1.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS FOR VOICE AND DATA

1.1. Introduction
Use of wireless technologies has become one of the fastest-growing communications
applications around the world. Recent innovations have greatly increased the availability of the
telephone in many parts of the world, yet wireless communications have been around since the
early 1900s. Back then, radio served as the principal means of mass communication and, like
TV, was the principal means of public entertainment. During World Wars I and II, wireless
communications allowed combat forces to communicate. Today, law enforcement agencies,
marine agencies, and transportation companies, among many others, use wireless
communications to manage deployed resources. In the 1950s, the Rural Electrification
Administration considered wireless radio technology as a means of supplying telephone service
to rural populations. This experimentation proceeded through many iterations but was largely
abandoned during the mid-1980s as cellular technology emerged. Today, radio communication is
thought of as a new innovation because of its growing ubiquity and its support for personal
communications, data, and information collection. Lower costs have made it possible for users to
enjoy cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and a host of other devices to
simplify the conduct of commerce. Wireless technology has improved intra- and intercorporate
communications, enabling more cost-effective control of such business resources as deployed
sales forces and technical service personnel.
1.1.1. Wireless Techniques: A Strategy For Worldwide Voice Communications
1.1.2. Cellular Voice
Great strides have been made in the adoption of cellular radio as a means of supporting local
telephone service. In many undeveloped countries there is little or no infrastructure to support
telephone services. For this reason, it is not uncommon in some parts of South America, Asia,
Russia, and Eastern Europe for a subscriber to wait as long as one year to get local telephone
service. Because of this situation, wireless subscriber penetration has grown at about 45% per
year. For example, Motorola, Inc. recently reported that it had orders for 150 wireless systems
for 21 provinces of China and the three municipalities of Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjing; an
area with a combined population of more than one billion people. As a result, wireless local loop
(WiLL) systems are being installed around the world at an accelerated rate to reduce the time to
service.
1.1.3. Wireless Radio
Wireless radio is being installed in place of traditional Central Office systems that require
expensive extended copper wire external networks. Service providers are finding that wireless
radio central office systems are convenient, fast, and less costly than traditional central office
switching systems. Because there are no copper wires to string and no wire plant to maintain,
subscribers can enjoy telephone service as soon as the radios are turned on. Building a traditional
central office system with a stationary copper land line network costs between $1,250 and $1,750
per subscriber, depending on terrain and labor. A Motorola WiLL system can be installed for
between $800 and $2,000 per subscriber. About 80% of these costs are the construction of cell
sites, which can also be used for other forms of wireless communications, such as personal
communications systems (PCSs).
1.1.4. Wireless PBX Systems
In companies where operations are widespread, such as chemical and heavy equipment
manufacturing, it is often necessary for first-line supervisors and other key employees to cover a
lot of terrain in a day. Often these personnel are in high demand and maintaining contact with
them is difficult. For these applications, Private Branch eXchange manufacturers have developed
wireless radio frequency (RF) systems that can be integrated into the architecture of a private
branch exchange (PBX) system. AT&T (Basking Ridge NJ), Ericsson Messaging Systems
(Woodbury NY), Intercom Computer Systems, Inc. (Woodbridge VA), Northern Telecom, Inc.
(Richardson TX), Mitel Corp. (Kanata, Ontario, Canada),and Siemens-ROLM Corp. (Alpharetta
GA) offer systems that integrate into their private branch exchange (PBX) architectures. These
systems are integrated through the private branch exchange (PBX) line cards and support the
same line appearances as any hard-wired single line or electronic station set. A base radio
operating in the unlicensed frequency range together with a series of antennae spaced around the
user's facility comprise the basic network. Low-powered mobile handsets are used with these
systems to avoid interference with other frequencies operating in the same area.
1.1.5. Satellite Voice Services
Satellites are playing an increasing role in establishing still another layer of worldwide voice
communications. Two of the most widely heralded impending services are the Iridium and
Teledesic low earth orbital (LEO) systems. These systems will offer worldwide telephone
service through the use of a small handheld telephone similar to those now used for cellular
systems. Iridium is owned by a consortium of international companies, one of which is Motorola,
Inc. Teledesic is owned by McCaw Communications and Microsoft Corp. (Redmond WA).
