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Optimal Cadence Selection During Cycling: International Sportmed Journal March 2009
Optimal Cadence Selection During Cycling: International Sportmed Journal March 2009
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ISMJ
International SportMed Journal
Review article
Abstract
Cadence or pedal rate is widely accepted as an important factor influencing economy of
motion, power output, perceived exertion and the development of fatigue during cycling. As a
result, the cadence selected by a cyclist’s could have a significant influence on their
performance. Despite this, the cadence that optimises performance during an individual
cycling task is currently unclear. The purpose of this review therefore was to examine the
relevant literature surrounding cycling cadence in order provide a greater understanding of
how different cadences might optimise cycling performance. Based on research to date, it
would appear that relatively high pedal rates (100-120rpm) improve sprint cycling
performance, since muscle force and neuromuscular fatigue are reduced, and cycling power
output maximised at such pedal rates. However, extremely high cadences increase the
metabolic cost of cycling. Therefore prolonged cycling (i.e. road time trials) may benefit from a
slightly reduced cadence (~90-100rpm). During ultra-endurance cycling (i.e. >4h),
performance might be improved through the use of a relatively low cadence (70-90rpm), since
lower cadences have been shown to improve cycling economy and lower energy demands.
However, such low cadences are known to increase the pedal forces necessary to maintain a
given power output. Future research is needed to examine the multitude of factors known to
influence optimal cycling cadence (i.e. economy, power output and fatigue development) in
order to confirm the range of cadences that are optimal during specific cycling tasks.
Keywords: pedal rate, economy, efficiency, power output
*
Corresponding author. Address at the end of text.
Figure 1: Effective pedal forces throughout the entire crank cycle during cycling at various
power outputs (a) and cadences (b). 0° crank angle refers to top dead centre. Figure
reproduced by permission of the publisher Taylor & Francis Ltd ,
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals from Sanderson DJ, Hennig EM and Black AH. The influence
of cadence and power output on force application and in-shoe pressure distribution during
cycling by competitive and recreational cyclists. J of Sports Sci 2000. 61.
The effective pedal force acts centre, whereas negative load occurs on
perpendicularly to the bicycle crank, the upstroke of the pedal cycle (Figure 1).
generating a torque which is transmitted Since power output is the product of crank
through the bicycle chain to the wheel. torque and crank angular velocity,
From Figure 1 it can be seen that the instantaneous power output also varies
effective pedal force and thus crank torque throughout a crank cycle 11.
vary substantially throughout the pedal
cycle. Indeed, peak torque typically occurs
at approximately 100°, past top dead
4 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com
Despite this, average power output (184N) compared with 90rpm (215N). This
produced over an entire revolution may be reduction in average pedal force (i.e. force
determined by the following equation: over an entire revolution) is
predominantely due to a decrease in peak
Power (W) = average net effective pedal normal forces (Figure 1b; 60, 61). This is
torque x average angular velocity important as the peak normal forces
(cadence) 11. observed during maximal cycling are likely
to be dictated by the force/torque-velocity
Based on the above formula, the average relationship of muscle contractions 45, 63. In
force/torque applied to the pedals over an short, the peak torque that can be applied
entire pedal revolution at a fixed power to the pedals during short duration
output is reduced at higher cadences 71. maximal cycling is reduced at faster
For example, at 350W the average contraction velocities (i.e. faster cadences;
effective force applied to the pedals is Figure 2).
