Module 3: Biological Diversity

Effect of the environment on Organisms

Inquiry Question: How do environmental pressures promote a change in species diversity
and abundance?
Ecosystems
 An ecosystem is the combination of all the organisms (biotic factors) living in a community
(group of different populations in an area or habitat) and all the non-living features (abiotic
factors) with which they interact.
o Environment is made up of all the non-living factors
o Balance between biotic and abiotic factors in ecosystems
o Species have characteristics that suit them to the area they live in
o Diversity that is seen is developed over time due to survival of the fittest and
reproduction
 Types of ecosystems
o In both terrestrial + aquatic ecosystems, biotic and abiotic components significantly
influence species diversity
o Aquatic ecosystems
 Affected by abiotic factors
 Salt concentrations
 Light availability
 Pressure
 Types of aquatic environments: saltwater or marine environments (coral
reefs) + freshwater environments (lakes)
 Some aquatic environments are exposed to both fresh water and saltwater
 E.g. Estuarine environment affected by tidal change
 Types of organisms found is dependent upon the level of water salinity
 E.g. Wetlands, mangrove swamp, rock platforms, estuaries, rivers, lakes,
oceans, coral reefs
o Terrestrial ecosystem
 Desert
 Extreme temperatures
 Often sandy soil + sometimes rocky
 Organisms: sparse grasses, saltbushes, spinifex hopping mouse,
insects, lizards + snakes
 Grassland
 Temperature can be high or mild
 Organisms: spinifex grasses, kangaroos, rabbits + snakes
 Shrubland
 High temperatures
 Organisms: Mallee trees, kangaroos, rabbits + snakes
 Woodland
 Mild temperature, sometimes high
 Canopy cover 10% - 30%
 Organisms: grasses, shrubs, eucalyptus trees, mice, birds, insects,
spiders, wallabies
 Temperate forest
 Mild temperature
 Organisms: eucalypt trees of various types
 Tropical rainforest
  Humid air + mild/high temperature
 Dense canopy cover 70% - 100%
 Organisms: bird's nest ferns, palms, liana, bracken ferns, leaf litter
organisms
o Abiotic factors create selection pressures for organisms ∴ affecting biotic factors
o Ecosystems provide nutrients, shelter, and opportunities to mate
 Living things compete with each other for these resources
 Resulting in some organisms being able to survive + reproduce while
others cannot
 ∴ successful species will have a range of favourable characteristics
(adaptations) suited for the specific environmental factors in their habitats

Selection Pressures in an Ecosystem

 Natural selection
o A change in environment results in some resources becoming limited, + individuals
have to compete for these resources.
 Selection pressures therefore drive natural selection.
o Individuals that have random variations which make them better suited to survive in
changed environments are more likely to survive
 Genetic based variations can be passed down from parent to offspring
 Over several generations, a new population with these variations will be
formed, making them better adapted to their new environment
 Biodiversity witching a population is essential for survival
o If the variation did not already exist, then limited or no individuals would have
survived the selection pressure.
 Abiotic selection pressures:
o Light intensity
o Soil type
o Water availability
 Amount of rainfall
o Gas concentration in water
 Biotic selection pressures:
o Competition between members of a species
o Predators
o Availability of prey
 Distribution of a species describes where it is found
 Abundance of a species determines how many of the individuals of that species live
throughout the ecosystem
 Abiotic + biotic selection pressures affect distribution + abundance of organisms by causing
fluctuations or changes in population numbers and movement
 Abiotic selection pressures
Terrestrial environments Aquatic environments
Temperature range Temperature variation
Light Dissolved gases
Water availability Ph of water
Light availability
Clarity of water
Salinity
Tidal movements + wave action

 Biotic selection pressures

 o Availability + abundance of foods
o Number of competitors
o Number of mates
o Number of predators
o Number + variety of disease-causing organisms
 Environmental pressures in terrestrial Australian ecosystems
o Rainfall, temperature + landform patterns significantly affect the abundance and
distribution of vegetation and ecosystems
o Abiotic factors - high temperatures + high rainfall create a suitable tropical
environment for rainforest ecosystems
o Abiotic factors - high temperature + low rainfall (arid conditions) create suitable
environment for desert regions
 Ecology
o Study of interrelationships between different types of organisms and between
organisms and their environment
 Determine the distribution + abundance of flora and fauna
o Ecologists determine the size of population (total number of organisms present)
 Density of organisms (total number of organisms per unit area)
 Distribution of organisms (in order to look at any patterns that are formed
and possible reasons for it)
 Measuring plant abundance
o Easy because plants are not mobile
o Use sampling techniques to estimate plant species abundance
 Quadrats (1m x 1m square) to cover randomly selected representative areas
for estimating the % cover of an area
 Method is beneficial when numbers of a plant species are too high
to count

