which accounted for
32.71%, followed by FYM with 25.82%, chemical fertilizer contributed for 11.95%,
apportioned cost of mulberry with 6.97%. Interest on working capital accounted for
6.89%, cost accounted for 6.52% , bullock power accounted for 2.75%.

Rearing cost

It was observed from the data (Fig. 1.21) that major share in the rearing cost was
73.56% for variable cost and 26.44% for fixed cost. Like mulberry cultivation, chief
input in the silkworm rearing was human labour with 48.59%, followed by equipment
cost with 20.64% dfls cost with 16.29% materials cost with 7.75% interest on working
capital with 5.87% and 0.93% accounted for cocoon transportation and marketting.

Cost of cocoon production

The cost of cocoon production for rearing cross breed Pure Mysore x CSR2 is
presented in Table 1.16 and depicted in Fig. 1.22. It is evident from the observation that
the chief input of cocoon production was human labour utilized for silkworm rearing
with 28.2% followed by human labour utilized for the maintenance of mulberry garden
with 13.72%, rearing equipment cost with 11.98% FYM cost with 10.83%. Cost of dfls
with 9.46%, chemical fertilizers for mulberry accounted for 5.01%,cost of materials
accounted for 4.5%, interest on working capital for silkworm rearing contributed for
3.37%, approtioned cost of establishment cost of mulberry accounted for 2.92%, interest
46
on working capital contributed for 2.82%. other costs of maintenance of mulberry
accounted for 2.73%, bullock power cost for maintenance of mulberry accounted for
2.68%, plant protection chemicals accounted for 1.16% and transportation and
marketting of cocoons accounted for 0.54%.

Cost and returs from sericulture

Cost and returns from one acre of mulberry per annum is presented in Table 1.17.
The cost and returns were analysed in respect of three groups of farmers namely Holding
size-I , Holding size II and Holding size III.

Holding size I

A quantity of 15715 kg mulberry leaf was produced by small farmers per acre per
annum. Average number of dfls reared by different farmers in the group were 1250 per
ac/annum.Total cost of mulberry leaf poruction was Rs.23711.7. The cost of production
of one kg mulberry leaf was worked out to Rs.1.51. The farmers produced 761 kgs of
cocoons for one acre in one year and yield recorded per 100 dfls was 60.88 kg. The cost
of production for 1 kg cocoons was Rs.75.99. The total cost of cocoon production
worked out to Rs.57831.52. Cocoon productivity per acre and per annum was 761 kg.
The gross returns worked out to Rs.133175.00 and the cost benefit ratio worked out to
1:2.3.

Holding Size II

Farmers could able to rear 1175 dfls per acre /annum. Mulberry leaf production
recorded with farmers per acre/annum was 15500 kg and the total production cost of
mulberry was Rs.23666.7/ac/year. The cost of production per 1kg of leaf was worked out
to Rs.1.52. These farmers could able to produce 649.2 kg of cocoons/ac/annum. Average
cocoon yield recorded for 100 dfls was 55.25 kg and the cost of 1kg cocoon production
was Rs.86.62. Total cost of cocoon production was Rs.56233.16 with a gross return from
one acre of mulberry per annum was Rs.113610.00. The cost benefit ratio was worked
out to 1:2.02.

47
Holding size III

On an average farmers with holding size of 2 acres and above reared 1150
dfls/ac/annu. Mulberry leaf production recorded was 23982.9kg/ac/annum. Cost
production per one kg of mulberry was Rs.1.57. Average cocoon yield obtained was
614.33 kg/ac/annum and the same was worked out to 53.42 kg/100dfls. Cost of
production per kg of cocoons was Rs.91.22 . Total cost of cocoon production was
Rs.56041.96 /ac/annum. Gross returns obtained from one acre of mulberry per annum
was Rs.107507.75. The cost benefit ratio worked out to 1:1.92.

Overall the average leaf production was 15477.33 kg/ac/annum with a total
production cost of Rs23787.10. And average cost of 1 kg leaf production was Rs.1.53.
Average number of dfls reared per/acre/annum was 1191.7 and yield obtained per 100
dfls was 53.42kg. Average cost of cocoon production was Rs.56702.21 with gross
returns per ac/annum was Rs.118097.58. Average cost benefit ratio workedout to 1:2.08.

