Civan Solutions Manual

SOLUTION MANUAL FOR EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Porous Media Transport Phenomena Solution Manual

Copyright © 2012 by Faruk Civan — All Rights Reserved
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QUESTIONS
Please forward any questions related to this solution manual by contacting the author at fcivan@ou.edu.
Chapter 2 Transport Properties of Porous Media

1. Consider the Kozeny-Carman equation given by Eq. 2.7 as:
K   
   (1)
 1 
At the initial reference conditions:
Ko   
 o  o  (2)
o  1  o 
When   2o , then
K  2o 
   (3)
2o  1  2o 
Dividing Eq.(2) and (3) side-by-side yields:
Ko  o 
 
o  1  o 
 o  (4)
K   2o 
2o  
 1  2o 
2 2
K     1  o 
 8   
Ko  o   1  2o  (5)
K
 8 when 2o 1or o 0.5
Ko
2. The permeability change according to Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher equation is given by Eq. 2.150 as:
K   1 1 
ln  T   A    (6)
 Ko   T  Tc  To  Tc  
Note that this equation is valid regardless of whether the T is ordinary or absolute temperature because the equation
involves a temperature difference. We will consider that T denotes the ordinary temperature. When the temperature
value is doubled but the other parameters remain unchanged, this equation yields:
K   1 1 
ln  2T   A    (7)
 Ko    2T  Tc  To  Tc  
Subtracting Eqs. (6) and (7) side-by-side yields:
K   AT
ln  2T   (8)
 T  
K 2 T  Tc T  Tc 
3. The permeability of porous rock decreases when it is heated if it is externally confined.
Porous Media Transport Phenomena Solution Manual Copyright © 2012 by Faruk Civan — All Rights Reserved 1
4. Consider the data of Carman (1937a,b), Ladd (1990), and Koch and Sangani (1999), which encompass a wide
range of porosity values. Assume that the cement exclusion factor is taken as   1 .
a) The Kozeny-Carman equation cannot represent these data. Note Eq. 2.9 is given by:

K   
   (9)
    
Obtain Figure 14 given in Civan (2002d). Correction in last column of Table 2.1 will be Exercise Problem 4 instead
of 1. The last column of this table indicates that   1.0and 1   1  min  1  max  0.585  constant , and
therefore   1/ 0.585  1.71 . In contrast the Kozeny-Carman equation assuming   1 cannot represent the data.
b) Represent the data by a regression-line of the form of Eq. 2.65 with a unit slope given as:
 K    
 2  log  2   log 
1
 (10)
      
We obtain Figure 12 given by Civan (200d). From this plotting exercise we determine the best estimates of the
parameter values required for best regression and the coefficient of regression reported by Civan (2001) in Table 1.
c) Prepare the plots of  and  vs. porosity. Using the parameter values given in the last column of Table
2.1 Civan (2002d) obtained Figure 13 by plotting Eq. 2.59 for 1   vs.  and 1   vs.  . The details are described
in the following.
Table 1 provides the data of Koch&Sangani (1999), Ladd (1990), and Carman (1937) obtained by Civan
(2002d). When numerical values of data are not available, we can generate numerical values by digitizing the plots
of data. For this purpose, one can use suitable digitizing software. For example use Fig. 14 given by Civan (2002d)
or direct numerical values given in a table by Koch and Sangani (1999) for K o/K vs. the porosity (  ) or solidity
(  ). For this purpose, you can use suitable digitizing software. The resistivity factor is given
fD Ko d g2 d g2
by R   , f   K 1
u K
Note that the value of o  ,   1   ,  46 .
18
D
f Do K 18
.
Table 1 Data of Koch&Sangani (1999), Ladd (1990), and Carman (1937) obtained by Civan (2002d).
Carman (1937) Ladd (1990) Koch&Sangani

(1999)
Inverse Inverse Inverse Inverse Inverse
permeability permeability permeability permeability permeability
phi,fract ratio Ko/K ratio Ko/K ratio Ko/K ratio Ko/K ratio Ko/K
0.55 27.8 0.999 1.1 0.95 1.9
0.5 40.7 0.99 1.3 0.85 3.9
0.47 51.8 0.95 1.9 0.75 7.3
0.44 66.4 0.85 3.9 0.65 14.1
0.39 103.5 0.75 7.3 0.55 28.0
0.65 14.1 0.5 41.0
0.55 28.2 0.47 52.0
0.44 64.0
0.39 105.0
Table 2 Correlation by Civan (2002d)

phi,fract K Inverse permeability ratio Ko/K
1.00 1.52E+05 0.30
0.99 5.63E+03 0.82
0.95 5.01E+02 1.84
0.85 7.32E+01 4.19
0.75 2.34E+01 7.85
0.65 9.03E+00 14.55
0.55 3.61E+00 28.30
0.50 2.26E+00 40.79
0.47 1.68E+00 51.54
0.44 1.24E+00 65.98
0.39 7.31E-01 103.19
1.4
1.2 y = 1.00x
(2b)-1 log10 {K/[fG2]}
1 R2 = 0.99
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0 0 0. 0. 0. 0. 1 1. 1.
.2 2 4 6 8 2 4
log10 [f/(a-f)]
FIG. 12 Correlation of the data of Koch and Sangani (1999) according to Eq. 2.13.
1.2
1.0
b /(b )max or G/Gmax
0.8
0.6
-1 -1
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Porosity, f, fraction
FIG. 13 Interconnectivity parameter  and exponent  vs. porosity for the data of Koch and Sangani (1999)
according to Eq. 2.19.
5. The data of Carnahan (1990) is used to verify the analytic expressions.

a) The straight-line correlations of Carnahan’s (1990) Figs. 3 and 6 simulated data of porosity variations by
gypsum and quartz precipitation according to Eq. 2.85 with the least-squares linear regression for gypsum and
quartz are given in the following.
60
Quartz
Gypsum
Linear (Gypsum)
Linear (Quartz)
40
y = 56.118x + 0.6485
-r -o -r
2
R = 0.9939
20
y = 18.41x + 0.2526
2
R = 0.9985
0
0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3
7
Time, t (10 sec for gypsum and
109 sec for quartz)
Figure 5. Plot of Carnahan (1990) data of porosity variation for gypsum and quartz precipitation.
b) Yes, Eq. 2.85 satisfactorily represents the porosity variation by scale precipitation because it fits the data
well.
c) We confirm by the results given in the above figure that the best correlation of the porosity variation by the
gypsum and quartz precipitations are obtained, respectively, as:
  r  o r  k t , at T  25 C, o  0.05, r  0.81, k  5.7 106 sec1 ,gypsum (11)
  r  o r  k t , at 150 C, o  0.05, r  0.81, k  1.88 108 sec1 ,quartz (12)
The data and details of calculations are presented in the following table.
Quartz r= -0.81
t, 10^9 sec Porosity 150 C Quartz
0 0.05 11.31968 0
0.1 0.041 13.29368 1.973992
0.2 0.034 15.47042 4.150735
0.4 0.026 19.22523 7.905548
0.6 0.021 22.85611 11.53643
0.8 0.018 25.8958 14.57611
1 0.015 30.01692 18.69723
Gypsum
25 C Gypsum
0 0.05 11.31968 0
0.1 0.029 17.59777 6.278086
0.2 0.02 23.77747 12.45779
0.3 0.016 28.48806 17.16837
0.4 0.0122 35.4853 24.16562
0.5 0.01 41.68694 30.36725
0.6 0.009 45.40081 34.08112
0.7 0.008 49.94559 38.6259
0.8 0.0072 54.39521 43.07553
0.9 0.0062 61.3992 50.07952
1 0.0052 70.80066 59.48097
6. Todd and Yuan (1988) only measured the permeability ratio K/Ko in the Clashach sandstone by simultaneous
 Ba , Sr  SO4 solid deposition from brines of various concentrations.
a) We plot their data of the injection port of a test core plug for deposition from brine containing St Ba in the
ratio of 0.1 by the least-squares linear fit.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.2
y = -1.3328x + 0.0006
0 R2 = 0.9982
log(K/Ko)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
log(1+ lt), t in minutes
Figure 11. Plot of Todd and Yuan(1988) data of permeability variation by acid dissolution.
b) Yes, Eq. 2.95 represents the Todd and Yuan (1988) data accurately.
c) We show that the permeability versus time correlation is obtained as:
K Ko  1  l t  , l  0.11min 1 ,   1.33

(13)
The data and details of calculations are presented in the following table.
l , min 1  0.11
Todd and Yuan(1988)
t,scaled K/Komeas logymeas

Todd and Yuan(1988)
0 1.00 0 0
2 0.77 0.08636 -0.11351
3.8 0.63 0.151676 -0.20066
5.7 0.52 0.211388 -0.284
7.7 0.45 0.266467 -0.34679
9.6 0.39 0.313023 -0.40894
11.4 0.33 0.352954 -0.48149
13.3 0.29 0.391464 -0.5376
15.3 0.27 0.428621 -0.56864
17.2 0.25 0.461198 -0.60206
7. Construct a permeability-porosity cross-plot using Civan’s power-law equation of permeability using the
parameter values determined by fitting of the data of Couvreur et al. (2001) as reported in Table 1.
Porosity, Permeability,
fraction K (D)
Reference Couvreur et al. (2001) Civan (2002d)
0.5110 0.5650 0.577236
0.5020 0.4600 0.49033
0.4890 0.3520 0.386973
0.4840 0.3430 0.353164
0.4790 0.3470 0.322233
0.4770 0.3720 0.310611
0.4630 0.2420 0.239885
0.4570 0.2040 0.21458
0.4570 0.2220 0.21458
0.4540 0.2080 0.20291
0.4510 0.1930 0.19185
0.4450 0.1710 0.171436
0.4220 0.1030 0.110763
0.6
0.5 Couvreur et al. (2001)

Permeability, K (D)
0.4
Civan (2002d)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
Porosity, fraction, f
FIG. 17 Correlation of the data of Couvreur et al. (2001) according to Eq. 2.6.
b /b max or G /G max 1.0
0.8
0.5
-1 -1
0.3
0.0
0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
Porosity, f, fraction
Fig. 12- Interconnectivity and exponent vs. porosity for the data of Couvreur et al. (2001).
Chapter 3 Macroscopic Transport Equations
1. Expanding Eq. 3.52 and applying Eq. 3.16 as
f j    j f j
b j
1
  f jn j d A
Vb Aj
 
(1)
  j  fj
j   f j   j  
j
1
Vb 
Aj
fj
j 
 fˆj n j d A
Note Eq. 3.57 is

1
f j   j f j   fˆj n j d A (2)
b j Vb Aj
Thus, comparing these equations we can derive Eq. 3.58 as:

1
Vb Aj
f j n j d A   f j  j (3)
j j
2. If incorrectly we implemented a decomposition rule as

f j  f j  fˆj (4)
b
Then,
fj  fj  fˆj
j b j j
fj  j fj
b j
and
fˆj   j fˆj
b j
Then
fj  j fj  fˆj  j fj  fˆj (5)
j j j j j j
j fj   j j f j   j fˆj
j j j
or
fj  j fj  fˆj
b b b
or
fˆj  1   j  f j 0
b b
fj  fj  fˆj (6)
b
fj  fj  fˆj (7)
j
Show that the former is incorrect because it leads to (Gray, 1975)

fˆ  1    f
j  0 (8) j j b
b
3. Prove Eqs. 3.43 –3.49 ar given by Lunardini (1991) as:

Eq. 3.43: Because f j is an average over the volume of phase j, it can be factored out off
j
fj gj as f j gj .
j j j j
Eq. 3.44: In addition to the argument above, we can also substitute gj   j gj to obtain
b j
fj gj  fj gj j fj gj .
j b j b j j
Eq. 3.45: Because fj is an average over the bulk volume of porous media, it can be factored out off
b
fj gj as f j gj .
b b b b
Eq. 3.46: In addition to the argument above, we can also substitute fj j fj to obtain
b j
fj gj  fj gj  j fj gj .
b j b j j j
Eq. 3.47 is the same as Eq. 3.38, that is fj gj  fj gj  fˆj gˆ j .

b b j j j j
Eq. 3.48 is the same as Eq. 3.39 that is

fj gj  j fj gj j fˆj gˆ j  j fj gj ˆ
 f j gˆ j (9)
b b b j j j j j b
Eq. 3.49 is the same as Eq. 3.41 that is

fj gj hj  fj gj hj  hj fˆj gˆ j  gj ˆf hˆ
j j
b b b j j j j j j j j
(10)
 fj gˆ j hˆ j  fˆj gˆ j hˆ j
j j j
Note that the nomenclatures used by Lunardini (1991) for Eqs. 3.47, 3.48, and 3.49 are incorrect.
4. Simplify Eq. 3.78 is given by:
  

t
  
 j  j j    j  j j v j j   D    
 jb  j

  qj
j j 

b
(11)  