 Measuring animal abundance

o Slow moving animals can easily be counted
o Quick animals are hard to count
o Mark-release-recapture technique
number captured ×number recaptured
 Abundance =
number marked∈recpature
 Assume there is no population change through migration, births, or deaths
between sampling periods
 Trapping techniques
o Designed to capture animals without hurting them
 Traps
 Nets
 Small pits
 Radio-tracking
 Use of electronic detection device
 Drone/UAV
 Population trends
o Can lead to interferences about the species and what abiotic + biotic characteristics
they are most suited to
o In large areas, transects are used to give an idea of the variation that may occurs
  A transect is a narrow strip that crosses the entire area being studied, from
one side to another
 It provides an accurate and easy method of representing an area simply
o A transect line from the sea to inland id most likely used to look at the abundance of
a mangrove species along an area

Changes in Populations Over Time

 Collections of individuals of the same species in a population have a range of characteristics
(traits)
o Diversity can be small (change in flower colour) or large (colour, texture, amount +
distribution of human hair)
 If selection pressures change within an environment, some individuals with traits best suited
to the changed selection pressures will survive + reproduce
 Individuals with traits that no longer suit them to the changed environmental conditions will
struggle to survive
 Over time, the number of individuals in the population with successful adaptations to the
changed conditions will increase
o ∴ there is a change in species diversity
 E.g. The peppered moth normally rests in shaded sites on lichen covered trees. It depends
on its speckled white colour to blend in with the background. There is another much darker
form of moth that occurs naturally, but in much smaller numbers. The first dark moths were
reported in an industrial region of England in 1848 during the time of the industrial revolution.
After that, the number of dark moths increased rapidly in various parts of Britain. In the 1950s,
an extensive study of the abundance and distribution of the light and dark form was
conducted in different parts of the country. It was found that dark moths were more common
where smoke and soot from factory chimneys had blackened the bark of trees.
o In polluted areas, the dark form is invisible against darkened branches, whereas the
light form stands out.
o In non-polluted areas, the reverse is true: the light form is camouflaged against the
background of soot-free branches, but the dark form is clearly seen
o Resulting in the frequency of the dark moths being higher in polluted areas because
light moths are more readily seen + eaten.
 As industrial pollution is reduced, the frequency of dark moths decreases.
 More severe instances of environmental pressures promoting a change in species diversity
are seen after natural disasters.
o Erupting volcanoes, massive flooding, hurricanes, and fire are events that change
environmental pressures and affect species diversity.
o E.g. Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre in SA is a Salt Lake. Its edges are crusted with white
crystals. Significant rains and floods caused floodwater from Queensland to make its
way to Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre in 2014 and 2015. This influx of water into the lake
drastically changed the environmental selection pressures and increased species
diversity. There was an increase in populations of the birds, fish and mammals living
there (Fig. 7.15). Snails, beetles, and mosquitoes took advantage of the water, providing
food for tens of thousands of birds such as pelicans and other waterbirds.

 Cane toads in Australia

o Native to South + Central America
o Deliberately introduces into Australia in 1935 to control the grey back cane beetle in
sugar cane plantations
o Toads quickly spread from their original release site
 From Northern QLD to NT + NSW
 o From the 102 toads originally released, their population is now estimated at 200
million
o Have unique combination of structural and behavioural features that allow them to
thrive in Australian environment:
 Feed mainly at night
 Ground dwellers
 Eat insects, snails + wide variety of opportunistic foods (pet food left out
overnight) or anything that will fit in their mouths (small insects, birds, small
mammals, small reptiles)
 Absorb water through their skins
 No known predators
 Breed all year round
 Lay up to 30000 eggs at a time which hatch within 2 -3 days
o Contain toxins that kill many native animals who try to eat them
 Glands in their shoulders produce bufotoxin, which acts on the heart and
central nervous system, causing rapid heartbeat, hyperventilation, convulsions +
paralysis
 Toxin can be absorbed through membranes around the eyes, mouth + nose
o Toxin does not affect all members of a population in the same way.
 Some individuals are intolerant of the toads’ poison than others, and some
members of populations are more reluctant to try to eat toads than others
o Cane toads in Australia considered to be a selection pressure because those
predators with characteristics such as vulnerability to bufotoxin and increased presence
to eat cane toads are removed from the population.
 Predators that have increased resistance to bufotoxin and those that are
reluctant to eat cane toads are the ones that survive and reproduce