Inmarsat now offers voice services through a worldwide consortium of 65 member nations.
Special briefcase-size terminals are used to communicate with the satellite. Typical terminal
costs range between $18,000 to $22,000 and connect-time costs are approximately $5.00 per
minute. A new service that is planned, Inmarsat-P, will compete directly with the LEO systems.
Although details of the Inmarsat-P service are still in the making, terminal and initiation costs are
expected to be in the range of $1,500, with connect costs of about $1.00 per minute. These
satellite-based voice systems provide the capability to support both voice and data
communications in any remote area of the world.
1.2. Wireless Considerations For A Data Communications Strategy
A variety of services are available to support wireless data communications. Wireless services
like Cellular Digital Packet Data, Enhanced Special Mobile Radio, Ardis Mobile Data, and RAM
Mobile Data Inc. support slightly different needs, although there is some overlap. For this reason,
users should not look for a single vendor to supply an allencompassing wireless service solution.
In fact, it is less costly to consider a mix of voice, paging, and data services. ESMR and cellular
digital packet data (CDPD) offer competitive data communications services. For example, the
Nextel interconnect option on the Motorola Integrated Radio System (MIRS)-based network
costs $40 per month for the first 256 minutes plus $0.50 for each additional minute. This
assumes that the subscriber also is a dispatch subscriber at about $25 per month for access. A
MIRS Motorola Lingo mobile handset is required to access service on a Motorola Integrated
Radio System system and is priced around $1,000. In comparison, cellular telephones can cost
up to $350. Cellular subscribers start out at $14.95 for monthly access plus about $0.45 or more
per minute for airtime. Although there are still many smaller special mobile radio
(SMR)operators across the US that will continue to offer dispatch and interconnect services in
second-tier markets, major players such as Nextel, Dial Page, and other members of the
Motorola Integrated Radio System-related roaming consortium are likely to maintain their
interconnect rates in competition with cellular service providers.
1.2.1. CDPD as a Wireless Option
Implementing cellular digital packet data (CDPD) networks often requires a number of systems
applications modifications. For example, a special cellular digital packet data (CDPD) modem is
required at either end for the transmission of data from one point to a host computer's
communications port. This device must be established separately from the other host
communications ports and should be installed by the cellular service provider. This task includes
assigning the device with an IP address and configuring it for access to the cellular network.
CDPD Costs.
Communicating over a wireless network is more costly than using the public network for a
number of reasons, not the least of which is the cost for airtime. For example, regular
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol applications generate a lot of extraneous traffic
that can drive up the cost for transmission on a network that is usage-sensitive. A hardware fix is
available to alleviate this type of network condition. For example, products are available to
monitor data flow as a means of reducing the number of acknowledgments being sent.
Potential Performance Problems.
Another problem that must be taken into account is packet delay. This condition can result in
dropped connections or unnecessary retransmissions and is caused by network congestion.
Although cellular networks are still relatively lightly loaded, network congestion becomes a
problem as greater penetration develops in the wireless market and cellular digital packet data
(CDPD) networks become crowded. In addition, under some traffic circumstances, it is possible
for packets to be dropped, therefore delivery of packets cannot be guaranteed. Noisy lines and
poor radio coverage can also present the same types of problems as a congested network. Under
some traffic conditions, duplicate packets can be introduced through retransmission facilities. If
the packet acknowledgment is lost, the packet's source will time out and retransmit a second or
duplicate packet. Packets can also be thrown out of order when the data path is subjected to delay
from rerouting events. These are just a few of the transmission characteristics that must be
countered when a cellular digital packet data (CDPD) network is used for data transmission.
Users should carefully review their applications and develop the measures that may be required
to safeguard their data transmissions.
CDPD Test Areas.