For (a) incompressible fluid flowing through heterogeneous porous media  j =constant. Then,
j

    D jb    j  
  qj
t
 j     j v j j



 j
b
(12)
j
and (b) incompressible fluid flowing through homogeneous porous media  j j =constant and
  constant, and  j   S j =constant. Then,

    D jb   S    
qj
S j    S j v j
  b
  (13)
t
j
j
  j j
For a single phase fluid,
 
qj
 vj  b
(14)
j
 j j
5. Begin with Eq. 3.72:

 Wj
b
t   w j 
b
1
 
Vb Aj
W j v Aj n j d A 
1
Vb
  w n d A  j j qj
b
(15)
A j
Where we have by Eqs. 3.67-3.70:

Wj   j f j (16)
w j   j  JCj  J Dj  (17)
Here the convective flux JCj and diffusive flux JDj of the quantity f are described, respectively, by:
JCj  v j f j (18)
J Dj  D j f j  (19)
Thus,
w j   j  v j f j  D j f j  (20) 
But for fj = 1.0,
Wj   j (21)
wj  jvj (22)
Therefore,
Wj   j   j j (23)
b b j
Eq. 3.76:
wj
b
 jvj
b
  j jvj
j
j  j j
vj
j
 ˆ j vˆ j
j  j j j
vj
j
 ˆ j vˆ j
b
(24)
Eq. 3.77:
ˆ j vˆ j b
  j ˆ j vˆ j
j
 D jb   j  b

 D jb   j  j j  (25)
We obtain Eq. 3.78 with addition of the following two terms as:
  

t
  
 j  j j    j  j j v j j   D    
 jb  j

 
j j 
 (26)


1
Vb A j

W j v Aj n j d A 
1
Vb A j
w j n jdA  qj
b

6. The answer for pressure is given in Chapter 5, Section 5.3. See Liu and Masliyah (2005) for viscosity.
Then,
pj  pj ,  j  j (27)
b j b j
Nevertheless the general rule is still applicable when the solid is suspended in the fluid so that it can be treated like
the fluid phases. Investigate the applicability of the exception to the rule according to Liu and Masliyah (2005) by
means of theoretical argument.
7. The answer is provided in the problem statement. Simply go through the suggested steps. Thus, start with
the definition of the flow potential, given by:
  p   gz (28)
Averaging over the REV gives:
 b  p b   b g z    p f   f g z 
 1 
   p f

V f n A p A IdA   f
g z  (29)
 A 

   p   g z   n p A IdA
 f f  V A
f A
Where I is a unit tensor.

8. The answer is given in Chapter 5 for the momentum and Chapter 9 for the energy equations.
9. See the examples given in Chapter 2 for example for cases involving dissolution and precipitation of scales at
the pore surface, see Chapter 9 for hydrate formation and dissociation, water freezing and thawing, gas
dissolution in liquids and separation, Chapter 10 for suspended particle deposition and mobilization, Chapter
11, Section 11.4 for species adsorption and desorption and chemical reactions..
10. See for example Chapter 5 for the threshold pressure gradient, pore throat ifice) and pore surface (pore
wall) drag, and Chapter 4, Exercise problems 6 and 7 for interfacial drag.
Chapter 4 Scaling and Correlation of Transport in Porous Media
1. The mean-diameter Dh of the hydraulic flow paths in porous media may be assumed a function of the
tortuosity  h , porosity  , and permeability K of porous media. Prove that the following dimensionless
groups/variables can be used to obtain a functional relationship between these variables/parameters:
1   ,  2   h ,  3  Dh / K . Determine a proper combination of these dimensionless groups/parameters so that the
K
result conforms to Dh  4 2 h (Kozeny, 1927, Carman, 1938, 1956).

Table 1. Step-by-step elimination of the fundamental dimensions
Initial system Step 1 Eliminate L

Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions
parameters parameters
Dh L L: scaling L
variable
h 1 1: 1
dimensionles
s
 1 1: 1
dimensionles
s
K L2 K/ Dh2: 1
dimensionles
s group
Thus, the dimensionless variables/parameters/groups are:

1  
2  h (1)
1 Dh
 '3  K / Dh 2 or redifined as  3  
3 '
K
The following proper combination of these dimensionless variables yields the following convenient dimensionless
groups:
1  
2  h
1 Dh
 '3  K / Dh 2 or redifined as  3  
 '3 K
 3 1 Dh
 C 4 2
2 K h
(2)
Re arranging
hK
Dh  C

or
K
Dh  4 2  h

pc Rh
2. Derive the Leverett J-function J  S w   by carrying out a dimensional analysis with the
 wo
variables/parameters involved in this function. Note Rh is the mean-radius of hydraulic flow pats.
Initial system Step 1 Eliminate L Step 2

Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables,
parameters parameters parameters
Rh L: scaling - - -
variable
pc M/(LT2) p c Rh M/T2 pc Rh
4  :
 wo
dimensionles
s group
 wo M/T2  wo M/T2: scaling -
group
variable
pc K
3. To formulate the Leverett J-function J  Sw   we substitute Dh as:
 wo f   
K K
Dh  C  h  4 2 h
 
into
K
Dh pc C  h
p R 2 
pc  pc Cf    h K
4  c h  
 wo  wo 2 wo  wo f   2 
Let (3)
Cf    h 2
 1, thus C 
2 f    h
to obtain
pc K
J  Sw  
 wo f   
4. Hassanizadeh and Gray (1993) related the capillary pressures under dynamic and equilibrium conditions
according to the following non-equilibrium expression:
S
pcdyn.  pceq .   (4)
t
Where pcdyn. ML1T2  , pceq. ML1T2  ,and [ML-1T-1 ] denote the dynamic capillary pressure, equilibrium capillary
pressure, and relaxation time or damping coefficient, respectively. S is the average saturation and t is time. Das et al.
(2007) propose that the damping coefficient can be correlated using the following variables: porosity  [1], pore-
size distribution index l [1], porous medium entry pressure pe [ML-1T-2], permeability K[L2], domain volume V[L3],
fluids density ratio  nw / w  [1], fluids viscosity ratio  nw / w  [1], gravitational acceleration g[L/T2], and
saturation S [1].
Initial system Step 1 Eliminate M Step 2 Eliminate T Step 3 Eliminate L
Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions
parameters parameters parameters parameters
 1  1  1  1
Sw 1 Sw 1 Sw 1 Sw 1
l 1 l 1 l 1 l 1
t T t T t: scaling - - -
variable
 M/(LT)  /pc T  1  1
:
pc t pe t
dimensionles
s group
pe M/(LT2) p e: scaling - - - - -
variable
K L2 K L2 K L2 K/V2/3: 1
dimensionless
group
V L3 V L3 V L3 V: scaling -
variable
 nw  w 1  nw  w 1  nw  w 1  nw  w 1
 nw w 1  nw w 1  nw w 1  nw w 1
g L/T2 g L/T2 gt2 L gt2/V1/3 1
Thus, the dimensionless parameters/groups are the following:

1  
 2  Sw
3  l

4 
pe t
K (5)
5 
V23
 6   nw  w
 7   nw  w
gt 2
8 
V1 3
We can manipulate these as:
 2  Sw
1 

3 l
 gt 2  g  g
 4 8    (6)
pe t V 1 3 pe V13 peV 1 6
K
5 
V23
 6  nw  w

 7  nw  w
Thus, we can show that the following general relationship can be proposed between the various dimensionless
groups:
 g    K 
 f  , nw w , 2 3 , Sw  (7)
V 1 6 pe  l  
w nw V 
5. The following quantities are considered to be important in the chemical comminution of coal using a
solvent: comminuting rate R [g/(cm2.s)], surface tension  [dynes/cm], density  [g/cm3], viscosity  [poise],
mean-pore diameter [cm], and effective mass diffusivity De [cm2/s]. By means of dimensional analysis, we
determine the dimensionless comminution, surface tension, and Schmidt numbers given by (Civan and Knapp,
1991).
Initial Step 1 Eliminate L Step 2 Eliminate Step 3 Eliminate T

system M
Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables, parameters Dimensions
parameters parameters parameters
R M/(L2T) Rd2 M/T Rd 2 R 1/T  R  D  1
 1   C
d 3 d    d2 
 d   
:
Rd

 DC
dimensionless group
 M/T2  M/T2  1/T2 2 1
   D 
d 3  2   3   C2 
 d   d  :
d

 DC
dimensionless group
 M/L3  d3: M - - -
scaling
variable
 M/(LT) d M/T d  1/T    D 1
 
 3   2   C2 
d 3
d 2  d   d 
:


 DC
dimensionless group
d: scaling L - - - - -
variable
Dc L2/T Dc/d2 1/T Dc/d2: 1/T - 1
scaling
variable
Combining the above derived dimensionless groups yields:

1
Nc   Rd /  ,
3
 32
Ts    2 /  d  , (8)
2
Sc   3      / De
6. The interfacial drag force between a liquid phase 1 and a gas phase 2 can be correlated by considering the
following variables: Interfacial drag force F12, density difference   1  2 , density 1 , gravitational
acceleration g, liquid viscosity 1 , neglect gas viscosity and density 2  0, 2  0 , relative interface velocity
 u2 u1 
   , permeability K, inertial flow coefficient  , interfacial tension  , and liquid phase saturation S1 (Note
 S2 S1 
S2 = 1- S1).
a. How many dimensionless groups/variables can be found? (Answer: 10 variables-3 basic
dimensions =7 dimensionless groups)
b. Determine the independent groups that can be formed with these variables.
Initial Step 1 Eliminate Step 2 Eliminate L Step 3 Eliminate T

system M
Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions Variables, Dimensions
parameters parameters parameters parameters
F12 ML/T2 F12 L4/T2 F12 T6 F12 1
1 1 g 4 1 g 4
6
 1  u2 u1  
   
 g  S 2 S1  
F12 g 2
 6
 u2 u1 
1   
 S 2 S1 
 M/L3  1  1  1
1 1 1
1 1 : scaling
3
M/L - - - - -
variable
g L/T2 g L/T2 g: scaling - - -
variable
1 M/(LT) 1 L2/T 1 T3 1 g 1
1 1 g 2  u2 u1 
3
1   
 S2 S1 
 u2 u1  L/T  u2 u1  L/T 1  u2 u1  T - -
        :
 S2 S1   S2 S1  g  S2 S1 
scaling group
variable
K L2 K L2 K/g2 T2 K 1
2
 u2 u1 
  
 S 2 S1 
 1/L  1/L g 1/T2
  u2 u1 
2 1
  
g  S 2 S1 
 M/T2  L3/T2  T4 g 1
1 1 g 3  u2 u1 
4
1   
 S2 S1 
S1 1 S1 1 S1 1 S1 1
Therefore, the dimensionless groups are:
F12 g 2
1  6
 u2 u1 
1   
 S 2 S1 
1 g
2  3
 u2 u1 
1   
 S 2 S1 
K
3  2
 u2 u1 
  
 S 2 S1 
2
  u2 u 
4    1  (9)
g  S 2 S1 
g
5  4
u u 
1  2  1 
 S 2 S1 

6 
1
 7  S1
7. The interfacial drag force between a liquid phase 1 and a gas phase 2 can be correlated alternatively by
considering the buoyant force Fb, viscous force F , inertial force Fi, capillary force Fc, and saturation S1. A
dimensional analysis will be carried out between these variables.
a. Number of dimensionless groups/variables that can be found: (Answer: 6 variables -1 group
variable = 5 dimensionless groups because there is only one combined force unit involved)
b. Determine the dimensionless groups that can be formed with these variables.
Initial system Step 1 Eliminate F