 Prickly pear distribution in Australia

o Initially introduced from America to start cochineal dye industry used in the clothing
industry
o Cactus was initially introduced in 1800s with recommendation that it could also be
used as a strong hedge plant and an alternative source of food for stock
o The plant is a succulent characterized by spine covered fleshy growths
 The leaves are actually small scales
 Can be established by seeds or vegetative propagation
 Parent plant contains branches that can easily become detached, and they
grow readily when they come into contact with soil
o These growing conditions allowed the plant to propagate and cover 24 million
hectares by 1920.
 It became a pest and a lot of time and money was invested into reducing its
numbers
 Early control measures included burning, crushing and the use of herbicides.
 Little use and no help because the plant continued to spread
o Two species of insects - cochineal beetle and cactoblastis moth were imported
 Use of cactoblastis moth showed the best result
 Its larvae had eaten its way through 3 million of the previously infected
hectares of land, by 1932
o Due to lack of selection pressures the prickly pear plants had spread rapidly through
the country.
 Only problem faced was that lack of pressures meant lack of diversity among
the prickly pear population
 The use of a natural predator to control the numbers of a pest organism is known as
biological control.
Adaptations and Survival
Inquiry Question: How do adaptations increase the organism's ability to survive?
Adaptations
 An adaptation is a result of a change or variation that arises at random, when cells divide
and replicate during the process of reproduction
 New organisms produced possess a changed feature and this random difference may
happen to benefit the organisms by making them more suited to the environment they live in
 Australian environments are varied and diverse with some harsh conditions for organisms to
survive in.
 3 main factors that affect survival in Australian environments are water, temperature, and
sunlight
 Types of adaptations:
o Structural - how an organism is built
o Behavioural - how an organism behaves
o Physiological - how an organism function
 These adaptations are often intertwined, and it is difficult to separate them.
o E.g. These three types of adaptations are often intertwined and can be difficult to
separate. For example, if dogs did not have legs (structural), or their cells did not release
energy (physiological), they would not be able to run (behavioural)

Structural adaptations
 A structural adaptation is how the organism is built and how this aids their survival in their
natural habitat.
o They are physical features on both the inside and outside of an organism
 Structural adaptations of plants
o Plants that live in hot/dry environments must achieve a balance between
photosynthesis and how much water the plant can afford to lose for cooling purposes
without risking dehydration
o E.g. Xerophytes live in hot/dry habitats where they are exposed to high
temperatures and bright sunlight.
 Structural adaptations maximise the absorption and storage of water +
minimise the loss of water
o Succulents have adaptations such as fleshy stems or leaves
 They are able to swell up and retain moisture when it is available; they ten
survive by using this moisture during dry periods
o Eucalyptus/banksia
 Leathery leaves
 Thick waxy cuticle
 Protects from excessive sunlight
 Provides insulation
 Provide reflective properties
 Reduce amount of evaporation
o Leaf shape is important for retaining water
o Hard leaves minimise water loss with a waxy/hairy surface
 Epidermal hairs on the surface of the leaf also trap a moist layer of air
 Structural adaptations of animals
o Survival issues in Australia: gaining enough food + water, keeping cool/warm, finding
space to live, reproducing and deterring predators
o Thorny devil is a small lizard
  Covered in large spikes  to deter predator (because it makes it look
ferocious and hard to swallow)
 Abel to capture rainwater + dew between layered scales, which it can
control individually to funnel into its mouth
o Wombat
 Larger muscular shoulders and long claws for extensive digging
 Back-facing pouch to protect joey from dirt while digging
 Herbivores
 24 rootless teeth that continuously grow to replace those that are worn
down from gnawing hard materials
 
Physiological adaptations
 Physiological adaptations are related to how the organisms function that increase its
chances of survival in their natural environment
o Involve variations in metabolism or physiology of organisms at a cellular, tissue,
organ, or system level, giving them specific advantages for a particular set of
environmental circumstances
o E.g. Intertidal marsh crab has gills and kidneys that function to concentrate and
excrete excess salt
 Flamingos can tolerate the alkaline waters of soda lakes which could kill
other birds
 Physiological adaptations in plants
o Abiotic factors in a surrounding environment plays an important part in determining
the vegetation that may be prevalent in an ecosystem
 In turn, plant life influences the animal life in the area due to the food chain
o Temperature
 Plants adapt to low temperature - have strategies to reduce the risk of ice
forming in cells
 Ice crystals pierce cell membranes, killing the cells and ultimately
the plant
 Some alpine plants produce organic compounds that act as an 'antifreeze'
substance
 Deciduous trees lose their leaves and undergo a period of dormancy
 Allowing them to survive extremely low temperatures, water
shortages and lack of availability of sunlight
 Abscission (falling off) of leaves occurs in response to shortening of days in
autumn
 Lower period of daylight leads to a waterproof layer forming at the
base of each leaf
 Lack of water = photosynthesis can’t occur, and the pigment
anthocyanin is exposed as chlorophyll degrades, giving the leaves their
colour
 Some plants flower in response to low temperatures
 Called vernalisation and is the adaptation to living in central Asia
 These responses are the result of temperature and/or light changing the
concentration of hormones in plants which is important for the continuation of
the species
o Salt
 Can be damaging to cell structure and metabolism
 Plants adapted to saline environment are called halophytes
  Salt-tolerant plants - can increase water content in vacuoles to maintain
metabolism and minimise toxicity
 E.g. Pickleweed use this method and also actively transport salts
from the cytoplasm by a sodium-potassium pump on the vacuole
membrane.
 Salt-avoidant plants - minimise salt concentration using structural and
physiological adaptation to be able to excrete excess salts
 E.g. Saltbush Atriplex vesicaria - actively transports excess
sodium/chloride ions into bladder cells situated on the tip of hairs on the
surface of leaves. When the bladder reaches its capacity, it bursts, releasing
salts into the environment
 Physiological adaptations in animals
o Water
 Spinifex hopping mouse - reduce water loss by excreting highly concentrated
urine, reabsorbing most of the water produced as a by-product from cellular
respiration
 Freshwater fish - concentration of ions in their cells is higher than their
surrounding water
 They rarely drink water + have high kidney filtration rate
o Temperature
 Penguins - counter current heat exchanger system to keep their extremities
warm, large insulating layer (blubber) - also in polar bears
 Some animals survive summers by reducing their metabolic rate so that
their body temperature is lowered to that of the environment
 Called aestivation + opposite of hibernation
 Allows the animal to retain water, ration its fat storages and
conserve energy
 Land snails - move into the shade and seal up their shell
 Cane toad - burrows underground and sealing itself in a
watertight mucus cocoon