48
 DISCUSSION

Sericulture is a labour intensive industry in all its phases namely cultivation of

silkworm food plants, silkworm rearing, silk reeling and other post cocoon procesesses.
It provides employment to approximately 8 million persons, most of the being small and
marginal farmers, or tiny and household industry mainly in the hand reeling and hand
weaving sections. Silkworm rearing is widely practiced in the southeren states of
Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Anantapur district is one of the backward regions of Andhra Pradesh. Due to

recent problems of drought and lack of permanent water resources, sericulture has
become one of the prime crops, as it requires less water for mulberry cultivation and
minimum gestattion period, with proper planning farmers can get returns from each crop
(silkworm rearing) every month. The progress achieved is far below the existing
potential based on the present technologies. The main reason for not achieving the full
potential in sericulture in Anantapur is partial or non adoption of new technologies.

In consonance with the objectives of the study, the discussion of the results is
presented under the follwing heads.

1. Mulberry cultivation practices

2. Rearing practices

3. Analysis of status of cocoon yield

4. Economics of cocoon yield

1. Mulberry cultivation practices

Sericulture is practiced under different agro-climatic conditions. Entire mulberry

is cultivated under irrigated conditions. Most popular mulberry vaariety in the study area
is V1 followed by S36 and S13. Traditional variety M5 is also cultivated in the area.
Majority of the farmers practice wider spacing of 3‟x3‟ or 2‟x2‟. A few farmers practice
Indo-Japanese system of plantation method [5‟x3‟] x 2‟ which is popularly known as
paired row system.

49
 It is evident from the observations that the some of the newmulberry technology
methods have perculated the study area. Department of Sericulture, Govt. of Andhra
Pradesh and R&D activities of the Central Silk Board has introduced many schemes to
improve the economic status of the sericulture farmers by providing certain ameneties for
development of sericulture industry such as rpoviding new mulberry varieties, subsidies
for drip irrigation, appliances and water resources development methods. The required
infrastructure and technology have been provided under Catalytic Development
Programme (CDP) and Cluster Promotion Programme (CPP)

Though the adoption of new technology packages in mulberry cultivation were

not completely follwed attempts have been made in this regard, new varieties of
mulberry and wider spacing enhanced the leaf productivity to some extent.Mulberry leaf
productivity ranged from 15250 to 15715 kg/ac/annum.

2. Rearing practices

Bench mark survey revealed that majority of rearers were following traditional
method with incomplete adotion of new technologies.The silkworm hybrids used for
rearing at present in th study area was a cross between traditional multivoltine race Pure
Mysore(PM) female and an improved bivoltine male parent (CSR2) that is PMx CSR2.
Significant variations were observed in the expression of cocoon yield with different
group of farmers and in different months. The seasonal differences in the environmental
components considerably affect the genotypic expression in the form of phenotypic
output of the crop such as cocoon weight, shell weight, the cocoon shell percent and also
the stability of the crop in terms of survival of the worms. The variations in the
environment conditions day to day and season to season emphasize the need of
management of temperature and relative humidity for sustainable cocoon production.
The success of the sericulture industry depends upon several variables, but
environmental conditions such as biotic and a biotic factor are of particular importance.
There is an ample literature stating that good quality cocoons are produced within a
temperature range of 22-27°C and the yield variations can be attribute to the temperature
fluctuations in Anantapur district

50
3. Analysis of status of cocoon yield

Data on the cocoon yield profile (Tables 1.1 to 1.12 and Fig. 1.8) revealed that
significant variations in the cocoon yield were observed in different groups of farmers
whose intake of dfls per crop ranged from 50-300. An interesting observation was that
the farmers whose intake of dfls per crop below 100 recorded highest yield compared to
the farmers whose intake of dfls per crop was higher than 100. This is due to the fact that
small farmers always pay more attention in respect of hygiene, quantum and quality of
food and most of the farmers were self sufficient in human labour. Even during summer
months the small farmers could able to get higher yields compared to the other groups.
The present findings are in agreement with earlier studies reported by Pamadi (1980),
Rame gowda (1983), Prakash Kumar (1986) and Chikkanna et al., (1995).