Variables, parameters Dimensions Variables, parameters Dimensions
F12 ML/T2 F12 1
: dimensionless group
Fc
Fb ML/T2 Fb 1
Fc
F ML/T2 F 1
Fc
Fi ML/T2 Fi 1
Fc
Fc: scaling variable ML/T2 - -
S1 1 S1 : dimensionless variable 1
F12 F F F
Answer: 1  , 2  b , 3  ,  4  i ,  5  S1 .
Fc Fc Fc Fc
c. Express these independent groups in terms of the system variables by substituting the following
 u u 
expressions of the various forces: The buoyant force given by Fb   1  2  g , viscous force F  1  2  1  ,
K  S2 S1 
2
u u  
inertial force Fi  1  2  1  , and capillary force Fc  .
 2
S S1  K
F KF
 1  12  12
Fc 
Fb  1   2  gK
2  
Fc 
F 1  u2 u1 
3      (10)
Fc   S 2 S1 
2
Fi K 1  u2 u1 
4     
Fc   S 2 S1 
 5  S1
d. We determine the expressions of the following commonly-known dimensionless groups that can
F F12
be formed with these forces. The drag coefficient cD  12  2
, Capillary number
Fi  u2 u1 
1   
 S2 S1 
F 1  u2 u1  F K 1  u2 u1 
Nc     , Reynolds number Re  i    , and Froude number
Fc   S2 S1  F 1  S2 S1 
Fi  u2 u1  
Fr     .  5  S1 )
Fb  S2 S1   2 
1   g
 1 
e. Schulenberg and Muller (1987) considered
 Viscous force and inertia of the gas phase small compared to the above-mentioned forces.
 At moderately high saturations the viscosity effects compensate each other, F  0 .
 A correlation in the general form of 1  1  2 , S1  where only the following dimensionless groups were
2
F12 F12 F K 1  u2 u1 
considered:  1   , 3  i     ,  3  S1 .
Fb  1   2  g Fc   S 2 S1 
Thus, they considered 5 variables – 1 group dimension = 4 dimensionless groups can be formed. However, they only
considered 3 of these groups in their correlation, thus, leaving one group unused. This may impose some limitations
on the applicability of their results in an uncertain manner.
Chapter 5 Fluid Motion in Porous Media
1. Real gas density is given by Eq. 5.60 as:
  MP  zRT  (11)
Eqs. 5.80 – 5.82 are:
dp wRT  ( p) z ( p)  1 w 
    (12)
dx AMp K A ( p) 
subject to:
p  p1 , x  0 (13)
p  p2 , x  L (14)
Thus,
dp wRT  ( p) z ( p)  1 w 
    (15)
dx AMp K A ( p) 
First differentiate the real gas equation of state given by Eq. 4 to obtain:
RT
p z
M
Therefore, (16)
dp RT d  z   d  RT  dz  d 
  z 
dx M d  dx M  d   dx
Then, substitute to derive the following density formulation:
1
d wM   dz   1 w 
 z     (17)
dx ART   d   K A 
subject to:
    p1  , x0 (18)
    p2  , xL (19)
2. Eqs. 5.63, 5.64, and 5.75 are given as:
P2
I1      dp  p2  p1  (20)
P1
P2
I2  z   zdp  p
P1
2  p1  (21)
P

I3  m( p)    dp
Pb
(22)
Then, the differential forms are:

dI1 dp    p1  p2  (23)
dI 2 dp  z  p1  p2  (24)
dI 3 dp    (25)
In Eqs. (23) – (25), I1, I2, I3 represent the integrals. Thus, when Eqs. (23) – (24) are integrated from p1 to p2
beginning with the conditions given by:
I1  0 , I 2  0 , and I 3  0 , at p = p1 (26)
The average values are obtained, respectively, as:
  I1 , z  I 2 and m  I 3 , at p = p2. (27)
Integrate Eqs. (23) – (25) numerically by the Runge-Kutta method from the inlet to the outlet pressures, i.e.
from p1 to p2 for pressure values of your choice.
3. Transform the Liu et al. (1995) equation given in field units so that it can be used in SI units.
Eq. 5.86 is:
 1 0.3048m
 8.91108
m 
 1 ft   1.0133x108 D  100cm  1000mD 
2
  Km2   
 1cm2  1m  1D 
 (28)
2.9 10 6
  m1  
 K  m2 
3. Eq. 5.164 is:

  p     pth    g   2  K -1  v   3  β  v v
 v  (29)
   T   m v    v v       D   v  
 t 
Comparing this with the equation of Das (1999) written as:
v
  p    g   2  K 1  v  m v   (30)
t
We determine that the terms missing in the equation derived by Das (1999) are
  pth  ,  3 β  v v ,   T  ,   v v  , and   D   v  . This implies that the equation of Das (1999) is
only valid when there is no threshold pressure effect, the fluid velocity is sufficiently low, the fluid shearing effect is
negligible, and the momentum diffusivity is negligible.
5. The solution is given in the book as the following. Consider heterogeneous porous media with  = (x, y, z) and 
1 
 (t), and a slightly compressible fluid described by the isothermal compressibility coefficient c  . Substitute
 p
v
m  q and   0 in Equation (30) according to Das (1999), and eliminate the velocity v between these
t
equations. Then, show that expanding the resulting equation yields (Civan, 2008d):
p   2p  p    2p  p  q
c     1 
 cp   1 
 (31)
t  q  K   q  K  
2 2
Hint: Substituting m  q according to Das yields:


    v       q (32)
t
v
Substituting   0 in Eq. (30) according to Das yields:
t
  p    g   2  K 1  v  qv (33)
For horizontal flow in an isotropic porous media having same permeability K in all coordinate directions,
Eq. (33) is solved for pore fluid velocity as:
p  p
v (34)
q   2  K 1
Thus, substituting Eq. (34) into the equation of continuity given by Eq. (32) yields:
    2p  p 
         1  
q (35)
t   q    K 
2
Next, consider heterogeneous porous media with     x, y, z  and     t  , and a slightly compressible fluid
described by the following isothermal compressibility coefficient:
1 
c (36)
 p
Thus, expanding Eq. (35) and then applying Eq. (36) yield:
p   2p  p    2p  p  q
c   1 
 cp   1 
 (37)
t  q  K   q  K  
2 2
6. The solution is given in the book as the following. For conventional practice omitting the source term q erroneously
in the equation of motion while retaining it in the equation of continuity, assuming constant properties and dropping the
second term on the right of Equation (31), and then applying a first order finite-difference approximation to the time
derivative of error Δp in the pressure calculation, show that an equation is obtained as (Civan, 2008d):
t  2 K
p     2 p (38)
c  q    K
2 1

The term 2p is evaluated by a second order accurate five-point spatial finite-difference approximation. Using the data
of Das (1999) presented as the following, show that Equation (38) provides an estimate of the error given by Δp(Pa)
= -6.4Δt(s). Data: Fluid density,  = 1000 kg/m3, Fluid viscosity,  = 0.001 Pa.s, Fluid compressibility, c =
1.422x10-9 Pa-1, Mass flow rate per unit bulk volume of porous media, q = 9.74x10-4 kg/m3 – s, Average
porosity,  = 20%, Average permeability, K = 10-13 m2, Pay thickness, h = 6.096 m, Grid size in the x-direction,
x = 30.48 m, Grid size in the x-direction, y = 30.48 m. The pressure and porosity values at various grid points: (i,
j+1): 1399 kPa, 22%;(i-1, j): 1410 kPa, 23%; (i, j): 1406 kPa, 20%; (i+1, j): 1417 kPa, 18%; and (i, j-1): 1417 kPa, 19%
Hint: Assuming constant properties and dropping the second term on the right of Eq.(31) yields:
p  2  2 q
c    p  (39)
t  q   2  K 1  
For conventional practice omitting the source term q erroneously in the equation of motion while retaining it in the
equation of continuity yields:
p K q
 c  2 p  (40)
t  
Hence, subtracting Eq. (40) from Eq. (39) and then applying a first-order finite-difference approximation to the time
derivative of error p in pressure calculation:
t  2 K
p     2 p (41)
c  q    K
2 1

Where p  p (Eq. (39)) - p (Eq. (40)) represents the error made if the conventional Eq. (40) is used instead of the
present Eq. (39)Following Das (1999), the term  2 p indicated in Eq.(38) is evaluated by applying a second-order
accurate five-point spatial finite-difference approximation as:
pi 1, j  2 pi , j  pi 1, j pi , j 1  2 pi , j  pi , j 1
2 p   (42)
x 2 y 2
7. The solution is given in the book as the following. Assuming constant permeability and viscosity, no source effect,
  p 
neglecting the term      and dropping the second term on the right of Equation (31), and then applying a first
   
order finite-difference approximation to the time derivative of error Δp in the pressure calculation, show that an
equation is obtained as:
tK
p  2  p2  (43)
 c
The term 2 is evaluated by a second order accurate five-point spatial finite-difference approximation. Using the data
of Das (1999) presented in Table 1, show that Equation (43) provides an estimate of the error given by Δp(Pa) =
  p 
53.2Δt(s). Hint: Assuming constant permeability and viscosity, no source effect, neglecting the term      ,
   
and dropping the second term on the right of Eq.(31) can be updated as:
p K  2 p 
c
  p   2  (44)
t    
Then, the conventional form of this equation is obtained by omitting the term 2 involving the heterogeneity effect as
the following:
p K
 c  2 p (45)
t 
Hence, subtracting Eq. (45) from Eq. (44) and then applying a first-order finite-difference approximation to the time
derivative of error p in pressure calculation:
tK
p 
 2 c
 p  
2
(46)
Where p  p (Eq. (44)) - p (Eq. (45)) represents the error made if the conventional Eq. (45) is used instead of the
present Eq. (44)according to the terms included in the derivation.
8. Assuming c = 0 for constant properties, q = 0 for no source effect and neglecting the heterogeneity ( = 0) in Eq.
5.215 leads to the conventional equation used in well testing as:
p K
 c  2 p (47)
t 
9.. Consider the generalized Darcy’s equations derived in this section, for example E.164 given as:
  p     pth    g   2  K -1  v   3  β  v v
 v  (48)
   T   m v    v v       D   v  
 t 
Note for example that
vh  Τh  v or v  Τh1  vh (49)
Where Τ h denotes the tortuosity tensor. Therefore,
  p     pth    g   2  K -1  Τh1  v h   3  β  Τh1  v h Τh1  v h
   Τh1  v h  
   T   m Τh1  v h     Τh1  v h    Τh1  v h   (50)
 t 
 

   D    Τh1  v h  
  
10. Note that the formulation elaborated in Section 11 for derivation of the generalized Darcy’s law considers a fully
elastic porous matrix ( α = 0 according to Section 3).
a) Repeat this derivation for other cases ( α  0) according to the definition of pressure as described in
Section 3.
Thus, begin with E. 3.119 given as:
f jb
   v j f jb  
    D jb f jb    rjb
t CV
Substitute Eq.3.119
f jb   j  j v j
From Table 3.1
q j   p j   phj  j  bj
b b b j
(51)
 j  j K bj -1  v j   2j  j βbj  v j vj
j j j j j
 
N
  Tbj   j  f jk Τhj  v j  Τhk  v k k
j
j 1
jk
Eq. 5.10
pb    1    c d 3  p, 0    1
Take a similar approach for Tbj .
b) Apply the ideas leading to the power-law flow units equation of Civan (2002d) presented in Chapter 2.
c) Designate the variables associated with a particular pahese j in the derivations given in parts (a) and (b).
11. Carry out a unit transformation similar to the case demonstrated in Problem 3.
12. Consider
mL cm3
5
q cm3
s mL
u   1.0
 D2   2.54cm 
2
cm2 s
 1.0  in 
4 4 in 
Eq.5.145 : (52)
 cm  3
1.7 1.0 2 
  u
cm s
vh  h   8.5cm / s

0.2
13. Apply the procedure described in Problem 12.
mL cm3
10
q 60s mL cm3
u   0.033 2
D 2
 2.54cm 
2
cm s
 1.0  in 
4 4 in 
Eq.5.145 : (53)
 cm  3
1.5  0.033 2 
 u  cm s 
vh  h   0.25cm / s
 0.2
14. The threshold pressure gradient for an effective fluid permeability of 50 mD and viscosity of 0.1 centipoises is
given by Eq.5.51:
 p  16
    0.11 psi / cm (54)
 L cr  50 / 0.1
0.8
15. Consider Eq.5.51:

 p  L cr  16  K  
0.8
(55)
Thus,
16
 p  L cr 
K 
0.8
psi
 p Pa
6894.75Pa 16
 0.8
(56)
L m
100cm  K m  100cm  1.0133x108 D 1000mD Pa.s 
2 2
m    
  Pa.s  m  1cm 2 D 1000cP 
2.74 x103
 p  L cr 
K 
0.8
Chapter 6 Gas Transport in Tight Porous Media
1. L = 60 μ m = 6.0E-5 m , Rh = 1.0E-8 nm,  h = 1.0,   0.2. We make reasonable assumptions for any missing
data as the following. M = 39.948 kg/kmol,  = 2.22x10-5 Ns/m2, Rg = 8.314 J/mol/K, T = 300 K. For ideal gas
Z = 1.0. Note Bar = 750.06 torr = 1.E+5 Pa. Poutlet = 4.8 kPa. The best fit of Eq. 6.128 to the experimental data
of Roy et al. (2003) is obtained by adjusting the value of the  parameter to 0.74. We can prepare the following
table for a plot of values predicted by Eq. 6.128, given in the following, against the experimental data to
determine the accuracy of this equation.
   Rh2 2 Rh 8M  P
jT    F   (57)
  8 h 3 h  Rg T   x
Where by Eq. 6.123
 2    Rg T
F  1  4   1 (58)
   Rh P 2M
Further, consider the following approximation because the length of sample is extremely short:
p p  p1 p p  p1   1
 2  , pavg  2 ,  avg  2 (59)
x L L 2 2
The values for various measured data points were obtained from Fig. 12 of Roy et al. (2003) and the calculated
fluxes were compared with the measurements obtained from Roy et al. (2003) in the following table. As can be seen
by the results given in the following table, the calculated values are very close to those measured.
JT (kg/s.m2) JT (kg/s.m2)
p1(Pa) p2(Pa) Δp (Pa) pavg(Pa) F, dimensionless ρ,kg/m3
Calculated Measured Error-squared
7435 4800 12235 6118 25.47 97.98 0.11
0.12 5.84E-05
19026 4800 23826 11913 13.57 190.80 0.22
0.24 3.68E-04
31757 4800 36557 18279 9.19 292.76 0.35
0.36 1.30E-04
42778 4800 47578 23789 7.29 381.01 0.46
0.49 5.83E-04
55792 4800 60592 30296 5.94 485.24 0.60
0.60 1.76E-05
65677 4800 70477 35239 5.25 564.39 0.71
0.73 4.73E-04
76985 4800 81785 40893 4.66 654.95 0.84
0.85 1.60E-04
87442 4800 92242 46121 4.25 738.69 0.96
0.97 9.69E-05
97608 4801 102409 51205 3.92 820.11 1.08
1.10 3.32E-04
107778 4802 112580 56290 3.66 901.56 1.20
1.21 1.56E-04
117681 4803 122484 61242 3.44 980.87 1.33
1.30 4.84E-04
2. Prepare a plot of K/ K  vs. pressure P using Eq. 6.130 using the parameter values given in the previous problem
where Kn = l /Rh:
K 8 2 8 Rg T  8 2  8M 20
F F F Kn (60)
K Rh 3  M P Rh 3   Rg T 3
See the plot given in Fig. 7 of Javadpour (2009).
3. Prepare a plot of  vs. Kn over the range of 0  Kn   using Eqs. 93, 97, and 98 are given respectively by: .
tan 1 1 Kn 
2
  o 2
(61)

log 1.358/  1   0.4348logKn  0.7496, R 2  0.9871 (62)
Thus, A = 0.1780 and B = 0.4348. Similarly, the data of Tison and Tilford (1993) is correlated as:
log 1.205/  1   0.365logKn  0.7011, R 2  0.9486 (63)
Thus, A = 0.199 and B = 0.365. Simply plot these on the same chart and compare.
4. See Civan (2010) for an example plot of   vs. M using Eq.6.113 for  h  2 at various temperatures.
5. See Civan (2010) whichy gives Eq. 6.119 as:
 Rg T 3.14 8314  298
h    1.0 (64)
7.78 x106 7.78 x106
6. Consider Case 1: K  =0.024x10-15 m2, n = 14, w1 = 10.8, Case 2: K  =2.36x10-15 m2, n = 15, w1 = 3.56, and
Case 3: K  =23x10-15 m2, n = 80, w1 = 40.7. Develop plots of K (in 10-15 m2) vs. p (bar) for these cases using
these parameter values and the following Eqs. 6.156 and 6.157:
 b
K  K  1   (65)
 P
Where
 R2
K  h (66)
8 h
 DK  n 1 
b
K  3

f 2
 f o f  f o2   1  1  f 4  P, when f , f o  0

 DK  n 1  f o3  
b     1  P, when f  0, f o  0 (67)
K  3  f o  f  
 DK
b  P, when f , f o  0
K
Further, Eqs. 6.143 and 6.145 are:
wl
f  1  1  1  w1 Kn (68)
Rh
wo l
fo  1 
 1  wo Kn (69)
Rh
Assume w1 = wo. From Table II of Bravo (2007), we obtain R = 1.0E-6 m, l p = 9.5E-8 mPa which we can solve
for l . Kn = l /R. Further assume  = 1.76E-10 bar-s, and DK (m2/s) = 1.86E5 K0.7 (Eq. 6.151).
7. The data of Garrison et al. (1993) for Norphlet sandstone sample-NA parameters are presented as:  =5.5%,
K=0.20 mD , Dmin  1.01 , Dmax  70.85 , Dmean  3.83 , c = 3.8x104 , and d = 2.087 . The data of
Rangarajan et al.(1984) are: DK  S = 0.1l  and DS V = 100.l  . The other required data assumed for
calculatrion are (Civan, 2002): pw =10. atm, pe =1. atm, rw =2,54 cm, and re or L =100.cm. Calculate and plot
the curves given in Fig. 4 for the linear and radial flow problems using these data.
Plot p vs. x using the following Eqs. 6.185-6.187 for the linear case, given by:
 p  ( / 2) p2  C1 x  C2 (70)
where
C1  ( pL  ( / 2) pL 2  C2 ) / L (71)
C2   p0  ( / 2) p02 (72)
Plot p vs. r using the following Eqs. 6.191-6.193 for the radial case, given by:
 p  ( / 2) p2  C3 ln r  C4 (73)
where
 ( pe  pw )  ( / 2)( pe 2  pw2 )
C3  (74)
ln(re / rw )
C4   pw  ( / 2) pw2  C3 ln rw (75)
You will obtain Fig. 6.3.
8. Prepare a plot of the flow condition function f (Kn) vs. the Knudsen number Kn in the range of 0  Kn < 1,000
using  o = 1.358, b = -1, A = 0.1780, and B = 0.4348 for the data of Loyalka and Hamoodi (1990) usin the
following Eqs. 6.90, 6.96, and 6.103, given respectively by:
 4 Kn 
f ( Kn)  1   Kn  1   (76)
 1  bKn 
Where Kn is the Knudsen number given by:
l
Kn  (77)
Rh
o A
1  , A  0, B  0 (78)
 Kn B
Where  o = 1.358 , b = -1, A = 0.1780, and B = 0.4348.
K  K  f ( Kn) (79)
R 2
K  h
(80)
8 h
The intrinsic (actual) permeability of the core plug in the units of m 2 and mD if the apparent permeability of a core
plug was measured as 2.5x10-20 m2 for the Knudsen number value of Kn = 10 is:
K 2.5E  20m2 mD
K    ? m2  ? m2 2  (81)
f ( Kn) f ( Kn  10) m
9. We estimate the mean-free-path of the methane molecule in m at 25 oC and 1 atm pressure conditions using the
equation given by Loeb (1934).
  Rg T 1.1E  5 3.14  8314  298
l   5.35E  8m (82)
P 2M 1.01325E 5 2 16.043
10. The rarefaction coefficient  is by Eq. 6.96:
o A
1 
 Kn B
1.205 0.199
1  (83)
 0.10.365
  0.825
The, by Eq. 6.90:
 4 Kn 
f ( Kn)  1   Kn  1  
 1  bKn 
(84)
 4  0.1 
 1  0.825  0.1  1    1.48
 1   1 0.1 
11. Consider a continuous flow of a real gas through a horizontal porous core sample under isothermal (25 oC) and
steady-state conditions. (a) Write down the equations required for description of gas flow in the core sample,
   u     

x t
At steady-state
d  u 
0 (85)
dx
K dp
u
 dx
Mp

ZRT
Hence,
d  K Mp dp 
 0 (86)
dx   ZRT dx 
But,
 b
K  K  1   (87)
 P
Then,
  b 
K 1
d    P  Mp dp 
 0 (88)
dx   ZRT dx 
 
 
(b) Obtain an analytical solution of the resulting pressure equation (a simple equation) for pressure,
If we assume constant values for the viscosity and the real gas deviation factor as
 and Z = constants, then
d   b  dp 
 1   p   0
dx   P  dx 
Integrating (89)
dp
 p  b   C1
dx
Integrating
1 2
p  bp  C1 x  C2
2
Applying the boundary conditions yields:
1 2
pO  bpO  C1  0   C2
2 (90)
1 2
pL  bpL  C1  L   C2
2
Therefore,
1 1
C1    pL  pO   b   pL  pO 
L 2 
1 1
 1  5   1.3 1  5   0.172 (91)
100  2 
1 1
C2  pO 2  bpO  52  1.3  5   19
2 2
(c) Obtain the expressions for calculation of the Darcy and actual fluid velocities using the above-obtained pressure
solution, and (d) Calculate the velocity of the gas just before and after it leaves the porous core sample at the outlet
section The volumetric flux is:
 b
K  1  
u  P  dp   K   p  b  dp
 dx p dx
But
dp
 p  b  C1 (92)
dx
Then,
K  C1  0.0027 Darcy  0.172 
u   0.0387cm / s
p  0.012cP 1atm 
The velocity at the outside is
u 0.0387 1.5 
v   0.291cm / s (93)
 0.2
12. The apparent permeability is greater than actual permeability of a tight porous rock.
13. Study and solve the differential equations given by Civan et al. (2010, 2011). Use 10 seconds time increments,
51 equally-spaced grid points, and a relative deviation tolerance of 10 -4. Impose a condition of p > 0 and Ua > 0
to avoid numerical instability. Apply the numerical method described in Civan et al. (2011). Briefly, the
transient-state transport equation is given by:
p p 2 p
A B 2 (94)
t x x
where t and x denote the time and distance, and A and B are pressure-dependent coefficients described by Civan et
al. (2010, 2011). The conditions of solution are:
p  po ,0  x  L, t  0 (95)
p  pin , x  0, t  0 (96)
p  pout , x  L, t  0 (97)
The finite-difference discretization of Eqs. (94)-(97) is:
pin  pin 1 p n  pin1 p n  2 pin  pin1
 ai i 1  bi i 1 , i  1, 2,3,..., N , n  0 (98)
t 2 x  x2
where N is the number of grid points and n is the time steps. The conditions of solution become:
pin  pio , i  1, 2,3,...., n  0 (99)
pin  pu  t  , i  1, n  0 (100)
p  pd  t  , i  N , n  0
n
i (101)
The steady-state solution is obtained when the time-dependent term is deleted. (102)
The overall numerical solution is carried out iteratively because the coefficients are dependent on the temperature.
Chapter 7 Fluid Transport through Porous Media
1. The real gas equation of state is given by Eq. 7.43 as:
Mp
 (103)
ZRT
We use the data given on page 184 to plot the following equation, Eq. 7.20:
 re 2h
t    p     p   (104)
1  f  ww  i
We can rearrange this equation as:
  p wwt
 1  1  f  tD , tD  (105)
  pi   re 2h  pi 
Substituing Eq. (103) in this equation yields:
Mp
Z  p, T  RT wwt
 1  1  f  t D , t D 
Mpi  re h  pi 
2
Z  pi , T  RT (106)
Z  p, T  wwt p
pD  1  1  f  t D  , t D  , pD 
Z  pi , T   re h  pi 
2
pi
Rearranging, we have
1  Z  pi , T  
tD  1  p  (107)
1  f   Z  p, T  D 
Prepare an Excel spread-sheet as the following. Plot pD vs. tD.
p , assumed Z  p, T  , from p 1  Z  pi , T  
pD  ,calculated tD  1  p 
correlation pi 1  f   Z  p, T  D 
pi = 4.83x107 Pa Z  pi , T  1.0 0.0
Assume others and
calculate several
more values
We can predict Z(p,T) using the Al-Anazi and AlQurashi correlation (SPE 128878), described below.
2E
Z F
1.0482
where
D
F E
E2
CD
E  0.9178
1.0474Tpr
(108)
D  2 ABC
C  1  2 A  B
 3 A  1.427
2
B  0.9178
Tpr
 0.03275 
A  2   p pr  0.2360
 0.9765 
Note that for 0.65-specific gravity natural gas, T c – 357K and pc = 670 psia from McCane (1990) page 119.
2. Start with Eq. 7.1 given by:
  
    u     D     r (109)
t
Expanding, this equation yields:
   
   u        u   D         D       r
t t
(110)
   
   u        u   D              D            r
t t
Divide by  to obtain:
1     1    1 1 1  1 1 
  u       u   D            
 t  t       
1 1  r
   D            
   
Let
(111)
1  1   
c  , c  . Note density and porosity increases as pore fluid pressure increases.
 p  p
Then,
 c  c  pt   u p  1   u   1 D     c  c  p    D   c  c  p   r

c
Consider the Darcy’s law for horizontal flow, given by:

K
u   p (112)

Then,
p c K 1 K  1
c   c 
t  
 p     p   D     c  c  p 
2
    (113)
   D   c  c  p  
r

Substituting the following expressions for the fluid density:
  b exp c  p  pb  (114)
3. The Buckley-Leverett solution of saturation S1 vs. distance xS1 at various times is given by Eq.7.108 as:
Q  df1 
xs1    (115)
A  dS1  s
1
Step 1: Given t, Calculate

t
Q   qt dt
0
Step 2: assume a Sw value

df w
Step 3: Calculate
dS w
Step 4: Calculate the point where Sw is equal to the assumed value using
Q  df1 
xs1    (116)
A  dS1  s
1
Step 5: Calculate a shock front saturation, S wf as the following using the Welge Method. Write volume balance for
the water phase: Water injected = Oil displaced
x2
Wi  A  ( Sw  Swc )dx (117)
0
write this eqn. for an average final water saturation