Behavioural Adaptations
 Refer to those actions performed by an organism in response to a stimulus that improve its
chances of survival
o E.g. Puffer fish – pump air into their stomachs and blow up twice their size to
frighten predators.
o Antarctic penguins – huddle during winter and rotate through the huddle to reduce
their time exposed on the outside of the huddle.
 Behavioural adaptations in plants
o More subtle than animals
o Turgor pressure - keeps plant cell vacuoles full and pressing against the cell wall
 Touch-me-nots fold inwards, defending themselves form harm when they
are touched
 Venus flytrap is able to rapidly snap shut when the insect touches delicate
sensory hairs.
 Therefore, as a result of touch, the water flows out of the vacuoles, resulting
in a loss of turgor pressure, causing the cells to collapse
 Behavioural adaptations in animals
o Temperature
  Ectothermic animals (those whose body temperature closely relies on the
temperature of their surroundings) have limited ability to control its body
temperature
 E.g. Eastern brown snake - move into the shade when hot or into the
sun when cold; less active in cold weather (brumation)
 Endothermic animals tend to avoid heat + light of day
 E.g. Bilby hides in burrows to stay cool and reduce water loss by
evaporation
o Social behaviour
 Sugar gliders - produce a pungent aroma from glands on head, chest, or
genitals to allow members of a group to locate each other
 Meerkats - live in large social communities, one meerkat is posted as a
sentry + alert others of imminent danger

Charles Darwin and Voyage

 Initially observed an armadillo and then unearthed the fossil shell of a glyptodont
o Allowed him to make connections + form relationships between ancient species ad
present-day species
 Galapagos Islands
o Finches
 Interested in the shape of their beaks
 Reasoned that finches differed from island to island due to their
environmental conditions
 Realised that species on separate islands were related to species on the
South America mainland
 Provided evidence to Darwin that species could split from a common
ancestor and might still exist at the same time in the same geographical
areas

 Survival of the fittest:

o Variation exists within a population
o More offspring are produced than can survive
o Those offspring are better adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce
 o The favourable adaptations are passed on to the next generations
o Over time, the favourable adaptations will increase in the population (as long as the
environment does not change)

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Inquiry Question: What is the relationship between evolution and biodiversity?

Biological Diversity and the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