4. Economics of Cocoon yield

The sericulutre enterprise comprises three distinct activities namely mulberry

cultivation , silkworm rearing and finally silk extraction. In the present study, economic
aspects dealing with fixed ,working capital, returns and hired labour are dealt in detail.
The findings pertaining to the inputs used and outputs obtained in rearing of silkworms a
re presented in Tables 1.14 to 1.17.

Physical input-output relation in silk cocoon production

The overall leaf to silk cocoonration in the production of silk cocoons was 22.95
:1 i.e to produce one kg of cocoons 22.95 kgs of mulberry leaves were required. The leaf
consumption ratio is small farmers (HS-I) is less with 20.65% compared to HS-II
(23.8:1) and HS-III (24.5:1) indicating better management practice with small farmers
compared to other farmers.

Majority of the farmers in the study area have shifted from tray method of rearing
to shoot rearing method because this mehtod of rearing is most economical, conveneient
and not as labour intensive as other methods (Chandrappa et al., 2001). Even after
adopting shoot rearing method which requires less labour, farmers in the study area were
utilizing excess of human labour when compared to the optimum number.

51
 The overall cocoon yield obtained was 56.52 kg /100dfls which is almost on par
with state average. Cocoon yield obtained with small farmers was 60.88 kg followed by
HS-II farmers with 55.24 and HS-III farmers with 53.42/100dfls. The observations
indicated that cocoon yield decreases with increase in farm size in this study area. This
may be due to the fact that the small farmers reared less than 100dfls per crop and the
farmers requires less human labour which is a major problem in handling large rearings.
The cocoon production ac/year is higher (761 kg) in case of small farmers compared to
other groups of farmers. Thus it can inferred that the small farmers are managing
mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing better compared to other farmers with higher
land holding as evident from the less leaf cocoon ratio and higher cocoon yield with
small farmers.

Cost of silk cocoon production

It is evident form the Table 1.17 that the gross returns is highest in small farmers
with Rs1,33,175.00 compared to HS-II farmers (1,13,610.00) and HS-III farmers
(Rs.1,18,097.58). The present observations confirms the earlier studies of Neelakanta
Sastry et al 1987 .they stated that the gross income in sericulutre per hectare is inversely
related to the size of the farm.

Major input used in the cocoon production was human labour and overall labour
cost was Rs.23775.16 for one acre of mulberry per one year to rear 1191.7 dfls per year
per annum. For mulberry cultivation it was Rs 7780.17 and for silkworm it was
Rs.15994.99, which constituted 13.72 and 28.21% of the total cost for mulberry
cultivation and silkworm rearing respectively, since it is labour intensive enterprise and
the labour wages were also high. The reason for using higher labour in marginal and big
farmers might be excessive use of mulberry leaf by the farmers, which has forced them
to use more labour and in turn incur more cost on labour.

Marketing cost was very low because of rearers themselves market the cocoons.
The total cost of silk cocoon production presented in Table 1.15 showed that the
operational cost formed the major item of cost accounting for 82.22% of the total cost
with all the three groups of farmers, while the fixed cost accounting for over 17% of the
total cost. The operational cost structure in cocoon production revealed that the expenses
were concentrated in the few items of leaf, labour, dfls cost, equipment cost. Largest
52
input items accounted for more than half of operation cost was silkworm rearing with
58.06% and 41.94% in mulberry leaf production. Anil Kumar (2008) reported the other
way according to him mulberry leaf was the major input cost with 50.42% in Kolar
district of Karnataka, This may be due to difference in the cultivation and rearing
practices in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh and Kolar district of Karnataka also
the different adoption levels of new technologies in the two districts.

Human labour were employed in the indoor activities of preparation of rearing

house and equipment for rearing, disinfection, feeding of silkworms, dispensing of
ripened worms on to the mountages, harvesting and sorting of cocoons. The out door
activities utilizing labour for leaf harvest, leaf transportation, chawki and cocoon
marketing. Depreciation and interest on fixed capital were the only fixed costs in cocoon
production.