Wi  x2 A (Sw  Swc ) (118)
Thus,
Wi 1
S w  S wc   (119)
x2 A  df w 
 
 dSw  Swf
x2
x2  S wf (1  Sor ) x1   S w dx
Sw 
0
S w dx

x1
(120)
x2
x2
 dx
0
Wi  df w 
xSw    (121)
A  dSw Sw
 df 
xSw   w  (122)
 dSw Sw
S
 df  wf
 df 
(1  Sor )  w    Sw d  w 
 w (1 Sor ) (1 Sor )
dS  dS w 
S (123)
 df w 
 
 dS w  Swf
 udv  uv   vdu (124)
S wf
 df   df 
S wf
 Sw d  w    Sw w    f w 1wfS
S
(125)
 dS w   dS w 1 Sor
or
1 Sor
1  fw
S w  S wf 
Swf
(126)
 df w 
 
 dS w  Swf
1
S w  S wf  (127)
 df w 
 
 dS w  Swf
 df w  1  f w Swf 1
    (128)
 w  Swf
dS S w  S wf S w  S wc
Sw  Sw , f w  1 (129)
Sw
fw  1
fw
( Swf , f w ) Swf
Swc Sw (1  Sor )
Step 7: Oil Recovery Calculations

Np
RFo 
N
N   AL(1  S wc ) / Bo
N p   A   ( S w  S wc )dx  / Bo   AL( S w  S wc ) / Bo
L
(130)
 0 
L
S w  S wc 

0
( S w  S wc )dx
L
0
dx
Case 1: No water production before breakthrough time t < tb,t
Case 2: Water oil production in tb,t ≤t ≤ t , Sw = 1-So
Case 3: Water production only.
Wi
S w  S wi 
x f A
Wi  qi t
( S w  S wc ) LA
t
qi (131)
N p   AL( S w  S wc ) / Bo
N   AL(1  S wc ) / Bo
Np
RFo 
N
Sw  (1  Sor )
(1  Sor )
Sw
Sw  Swe
S wf
S wf  Swb .t
Swc
x
0
L
The Welge Equation (Swe) for any situation for case 2:
 df w  1  ( f w ) Swe
   (132)
 w  Swc
dS S w  S we
Sw Sw
1
Swe
fw S wbt  S wf
Breakthrough
Swc Sw
1  Sor
N p   AL( S w  S wc ) Bo
RFo  N p / N
Swe Sw
t  tbt
Note
N p  Wi ; t  t bt
Choose N
a
Np
number
of
values
here
WL
tbt
Example application:
The reservoirs length, thickness and width are 1000m, 10m, and 800m respectively. The daily production of the
wells causing the movement in the reservoir is 1500 cu.m/day at reservoir conditions. The reservoir porosity  is
17%, μw = 0.6 cp, and μo = 1.4cp at reservoir conditions.
Bo = 1.3 rb/stb. Tasks: First determine and plot the saturation distribution along with the reservoir after 50, 100, and
200 days. Then, prepare a plot of the recovery factor with time. The relative permeability curves for oil and water
are given as follows.
Sw (%) krw kro
26.8 0.0 0.775
31.2 0.018 0.687
37.5 0.043 0.512
43.7 0.068 0.350
50.0 0.112 0.212
56.2 0.150 0.150
62.5 0.206 0.093
68.7 0.275 0.056
75.0 0.362 0.025
80.0 0.437 0.00
Plot kro/krw vs. Sw on a semi log scale due to the following empirical equations. Determine a=?, b=?.
kro
 ae bSw
krw
(133)
k 
ln  ro   ln(a)  bS w
 krw 
Calculate the fractional flow and its derivative wrt to water saturation using:
1 k
fw  , ro  ae bSw
 k k
1  w ro rw
o krw (134)
df (  w / o )abe bSw
f w'  w 
dS w [1  (  w / o )ae bSw ]2
Calculate and plot fw and f’w vs. Sw as sketched in the following.
Sw krw kro kro/krw fw fw '
0.27 0.0 0.775 ∞ ∞ ∞
.31 0.019 0.688 37 .. 0.55
0.37 0.044 0.513 12 .. 1.04
… .. .. .. .. ..
… .. .. .. .. ..
0.80 .. .. .. .. ..
Injection time, days Selected Sw values Distance from the

injection point x,
meters
50 0.31 30
0.38 57
0.44 98
0.50 142
0.56 163
0.63
0.69
0.75
100
200
1.0
Shock Front Saturation
Sw  0.8
Sw  0.7
Sw , fraction
50 100 200
days days days
0.27
Numerical Solution
0.0 X, meters
S we S we
1.0 Swe
Swe
3.5
f w.vs.Sw
Shock front
condition
fw
Tangent f w'
f w' .vs.Sw
0.5
Swf  0.7
0.0 S wf
1.0
Divide this region into a number of end (effluent) point saturation values (Swe )
N p   AL( S w  S wc ) Bo
RFo  N p / N
(135)
Note
N p  Wi ; t  tbt
Time (days) 50 100 200
Sw x (m) Np (104m3) x (m) Np (104m3) x (m) Np (104m3)
0.27 29 1.7 57 3.4 171 10.0
0.30 43 2.5 85 5.0 198 11.7
0.31 50 2.9 99 5.8 230 13.5
0.33 50 2.9 115 6.7 265 15.5
0.34 57 3.4 132 7.8 303 17.8
0.35 66 3.9 152 8.9 346 20.3
0.36 76 4.5 173 10.2 391 23.0
0.38 86 5.1 196 11.5 440 25.8
0.39 98 5.7 220 12.9 490 28.8
0.40 110 6.5 245 14.4 540 31.7
0.41 122 7.2 270 15.9 589 34.6
0.43 135 7.9 295 17.3 636 37.4
0.44 147 8.7 318 18.7 678 39.8
0.45 159 9.3 339 19.9 713 41.9
0.46 169 10.0 356 20.9 739 43.4
0.48 178 10.5 370 21.7 756 44.4
0.49 185 10.9 378 22.2 761 44.7
0.50 189 11.1 381 22.4 755 44.4
0.51 190 11.2 378 22.2 739 43.4
0.53 189 11.1 369 21.7 712 41.8
0.54 185 10.8 356 20.9 677 39.8
0.55 178 10.5 338 19.9 635 37.3
0.56 169 9.9 317 18.6 588 34.6
0.58 159 9.3 294 17.3 539 31.7
0.59 147 8.6 269 15.8 488 28.7
0.60 135 7.9 244 14.3 438 25.8
0.61 122 7.2 219 12.9 390 22.9
0.63 110 6.4 195 11.5 345 20.2
0.64 98 5.7 172 10.1 302 17.8
0.65 86 5.1 151 8.9 264 15.5
0.66 76 4.4 132 7.7 229 13.4
0.68 66 3.9 114 6.7 198 11.6
0.69 57 3.4 99 5.8 170 10.0
0.70 49 2.9 85 5.0 146 8.6
0.71 43 2.5 73 4.3 125 7.3
0.73 36 2.1 62 3.7 106 6.2
0.74 31 1.8 53 3.1 91 5.3
0.75 27 1.6 45 2.7 77 4.5
0.76 23 1.3 38 2.3 65 3.8
0.78 19 1.1 33 1.9 55 3.3
0.79 16 1.0 28 1.6 47 2.8
0.80 14 0.8 23 1.4 40 2.3
Sw kro/krw fw dfw/dSw
0.27 57 0.04 0.52
0.30 37 0.06 0.77
0.31 31 0.07 0.90
0.33 26 0.08 1.04
0.34 22 0.10 1.20
0.35 18 0.11 1.38
0.36 16 0.13 1.57
0.38 13 0.15 1.77
0.39 11 0.18 1.99
0.40 9.3 0.20 2.22
0.41 7.8 0.23 2.45
0.43 6.6 0.26 2.67
0.44 5.5 0.30 2.88
0.45 4.6 0.34 3.07
0.46 3.9 0.37 3.23
0.48 3.3 0.42 3.35
0.49 2.8 0.46 3.43
0.50 2.3 0.50 3.45
0.51 2.0 0.54 3.42
0.53 1.7 0.59 3.35
0.54 1.4 0.63 3.23
0.55 1.2 0.67 3.07
0.56 0.98 0.70 2.88
0.58 0.83 0.74 2.67
0.59 0.70 0.77 2.44
0.60 0.59 0.80 2.21
0.61 0.49 0.83 1.99
0.63 0.41 0.85 1.77
0.64 0.35 0.87 1.56
0.65 0.29 0.89 1.37
0.66 0.25 0.90 1.20
0.68 0.21 0.92 1.04
0.69 0.18 0.93 0.90
0.70 0.15 0.94 0.77
0.71 0.12 0.95 0.66
0.73 0.10 0.96 0.57
0.74 0.09 0.96 0.48
0.75 0.07 0.97 0.41
0.76 0.06 0.97 0.35
0.78 0.05 0.98 0.30
0.79 0.04 0.98 0.25
0.80 0.04 0.98 0.21
Swe Sw Np (106 bbls) Rfo t (days)

0 0
0.60 0.69 2.8 0.58 410
0.61 0.70 2.9 0.59 456
0.63 0.71 3.0 0.60 513
0.64 0.72 3.0 0.62 580
0.65 0.73 3.1 0.63 662
0.66 0.74 3.2 0.65 759
0.68 0.75 3.3 0.66 874
0.69 0.77 3.3 0.68 1012
0.70 0.78 3.4 0.70 1176
0.71 0.79 3.5 0.71 1372
0.73 0.80 3.6 0.73 1604
0.74 0.81 3.6 0.74 1880
0.75 0.83 3.7 0.76 2209
0.76 0.84 3.8 0.78 2599
0.78 0.85 3.9 0.79 3063
0.79 0.86 4.0 0.81 3615
4. We repeat the Penuela and Civan (2001) numerical solution approach using the relative permeability and
capillary pressure data given by Kulkarni et al. (1998) after replacing the outlet boundary condition given by
Eq. 7.95 by the general outlet boundary condition formulated by Civan (1996b) given by Eq. 7.83 so that a
numerical solution can be obtained until infinite fluid throughput at which condition all the mobile fluid will
have been displaced by the injection fluid. The general problem is given by Eqs. 7.84-7.90 as:
S dF S   kr dp S 
 w  w u w   Fw o c K w   0, 0  x  L, t  0 (136)
t dSw x x  o dSw x 
The initial condition is given by:
Sw  Swc , 0  x  L, t  0 (137)
At the inlet boundary, because only water is injected, (uo)+ = 0 and (uw)+  (uw)in. Thus:
dpc S w w  uw in
 , x  0, t  0 (138)
dS w x Kkrw
At the outlet, three separate conditions need to be formulated.
1. Until the water break through time, t*, (uw)+ = 0 and the overall volume balance dictates for incompressible
fluids that (uo)+ = (uo)out = (uw)in. Thus,
Sin, j 1  Ai , j Sin1, j  Bi , j Sin, j 1
Sin, j 
1  Ai , j  Bi , j
t
Ai , j  vx (139)
x i , j
t
Bi , j  vy
y i , j
Between the breakthrough and infinite water injection, both (uw)+ = (uw)out  0 and (uo)+ = (uo)out  0. Thus:
dpc S w w  uw out o  uo out
  , x  L, t *  t   (140)
dSw x Kkrw Kkro
In addition, the overall balance for the core dictates that:
uw in  uw out  u0 out (141)
+ +
During the infinite water injection (uo) = (uo)out = 0 and (uw) = (uw)out = (uw)in. Thus, Eq. 7.83 simplifies to:
dpc  Sw w  uw in
 , x  L, t   (142)
dSw  x Kkrw
The data of Kulkarni et al. (1998) are given as:  w =1.0 cP, o =1.5 cP, L = 10 cm, D = 3.5 cm,  =0.30, K = 50
mD, Sw, initial = 1.0, Swc = 0.3, qo, injection = 0.1 cm3/min, pout = 1 atm. Obtain the relative permeability and capillary
pressure data from Kulkarni et al. (1998).
Eq. (136) can be written as:
S dF S   kr dp  S kr dp   S 
 w  w u w   Fw o c K  w  Fw o c K  w   0,
t dS w x x  o dS w  x o dS w x  x 
0  x  L, t  0
S w  dFw D  S w   S 
  u   D  w   0, 0  x  L, t  0
t  dS w x  x x  x 
Let the capillary dispersion coefficieny be defined as: (143)
kro dpc dF D dFw dD S w
D   Fw K ,U  w u   u
o dS w dS w x dS w dS w x
Then
S w S 2S
  U w  D 2w , 0  x  L, t  0
t x x
Once, this equation is solved, and then the pressure can be calculated as follows:
pw 1  dpc Sw 
  u o w  Kkro w  (145)
x 
K krw o  kro w  dS w x  
Integrating, for example, by applying the trapezoidal rule
x
p
pwx  pout   w x
0
x
x 
1  dpc S w  
 pout      u o  w  Kkro  w   x
0  K k rw  o  k ro  w 
  dS w x  
 