 Biological diversity (biodiversity) refers to the variety of all forms of life on Earth+ diversity of
the characteristics that living organisms have and the variety of ecosystems of which they are
components
o Diversity allows adaptations to change in the environment
o Sustains lives
o Organisms depend on it for benefits - fresh air, food, water, medicines, fuel
 Biodiversity exists on three different levels
 Evolution relies on biodiversity + also affects biodiversity or can drive/limit it
o Genetic diversity - refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic
make-up of a species
o Species diversity - measure of the diversity of different species in an ecological
community
o Ecosystem diversity - variation of different ecosystems found in a region
 Evolutionary change may happen rapidly in response to strong selection pressures
o E.g. Small number of endangered Baw Baw frogs that exist today are found only in a
small area in the central highlands of Victoria. Evidence show that the ancestors of
today’s Baw Baw frogs were distributed along the Great Dividing Range at a time when
Australia had a wetter climate. The Baw Baw frogs we see today are considered to be
living relics and they have a very low genetic diversity, suggesting that past climate
change had placed the species under great pressure. Recent decline is the result of an
introduced diseases. The frog also faces dual threat of climate change resulting from the
enhanced greenhouse effect + fragmentation of its habitat through conflicting land use
 Genetic diversity
o Important for populations to adapt to changes in the environment
o Constantly changing environments pose selection pressures that enable some
organisms with favourable characteristics to survive + reproduce more successfully than
others
o Lack of genetic diversity in a population can lead to a risk of extinction
o Genetic biodiversity among populations  chance that some individuals will have a
pre-existing ability to survive and go on to reproduce.
 Darwin-Wallace Theory
o Evolution is a change in living organisms over a long period
o All theories of evolution share common basic premises:
 Living organisms arse from common ancestors or a common life form and
have changed over time
 Differences that occurs among groups of living organisms imply that living
things change over time
 Similarities occur in living things + suggest a common ancestry
o Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection is based on the fact that
living things arose form common ancestors and that some populations moved into new
habitats where they adapted overtime to their environments, leading to the diversity of
life.
  Therefore, to survive in a particular environment, organisms must possess
traits hat favour their chances of survival.
 They must possess variations that are selected within a population, resulting
in a group of organisms becoming adapted to their environment.
o Theory proposes that natural selection an isolation could account for how living
organisms become adapted to their surroundings and evolve into new species.
o Natural selection depends on the following concepts:
 Variability - all populations have random differences or variation among
their members
 Heritability - variation may be inherited
 Over-reproduction - organisms produce more offspring than the
environment can support
 Competition - between organisms and survival of the fittest
o Theory gave rise to their ideas on speciation - formation of new species
 Proposed that the formation of a new species may occur when a population
becomes isolated from the original groups of organisms.
 These individuals who have variations that allow them to survive the
changed conditions will reproduce and pass on their characteristics to the next
generation
 Eventually, the population becomes different from the original therefore
individuals are no longer able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring - the
defining condition for a population to be considered a different or new species
 Neo-Darwinism
o Scientists have applied concepts of Mendelian genetics to support and explain
Darwin and Wallace’s ideas on random genetic variation leading to gradualism and the
formation of new species
o It was only after Mendel’s experimental results were confirmed and accepted, that
the Darwinian theory of evolution was extended to include genetic processes involved in
natural selection,
o Therefore, the explanation of Darwinian evolution based on modern genetics is what
we term ‘Neo-Darwinism’.
o Many variations arise from the interaction of an organisms with its environment
 This type of variation affects the individual organisms
 Variations that can be passed on from one generation to the next - heritable
characteristics - affect evolution
 Heredity and variation are essential for evolution to occur
 Variations that pass from one generation to another are often produced in a
population because of mutations
 Variation of a gene pool of a population is important in determining the
chances of survival of that population
 Speciation
o Speciation is process by which populations evolve to become distinct species
o Types of speciation
 Allopatric speciation
 Occurs when populations become isolated. Process involves:
 Parent population that has a large range with a common
gene pool, there is a regular flow of genes due to mating events
between individuals
  Part of the
population becomes
separated due to physical
barriers - prevents the
flow of genes between
the parent population
and the isolated
population
 Two
populations experienced
different selection
pressures that favour
some individuals with specific genotypes  altering the frequency of
specific genes + making the isolated population a sub species
 If the populations are separated long enough, the gene pool
of each population will change in isolation - Gene flow will not occur
as the populations are not breeding in contact (they may become so
different that they can no longer interbreed if brought together)
 Sympatric speciation
 Occurs without physical isolation
 Common in plant species that mutate to cause polyploidy - the
existence of multiple chromosomes
 These species may be physically very close to the parent species but
are genetically incapable of reproducing with them
 Origin and Diversification of Life
o Biologists have been aware of species that have changed over a longer period by
looking at evidence from fossil records
o However, fossil records do not necessarily show a uniform pattern of change
 Instead it shows that after a major extinction, new life flourishes.
o E.g. After the extinction of dinosaurs, a group of diverse reptiles, mammals that
were once small and rare animals, were able to take advantage of the new niches
left open as their previous inhabitants became reduced in numbers/extinct
o Environment on early earth provided conditions for inorganic molecules to form
organic molecules
 First cells were prokaryotic cells
 Further advances occurred when cells began to specialise
 Formed first eukaryotic cells
o The move from unicellular to multicellular organisms began when these cells
clustered together
 Cooperation between cells occurred, colonial organisms resulted, giving
them a selective advantage over unicells.
 Once the cells within the group began to specialise to carry out particular
functions, this would have led to higher organisation and the selection of
multicellular organisms
 Changes would have extended over very long periods and involved far more
complex changes.
Microevolutionary Changes and Speciation
 Change in environment is a driving force behind change in living organisms
o Influences evolution because it results in selection pressure acting on organisms
 Abiotic environment includes:
o Physical conditions
 o Chemical conditions
 As a result of environmental change, resources may be limited  increase in competition
between organisms for resources (light, soil nutrients, water in plants, food, shelter, mates)
 Selection pressures include:
o Environmental change
o Competition
o Predation
o Disease
 Some Organisms have variations in their features
that make them better suited than others to changed
environment.
o If a population consists of a diverse range of
individuals, then the population is better able to
survive a sudden change in the environment
o This diversity allows some organisms to
compete more successfully for available
resources  survive to breed  pass on their
genes to next generations
o This is termed natural selection

