Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
/1444

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Reactive dye bioaccumulation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Z. Aksu *
Department of Chemical Engineering, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06532, Turkey

Received 22 November 2002; accepted 23 December 2002

Abstract

The growth and reactive dye bioaccumulation properties of Saccharomyces cerevisiae growing in molasses medium was
investigated in a batch system as a function of dye, initial pH and initial dye concentration. Three diazo reactive textile dyes,
Remazol Blue, Remazol Black B and Remazol Red RB, were used in this study. Optimum pH value for bioaccumulation was
determined as 3 for all the dyes tested. The maximum bioaccumulation capacity of S. cerevisiae was 88.5 mg g 1 for Remazol Black
B, 84.6 mg g 1 for Remazol Blue and 48.8 mg g 1 for Remazol Red RB. Higher bioaccumulation percentages were observed at
lower concentrations of all dyes. In general, the increase in dye concentration inhibited the growth of yeast and caused a long lag
period. Remazol Black B bioaccumulation by yeast at all dye concentrations studied was considerably higher among the dyes
examined.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Saccharomyces cerevisiae ; Bioaccumulation; Reactive dyes; Molasses

1. Introduction robic biodegradation and biosorption. Adsorption

Large amounts of dyes are annually produced and
applied in many different industries, including textiles,
cosmetics, paper, leather, pharmaceutical and food. The
textile industry accounts for two-thirds of the total
dyestuff market, consuming a large proportion of
reactive azo dyes due to the high demand for cotton
fabrics with brilliant colors. Reactive dyes bind to the
cotton fibers by addition or substitution mechanisms
under alkaline conditions and high temperatures. How-
ever, due to the poor exhaustion properties of reactive
dyes, as much as 40% of the initial dye remains unfixed
and ultimately ends up in the dye effluent. A very small
amount of dye in water (10
/50 mg l 1) affects the
aesthetic value, water transparency and gas solubility of
water bodies [1,2]. The decolorization of textile waste-
water is still a major environmental concern because the
synthetic dyes used are difficult to remove by the
conventional wastewater treatment systems based on
adsorption, oxidation, coagulation
/flocculation, chemi-
cal degradation, photodegradation, aerobic and anae-
* Tel.: /90-312-2352330; fax: /90-312-2354314.
E-mail address: zaksu@hacettepe.edu.tr (Z. Aksu).
0032-9592/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0032-9592(03)00034-7
employing activated carbon and various other adsor-
bents has been widely studied and applied, but the cost
of carbon and regeneration problems have limited its
application. Coagulation
/flocculation using lime, alum,
polyelectrolyte and ferrous salts produces huge amounts
of toxic sludge that poses handling and disposal
problems associated with chemical cost. Although
ozonation and oxidation are efficient in dye removal,
both initial and operating costs are high. Electrochemi-
cal oxidation of dye wastewater is a slow process and
process know-how is not fully understood. Photoche-
mical oxidation of dyes using a UV source and in the
presence of oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide and
catalysts is also slow and costly. Anaerobic biological
treatments of azo dyes are well documented although
complete mineralization is difficult and the resulting
aromatic amines may be toxic and carcinogenic.
Although a number of aerobic biological processes for
the removal of dyes from textile effluents have been
explored, such as decolorization, through liquid fermen-
tations by white-rot fungi and bacterial cultures, bio-
chemical oxidation suffers from significant limitations
since more dyestuffs found in the commercial market
have been intentionally designed to be resistant to
1438 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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aerobic microbial degradation. Reactive azo dyes are
electron-deficient in nature and this property makes
them less susceptible to oxidative catabolism. Non-
viable biomaterials are also used for sorption of dye
and many other pollutants. However, the non-viable
biomaterials and isolated potent microorganisms are
considered to be limited for real application due to
economics, non-availability and system control diffi-
culty [1
/15].
Bioaccumulation is defined as the accumulation of
pollutants by actively growing cells. A number of
workers have investigated the feasibility of using grow-
ing cells for the bioaccumulation of heavy metal ions. In