~15% lower when cycling at 105rpm
Figure 2: Relationship between peak crank torque, crank velocity (i.e. cadence) and power
output during short duration (<10s) maximal cycling in two separate subjects (solid and
dashed lines). Figure used with permission from J Appl Physiol. 51
Based on the contractile properties of onset of anaerobiosis 77, 78. Such findings
human muscle it has been shown that highlight the disadvantage of adopting
maximal cycling power output is achieved such high cadences (>100rpm) during
at approximately 120-130rpm (Figure 2; 8, prolonged high-intensity exercise, such as
50, 51, 62, 78
). Such high cadences may be competitive road cycling.
important to maximal sprint cycling
performance. Indeed, track and bicycle With regards to prolonged submaximal
motorcross (BMX) cyclists typically performance, optimal cycling cadence is
perform short duration events (≤1000m) at one that typically maximises global power
average cadences equal to or greater than output (i.e. effective pedal force) from the
120 rpm 19, 20. However, Zoladz et al. 78 musculature of the lower limb 14 at low
found that when pedalling above 100rpm metabolic cost 23. In an attempt to gain
there was a decrease in the power output insight into cadence optimisation over
delivered at any given oxygen cost, which prolonged exercise durations, researchers
was in turn associated with an earlier have examined the influence lower
5 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com
extremity net 49 and individual 21, 53 joint Inertial load and momentum
moments on muscular effort and its To further understand the mechanical cost
association with the preferred 49 or optimal associated with cadence, researchers
59
cadence. While it appears that the have quantified both the muscular and
relative contribution of the joint moments non-muscular components that dictate
at the ankle, knee and hip remain fairly pedal forces and crank torques 7, 54.
constant at various cadences and cycling Muscular components refer to forces or
power outputs 53, the average absolute torques that are produced by muscular
moments (i.e. moment-based mechanical activity, whereas non-muscular
cost function) across these joints may components refer to other factors that may
decrease with increasing cadences in the influence pedal or crank forces, such as
range of 50-95rpm, with a subtle but gravity or inertia 7. While muscular pedal
noticeable increase from 95-110rpm 49. forces are reduced with higher cadences
Further, Marsh et al. 49 found that the (as described in the previous section),
cadence which minimises the sum of non-muscular pedal forces increase
these moments increases at higher power linearly with pedal rate 7, 54. As a result,
outputs. These findings and those of overall pedal forces at fixed power outputs
others 36, 59, suggest that the moment- follow a quadratic relationship with
based mechanical cost functions may be increases in cadence (Figure 3).
reduced in the range of 90-110rpm and
could be important in determining the
preferred or optimal cadence during
cycling.
Figure 3: Muscular, non-muscular and total pedal forces while cycling at 120W and at 60, 75,
90, 105 and 120rpm. Reprinted from: J Biomech, Vol.32, Neptune RR and Hertzog W. The
association between negative muscle work and pedaling rate, pp.1051-1026, 1999, with
permission from Elsevier. 54.
Examining this relationship, Neptune and forces are largely unaffected by changes
Herzog 54 found that when cycling at in cadence 7, 12, increasing non-muscular
260W, a minimum pedal force of 190N pedal forces that occur with higher
was observed at 90rpm, compared with cadences are primarily due to the
higher (105 and 120rpm) and lower (60 influence of inertial load (i.e. increased
and 75rpm) cadences. Since gravitational inertia of the crank) (kg m2) 7. Indeed, by
6 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com
increasing crank inertial loads, self- relationship with cadence and was
selected cadence has been found to minimised at 80-90rpm. The authors
significantly increase, possibly an attempt concluded that cyclists tend to adopt such
to reduce peak crank torque 31. It has cadences in order to minimise muscular
therefore been suggested that changes in fatigue, and not metabolic demand, since
inertial properties associated with lower cadences (60-70rpm) were
increasing cadence may influence lower associated with reduced oxygen
extremity neuromuscular coordination 7, 38, consumption 71, 72. In contrast to these
40
. findings, Sarre et al. 65 found that when
cycling at constant power outputs (60%,
Neuromuscular fatigue and 80% and 100% of maximal aerobic power
output) neuromuscular activation of vastus
myoelectrical activity lateralis and vastus medialis were
unaffected by varying cadence (70 – 130%
The influence of inertial properties on of self-selected pedal rate). Further, with
neuromuscular coordination during cycling the use of femoral nerve electrical
has previously been examined 7, 40, 55. stimulation, it was shown that similar
Through the examination of muscle variations in cadence (± 20% of self-
activation burst patterns and the selected cadence) during prolonged
coordination of mono- and bi-articular cycling had no effect on the occurrence of
antagonists, it has been shown that higher either central or peripheral fatigue
cadences result in a forward shift (i.e. development of the leg extensors 37, 66.