 Microevolution + Macroevolution
o Macroevolution takes place over millions of years, measured as geological time
 Results in new species arising
o Microevolution takes place over shorter periods
 Results in changes within populations, but generally does not produce new
species
 New forms that arise within populations are sometimes referred to as
varieties/races
 Can lead to speciation
 E.g. Small changes in a dog-sized ancestor led to the evolution of
what is now known as the horse
 Evolution of horse
o Has branching nature, demonstrated in an extensive fossil record with numerous
changes
o Rate of evolutionary change was not constant
 Fossil record showed that there were several different migrations, changes
in trends from smaller to larger sizes + reduction in size
o Fossils have shown changes in body size, number of toes and dentition (teeth -
development of grinding surfaces)
o Genetic variation caused by mutations, natural selection, genetic drift, and
speciation have all contributed to the evolution of the horse
o Microevolution can occur when a series of mutations leads to a change in gene
frequency in a population. This change in the gene pool is due to chance and is called
genetic drift. If a population becomes isolated speciation might occur.
o A small population with a mutated gene may become separated from the main
population, causing the mutated gene to increase in the population as interbreeding
occurs. If the change is favourable it is selected for (it increases chance of survival)
  Evolution of platypus
o Genome of platypus is not directly related to birds  descent of reptile lineage,
giving rise to marsupials, birds, reptiles, and placental mammals

Darwin and Wallace's Evolution Ideas

 In closely related species, basic similarities between organisms could be a result of their
relatively recent divergence from a common ancestor
o Natural selection can account for their differences - as they moved into different
habitats, they would have been exposed to new selective pressures, which would result
in their evolution by natural selection to become different
o Divergent evolution
 If more distantly related species show similarities, this could be a result of having moved into
similar environments - they would have been exposed to similar selective pressures and so
natural selection could account for them evolving to become similar
o Convergent evolution
 Parallel evolution - two types of species evolve similar characteristics after their divergence
from a common ancestor
o E.g. Large ears evolving in a number of Australian microbat species
 Coevolution: one species evolves in response to their evolution of another.
o Often a predator-prey relationship
 o E.g. Hammer orchids have evolved flowers that look like + mimic the pheromones of
specific species of thynnid wasp, which encourages the wasp to attempt to mate with
the flower, thus facilitating pollination
 Theory of natural selection can account for both divergent and convergent evolution:
Organisms in a changed/new environment are under pressure to survive  environment
selects certain variants within a population that have a trait that gives them better chance of
survival  limited resources lead to higher competition  Individuals with favourable traits
survive, reproduce and pass on their characteristics
o Favourable traits that increase the organism's chances of survival are called
adaptations
 Natural selection can result in different organisms that are subjected to similar selective
pressures becoming more similar (convergent evolution) Or similar organisms becoming
different (diversion evolution)
 Adaptive radiation is attempt used to describe the evolutionary variation in a species that
evolved from a common ancestor
o Due to migration of organisms into new environments, they began to occupy new
niches
o Radiation relates to spreading out + adaptive suggests a change that favours their
survival in a new niche
Punctuated Equilibrium Versus Gradualism
 Punctuated equilibrium and gradualism are two types of evolution that can occur in a
species
o Both models are valid in explaining macroevolution
 Gradualism
o Proposed by Darwin suggests that population slowly diverged by accumulating
changes in characteristics due to different selection pressures
o Suggest that transitional forms should exist
o E.g. Trilobites our group of marine invertebrates that show evidence of gradualism
in their fossil record
 Punctuated equilibrium
o Proposes that evolution occurs in short bursts of rapid change, followed by long
periods of stability within populations
o Put forward in the 1970s by Stephen Gould and Niles Eldridge
o Suggest that if evolutionary change is gradual, it could be predicted that there would
be fossilised remains showing these ongoing changes
o E.g. Soft bodied organisms dominated the seas for hundreds of millions of years and
then, in a period of a few million years, they disappeared and were replaced by
organisms with shells and skeletons
o Prices of punctuated equilibrium
 Population is living in a stasis - no change in its environment + little changes
observed in fossil little changes observed in fossil record
 Part of population is isolated by a sudden change in environment (tectonic
activity/sea level change)
 Small, isolated population experiences strong selection pressures from
sudden change in conditions
 Due to the small size, there are no fossils representing any transitional forms
 If environmental conditions change and populations reunite, there may be
competition between the populations
 A larger population and a stable environment make evolutionary changes
less likely
Evidence for Evolution
Inquiry question: What is the evidence that supports the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection?