Cellular digital packet data is being tested by McCaw (in Las Vegas, Dallas, and Seattle),
Ameritech Mobile (in Chicago), GTE Mobilnet, and AirTouch Cellular (PacTel Cellular), among
others. Bell Atlantic Mobile, Inc. has announced pricing for cellular digital packet data (CDPD)
services offered in its Baltimore/Washington DC and Pittsburgh test markets. GTE Personal
Communication Service and McGraw Cellular have also initiated trial services in their franchise
areas.
1.2.2. Specialized Mobile Radio
Specialized mobile radio (SMR) services began in 1970 when the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) established frequencies in the 800 – 900 MHz range for use in land mobile
communications. A typical application of Specialized Mobile Radio is a radio dispatch for
service fleets and taxi cabs. SMR operators are assigned licenses for exclusive use of assigned
channels in a given area. SMR operators can also provide interconnection to the public network.
Racotek (Minneapolis MN) is one provider of SMR wireless voice/data service. Racoteck
provides a vehicle fleet management service that is based on SMR or trunk radios. A Racoteck
communications gateway facility linked to a Mobile Communications Controller in a customer's
vehicle provides a data communications link between customers (e.g., truck drivers) and their
dispatch control centers. A mobile radio collocated in the vehicle with the Mobile
Communications Controller unit completes the communications link. This system allows the
dispatcher to send route information, messages, or other information that cannot be sent over the
radio to customers while they are in route to or from a location.
1.2.3. Commercial Mobile Data Communications Services
RAM Mobile Data Inc.
RAM Mobile Data Inc. (New York NY) is a joint venture between Bell South and RAM
Broadcasting and provides a two-way data communications service that is based on the Mobiltex
network architecture. This service is used by many companies for management of their field
sales and service operations. RAM Mobile Data provides mobile data communications service in
90% of the urban business areas in the US, covering 6,000 cities and 210 metropolitan trading
areas. Access speeds of up to 9.6K bps can be supported in all areas; in select areas, it is possible
to access the network at up to 19.2K bps. Common applications include E-mail and basic
information access to the corporate data center for mobile travelers. Some companies have
greatly reduced their cellular telephone use by deploying the lower-cost RAM mobile network to
send E-mail and messages to corporate personnel while traveling. A traveler equipped with a
radio-enabled laptop or personal digital assistant (PDA) can access the nearest RAM base
station. The message is then routed over a leased land line to the corporate data center. Messages
can be sent to a traveler over the RAM mobile network where it is routed to the RAM local
switch nearest the traveling employee. Conrail uses RAM Mobile Data to transmit train loading
information to train crews advising the disposition of freight and empty freight cars. Other user
companies, such as TransNet and MasterCard, use RAM Mobile Data to provide access to their
central hosts so that merchants in the field can validate credit card purchases.
Ardis Mobile Services.
Ardis (Lincolnshire IL) is a joint venture between IBM Corp. and Motorola and is composed of a
formerly private corporate network that supported deployed field sales forces and service
personnel. Ardis provides data communications services to 4,000 major metropolitan centers and
8,000 cities in the US, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The network was originally designed
by Motorola to support IBM's 18,000 deployed field service personnel. Access to the network
ranges from 4.8 to 19.2K bps and can be reached from within a building or from a moving
vehicle. Laptops and PDAs equipped with an Ardis/Modacom modem can be used to access
company host computers to retrieve Email, enter orders, access diagnostic information, or obtain
product information. Salespeople equipped with laptop computers can access product files to
provide customers with product specifications as well as check inventories, enter orders, and
print on-the-spot order confirmations.
1.2.4. Satellite Data wireless lans
Satellite Data
Satellite systems are composed of a transmission device that is capable of receiving a signal from
a ground station. The signal is then amplified and rebroadcast to other earth stations capable of
receiving its signal. User signals neither originate or terminate on the satellite, although the
satellite does receive and act on signals from the earth that are used to control the satellite once it
is in space. A satellite transmission originates at a single earth station and then passes through
the satellite and ends up at one or more earth stations. The satellite itself acts as an active relay
much the same as a microwave relay. A satellite communications systems involves three basic
elements: the space segment, the signal element, and the ground segment. The space segment
comprises the satellite and its launch vehicle. The signal element comprises the frequency
spectrum over which the satellite communicates, and the ground segment comprises the earth
station, antennae, multiplexer, and access element.