(144)
Then,
pox  pwx  pc (145)
The finite-difference solution can be generated similar to the method described on pp. 380-381 in Chapter 10
for Problem 2 (Eqs. 10.130-10.144). See Andrade (2010) thesis for Fig. 6.
5. We obtain a numerical solution of the problem given in Example 1 (Eqs. 7.136-7.138) using the numerical
method described there.
 2S  3Sn 1
ij
n
ij  6Sijn 1  Sijn  2   6t    ux  ij  Sijn  Sin1, j  x
n
(146)
 u    S  Sin, j 1  y  0
n n
y ij ij
 S  6S  3S  2S   6t   u    S  S  x
n 1
ij
n
ij
n 1
ij
n2
ij x
n 1
ij
n 1
ij
n 1
i 1, j
(147)
  u    S  S  y  0
n 1 n 1 n 1
y ij ij i , j 1
 2S  9S 18S  11S   6t   u    S  S  x

n 1
ij
n
ij
n 1
ij
n2
ij x
n2
ij
n2
ij
n2
i 1, j
(148)
  u    S  S  y  0
n2 n2 n2
y ij ij i , j 1
We can write these in a compact form as:

ASijn  6Sijn 1  Sijn  2  
6Sijn  BSijn 1  2Sijn  2   (149)
9 Sijn  18Sijn 1  CSijn  2  
Here,
6u x t 6u y t
A  3 
x y
6u t 6u y t
B  3 x 
x y
6u t 6u y t
C  11  x 
x y
(150)
6u t 6u t
  2 S  x Sin1, j  y Sin, j 1
n 1
x y
ij
6u t 6 u t
   Sijn 1  x Sin1,1 j  y Sin, j 11
x y
6u t 6u t
  2Sijn 1  x Sin1,2j  y Sin, j 21
x y
These equations are solved analytically for Sijn , Sijn 1 , and Sijn  2 as:
 2   18  6C    C   12  B 
Sijn 
 2 A  6 18  6C    AC  9 12  B 
2     2 A  6  Sijn
Sijn 1  (151)
12  B
Sijn  2  ASij  6Sijn 1  
n
Using these analytical solutions, the numerical solutions can be generated readily. Then, the iso-saturation contours
can be plotted. Alternatively, see the results given in Figure 7.7.
6. Consider the following Eqs. 7.145-7.150 for a numerical solution of the problem given in Example 2.
pi 1, j  2 pij  pi 1, j pi 1, j  2 pij  pi , j 1
kx  ky 0 (152)
 x  y
2 2
k x pi 1, j  pi 1, j
vxij   (153)
 2 x
k y pi , j 1  pi , j 1
vyij   (154)
 2 y
v  vx2  vy2 (155)
Sin  Sin 1 Sin, j  Sin1, j Sin, j  Sin, j 1
  vxij  v yij 0 (156)
t x y
First the pressure equation is solved. Then, the velocity components are calculated. Finally, the saturation is
solved explicitly.
The solution of the pressure equation is obtained iteratively by using the Gauss Seidel iteration method:
Pi 1, j   Pi , j 1  Pi New
1, j   Pi , j 1
New
Pi ,New 
2(1   )
j
2
(157)
K y  x 
  
K x  y 
Old
i, j  1
New
i  1, j i, j New
i  1, j Old
New i, j  1
For i = 2, 3, ….., N-1and j = 2,3,4….M-1

Initial Guess:
200  150
 175atm (158)
2
The numerical solution is carried out iteratively. We can check convergence by:
j  Pi , j
Pi ,new
  tolerance (~ 10 3 )
Pi ,New
j
or to avoid division by zero (159)

P New
i, j  Pi , j   tolerance . P New
i, j
For all points, i = 2,3,…N-1 and j = 2,3,4…N-1, next guess is:

Pi , j  Pi ,New
Pi , j 
j
(160)
2
The volumetric Flux is obtained explicitly at the interior points by:
K
vxi , j   x ( Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j )
2x
(161)
Ky
v yi , j   ( Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 )
2y
We apply the following equations near the outlet boundaries:
K Pi  2, j  4 Pi 1, j  3Pi , j
vX i , j   x
 2x
(162)
K y Pi , j  2  4 Pi , j 1  3Pi , j
vYi , j  
 2y
The total flux and direction are determined by, respectively:
v  vx2  v y2
vx (163)
tan  
vy
We write the following for the no flow boundary conditions:
K
vxi , j   x ( Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j )  0, thus Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j
2x
(164)
Ky
v yi , j   ( Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 )  0, thus Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1
2y
Thus, the boundary conditions are given by:
Pi 1, j  Pi 1, ji , i  1, j  2,3,...M
Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 , i  k , k  1,.....N , j  1
Pi , j  Pe , i  1, 2.....N , j  M
Pi , j  Pe , i  N , j  1, 2,3,...M (165)
Note k is an index for the fracture tip.
At the well:
Pi , j  Pw , i  1, j  1
The solution of the saturation equation for i = 2,3,…..N and j = 2,3…...M is obtained explicitly by:
Sin, j 1  Ai , j Sin1, j  Bi , j Sin, j 1
Sin, j 
1  Ai , j  Bi , j
t
Ai , j  vxi , j (166)
x
t
Bi , j  v yi , j
y
Set initial saturation of region of interest:
Si0, j  S wc , i  2,3....N , j  2,3....M
S1,0 j  1  Sor , j  1.....M (167)
S  1  Sor , i  1...N
0
i ,1
The sweep efficiency can be calculated by applying the 2-D trapezoidal rule::
S  So S  S wc
ED    oi dydx    w dydx (168)
x y
Soi x y
1  S wc
x0 x  x x  2x
y0 i 1 2 3 N-1 N
y  y j 1
y  2y 2
3
M-1
M
7. Guevara-Jordan and Rodriguez-Hernandez (2001) considered the pressure distribution over a model areal
reservoir of a unit square shape and containing equal size, contrasting permeability porous formations, one
having an injection well and the other having a production well with unit strengths, as illustrated in Fig. 21.
a. The incompressible fluid two-dimensional reservoir pressure equation is given by:
  p    p  N
 Kx    Ky    qi  r  ri  (169)
x  x  y  y  i 1
Where qi  r  ri  denote the well flow rate and Dirac delta functions. They consider the following
compatibility conditions along the interface between the two regions:
p  p
 
 p   p  (170)
K  K 
 n   n 
Minus and plus signs indicate the fore and post sides of the interface. The symbol n indicates the
normal outward direction from the surface. The no flow Neumann boundary condition is given by:
p
0 (171)
n
The analytical solution is obtained by means of the free Green function (Guevara-Jordan and
Rodriguez-Hernandez, 2001) as described in many standard engineering mathematics books. Their
analytical solution given below for the special case of an infinite size reservoir:
1   K1  K 2  2
p x  ln x  x R1    ln x  x I 1 
2
4 K1   K1  K 2  
(172)
1  1 
  ln x  x I 2 in K1  region
2

2  K1  K 2 
And
1   K1  K 2  2
p  x  ln x  x R 2    ln x  x I 2 
2
4 K 2   K1  K 2  
(173)
1  1 
  ln x  x I 1 in K 2  region
2

2  K1  K 2 
Where the subscripts R and I denote the real and image wells, and 1 and 2 denote the production and
injection wells, shown in Fig. 21. K1 = 1 and K2 = 10 md although no units were provided by the
authors.
b. Apply Eqs. 7.234-7.237 on page 214 but replace  with p.

K p 1 N qi  x  xi 
ux    
 x 2 h i 1  x  xi 2   y  yi 2
(174)
K p 1 N qi  y  yi 
uy    
 y 2 h i 1  x  xi 2   y  yi 2
(175)
The pore fluid directional velocities are given by:

ux
vx  (176)
 
 1   Sr 
 r 
uy
vy  (177)
 
 1   Sr 
 r 
c. As stated by Guevara-Jordan and Rodriguez-Hernandez (2001), we can satisfy the Neumann boundary
condition given by Eq. 7,2 by considering an infinite number (or sufficiently large number) of images
according to Eq. 7.23 to consytruct an analytical solution for the problem by an infinite sum of the
analytical solutions given by Eqs. 7.246 and 7.247.
d. Using the analytic solution derived in Part c, determine the streamline distribution for the unit square
reservoir with no-flow boundaries similar to the procedure described in part b.
8. Consider Fig. 26 showing a horizontal well completed inside a slab shape homogeneous and isotropic reservoir
containing a plane discontinuity. Refer to Zhu, T. and Tiab, D.,, “Multipoint Interference Test in a Single
Horizontal Well,” SPE Formation Evaluation, December 1994, pp. 272-278 to determine the transient-state
analytical solution and plot the isopotential lines for the flow potential distribution in this reservoir if this well
begins production at a constant rate at a given time.
9. Shikhov and Yakushin (1987) applied their method for a well in an isotropic porous media. For a well in an
anisotropic porous media, consider Eqs. 7.196-3.198, given by:
lx  K x  (178)
ly  K y  (179)
  p    p 
 lx    ly 0 (180)
x  x  y  y 
Therefore, for constant properties, we obtain:
2 p 2 p
Kx 2  K y 2  0 (181)
x y
Define a geometric average permeability as:
K  Kx K y (182)
Then,
2 p 2 p 1 d  dp 
 K r   0
 x2   y2  r dr  dr 
   
 Kx  K
 y 
x2 y2 r2
 
Kx K y K
(183)
Let
x2 2 y 2 2 r2 r2
X2  ,Y  ,R  
Kx Ky Kx K y K
Then
X 2  Y 2  R2
Consequently, the results of Shikhov and Yakushin (1987) for a well in an isotropic porous media can be applied for
a well in an anisotropic porous media by substitution of the following transformations:
x y r
X ,Y  ,R  (184)
Kx Ky K
10. Transform the anisotropic problem to an isotropic problem as described in the above problem. Then, the method
of Marathe et al. (1995) will work as described in the book.
11. Carry out an analysis similar to Problem 1 given in Chapter 7 but plot the average pressure instead of the
dimensionless pressure against the dimensionless time for both slightly-compressible and compressible fluids
described, respectively, by Eqs. 7.42 and 7.43 as:
  b exp c  p  pb  (185)
Mp
 (186)
ZRT
12. Solve the following problem:
2 P  2 P q
Kx 2  K y 2   0,
x y 
.
(187)
qwell
q ,V  xy z
4V
The pressure equation is solved iteratively using the Gauss Seidel iteration method.
Pi 1, j   Pi , j 1  Pi New
1, j   Pi , j 1  
New
Pi ,New 
2(1   )
j
qwell   x 
   ,   0if thereis no well (188)
 k x h  y 
2
K  x 
 y 
K x  y 
The flow boundary conditions are discretized as the following:
K 2x
vxi , j   x ( Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j ), thus Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j  vxi , j
2x Kx
(189)
Ky 2y
v yi , j   ( Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 ), thus Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1  v yi , j
2y Ky
For no-flow boundary conditions:
Kx
vxi , j   ( Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j )  0, thus Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j
2x
(190)
Ky
v yi , j  ( Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 )  0, thus Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1
2y
13. The reservoir pressure equation is given by:

 2 pxR  2 p yR
K xR  K 0 (191)
x 2 y 2
yR
Boundary conditions along the fracture surface (Same as the fracture equations) (Soliman, 1986)
d 2 pF 2 K yR pR
 0
dx 2 WK F y W / 2 (192)
pF  pR W / 2
The simplified reservoir pressure equations are given by substituting the same pressure symbol:
pF  p R  p (193)
Reservoir pressure equation
2 p 2 p K yR
   0,   (194)
x 2
y 2
K xR
The boundary conditions along the fracture surface are the same as the fracture equations, given by:
d2 p p 2 K yR
  0,   (195)
dx 2
y W / 2 WK F
The reservoir pressure equation is solved using the Gauss Seidel iteration method described in the following:
2 p 2 p K yR
  2  0,  
x 2
y K xR
Pi 1, j  2 Pi , j  Pi 1, j Pi , j 1  2 Pi , j  Pi , j 1
 0
 x   y 
2 2
(196)
Pi 1, j  l Pi , j 1  Pi New
1, j  l Pi , j 1
New
P New

2(1  l )
i, j
2
 x 
where l    
 y 
Old
i, j  1
New
i  1, j i, j New
i  1, j Old
New i, j  1
For i = 2, 3, ….., N-1and j = 2,3,4….M-1

Initial Guess:
200  150
 175atm (197)
2
The numerical solution is carried out iteratively. We can check convergence by:
j  Pi , j
Pi ,new
  tolerance (~ 10 3 )
Pi ,New
j
or to avoid division by zero (198)