earlier in the crank cycle) in the activation Inconsistencies in findings within this
of gluteus maximus, vastus lateralis, and research area may be related to
tibialis anterior 38, 39. Further, the methodological differences relating to the
magnitude of this shift decreased in functional role of the muscles examined,
proximal (hip) to distal (ankle) limb training level of the subjects, and the
segments 39. Since increases in pedalling range of power outputs/cadences used 64.
rate can influence neuromuscular
recruitment patterns, it seems plausible to
presume that variations in cycling cadence While muscle activation of the knee
might induce the development of extensors (i.e. vastus lateralis and vastus
neuromuscular fatigue. Nevertheless, medialis) has been found to be reduced 44,
research on this topic has produced 64, 72
or unaffected 65 by increases in
conflicting results 37, 44, 64-66, 72. Studies cadence, muscle activation of
have shown that the self-selection of gastrocnemius lateralis and biceps femoris
relatively high pedalling rates (~80–90rpm) has been shown to increase at faster
may reduce muscle activation of vastus pedal rates 45, 47, 71. It is thought that such
lateralis 44, 64, 72. Therefore it has been increases in muscle activation allow for a
suggested that cyclists may spontaneously greater delivery of forces during the
select a high cadence in order to prevent downstroke and reduced negative forces
the development of neuromuscular fatigue, during the upstroke of the cycle pattern 64.
regardless of the energy cost 64. In support Negative force refers to the
of this, Takaishi et al. 72 found that counterproductive force typically observed
integrated electromyography (iEMG) of during the upstroke of the pedal action
vastus lateralis as a function of time (i.e. (Figure 4).
slope of the iEMG) followed a quadratic
Figure 4. Diagram demonstrating the direction and magnitude of pedal forces throughout a
typical clockwise pedal cycle. Note counterproductive (negative) pedal forces during the
upward phase of the pedal cycle. Reprinted, with permission, from J.P. Broker, 2003, Cycling
Biomechanics: Road and Mountain. In: High-Tech Cycling: The Science of Riding Faster,
edited by E.R. Burke, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 125, figure 5.4.11.
prolonged submaximal cycling, since Type mechanical efficiency of both fast and slow
II muscle fibres are typically more twitch muscle is improved at high and low
metabolically demanding than the Type I contraction velocities, respectively 34, 35, 63,
subtype 18, 33. 68
. It has therefore been suggested that a
cyclist’s ability to improve their efficiency
Efficiency and economy at high cycling cadences might be dictated
by a cyclist’s individual muscle fibre
Numerous studies have examined the composition 33. Indeed, human muscle
influence of pedalling frequency on the containing high levels of slow twitch
efficiency and economy of cycling 6, 27, 44, 46, muscle fibre composition has been found
48, 71, 72
. Generally, when cycling at to be more efficient during cycling than
constant power outputs, lower cadences muscle with fast twitch muscle fibre
have been found to result in reduced predominance 18, 33. In the light of this,
oxygen cost (i.e. improved gross Hansen and Sjøgaard 33 suggest that
efficiency) compared with higher cadences when individuals with low levels of slow
6, 15, 27
. Improved efficiency of cycling twitch muscle fibres increase pedal rate
observed at lower pedalling rates is likely (especially at higher workloads), muscular
to be dictated by the relationship between efficiency will be either unchanged or
muscle shortening velocity and the possibly reduced due to significant
efficiency of muscle contractions (percent involvement of less efficient fast twitch
Type I and Type II active fibres). For muscle fibres. However, in cyclists with
instance, under in vitro conditions, it has greater percentages of slow twitch muscle
been observed that the efficiency of fibres, an increase in pedal rate could
skeletal muscle contractions is augmented minimise fast twitch fibre recruitment and
with increasing speed of contraction, until enhance slow twitch fibre use 2, 33. Within
a maximum is reached (i.e. an this framework, fatigue of Type I muscle
economically optimal shortening velocity) fibres that may occur during prolonged
35
. The most economical cadence appears constant intensity exercise might result in
to be extremely low (~50-60rpm) when a progressive recruitment of additional fast
cycling at low power outputs (≤200W), but twitch fibres, resulting in an increase in the
increases to approximately 80-100rpm energetically optimal cadence 10, 76. In
with increasing workloads (~350W) 26, 44, support of this, Brisswalter et al. 10 showed
58
. The cause of the rise in the that following 30min of constant pace
economically optimal cadence is unclear, •
but is again likely to be due to the power- cycling (80% of VO2max), the energetically
velocity relationship of muscle contraction optimal cadence of trained triathletes
and the additional recruitment of fast increased from 70rpm to 86rpm.