metal bioaccumulative processes, there is an initial rapid
accumulation step, i.e. metabolism- and temperature-
independent, and is thought to involve ion binding at
the surface. This step is followed by a second process,
i.e. metabolism-dependent, much slower and can accu-
mulate larger quantities of ions than the first process.
Bioaccumulation could also be achieved for the removal
of various kinds of textile dyes if the growing cells find
sufficient quantity of easily used carbon and nitrogen
sources instead of dye in growth media. Decolorization
of the dye solution could also be due to either adsorp-
tion on the biomass or bioaccumulation. Using growing
cultures in bioremoval could avoid the need for a
separate biomass production process (e.g. cultivation,
harvesting, drying, processing and storage prior to use).
There are significant practical limitations to biouptake,
which employs living cell systems. Perhaps the most
significant limitation is that cell growth is inhibited
when dye concentrations are too high. Other compo-
nents or constraints of the wastewater may be toxic to
living cells, e.g. extremes of pH and high salt concentra-
tion. Active uptake processes also require metabolic
energy externally provided. However, the fact that many
conventional sewage treatment processes are based on
living microbes suggests that such limitation would not
preclude their applications in treatment schemes invol-
ving the bioremoval of dyes. If the problem of dye
toxicity to the growing cell is overcome by the use of
dye-resistant organisms, the continually self-replenish-
ing system can be left to run continuously for extended
periods. The essential characteristics of a living biomass
used in a dye removal process are tolerance and uptake
capacities [6,16].
One of the most ubiquitous biomass types available
for bioremediation of textile dyes at lower pH values is
yeast. Yeasts are an inexpensive, readily available source
of biomass. Furthermore, yeast cells retain their ability
to accumulate a broad range of textile dyes to varying
degrees under a wide range of external conditions. Yeast
has long been known to be capable of rapid bioaccu-
mulation of metal ions from solution, but little work has
been carried out investigating the ability of yeast to act
as a bioaccumulator for textile dyes in wastewater
effluents [6,8,16].
This study aims to investigate the bioaccumulation
potential of commonly available Saccharomyces cer-
evisiae yeast for the textile dyes of Remazol Blue,
Remazol Black B and Remazol Red RB at batch-scale
level in order to assess its application in oxidation pond.
Although S. cerevisiae is capable of utilizing a variety of
carbon and nitrogen sources, molasses was chosen in the
study due to its high sucrose and other nutrient
contents, low cost and ready availability and ease of
storage.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Microorganism and growth conditions
S. cerevisiae used in this study was kindly supplied by
Dr. S. Dönmez, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara Uni-
versity, Turkey, and maintained on YPG agar slants at
4 8C. All experiments were performed in molasses
medium including molasses (beet) solution (approxi-
mately equivalent to 10 g l 1 sucrose), 1 g l 1
(NH4)2SO4 and 0.5 g l 1 KH2PO4. pH was adjusted
to desired value with 1 M H2SO4. The medium was
autoclaved (121 8C for 15 min) and then a defined
quantity of sterilized dye solution with a known
concentration was added to the growth medium.
2.2. Dyes
Remazol Blue, Remazol Black B and Remazol Red
RB dyes which are commonly used in cotton textile
industry in Turkey were obtained from AYTEMIZLER
Textile Co., Turkey, in pure form and used without
further purification. The dye stock solutions were
prepared by dissolving the powdered dyestuff in distilled
water to 2% (w/v).
2.3. Bioaccumulation assays
Bioaccumulation experiments were performed with
aliquots of 100 ml culture medium placed in 250 ml
Erlenmayer flasks. Initial dye concentration varied in
the range 10
/400 mg l1. Flasks were prepared in
duplicates. The cultivation was carried out at 25 8C in a
rotary shaker (100 rpm) for 18 days.
Azo groups do not occur naturally, thus azo dyes are
recilcitrant to biodegradation and are not readily
degraded by microorganisms. Biodegradability of azo
dyes depends on the presence of very specific changes in
their molecular structure. If the growth medium con-
tains easily usable carbon and nitrogen sources, micro-
organisms prefer these compounds instead of dyes [6,8].
At the end of incubation period, S. cerevisiae cells were
 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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examined under bright-field microscopy and it was Table 1