P New
i, j  Pi , j   tolerance . PNew
i, j
For all points, i = 2,3,…N-1 and j = 2,3,4…N-1, next guess is:

Pi , j  Pi ,New
Pi , j 
j
(199)
2
The volumetric Flux is obtained explicitly at the interior points by:
K
vxi , j   x ( Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j )
2x
(200)
Ky
v yi , j   ( Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 )
2y
We apply the following equations near the outlet boundaries:
K Pi  2, j  4 Pi 1, j  3Pi , j
vX i , j   x
 2x
(201)
K y Pi , j  2  4 Pi , j 1  3Pi , j
vYi , j  
 2y
The total flux and direction are determined by, respectively:
v  vx2  v y2
vx (202)
tan  
vy
We write the following for the no flow boundary conditions:
K
vxi , j   x ( Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j )  0, thus Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j
2x
(203)
Ky
v yi , j   ( Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 )  0, thus Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1
2y
Thus, the boundary conditions are given by:
Pi 1, j  Pi 1, ji , i  1, j  2,3,...M
Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1 , i  k , k  1,.....N , j  1
Pi , j  Pe , i  1, 2.....N , j  M
Pi , j  Pe , i  N , j  1, 2,3,...M (204)
Note k is an index for the fracture tip.
At the well:
Pi , j  Pw , i  1, j  1
The fracture pressure equation is the same as the fracture face boundary condition, given by:
d2 p p 2 K yR
  0,  
dx 2
y W / 2 WK F
Pi 1, j  2 Pi , j  Pi 1, j Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1
 0
 x  2y
2
Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1    Pi 1, j  2 Pi , j  Pi 1, j  , i  1, 2,...k  1; j  1 (205)

2y
 .But, at the fracture tip, Pi 1, j  Pi 1, j and
  x 
2
therefore Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1    2 Pi 1, j  2 Pi , j  , i  k ; j  1
14. Consider the equation of continuity with a constant source term and zero hydraulic dispersion effect (D = 0)
given by Eq. 7.1 as:
  
   u   q (206)
t
For one-dimensional transient-state radial flow of a single component gas through a homogeneous and isotropic
porous media, we can write this equation as:
   1   r  u 
 q
t r r
where (207)
K p
u
 r
Then,
   1   K p 
  q (208)
t r r   r 
Where for an ideal gas the equation of state is given by:
Mp
 (209)
RT
Thus,
 Mp 
  
 RT   1   Mp K p   q
  (210)
t r r  RT  r 
Under the steady-state conditions, where rw and re denote the well bore and external reservoir boundaries along
which the constant pressures are specified as pw and pe, respectively, consider
1 d  Mp K dp 
 q (211)
r dr  RT  dr 
Integrating twice, we obtain
q  RT  r  rw  r 
2 2
p p 
2 2
w  2C ln  
KM 2  rw 
where (212)
q  RT  r  r 
2 2
pe2  pw2 
e w
C KM 2
 re 
2 ln  
 rw 
As a special case, where q = 0, then
r 
p 2  pw2  2C ln  
 rw 
where
pe2  pw2
C
r 
2 ln  e 
 rw 
pe2  pw2  r 
p 2  pw2  ln   (213)
 re   rw 
ln  
 rw 
or
r 
ln  
p p
2 2
  w 
w
r
pe  p
2
r
2
w 
ln  e 
 rw 
w
15. The water-to-oil viscosity ratio is = 1.0. The water-to-oil relative permeability ratio correlation is given by
o
kro
 a exp  bS w  where a = 1.0, b = 2.0. Eq. 7.67:
krw
1 1
 kr  w    
Fw  1  o   1  w a exp  bS w   (214)
 o k r   o 
 w 
ab w exp  bS w 

F 'w 
o  aw 
2
1  exp  bS w  
 o 
  aw 
2

b exp  bS w  1  exp  bS w   
  o  
 
 ab w  aw  
2  exp  bS w  1   exp  bS w   exp  bS w  
(215)
ab w    0
F "w 
o o
o  aw 
2
1  exp  bS w  
 o 
We obtain
aw
exp  bS w   1
o
Setting the second order derivative equal to zero yields a root as the water saturation value for the fractional water
versus water saturation curve to have an inflection point:
1  o  1  1 
Sw  ln   ln    0.0 (216)
b  a  w  2  1.0 1.0  

If for example w = 1.4, then
o
1  o  1  1 
Sw  ln    ln    0.17 (217)
b  aw  2   
1.0 1.4
16. If the water-drive strength factor f of the leaky-tank boundary is greater than 1.0, it indicates an injection
condition for the leaky external boundary.
Chapter 8 Parameters of Fluid Transfer In Porous Media
1. We will calculate and plot the saturation profiles over the core length for various phase 2 and phase 1 mass flow
rates by applying the indirect method for interpretation of the steady-state core flow tests given in the following
for Plug Number 6686 (Arastoopour and Semrau, 1989). Horizontal core, L = 3.88 cm, A = 5.07 cm 2, porosity
is S1i = 0.1367, immobile wetting fluid saturation is 0.4065, immobile gas saturation is S 2i = 0.0, wetting fluid is
water (l = 1), nonwetting fluid is nitrogen (l = 2), temperature is T = 306.5 K, base conditions are p b = 1 atm and
Tb = 306.5 K, water density at base condition is 0.9947 g/cm 3 and water viscosity at base condition is 0.744 cp,
gas density at base condition is 1.11x10 -3 g/cm3, and gas viscosity is 8.8x10-2 cp, the effective permeability are
given by Ke1 = 10.02x10-6[(S1-S1i)/(1-S1i)]4 and Ke2 = 31.9x10-6(1.0+2.92/p2)(-0.0995-0.472lnS1), the capillary
pressure is pc = 0.701+3.02/S12-pb. Make reasonable assumptions for any missing data. For example, take water
injection flux as 5.0x10-9 cm3/cm2-s and gas injection flux as 1.0x10-3 cm3/cm2-s.
The set of equations which need to be solved are given by Eqs. 8.175-183:
1u1   1u1  x 0  ct. (218)
2u2   2u2  x 0  ct. (219)
The saturation and pressure profiles along the core plug are obtained by solving simultaneously
1
dS1  dp   2    F 
  c   u2  1 u1   2  1  g sin   2 u22  1 u12  12  (220)
dx  dS1   Kkr2 Kkr1 r2 r1 S1S2 
dp1    F 
   1 u1  1 g sin   1 u12  12  (221)
dx  Kkr1 r1 S1 
In addition,
S1  S2  1.0 (222)
pc  p2  p1 (223)
The conditions necessary for solution are the following. At the outlet face of the core, the fluids are at the same
pressure as soon as they leave the core. Therefore,
pc  0 and p1  p2  pout , x  L (224)
for an intermediately-wet system, as depicted schematically in Fig. 15, the saturation value at this condition is
determined for zero capillary pressure as:
S1   S1  p 0 , x  L (225)
c
Only for a strongly fluid 1-wet system,

S1  1  S2i , x  L (226)
For the present case we can simplify these equations as the following:
u1   u1  x 0  ct. (227)
u2   u2  x 0  ct. (228)
The saturation and pressure profiles along the core plug are obtained by solving simultaneously
1
dS1  dp     
   c   2 u2  1 u1  (229)
dx  dS1   Kkr2 Kkr1 
dp1 
  1 u1 (230)
dx Kkr1
In addition,
S1  S2  1.0 (231)
pc  p2  p1 (232)
The conditions necessary for solution are given by:
p1  p2  pout , x  L (233)
for an intermediately-wet system, as depicted schematically in Fig. 15, the saturation value at this condition is
determined for zero capillary pressure as:
S1   S1  p 0 , x  L (234)
c
Only for a strongly fluid 1-wet system,

S1  1  S2i , x  L (235)
Eqs. (229) and (230) can be solved simultaneously using a Runge-Kutte numerical solution method which can
be found in many text book on numerical methods for engineers. The solution is carried our backwards starting from
the outlet section. However, ready-made solvers are available in many computer software. These equations can also
be solved using a finite-difference numerical solution method. Typical results are given in the following table and
figures.
Table 1 Numerical solution results
x Sw Sg pc pw pg
3.880 0.767 0.233 0.004 1.000 1.000
3.492 0.689 0.311 1.237 1.009 2.246
3.104 0.646 0.354 2.115 1.018 3.132
2.716 0.625 0.375 2.602 1.026 3.628
2.328 0.614 0.386 2.872 1.033 3.905
1.940 0.609 0.391 3.014 1.041 4.055
1.552 0.606 0.394 3.086 1.048 4.134
1.164 0.605 0.395 3.122 1.055 4.177
0.776 0.604 0.396 3.140 1.061 4.201
0.388 0.604 0.396 3.149 1.067 4.216
0.000 0.604 0.396 3.153 1.073 4.226
0.8
Water and g as
0.7
s aturation,
frac tion
0.6 Sw
0.5
0.4 Sg
0.3
0.2
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Dis tanc e from inlet, c m
Figure 1 Saturation profiles obtained by plotting of numerical solution given in Table 1.
5.0
P res s ure, atm 4.0 pw

pc
3.0
pg
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Dis tanc e from inlet, c m
Figure 2 Pressure profiles obtained by plotting of numerical solution given in Table 1.
2. Develop a numerical solution for the unsteady-state method. See Section 8.6.1 for various expressions
developed for calculation of relative permeability. For example, Eqs. 8.55 and 56 given in Section 8.6.1.1 can
be solved simultaneously for kr1 and kr2 , provided that the other data are available, which are the following:
u   uf k   kr    2 u 1  f1  k  
kr1    1 f1 1  1 1    1   2 1  f1  1  
k   1   kr2 
   2  
(236)
 p S F 
   c 1    2  1  g sin   12 
 S1 x S1 S 2 
1  p1  kr1  1 1  k r 1 1
       g sin   1   
kr2  x  kr2  1 2 
   kr2  v1 v2 
 

(237)
 k r  1 1  1 p S   u  2  f 2 1  f1 2  
 F12  1    c 1
   1  
       
 r2  1 1
k S S 
2 2  2 S1 x
 
k  v1 v2  

Other simplified applications mentioned in Section 8.6.1.2 is for p c = 0 for constant and variable injection cases.
For constant injection, solve Eqs. 8.69 and 70 given as:
1 K  d p 
 p  1 g sin  L  t (238)
kr1 L1 f1u  dt 
and
K
1 f1    2  1  g sin  kr1
1 u
 (239)
kr2 2 1  f1  kr1
For constant rate, q, injection, t/dt = Q/dQ, because Q = qt.
For variable injection, solve Eqs. 8.82 given as:
  d 2Q   dQ1
   
AK   d p  1  dQ 1
p 1  Q dt 2   Q
1 2
  1 (240)
kr1 dQ1    dQ   dQ  k  dQ1 kr
1 L       r2 2 1
dt       dQ
 dt 
However, additional relationships required for these three different cases are given in Section 8.6.1.3. Your
task is to prepare a computer program to process the experimental data obtained in unsteady-state core tests and
determine the relative permeability of two immiscible fluids considered for these tests.
3. Develop a numerical solution for the Ucan et al. (1997) method using the finite-difference numerical solution
approach. Solve Eqs. 8.191-199, which are given as:
   Pw    S 
Kw   w sin    =  w   + q w
x 
(241)
  x   t  B w 
and
   Po    S 
 Ko   o sin    =  o   + q o (242)
x   x   t  B o 
where Kw and Ko are the conductivities of the oil and water phases given, respectively, by
kk ro
K o= (243)
B o o
and
kk rw
K w= (244)
B w w
The initial condition for the pressure and saturation equations
are given by
P w = P initial 0  x  L , t = 0 (245)
S w = S initial 0  x  L , t = 0 (246)
The boundary conditions can be specified as constant rate or pressure. The source and sink terms, qw and qo,
are taken zero everywhere except at the inlet and outlet. A no flow boundary condition is used at the inlet, given by,
hence the flow is introduced as a source/sink term:
Pw
= 0. x = 0 , t  0 (247)
x
The boundary condition at the outlet for pressure before breakthrough is given by
Pw
= 0. X = L , t  0 (248)
x
and after breakthrough, the pressure is specified as outlet pressure:
P w = P specified x = L , t  0 (249)
The length of the core is divided into N equal blocks with the grid points located in the centers of these blocks.
Thus, there are no points at the core inlet and outlet end boundaries. An implicit pressure and explicit saturation
(IMPES) method is used for the numerical solution (Aziz and Settari. 1979). However, you can adopt the finite-
difference numerical solution method described in Chapter 10, Exercise problem 2. Your task is to prepare a
computer program to process the experimental data obtained in unsteady-state core tests and determine the relative
permeability of two immiscible fluids considered for these tests.
4. Develop a numerical solution for the Tóth et al. (2002) method. Apply the relevant equations given in Section
8.6.2. Your task is to prepare a computer program to process the experimental data obtained in unsteady-state
core tests under constant pressure and flow rate conditions and determine the relative permeability of two
immiscible fluids considered for these tests. For this purpose, consider Eqs. 8.162-174 given as:
M Y (Sd 2 )
krd  d d 2  d f d Y (Sd 2 ) (250)
M d 2 1
Y ( Sd 2 )
krk  k  k f k Y ( Sd 2 ) (251)
M d 2 1
The core average and outlet face saturations are given as functions of the injected cumulative fluid volume,
respectively, by:
Vi (t )
Vp
Sd  Sdi  (252)
V (t )
ab i
Vp
and
2
 Vi (t ) 
 Vp 
Sd 2  Sdi  b( Sd  Sdi ) 2  Sdi  b   (253)
 Vi (t ) 
a  b V 
 p 
Determination of Relative Permeability under Constant Pressure Conditions