Returns from silk cocoon production

The returns in cocoon production (Table 1.17) were mainly in the form of cost
returns which has accrued from the sale of the cocoons. The quantities of litter, manure
and bed leaf was not properly used as manure in the area and hence not accounted for
imputed returns in the study. From the Table 1.17 it was observed that on an average
56.52kg of cocoons per 100dfls valued Rs.118097.58 was obtained from 100 dfls. The
return obtained from 100 dfls from sale of cocoons was highest in small farmers with
Rs.133175.00 in respect of marginal farmers it was Rs 113610.00 and in respect of big
farmers it was Rs.107507.75.

Overall net returns amounted to Rs 61395.37 from one acre of mulberry per year.
The net returns from cocoon production with small farmers was highest with small
farmers (Rs71343.48) followed by marginal farmers HS-II (Rs.57376.84) and farmers
HS-III (Rs.51465.79).

The analysis of net returns indicated that silkworm rearing fetches very good net
returns. The cost benefit ratio (1:2.08) also supported the finding that silkworm rearing
fetches higher profit. The Comparative studies available on this aspect were those by
Nagaraj et al., (1986), Neelakanta Sastry et al., (1986), Datta and Ravikumar (1988),
Kerutgi (1991), Syed (1994), Dodamani (1996), Chandrappa et al., (2001), Umeh et al.,
53
(2001), Kumaresan and Vijayaprakash (2001), Dandin and Kumaresan (2003), Gururaj et
al., (2007).

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

1. Majority of the farmers in the study area cultivating V1 mulberry with wider
spacing.

2. Most of the farmers practice shoot rearing.

3. Farmers obtain chawki worms from CRCs. Very few farmers does their own
chawki.

4. Bamboo and plastic collapsible mountages are common and very few farmers use
rotary mountages.

5. Average land holding in the study area was 1.25 acres.

6. Most of the farmers rear less than 150 dfls per crop .

7. July to February are more suitable to silkworm rearing in the study area.

8. Cocoon yield/100 dfls is highest with small farmers (60.80 kg), and least in
respect of big farmers (53.43kg).

9. Maximum mulberry leaf was obtained by small farmers.

10. Average cost of the mulberry leaf production was Rs.1.53 and this is less with
small farmers (Rs.1.51) and highest with big farmers (Rs1.57).

11. More number of dfls (1257) were reared per acre of mulberry per annum with
small farmers. Average number of dfls reared for acre/annum were 1191.7.

12. Overall cocoon productivity per acre/annum was 674.84.

13. Cost of cocoon production for kg was Rs.84.61. Same was less with small
farmers (Rs.75.99) and highest with big farmers (Rs.91.22).

14. Average cost of cocoon production (ac/year) was Rs.56702.21.

15. Overall gross returns obtained for ac/yr was Rs.133175.00

54
16. Overall a net return obtained per ac per annum was Rs.61395.37.

17. Average mulberry leaf cocoon ratio was 22.95:1

18. Average cost benefit ratio was 1:2.08.

19. Overall observation indicates existence of size economies in mulberry and

cocoon production in Anantapur district.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

1. Study clearly indicated that net profit earned in silkworm rearing was highly
encouraging, hence there is scope to increase area under mulberry .The
production of cocoons could be increased and the farmers could get higher
earnings through proper management mainly silkworm rearing.

2. Substantial portion of the un tapped potential mulberry yield and silk cocoon
production could be achieved by adopting appropriated techniques of production
without incurring additional costs.

3. Many farmers in the area reported during the field study that the cocoon prices is
unstable therefore, Government has to come up with sound and scientific price
policy to protect the sericulturists and a comprehensive insurance policy
programme should be implemented to encourage farmers to pursue quality
cocoon production in the sericulture villages.

4. Many farmers have reported poor quality of chawki larvae and also extension.
Hence concerned extension officials should monitor and supervise the supply of
healthy young age silkworm only after II moult and also extension activities to be
planned as per the requirement or need of the farmers.