observed that the cells were colored both inside and The effect of initial pH on the maximum dried microorganism and
bioaccumulated dye concentrations (Xm, Cacc,m) and specific dye
outside. So it was assumed that these dyes were not used
uptake of S. cerevisiae (qm)
by the microorganisms as a carbon or nitrogen source.
This assumption was also supported by colored cell pH Co (mg l 1) Cacc,m (mg l 1) Xm (g l 1) qm (mg g 1)
precipitates of the samples after high-speed centrifuga-
Remazol Blue
tion at definite time intervals. 3 78.9 72.0 2.56 28.1
4 82.3 9.2 2.51 3.7
2.4. Analytical methods 5 81.7
/ 2.45
/
Remazol Black B
Three milliliters of sample was taken from each flask 3 88.4 83.5 3.74 22.3
at definite time intervals. Samples were centrifuged to 4 84.6 13.2 3.91 3.4
remove suspended biomass and the concentration of dye 5 78.5
/ 3.84
/
in the supernatant was determined by reading absor- Remazol Red RB
bance at 600 nm for Remazol Blue, 590 nm for Remazol 3 76.1 58.1 3.15 11.5
4 79.9 7.4 3.22 2.3
Black B and 495 nm for Remazol Red RB. Absorbance 5 80.2
/ 3.30
/
measurements were carried out by using a Shimadzu UV
2001 model spectrometer. Dye containing molasses
medium was used as the blank. For the measurement noticeable dye bioaccumulation was observed when
of yeast growth, the biomass concentration was deter- pH varied from 3.0 to 5.0. It was decided that S.
mined by measuring the turbidity of the diluted sample cerevisiae had a much narrow pH tolerance with an
at 540 nm using a standard curve of absorbance against optimum pH of 3.0. The biomass exhibited maximum
dry cell mass. Two control flasks were prepared. First dye uptake due to its positively charged nature at acidic
control medium contained molasses without any dye to pH and the anionic nature of the reactive dyes.
examine the growth of the yeast and to detect the
possible dye inhibitory effects. Second control medium
contained both dye and molasses without any yeast
growth to observe any reaction of molasses with dye. 3.2. Effect of initial Remazol Blue concentration on the
dye bioaccumulation and growth properties of yeast

3. Results To determine the maximum dye concentration toler-

Growth and dye bioaccumulation properties of S.
cerevisiae were investigated as a function of initial pH
and initial dye concentration. The results are given as
the units of bioaccumulated dye concentration at any
time and at the end of growth (Cacc, Cacc,m; mg l1),
dried microorganism concentration at any time and at
the end of growth (X , Xm; g l1), specific growth rate of
yeast (m , day1) and specific dye uptake determined as
the amount of dye per unit of dry weight of cells (qm, mg
g1). The uptake yield (uptake%) is also defined as the
ratio of bioaccumulated concentration of dye at the end
of yeast growth to the initial dye concentration.
3.1. Effect of initial pH on the dye bioaccumulation
The initial pH significantly influenced the growth and
dye bioaccumulation properties of S. cerevisiae . The
effect of initial pH on the maximum dried microorgan-
ism and bioaccumulated dye concentrations, and max-
imum specific dye uptake was shown in Table 1 for each
dye studied. Bioaccumulation of each dye exhibited a
similar variation with pH over the range 3.0
/5.0. At pH
3.0 bioaccumulation of all dyes has shown a maximum
value with a sharp drop off at higher values. No
ated by the yeast, experiments with different initial dye
concentrations were performed. Fig. 1 depicts the
variation of Remazol Blue dye accumulation and
microbial growth of S. cerevisiae with respect to initial
Remazol Blue concentration changed between 10.8 and
380.1 mg l1. The dye bioaccumulation by the yeast
increased from 10.8 to 126.0 mg l 1 when the dye
concentration increased from 10.8 to 249.2 mg l1.
Complete bioaccumulation was obtained with 10.8 mg
l 1 dye concentration within 2 days. At 21.8 mg l1 dye
concentration, 94% of the total dye was bioaccumulated
within 3 days and no further uptake was detected. At
moderate dye concentrations (36.6
/78.9 mg l1) dye
bioaccumulation continued to the end of 7
/11 days, and
91.8 and 91.2% of the total dye were removed, respec-
tively. At higher dye concentrations (132.9
/249.2 mg
l 1) dye was slowly bioaccumulated during 4 days, the
bioaccumulation rate then increased in the next 12
/14
days and initial dye concentrations were reduced to 12.9
and 123.2 mg l 1, respectively (90.2 and 50.6% of the
dye added were removed, respectively). With 380.1 mg
l 1 Remazol Blue dye, bioaccumulation started on day
7 and slowly progressed until the end of the experiment
and only 44.0 mg l 1 dye was bioaccumulated. Total
color removal was 11.6% at the end of 16 days.
1440 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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Fig. 1. Effect of initial dye concentration on the growth and Remazol Blue bioaccumulation properties of S. cerevisiae .