Wireless Lans
Wireless LANs are governed by the IEEE Wireless Local Area Networks Standard Working
Group Project 802.11. The 802.11 standard establishes the components and interface
requirements for a wireless LAN. The basic architecture established by the 802.11 committee
organizes wireless LANS into basic service areas (BSAs) and access points (APs). Multiple
BSAs can be interconnected at the APs into an extended service area (ESA). The protocols for
this model are divided into two groups: the Media Access Control specification and physical
specifications (PHY). There are different specifications for each radio frequency supported: 915
MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.2 GHz.
 1.3. Wireless Communication As An Alternative to Fixed Media
Traditional fixed-media systems are based on coaxial cable, twisted-pair wiring, fiber optics, or a
combination of all three. Over time, the documentation for fixed networks can become lost or
rendered inaccurate because of unrecorded equipment moves and changes. As new functions are
established or offices rearranged, segments with undocumented cables are often installed to
support added network nodes. Some companies that experience a high degree of internal moves
and changes find it necessary to abandon at least 30% of their original network media. For these
companies, a wireless network strategy superimposed over a base network provides the
flexibility to support many permanent and temporary moves. Under this plan, the user is only
required to establish a base radio, transmitters for each terminal to be moved, and a series of line-
of-sight antennas. Thereafter, relocating network users only requires that the new location has
line-of-sight to a network antennae.
1.3.1. The Wireless Cost Advantage
A wireless LAN solution at $750 to $1500 per node may be expensive when compared with a
traditional wired solution (approximately $350 to $550). However, when the costs of lost
productivity and rewiring are added, a wireless solution may be more cost-effective for
organizations that move or change equipment frequently. Wireless solutions find their best fit
where there are large unwired manufacturing areas to support, campus buildings that must be
interconnected, open office areas without access to wire facilities, or older buildings with
concrete partitions and no wire access.
1.3.2. Vendor Support for Wireless Solutions
There are several different vendor approaches for supporting wireless LANs. For example,
Motorola's Altair systems use the 18–19 GHz frequency range to support a microcellular
approach. A series of intelligent antennae is used to establish microcells within the user's
building. These microcells are supported with low-powered, high-frequency radios designed to
support frequency reuse. This process results in a very efficient network. Other manufacturers
often use two basic components: the radio hub and the transceiver. In some systems, a single hub
can support up to 62 transceivers. The transceivers are attached to the terminals and
communicate with the hub using a line-ofsight arrangement. Wireless LAN bridges are used to
connect LANs in neighboring buildings. These devices establish a point-to-point connection and
may not be a complete system. Examples of wireless bridges can be seen in the Motorola's Altair
VistaPoint and the Cylink Airlink. Infrared and laser technology can also be used to interconnect
LANs in different buildings. This technique places information on a beam of light and can
support very wide bandwidth over a short distance. In addition, this technology is immune to
electric interference and is much more secure than radio transmission. Although infrared and
laser techniques do not require an Federal Communications Commission license, users are
responsible for any radio interference that develops while they are operating in a densely
occupied area. LCI (Lancaster PA) has been developing laser systems for several years and has
well over 750 mature systems installed.
 1.3.3. Outlook For Wireless Applications
Projections for wireless applications vary depending on the user and the interpretation of the
technology. There is no doubt that there will be a tremendous penetration in the basic telephone
service market. Wireless local loop access will allow more users in developing nations to enjoy
telephone service faster and at an affordable level. The continued decline in the cost of Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association cards for mobile radio will result in the
continued rise in the number of laptops and PDAs used for basic communications functions such
as E-Mail and information access. Satellite and radio-based service will continue to support
vehicle management and tracking. Services like Qualcomm's OmniTrac provide a cost-efficient
method for tracking and establishing a data communications connections with truck assets in the
field. Global positioning systems (GPS) will allow users to track vehicles and provision driver
information. Avis rental car agency is testing a system that tracks Avis cars and sends driver
information to fleets of specially equipped rental cars. Hertz, Alamo, and other rental car
agencies are using RAM Mobile Data to allow their service personnel to directly process
returned vehicles as they are driven onto the company ramps. Using a handheld data entry
terminal, the service person is able to enter the vehicle ID code and rental status. This process
allows the rental car location to more efficiently manage their available pool of cars.