*****

55
Table 1.1: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during October 2008
(overall)

Dfls Avg. Yield

Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual
intake/ Yield/100 range/100
No. ency % farmers brushed yield (kg)
crop dfls (kg) dfls (kg)
20.00-
1 0-49 4.36 20 345 189.04 54.79
80.80
24.24-
2 50-99 43.79 201 13470 8239.72 61.17
110.40
18.46-
3 100-149 40.52 186 19435 10638.72 54.74
77.40
12.35-
4 150-199 11.33 52 8900 4701.87 52.83
63.40

5 200-249 - - - - - -

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 459 42150 23769.35 56.39 -

56
Table 1.2: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during November
2008 (overall)

Dfls Avg. Yield

Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual
intake/ Yield/100 range/100
No. ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg)
crop dfls (kg) dfls (kg)
35.25-
1 0-49 7.07 20 705 460.01 65.25
91.75
37.15-
2 50-99 60.42 171 11435 6615.15 57.85
108.08
34.14-
3 100-149 26.50 75 7890 4320.57 54.76
67.74
30.18-
4 150-199 4.95 14 2125 1145.16 53.89
64.20
32.20-
5 200-249 1.06 3 600 301.50 50.25
50.25

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 283 22755 12482.39 54.86 -

57
Table 1.3: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during December
2008 (overall)

Dfls Avg. Yield

Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual
intake/ yield/100 range/100
No. ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg)
crop dfls (kg) dfls (kg)
37.35-
1 0-49 4.23 11 550 363.83 66.15
92.30
38.25-
2 50-99 62.31 162 10200 6043.5 59.25
109.25
35.15-
3 100-149 30.38 79 7550 4171.38 55.25
69.10
30.45-
4 150-199 2.31 6 1675 920.41 54.95
63.15
32.30-
5 200-249 0.77 2 400 204.20 51.05
55.10

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 260 20375 11703.32 57.44 -

58
Table 1.4: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during January 2009
(overall)

Yield
Dfls Avg.
Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual range/
intake/ Yield/100
No ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg) 100 dfls
crop dfls (kg)
(kg)
32.32-
1 0-49 4.26 10 270 193.86 71.8
101.73
22.6-
2 50-99 51.91 122 8025 4775.89 57.55
106.80
23.3-
3 100-149 39.57 93 9130 5194.97 56.90
78.527
51.44-
4 150-199 2.98 7 1060 578.34 54.46
79.80
37.58-
5 200-249 1.28 3 600 315.60 52.60
51.70

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 235 19085 11058.66 57.94 -

59
Table 1.5: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during February
2009 (overall)

Dfls Av.Yield/ Yield

Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual
intake/ 100dfls range/100
No ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg)
crop (kg) dfls (kg)
39.68-
1 0-49 2.09 5 130 89.98 69.22
97.05
38.08-
2 50-99 49.37 118 7610 4806.48 63.16
101.4
36.17-
3 100-149 41.84 100 10385 5777.18 55.63
86.7
35.42-
4 150-199 5.02 12 1820 999.18 54.90
50.88
34.09-
5 200-249 1.67 4 830 418.16 50.38
37.95

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 239 20775 12090.98 58.20 -

60
Table 1.6: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during March 2009
(overall)

Avg.
Dfls Yield
Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual Yield/
intake/ range/100
No. ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg) 100dfls
crop dfls (kg)
(kg)
41.73-
1 0-49 2.94 8 265 162.02 61.14
92.40
45.56-
2 50-99 55.88 152 10400 5840.64 56.16
104.04
43.88-
3 100-149 34.56 94 9880 5432.03 54.98
86.32
44.00-
4 150-199 6.25 17 2550 1370.63 53.28
86.8
40.40-
5 200-249 0.37 1 200 102.30 51.15
62.43

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 272 23295 12907.62 55.41 -

61
Table 1.7: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during April 2009
(overall)

Dfls Avg. Yield/ Yield

Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual
intake/ 100dfls range/100
No. ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg)
crop (kg) dfls (kg)
31.92-
1 0-49 4.59 11 300 180.46 60.15
92.40
32.02-
2 50-99 47.92 115 7465 4021.24 53.87
86.00
30.15-
3 100-149 40.83 98 10270 5448.24 53.05
62.00
30.55-
4 150-199 3.33 8 4320 2268.00 52.50
63.00
31.25-
5 200-249 2.5 6 1200 582.00 48.50
59.50
30.20-
6 250-299 0.83 2 510 244.80 48.00
55.60