twitch muscle fibres with increases in Conversely, others have shown that
exercise intensity. As previously energetically optimal cadences remain
mentioned (see section on Pedal force relatively stable during prolonged cycling 5,
73
and joint moments), an increase in . In addition, self-selected cadence
cadence at higher exercise intensities may during prolonged cycling is typically found
optimise the power-velocity relationship, to decrease 1, 5 or remain relatively
and as a result reduce the metabolic cost constant 43, rather than increase. The
of cycling. Indeed at lower cadences, influence of fatigue on muscular power
greater force per pedal stroke is required development and thus self-selected and
to maintain a given power output, which optimal cadences is currently unclear.
requires additional muscle fibre However, it seems plausible that variations
recruitment and thus a higher energy in pedal rate that occur during prolonged
expenditure 58, 67. Supporting this, cycling may be related to alterations in
myoelectrical activity of vastus lateralis is muscle fibre recruitment strategies and
reduced at higher cadences (see section thus related to exercise intensity, duration
on Neuromuscular fatigue and and muscle fibre composition. Further
myoelectrical activity). research examining the influence of
metabolic and neuromuscular fatigue on
self-selected and optimal cadences
In addition to reducing the average pedal
throughout a range of cycling durations
force per revolution, a faster pedal rate
(e.g. sprint, prolonged and ultra-
might reduce the oxygen cost associated
endurance) is warranted.
with high intensity cycling since the
9 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com
Figure 5: Changes in muscle blood flow (circle), muscle oxygenation (square), pedal forces
(triangle), knee angle and rectified electromyography (EMG) throughout a pedal cycle. 0°
crank angle refers to top dead centre. Figure reprinted with permission from Lippincott
Williams & Wilkens for Takaishi T, Sugiura T, Katayama K, et al. Changes in blood volume
and oxygenation level in a working muscle during a crank cycle, Med Sci Sports Exerc, Vol.34
No.3, 2002, pp.520-528 70.
Further, in untrained individuals, this influence that fast pedal rates have been
deoxygenation (i.e. the minimum blood shown to impart on cycling mechanics,
volume and oxygenation reached) was cycling efficiency and fatigue
more sever at low (50rpm) compared with development, performance in longer
high (85rpm) cadences 69. It is therefore duration events might be enhanced from
plausible that higher cadences could use of slightly slower cadences (~90-
improve oxygen delivery to working 100rpm). During ultra-endurance cycling,
muscles by limiting blood flow occlusion. performance might be improved by using
Such findings may be especially important relatively low cadences (70-90rpm), since
during the forceful contractions (i.e. during cycling economy is improved and energy
high power outputs) typically achieved by demands are lowered. Future research
professional/elite cyclists. Despite this, examining a multitude of factors known to
further research is needed in order to influence optimal cycling cadence (i.e.
determine the influence of hemodynamics economy, power output and fatigue
on preferred and optimal cadence development) is needed to confirm these
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13 Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com