----------------------------
Conclusion
Considering that many of the current wireless applications have come into being in only the last
few years, new applications are certain to proliferate as users gain confidence in the available
services. Mobile workers such as field sales representatives can spend more time with customers.
New levels of productivity will emerge as telecommuting employees freed from expensive office
space are able to focus more on the delivery of an end product. AT&T Paradyne's Enhance
Throughput Cellular (ETC) can greatly improve the process for sending data over the cellular
network. This technology makes the cellular data user transparent to all other cellular traffic.
Advancements such as this one will allow wireless users to resolve many of their data
transmission requirements that were previously difficult to resolve. There is no question that
users are adopting wireless solutions. The important issue to consider is the rate at which this
technology is absorbed by mobile workers and the extent to which the penetration of services
exceeds the available capacity of the network to support these users' needs.

Introduction to Mobile Computing

The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and satellite
services will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of size, most
mobile computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of the network,
and, perhaps, to other mobile computers. The resulting computing environment, which is often
referred to as mobile or nomadic computing, no longer requires users to maintain a fixed and
universally known position in the network and enables almost unrestricted mobility. Mobility
and portability will create an entire new class of applications and, possibly, new massive markets
combining personal computing and consumer electronics.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people to
access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:  Fixed and
wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office. Neither weight nor
power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The devices use fixed networks for
performance reasons.
 Mobile and wired: MaŶLJ of todaLJ͛s laptops fall iŶto this ĐategoƌLJ; useƌs carry the laptop
from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the ĐoŵpaŶLJ͛s network via the telephone network
and a modem.
 Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings to
avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.
 Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who can
roam between different wireless networks.
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the
move is vital in order to utilise time efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been
highlighted in many fields of which a few are described below: a. Vehicles: Music, news, road
conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information are received via digital audio
broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. For personal communication, a universal mobile
telecommunications system (UMTS) phone might be available offering voice and data
connectivity with 384 kbit/s. The current position of the car is determined via the global
positioning system (GPS). Cars driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast
exchange of information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In
case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police and ambulance service
will be informed via an emergency call to a service provider. Buses, trucks, and trains are
already transmitting maintenance and logistic information to their home base, which helps to
improve organization (fleet management), and saves time and money.
b. Emergencies: An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can carry
vital information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the accident. All the
necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and specialists can be
consulted for an early diagnosis. Wireless networks are the only means of communication in the
case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In the worst cases, only decentralized,
wireless ad-hoc networks survive.
c. Business: Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major customers.
They can access the latest market share information. At a small recess, they can revise the
presentation to take advantage of this information. They can communicate with the office about
possible new offers and call meetings for discussing responds to the new proposals. Therefore,
mobile computers can leverage competitive advantages. A travelling salesman today needs
instant access to the company’s database: to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the
current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of their travelling
employees, to keep databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a
true mobile office, but efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure
data consistency.
d. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when
customers use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between the bank
central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the card usage, can take
place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a mobile computer unit. This can speed
up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals.
e. Replacement of Wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace wired
networks, e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due to economic reasons,
it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to
provide environmental information. Wireless connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this
situation. Other examples for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays
in historical buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
f. Infotainment: wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate
location. The travel guide might tell you something about the history of a building (knowing via
GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you are) downloading information
about a concert in the building at the same evening via a local wireless network. Another
growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and games to enable, e.g.,
ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together. Limitations of Mobile
Computing  Resource constraints: Battery  Interference: Radio transmission cannot be
protected against interference using shielding and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data
or higher bit error rates respectively  Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing,
transmission rates are still very low for wireless devices compared to desktop systems.
Researchers look for more efficient communication protocols with low overhead.  Dynamic
changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within a region, thus link
delays and connection losses  Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to
destination and connection stability  Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards 
Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio interface
is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always include encryption,
authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to use.