Total/Average 100 240 24065 12744.74 52.96 -

62
Table 1.8: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during May 2009
(overall)

Dfls Avg. Yield

Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual
intake/ yield/100 range/100
No ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg)
crop dfls (kg) Dfls (kg)
42.99-
1 0-49 3.15 4 105 77.84 74.13
90.70
40.50-
2 50-99 32.28 41 2755 1516.08 55.03
97.30
39.20-
3 100-149 51.18 65 6670 3435.05 51.50
71.38
35.50-
4 150-199 10.24 13 2810 1407.81 50.40
62.50
31.90-
5 200-249 3.15 4 800 386.96 48.37
50.79

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 127 13140 6823.74 51.93 -

63
Table 1.9: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during June 2009
(overall)

Avg.
Dfls Yield
Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual Yield/
intake/ range/100
No ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg) 100 dfls
crop dfls (kg)
(kg)
39.73-
1 0-49 2.47 4 90 59.24 65.82
90.00
35.52-
2 50-99 45.06 73 5025 2553.71 50.82
95.48
32.58-
3 100-149 43.83 71 7310 3659.39 50.06
74.60
38.80-
4 150-199 8.64 14 2120 1049.40 49.5
50.63

5 200-249 - - - - - -

6 250-299 - - - - - -

Total/Average 100 162 14545 7321.74 50.34 -

64
Table 1.10: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during July 2009
(overall)

Avg.
Dfls Yield
Sl. Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual Yield/
intake/ range/100
No ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg) 100dfls
crop dfls (kg)
(kg)
45.00-
1 0-49 2.11 6 250 145.88 58.35
96.40
50.50-
2 50-99 27.37 78 6050 3808.48 62.95
90.85
54.50-
3 100-149 57.19 163 20250 11643.75 57.50
75.25
50.90-
4 150-199 8.42 24 4400 2409.00 54.75
65.38
52.80-
5 200-249 3.16 9 2500 1283.50 51.34
60.32
50.44-
6 250-299 1.75 5 2200 1110.78 50.49
60.30

Total/Average 100 285 35650 20401.39 57.23 -

65
 Table 1.11: Dfls intake/crop and cocoon yield in the villages selected during August
2009 (overall)

Yield
Dfls Av.Yield/
Frequ- No of Total dfls Actual range/
Sl. No intake/ 100dfls
ency % farmers brushed Yield (kg) 100 dfls
crop (kg)
(kg)
38.50-
1 0-49 2.31 8 320 184.15 57.55
95.85
36.60-
2 50-99 34.68 120 9655 5763.07 59.69
96.36
39.50-
3 100-149 46.24 160 17275 9445.10 54.4
72.74
38.65-
4 150-199 11.85 41 7175 3838.63 53.5
62.56
30.04-
5 200-249 3.47 12 3275 1701.36 51.95
54.55
31.15-
6 250-299 1.45 5 250 130.58 52.23
56.40

Total/Average 100 346 37950 21062.89 55.50 -

66
Table 1.12: Dfls intake and cocoon yield in the villages selected during September 2009
(overall)

Yield
Dfls Av.Yield/
Freque- No of Total dfls Actual range/
Sl. No intake/ 100 dfls
ncy % farmers brushed Yield (kg) 100 dfls
crop (kg)
(kg)
39.00-
1 0-49 3.29 12 310 180.36 58.18
90.25
38.50-
2 50-99 31.51 115 6550 4011.88 61.25
88.75
35.40-
3 100-149 51.51 188 23645 13699.90 57.94
79.25
34.20-
4 150-199 7.67 28 4900 2672.95 54.55
65.15
33.80-
5 200-249 3.84 14 3150 1642.73 52.15
60.15
33.50-
6 250-299 2.19 8 2200 1127.50 51.25
61.25