As shown in Fig. 1, the presence and increase in
Remazol Blue concentration in the growth medium
inhibited the growth of microorganism and caused a
long lag period, especially at higher dye concentrations.
From the results, it can be noted that while the growth
of microorganism began after an initial lag of 6 h at 10.8
mg l 1 dye concentration, 3 days of contact time was
required for the initial adaptation of the biomass to the
existing dye environment at 380.1 mg l1 dye concen-
tration.
The maximum microorganism and bioaccumulated
dye concentrations, specific dye uptakes, uptake yields,
specific growth rates and total dye bioaccumulation
periods obtained at different initial dye concentrations
are compared in Table 2. With increasing concentration
of Remazol Blue in solution (up to 380.1 mg l1), the
accumulation capacity of the yeast increased up to 84.6
mg g1. Specific growth rate and dried microorganism
concentration of the yeast decreased from 2.30 to 0.34
day1 and from 3.3 to 0.52 g l 1, respectively, with
increasing dye concentration from 10.8 to 380.1 mg l1.
A maximum dye bioaccumulation of 100% was observed
in the case of 10.8 mg l1 dye concentration, which
decreased sharply to 11.6% as the dye concentration
 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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Table 2
Comparison of the maximum microorganism and bioaccumulated dye concentrations (Xm, Cacc,m), maximum specific dye uptakes (qm), uptake
yields, specific growth rates (m ) and total dye bioaccumulation periods (t ) obtained at different initial dye concentrations

Co (mg l 1) Cacc,m (mg l 1) Xm (g l 1) qm (mg g 1) m (day1) Uptake% t (day)

Remazol Blue
10.8 10.8 3.30 3.2 3.30 100.0 2
21.8 20.5 3.15 6.5 2.13 94.0 3
36.5 33.5 2.90 11.6 1.50 91.8 7
78.9 72.0 2.56 28.1 0.79 91.2 11
132.9 120.0 2.32 51.7 0.52 90.2 16
249.2 126.1 2.11 59.7 0.43 50.6 18
380.1 44.0 0.52 84.6 0.34 11.6 16
Remazol Black B
13.3 13.3 3.93 3.4 2.96 100.0 2
25.1 24.0 3.94 6.1 2.89 95.6 3
47.4 45.1 4.09 11.0 2.71 94.9 4
88.4 83.5 3.74 22.3 2.33 94.3 14
146.0 136.9 3.57 38.4 2.02 93.8 14
274.3 232.0 3.25 71.4 1.06 84.6 16
410.0 254.2 2.87 88.5 0.53 62.0 18
Remazol Red RB
46.7 36.2 3.15 11.5 2.93 77.5 9
76.1 58.1 3.15 18.4 2.77 76.3 12
102.5 76.2 3.17 24.0 2.58 74.3 16
165.7 121.2 3.10 39.1 2.15 73.1 16
219.1 153.0 3.00 51.0 1.38 69.8 18
324.0 127.0 2.60 48.8 0.69 39.2 18
437.5 0.0 0.24 0.0 0.42 0.0 12