 Darwin + Wallace argued that all living things shared a common ancestor
o Recently biochemical evidence shows that all living things share sae macromolecules
 E.g. Protein, DNA, biochemical processes like cellular respiration
o Detailed evidence involves comparing the sequence of the basic units that make up
these chemicals in species that may share evolutionary relationships
 Amino acid sequencing
o Proteins are found in every living cell as part of the cell membrane + cytoplasm
o Made of sub-units called amino acids
o Number, type and sequence of these amino acids determine type of protein
o Protein found in wide range of animals is used to study the amino acid sequence and
evolutionary relatedness
 E.g. Cytochrome c - a protein found in plants and animals that is involved in
cellular respiration
o Sequence of amino acids in the protein is analysed, and similarities/differences
between organisms are identified
 Similarities imply that organisms may have shared a common ancestor
 Basic chemistry inherited from a common life form has not changed
 Differences imply that organisms have evolved (changed over time)
 No. Of differences is proportional to length of time since separation
o This is used to construct evolutionary trees
 Aka phylogenetic trees - branching
diagrams showing inferred evolutionary
relationships
 E.g. Humans and chimpanzees have
an identical sequence of amino acids in
their haemoglobin, so they are closely
related than humans and gibbons, which
have 3 differences
 DNA-DNA Hybridisation
o DNA is the genetic material found in our cells
o Made of sub-units called nucleotide bases
 Adenine (A)
 Guanine (G)
 Cytosine (C)
 Thymine (T)
o Number, type and order of these bases that determine our genes
o DNA is double-stranded molecule in which A and T always pair and C and G always
pair
 Called complementary base pairing
o Based on assumption that DNA molecules of closely related species have a similar
nucleotide base order
o Involves splitting the double-stranded DNA molecule lengthwise to expose the
nucleotide bases on each individual strand
 Done by applying heat to cause the strands to separate
 Separated segments of DNA from the two species, that are going to be
compared, are mixed
 2 strands form a different species combine and form a hybrid DNA molecule
o The more closely matched base pairs are, the stronger binding of the strands
  Closely related species have a very similar order of nucleotide bases
 Thus, their DNA strands combine more strongly than species that
are distantly related
o Pairing of DNA chain from different organisms is referred to as DNA-DNA
Hybridisation

 DNA sequencing
o The exact order of nucleotide bases in the DNA of one species is compared with the
sequences in a similar DNA fragment of a second species
 The more closely related the species, the closer the order of nucleotide
bases in the DNA
o In this procedure
 A piece of DNA (a gene) is isolated from each organism to be compared
 Multiple copies of each gene are made, using fluorescent dyes to distinguish
between the four bases in DNA
 Computer-linked equipment called a DNA sequencer is used to graph and
print out the entire sequences of bases, which are then compared.
o Biochemical evidence suggests that organisms that share a common ancestor have
fewer differences in the DNA base sequences
o Reveals more detailed information than other biochemical techniques
o Limitations of biochemical evidence include that some changes in DNA/amino acid
sequences may not be identified if a particular change that occurred in the past have
reverted to its original form in a more recent organism.
 
Comparative Anatomy
 Is the study of similarities and differences in structure of living organisms
 More similarities in the structure of organisms implies that they must have separated from a
common ancestor more recently.
 Homologous structures - evidence of divergent evolution
o Helps to determine the degree of evolutionary relatedness of the organisms
(phylogeny)
o Similarities suggest descent from common ancestor
o Differences in structure represent modifications - how organisms have evolved to
become different
o Organs have the same basic plan to their structure, but show modifications because
they are used in different ways + termed homologous - have the same evolutionary
origins
 E.g. Pentadactyl
limbs of all vertebrates
have the same basic bone
plan. Therefore, the wing
of a bird, the forearm of a
 lizard and the flipper of a whale are homologous, because all share a common
basic bone structure, suggesting that they share a common evolutionary origin.
 