Total/Average 100 365 40755 23335.32 57.26 -

67
Table 1.13: Cocoon yield profile in different groups of farmers in the villages selected in
different months during Oct. 2009 to Sep. 2009

No of No of No of
Dfls Yield Yield Yield
Sl. No. farmers farmers farmers
intake /100 dfls /100 dfls /100 dfls
(HSI) (HSII) (HSIII)
1 Oct. 08 221 57.98 238 53.79 - -
2 Nov 191 61.55 89 54.33 3 50.25
3 Dec 173 62.7 85 55.1 2 51.05
4 Jan. 09 132 65.68 100 55.68 3 52.60
5 Feb 123 66.19 112 55.27 4 50.38
6 Mar 160 58.65 111 54.37 1 51.15
7 Aprl 126 57.01 106 52.78 8 48.25
8 May 45 64.58 78 50.95 4 48.37
9 June 77 58.32 85 49.78 - -
10 July 84 60.65 187 56.13 14 50.92
11 Aug 128 58.62 201 53.97 17 52.09
12 Sep 127 59.72 216 56.25 22 51.70
Total/Average 1587 60.97 1608 54.03 78 50.68
HSI: Holding size-I; HSII: Holding size-II; HSI: Holding size-III

68
 Table 1.14: Cost of mulberry leaf production per acre/per annum (Rs.)

% of total cost of
Mulberry leaf production cost Holding size-I Holding size-II Holding size-III Average
leaf production
Maintenance of mulberry garden
Bullock power 1566.25 1500.45 1495.25 1520.65 6.39
FYM 6125.00 6100.00 6200.15 6141.72 25.82
Chemical fertilizers 2835.00 2800.00 2895.25 2843.42 11.95
Labour 7750.00 7800.00 7790.00 7780.17 32.71
Plant protection chemicals 650.75 640.00 675.00 655.25 2.75
Others 1500.00 1550.00 1600.00 1550.00 6.52
Interest on working capital 1634.20 1631.25 1652.00 1639.15 6.89
Total maintenance cost (A) 22061.20 22021.70 28307.65 22130.36
Apportioned cost of Establishment (B) 1650.50 1645.00 1675.25 1656.92 6.97
Total Production cost (A+B) 23111.70 23666.70 23982.90 23787.28 100.00

69
 Table 1.15: Cost of silkworm rearing per acre/per annum (Rs.)

% of total cost
Rearing cost Holding size-I Holding size-II Holding size-III Average of cocoon
production
Variable cost
Dfls 5625.00 5287.50 5175.00 5362.50 16.29
Materials 2600.00 2550.00 2500.00 2550.00 7.75
Labour 1677.97 15771.30 15435.70 15994.99 48.59
Transportation and marketing 320.10 295.00 300.10 305.00 0.93
Fixed cost
Interest on capital 1939.25 1912.31 1872.86 1908.17 5.80
Equipment cost (depreciation and interest 6857.00 6750.25 6775.50 6794.38 20.64
on fixed assets
Total rearing cost 34119.82 32566.46 32059.06 32915.04 100.00

70
 Table 1.16: Cost and return structure from Sericulture per acre/annum

Component Holding size-I Holding size-II Holding size-III Average

Mulberry yield/ acre/annum (kg) 15715.00 15500.00 15250.00 15488.33
Cost of leaf produced (Rs/annum) 23711.70 23666.70 23982.90 23787.10
Cost of leaf production per kg (Rs.) 1.51 1.52 1.57 1.53
No. of dfls brushed/acre /annum 1250 1175 1150 1191.70
Cocoon yield/acre/ annum (kg) 761.00 649.20 614.33 674.84
Cocoon yield/100 dfls (kg) 60.88 55.25 53.42 56.52
Cost of cocoon production (Rs./kg) 75.99 86.62 91.22 84.61
Cocoon production cost (Rs/acre/annum) 57831.52 56233.16 56041.96 56702.21
Gross returns (Rs./acre/ annum) 133175.00 113612.00 107507.75 118097.58
Net returns Rs./acre/ annum 75342.48 57376.84 51465.79 61395.37
Leaf cocoon ratio 20.65:1 23.88:1 24.823:1 22.95:1
Cost benefit ratio 1:2.30 1:2.02 1:1.92 1:2.08