increased to 380.1 mg l1. Dye removal was higher than
90.2% at all dye concentrations studied except 249.2 and
380.1 mg l 1 dye concentrations.
3.3. Effect of initial Remazol Black B concentration on
the dye bioaccumulation and growth properties of yeast
Remazol Black B dye bioaccumulation by the yeast
was also investigated at different initial dye concentra-
tions changing between 13.3 and 410.0 mg l1. Bioac-
cumulation and growth curves for different initial
Remazol Black B concentrations are depicted in Fig.
2. Remazol Black B uptake increased with increasing
Remazol Black B concentration up to 410.0 mg l1. S.
cerevisiae removed 100% of the 13.3 mg l1 initial dye
concentration in 2 days during the cultivation in the
molasses medium and no inhibition effect of dye on the
yeast growth was observed at this dye concentration
(control growth curve not shown since it was very
similar to the growth curve of yeast obtained at 13.3 mg
l 1 dye concentration). At lower dye concentrations
(25.1
/47.4 mg l 1), dye molecules were bioaccumulated
rapidly and the extent of color removal was equal to
95.6 and 94.9%, respectively, within 3
/4 days of growth
of the yeast. At moderate dye concentrations (88.4
/
146.0 mg l 1), dye bioaccumulation continued to the
end of 14 days with 94.3 and 91.2% of dye removals,
respectively. At 274.3 mg l 1 dye concentration, 84.6%
of total dye bioaccumulation was accomplished within
18 days. At an initial dye concentration of 410.0 mg l1,
the bioaccumulation percentage exceeded 56.3% after 11
days, and then continued with a much slower bioaccu-
mulation rate throughout the rest of the experiment and
S. cerevisiae removed the dye with the maximum uptake
of 88.5 mg g1 resulting in 62.0% total decolorization
efficiency. From Fig. 2, it is also apparent that the
pattern of graphs was similar for all dye concentrations
and bioaccumulation was faster during the exponential
growth phase of the microorganism, slowing down in
the stationary phase. This is not unexpected, since the
process must be dependent on cell biomass and on
actively growing cells.
From Fig. 2, it can be noted that S. cerevisiae cells
had a considerable tolerance to the Remazol Black B
concentrations assayed between 13.3 and 47.4 mg l1.
The microorganism grew after a short lag phase and the
inhibition effect of the dye on the yeast growth could be
neglected. At higher concentrations although the micro-
bial growth was inhibited significantly by the dye
molecules in the growth medium, the bioaccumulation
capacity was not affected and maximum dye bioaccu-
mulation was found at 410.0 mg l1 dye concentration.
1442 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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Fig. 2. Effect of initial dye concentration on the growth and Remazol Black B bioaccumulation properties of S. cerevisiae .

The maximum microorganism and bioaccumulated
dye concentrations, specific dye uptakes, uptake yields,
specific growth rates and total dye bioaccumulation
periods as a function of initial Remazol Black B
concentration is also cited in Table 2. As seen from
Table 2, the percentage of dye bioaccumulation and the
specific growth rate of S. cerevisiae decreased from 100
to 62.0% and 2.96 to 0.53 day1, respectively, with
increasing dye concentration from 13.3 to 410.0 mg l 1.
Although the maximum cell concentration decreased
from 3.93 to 2.87 g l 1, maximum dye uptake increased
from 3.38 to 88.5 mg g1. Over 84.6% bioaccumulation
could be accomplished by the yeast for a wide range of
dye concentrations.
3.4. Effect of initial Remazol Red RB concentration on
the dye bioaccumulation and growth properties of yeast
The ability of S. cerevisiae to bioaccumulate Remazol
Red RB reactive dye was also investigated. Bioaccumu-
lated concentrations of Remazol Red RB dye by the
yeast in 18 days at different initial dye concentrations
varied between 46.7 and 437.5 mg l 1 are shown in Fig.
3. At 46.7 mg l1 initial dye concentration, S. cerevisiae
 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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Fig. 3. Effect of initial dye concentration on the growth and Remazol Red RB bioaccumulation properties of S. cerevisiae .