 Analogous structures as evidence of convergent evolution
o Similar structures that evolved independently in two living organisms to serve the
same purpose
o Started off being very different and then have evolved independently to become
similar because they were selected to be used for a similar purpose, such as flight
o This is convergent evolution, Which changes in structure are temptations dot favour
the survival of these unrelated organisms because they face similar selection pressures
o E.g vertebrates, insects and octopuses all have large, well-developed eyes and good
vision, but they lack a common ancestor. The evolution of the eyes in each is thought to
have occurred independently, making their eyes analogous structures arising as a result
of convergent evolution.
o Presence of analogous features does not provide evidence for evolutionary
relatedness, rather for evolution of structures to serve a common purpose in a common
environment
o These organisms are distantly related and do not share a common recent ancestor
 Vestigial Structures
o Are thought to be evolutionary remnants of body parts that no longer serve a useful
function within that population
o Provide evidence of common ancestry
o E.g. The presence of a reduced tail (coccyx) in humans, and the pelvic bones in
snakes and whales
 Comparative embryology
o Comparison of the developmental stages of different species
o Similarities can be used to infer relationships between organisms
o Related species show similarities in their embryonic development
o E.g. Fish, amphibians, birds and mammals all show the presence of gill slits (correctly
called pharyngeal slits), tails and distinct muscle blocks during embryonic
development; best explained by common ancestry where they are all descendants
from a common form. The presence of pharyngeal slits suggests that the common
ancestor lived in an aquatic environment. These slits develop into internal gills in
fish, external gills in amphibians and Eustachian tubes in mammals, the tube that
connects the middle ear with the throat.

Biogeography
 Study of the geographical distribution of organisms, both living and extinct
 If isolation is a criterion necessary for new species to arise from an original species, the new
species should resemble species with which they shared a habitat; for example, they will be
more similar to
o Species that lived close by than to species found far away (even if that species is in
an area with similar environmental conditions)
 o Species that lived in a common area before it split up (for example, organisms that
originate from Gondwana).
 For a new species to arise, it must be genetically isolated
o E.g. Darwin's finches
 Distribution of flightless birds
o Originated from a common ancestor in Gondwana
o Resulted in distribution of emus in Australia, ostriches in south Africa, Kiwis in NZ
and rheas in Northern continents
o No similar birds in northern continents
o Evidence for adaptive radiation
 Fossil evidence
o Palaeontology: study of fossils
o Provide direct evidence of the existence of an Organism preserved in rock, ice,
Amber, tar, eat or ash
o Law of superposition
o Relative dating:
 Fossils found up higher in rock strata are younger than the lower fossils
 Are dated relative to each other
 Actual age cant be determined
 Use chemical analysis, stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and paleomagnetic
stratigraphy can be used to relatively date fossils
 Chemical analysis: measuring the amount of chemicals in bones
 E.g. Uranium and Iodine, the points are buried they
exchange minerals with the surrounding ground. The longer the bones
are buried, the more chemicals they exchange.
 Useful for determining the relative age of objects found at the same
site
 Amount of nitrogen in sample decreases with age
 The higher the uranium and iodine levels, the more recent the
bones
 Stratigraphy relies on sedimentary rocks being formed in layers with the
oldest rocks being at the bottom and youngest on top
 Biostratigraphy involves comparing the fossils in different strata. Fossils can
be placed in a chronological sequence
 Palaeomagnetism is the study of the record of Earth’s changing magnetic
field in rocks, sediments or other materials
o Absolute dating
 Actual age of a specimen Is determined using the radioactive elements
present in the specimen
 Fission-tracking dating: establishes the age of a mineral sample from its
uranium content
 When volcanic rocks are formed, they don't contain fission Tracks
 Overtime the number of fission tracks increases
 As uranium-238 decreases into a stable lead isotope, more tracks
are formed
 Therefore age of specimen can be determined by measuring amount
of uranium remaining of fission tracks
 K-Ar Dating: determine the age of rock measuring the ratio of radioactive
argon into radioactive potassium in the rock sample
 Age of volcanic ash can be determined by measuring Ar-
40:Radioactive potassium in a sample
  If fossils are buried between layers of volcanic ash, the age of
volcanic ash can indirectly indicate the age of the fossil
 Limitations of palaeontology as evidence
o Main limitation of the fossil record is that it is incomplete
 There is bias towards organisms whose body parts or environments make
them better suited to becoming fossilized
 Lack of fossils representing the majority of early soft bodied organisms and
there is an unequal representation of transitional organisms
o Also some doubt about the correct age sequence of some fossils, since radiocarbon
dating can be used to date fossils only as recent as up to 50000 years old
 Modern examples of evolutionary change
o Cane toad
 Introduced to regulate the cane beetle, which was causing major problems
for the cane industry
 Two characteristics of cane loads which enabled them to out-compete
native toad and frog species
 Rapid reproduction
 Poisonous throughout all periods of their life cycle
 Spread out around Australia due to their fast-hopping
 Different native animals aren't equally vulnerable to the cane toads, they
exert selection pressures
o Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria
 Chemicals that are able to inhibit the growth of bacteria what Destroy them
 They target the cell wall and inhibit bacterial metabolism
 Antibiotics were produced, threat posed by infectious diseases was rising
 Issue has occurred: bacteria have evolved strains that are resistant to many
if not all of the antibiotics used to treat infections bacterial diseases