71
 Table 1.17: Per cent contribution of each component to the total cost

Mulberry Cocoon
Component % of total Cost
production production
Mulberry cultivation
Bullock power 6.39 2.98
Farm yard manure 25.82 10.83
Chemical fertilizers 11.95 5.01
Labour 32.71 13.72
Plant protection chemicals 2.75 1.16
Other costs (Irrigation etc, 6.52 2.73
Interest on working capital 6.89 2.89
Apportioned cost of establishment 6.97 2.92
of mulberry garden
Silkworm rearing
Dfls 16.29 9.46
Materials 7.75 4.50
Labour 48.59 28.21
Transportation and marketing 0.93 0.54
Interest on working capital 5.80 3.37
Equipment cost (depreciation 20.64 11.98
cost/interest on fixed assets

72
 a

Fig. 1.3: Mulberry gardens in the study area with different spacing
a- 2‟ x 3‟, b- 3‟ x 3‟, c- (5‟ x 3‟) x 2‟

73
 a b

c d

Fig. 1.4: Gardens with different mulberry varieties

a-V1; b- K2/M4; c-S36; d. S54

74
Fig. 1.5: Different types of rearing houses
in the study area

75
Fig.1.6 Chawki rearing in the study area

76
 a.

b.

Fig. 1.7: Different methods of late age rearing

a-shoot rearing; b-tray rearing in the
study area

77
 a

Fig. 1.8: Different types of mountages used in the area

a. Bamboo, b. Collapsible (plastic) and c. Rotary mountage.

78
 Fig. 1.9: Harvesting of cocoons

Fig. 1.10: Harvested cocoons ready for marketing

79
Fig. 1.11: Average cocoon yield profile of the farmers whose intake of dfls was below 50
per crop in different months

Fig. 1.12: Average cocoon yield profile of the farmers whose intake of dfls was between
50-99 per crop in different months

80
Fig. 1.13: Average cocoon yield profile of the farmers whose intake of dfls was between
100-149 per crop in different months

Fig. 1.14: Average cocoon yield profile of the farmers whose intake of dfls was between
150-199 per crop in different months

81
Fig. 1.15: Average cocoon yield profile of the farmers whose intake of dfls was between
200-249 per crop in different months

Fig. 1.16: Average cocoon yield profile of different group of farmers (dfls intake) in
different months

82
 October 2008 November 2008

December 2008 January 2009

Fig. 1.17: Cocoon yield profiles of different groups of farmers with different intake dfls
per crop during different months

83
 February 2009 March 2009

April 2009 May 2009

Fig. 1.18: Cocoon yield profiles of different groups of farmers with different intake dfls
per crop during different months

84
 June 2009 July 2009

August 2009 September 2009

Fig. 1.19: Cocoon yield profiles of different groups of farmers with different intake dfls
per crop during different months

85
Fig. 1.20: Percent contribution of individual components to the mulberry production
cost. (BP: Bullock power; FYM: Farm yard manure; CF: Chemical fertilizers; LBR:
Labour; PPC: Plant protection chemicals; OTS: Other costs (Irrigation etc.; IWC: Interest
on working capital; ACM: Apportioned cost of establishment of mulberry garden)

86
Fig. 1.21: Percent contribution of individual components to the cocoon production cost.
(Dfls: MAT: Materials; CLBR: Labour; TRM: Transportation and marketing; CIWC: Interest
on working capital; EC: Equipment cost (depreciation cost/interest on fixed assets)

87
Fig. 1.22: Percent contribution of individual components to the total cocoon production
cost. (BP: Bullock power; FYM: Farm yard manure; CF: Chemical fertilizers; LBR: Labour;
PPC: Plant protection chemicals; OTS: Other costs (Irrigation etc.; IWC: Interest on working
capital; ACM: Apportioned cost of establishment of mulberry garden; Dfls: Dfls; MAT:
Materials; CLBR: Labour; TRM: Transportation and marketing; CIWC: Interest on working
capital; EC: Equipment cost (depreciation cost/interest on fixed assets)

88