removed 77.5% of the dye after 9 days of cultivation. It
can be noted from Fig. 3 that at 76.1 and 102.5 mg l 1
initial dye concentrations the extent of decolorization
achieved is 76.3 and 74.3% at the end of 12 and 16 days,
respectively. At 165.7 and 219.1 mg l 1 initial dye
concentrations Remazol Red RB was slowly bioaccu-
mulated and the percentages of dye bioaccumulated
were 73.1 and 69.8% at the end of 16 and 18 days,
respectively. At 324.0 mg l1 initial concentration of
dye, almost no color removal was observed within the
first 5 days, followed by significant bioaccumulation for
the next 13 days and 39.2% of dye was bioaccumulated
within 18 days. For initial dye concentration of 437.5 mg
l 1, no dye bioaccumulation was observed.
S. cerevisiae growth was very sensitive to high
concentrations of Remazol Red RB with an extension
in lag phase duration. A significant reduction in dried
weight of yeast (92.1%) was also observed when the
concentration of dye was increased from 46.7 to 437.5
mg l 1. At 324.0 mg l1 initial dye concentration, the
cells were slowly grown in 18 days, with a lag period of
about 4
/5 days. The growth of S. cerevisiae was
completely inhibited at 437.5 mg l 1 initial concentra-
tion of dye.
The initial Remazol Red RB concentration in the feed
medium varied in the range 46.7
/437.5 mg l 1 remark-
ably influenced the microbial growth rate, maximum
dried cell and bioaccumulated dye concentrations,
1444 Z. Aksu / Process Biochemistry 38 (2003) 1437
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specific dye uptake, uptake yield and total dye bioaccu-
mulation period as shown in Table 2. At increasing dye
concentrations (from 46.7 to 324.0 mg l 1), bioaccu-
mulation capacity of S. cerevisiae increased from 11.5 to
48.8 mg g1 and growth rate decreased from 2.93 to
0.69 day1. Higher dye uptake yields were observed at
lower concentrations of dye.
4. Discussion
The ability of S. cerevisiae in the bioaccumulation of
these selected reactive azo dyes varied to a significant
extent. The level of dye accumulation was dependent on
the dye, initial pH and initial dye concentration. Yeast
biomass could provide an effective bioaccumulation for
the removal of all the dyes at pH 3.0. In general
increasing the dye concentration up to 400 mg l 1 in
the growth medium inhibited the growth of yeast and
caused a long lag period. Growth inhibition was
particularly severe at higher concentrations of Remazol
Red RB and Remazol Blue, to a lesser extent for
Remazol Black B. The increase in lag period with
increasing dye level in the medium indicates that dye
accumulation is mainly dependent on metabolic activity.
The specific dye uptake increased with increasing dye
concentration up to 410.0 mg l 1 for Remazol Black B,
380.1 mg l1 for Remazol Blue and 219.1 mg l 1 for
Remazol Red RB. The percentages of color removal at
all concentrations studied were higher than 62% for
Remazol Black B dye. The pattern of graphs was almost
same for low and moderate dye concentrations and
showed that the process of bioaccumulation is parallel
with the growth of yeast. Dye removal by the yeast was
physically biosorption of the dye non-specific manner to
cell peripheries followed by specific accumulation into
the cell.
Remazol Black B was bioaccumulated much more
extensively and faster than Remazol Blue and Remazol
Red RB over a wide dye concentration range by S.
cerevisiae cells which were much more resistant to the
inhibition of Remazol Black B at higher dye concentra-
tions. The toxicity of Remazol Red RB to cells is greater
than other dyes tested since the yeast could not grow in
medium containing Remazol Red RB concentration /
324 mg l 1. At about 400 mg l 1 initial dye concentra-
tion, S. cerevisiae cells bioaccumulated 62.0% of Re-
mazol Black B dye while the yeast bioaccumulated only
11.6% of Remazol Blue dye and no Remazol Red RB
from the solution within 12
/18 days. This may be due to
difference in the structure of dyes.
Biological processes hold promise in providing a low
cost and efficient means to treat the textile effluent.
From the above results, it was concluded that S.
cerevisiae can efficiently remove various types and
high concentrations of reactive dyes. The long time of
bioaccumulation is impractical from an industrial
standpoint. But, if retention time is not a limiting factor,
S. cerevisiae will be a suitable candidate for dye
removal.
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