When p is maintained constant, the injection flow rate varies according to:
dVi (t )
qi  (254)
dt
L qi3 (t )
Y ( Sd2 )  (255)
pKA d [q (t )V (t )]
i i
dt
Alternatively,
3
 dVi (t ) 
 dt 
Y ( Sd2 ) 
L   (256)
pKA  dVi (t )  2 d 2Vi (t )
 dt   Vi (t ) dt 2
 
The cumulative injected fluid volume is correlated by an empirical power-law equation, given by (Tóth et al.,
1998):
Vi (t )  a2t b2 , b2  1 (257)
Thus,
(11/ b2 )
 Vp 
2
La b   (11/ b2 )
2 2
 a2  Vi (t ) 
Y (Sd 2 )    , b2  1 (258)
pKA(2b2  1)  V p 
Determination of Relative Permeability under Constant Rate Conditions

When qi is maintained constant, p varies
V i (t )  qi t (259)
Then,
qL 1
Y ( Sd2 )  i (260)
KA  d p(t ) 
 p(t )  t dt 
The after-breakthrough pressure difference can be correlated by an empirical power-law equation, given by
(Toth et al., 1998):
b1 b1
qt V (t ) 
p(t )  a1  i   a1  i  , b1  0, t  ta (261)
V 
 p  V p 
or
qi L
Y ( Sd 2 )  b1
, b1  0 (262)
V (t ) 
KAa1 (1  b1 )  i 
 Vp 
5. The equations of Tóth et al. (2002) described in this chapter are applicable for linear floe such as on laboratory
core plugs used for fluid flow. Transform these equations so that they can be used for radial flow as described
by Tóth et al. (2010). You can transform the formulation in linear coordinate to one in radial coordinates by
means of x = r2 transformation or directly by reformulation in the radial coordinates as described by Tóth et al.
(2010).
6. Correlate the data of various wettability related properties of porous media with temperature using the
Arrhenius (1889) equation. For this purpose, consider the data described in Table 8.2. The answer is given by
Civan (2004).
7. Applying the Toth et al. (2006) method implemented on a computer as described in the above Exercise Problem
5, we construct the relative permeability curves for the oil and water phases using the production data given by
Odeh and Dotson (1985) for the case of oil displacing water in a water saturated core summarized in Tables 3
by Civan and Donaldson, 1987). Note that K = 0.025 Darcy, porosity = 0.227, core diameter D = 2.54 cm, core
length L = 7.62 cm, water viscosity  w = 0.93 cp, oil viscosity o = 3.02 cp, connate-water saturation Swc =
0.42, residual oil saturation Sro = 0.24, and oil injection rate qi = 0.0084 cm3/sec. Refer to Toth et al. (2006) for
solution of this problem which is presented in detail. We use the determination of Relative Permeability under
Constant Rate Conditions. Eqs. 8.171-174.
When qi is maintained constant, p varies:
V i (t )  qi t (263)
Then,
qL 1
Y ( Sd2 )  i (264)
KA  d p(t ) 
 p (t )  t
dt 
The after-breakthrough pressure difference can be correlated by an empirical power-law equation, given by
(Toth et al., 1998):
b1 b1
qt V (t ) 
p(t )  a1  i   a1  i  , b1  0, t  ta (265)
V 
 p  V p 
Alternatively
qi L
Y ( Sd 2 )  b1
, b1  0 (266)
Vi (t ) 
KAa1 (1  b1 )  
 Vp 
Table 1 Numerical values
Vi Vk p Vi/Vp Vi/Vk Y(Sd2) Sw fd fk krd krk

1.6 1.4 13 0.18 1.14
2.4 1.6 12 0.27 1.50
4 1.7 10 0.46 2.35
6 1.8 9 0.68 3.33
8.5 1.9 8.1 0.97 4.47
13 2 7.2 1.48 6.50
18 2.1 6.4 2.05 8.57
30 2.3 5 3.42 13.04
50 2.4 4.3 5.71 20.83
25.00
20.00 y = 3.5492x + 0.8516
2
R = 0.998
15.00
Vi/Vk
10.00 V i/V k
5.00 L inear
(V i/V k)
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00
Vi/Vp
100
dp
Deltap, atm
P ower
10 (dp)
-0.3256
y = 7.8176x
2
R = 0.9916
1
0.10 1.00 10.00
Vi/Vp
8. Applying the Toth et al. (2006) method implemented on a computer as described in the above Exercise Problem
5, we construct the relative permeability curves for the oil and water phases using the production data given in
Table 4 for water injection under constant rate of qwi = 500 m3/day. Wellbore radius rw = 0.1 m, external radius
of well influence re = 155 m, pay zone thickness h = 29 m, porosity  = 0.22, permeability K = 0.18 μm2 , skin
factor s = 0, oil-formation volume factor Bo = 1.23, water-formation volume factor Bw = 1.0, oil viscosity o =
1.32 mPa.s, water viscosity  w = 1.0 mPa.s, connate water saturation Sw = 0.23, maximum water saturation
Swmax = 0.73, a = 0.67, b = 2.0, a2 = 2.3x106, and b2 = -0.104. Refer to Toth et al. (2006) for solution of this
problem which is presented in detail. As obtained in the above Exercise Problem 5, use the formulation in radial
coordinates obtained by reformulation in the radial coordinates as described by Tóth et al. (2010).
Chapter 9 Mass, Momentum, and Energy Transport in Porous Media
1. Beginning with Eq. 9.13 and assuming f(Pei,r)  1, we obtain
vn vm aT v  nm   aL  aT  vn vm
2
Dnm  aT v  nm   aL  aT   (1)
v v
Where n, m = x, y, z-Cartesian directions; vx, vy, vz denote the components of the fluid velocity in the respective
directions. Note v  v  vx 2  vy 2  vz 2 . Then, we can derive the following expressions of the hydrodynamic
dispersion coefficients in the x, y, z-Cartesian coordinates given by Bear and Bachmat (1990). For example, taking n
= x, m = x yields:
aT  v x 2  v y 2 + v z 2    aL  aT  vx vx aT  v y 2  vz 2   aL vx 2
Dxx   (2)
v v
The following can be derived similarly.
 aL  aT  vx v y
Dxy  Dyx  (3)
v
a  a  v v
Dxz  Dzx  L T x z (4)
v
aT  vx 2  vz 2   aL v y 2
Dyy  (5)
v
 aL  aT  v y vz
Dyz  Dzy  (6)
v
aT  vx 2  v y 2   aL vz 2
Dzz  (7)
v
2. Beginning with Eqs. (2),(3), and (5) can be written as by substituting vz = 0, respectively, as, where
v  v  vx 2  vy 2 :
aT v y 2  aL vx 2
Dxx  (8)
v
The following can be derived similarly.
 aL  aT  vx v y
Dxy  Dyx  (9)
v
aT vx 2  aL v y 2
Dyy  (10)
v
Therefore, the convective dispersion coefficient tensor in a two dimensional porous media and single-phase fluid,
given by Bruneau et al. (1995):
 Dxx Dx y  aL  vx 2 vx v y  aT  v y 2 v x v y 
DiD      2 
   (11)
 Dx y Dyy  v  vx v y v y  v  vx v y v y 2 
3. Eq.(11) can be rearranged as (Yang, 1998):
 v 2 vy 2  vx v y 
 aL x
 aT   aL  aT  
 v v  v 
Di  
D
 (12)
 vx v y  vy 2 vx 2  
  aL  aT  v  aL
v
 aT 
v  
 
4. Refer to Wang and Cheng (1996) and Wang (1998).
6. The dispersive species flux due to convective mixing is usually expressed by (Lake at al., 1984, Bear and
Bachmat, 1990):
J ijD   j  j Dijb
D
wij (13)
Where D is the hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient tensor in the length-squared over time units [L2/T]. Repeat all
D
ij
derivations presented in this chapter if flux is expressed by Eq. 8 according to Civan (2010b).
JijD  Dijb
D
  j  j wij  (14)
For example, Eq. 9.55 of the species-  mass balance equation of the phase-k should be written as:

t
 
 k k wk     k u k wk    Dk   k  wk   mk (15)
Similar corrections can be made for other equations where the diffusive flux appear.
10. Derive mass, momentum, species, and energy equations for a gas/liquid two-phase system.
11. Apply the definition of the flow potential given by:
dp
   g  z  zo  (16)
po

Thus,
  p  g z (17)
Hence, Eqs. 9.92-9.94 can be written\, respectively, as:
   g  o RSo
G/O    krg G/O
RSo kro    g qgG   o qoG
     K  g  g  o  o    (18)
t  Bg Bo    Bg  g Bo o    sG
  o    kro    q O
    K  o  o    o Oo (19)
t  Bo    Bo o    s
  w    krw    w qWw
     
K   w   , Bw  1 (20)
t  Bw   Bw  w    s
w W

The subscript “o” denotes an arbitrarily or conveniently selected reference, datum, or base level. z is the upward
vertical distance in the gravity direction.
12. For applications to volatile oils, it is necessary to allow oil vaporization into the gas phase. Therefore, we now
O/G
consider the volatility of the oil in the gas phase denoted by RVg and the solubility of the gas in the water phase
RSG /W in addition to the solubility of the gas in the oil phase RSo
G/O
. Consequently, substitute in Eq. 9.79 the mass
fractions of the pseudo-species in the various phases are given as: wgG  0, wgO  0, wWg  0 , woG  0, woO  0, woW  0 ,
and according to the following table wwG  0, wwO  0, wW
w  1 . Refer to Peaceman (1977) for details.
Phase Mass Mass fraction Solubility or volatility

Gas m gG mgG sG
wgG  G 
mg  mgO  g Bg
m gO mgO sO RVgO G VsO mg s
O O
mgO sG
wgO   O/G
RVg   
mgG  mgO  g Bg VsG mgG sG mgG sO
mWg  0 wWg  0 W /G
RVg 0
Oil moG moG sG RSoG O VsG moG sG moG sO
woG   G/O
RSo   
moG  moO o Bo VsO moO sO moO sG
moO moO sO
woO  
moG  moO o Bo
moW  0 woW  0
Water mwG mwG sG RSw
GW
VsG mwG sG mwG sW
wwG   G /W
RSw   
mwG  mWw w Bw VsW mWw sW mWw sG
mwO  0 wwO  0
mWw mww  sW
wWw  
mwG  mWw  w Bw
Note that
 sG  sO RVgO G
wgG  wgO   1
 g Bg  g Bg
(21)
 sG  sO RVgO G
  g
Bg Bg
 sG RSoG O O
woG  woO   s 1
o Bo o Bo
(22)
 sG RSoG O  sO
  o
Bo Bo
mwG  G RG W W
wwG  wWw   s Sw  s  1
m  mwG
W
w  w Bw  w Bw
(23)
 sG RSw
GW
 sW
  w
Bw Bw
Then, the following equations are obtained:
   g  o RSo G /O
 R G /W 
   w Sw 
t  Bg Bo Bw 
  krg RG / O k R G /W k  
  K   pg   g g z   So ro  po  o g z   Sw rw  pw   w g z    (24)
  Bg  g Bo o Bw  w  
 g qg   o qo   w qw
G G G
 G
s
   g RVg
O/G
  
  RVg
O /G
krg    g qg   o qo
G O
  o 
Bo 
K   pg   g g z   ro  po  o g z    
k
(25)
t  Bg 
  Bg  g Bo o  
  sO
  w    krw    qW
    K   pw   w g z    w Ww , Bw  1 (26)
t  Bw    Bw  w    s
13. The limited-compositional model developed in this chapter needs modification if also the water is allowed to
W /G
vaporize into the gas phase so that we now consider the volatility of the water in the gas phase denoted by RVg in
O/G
addition to considering the volatility of the oil in the gas phase denoted by RVg and the solubility of the gas in the
water phase RSG /W in addition to the solubility of the gas in the oil phase RSo
G/O
. Consequently, substitute in Eq. 9.79
the mass fractions of the pseudo-species in the various phases are given as:
wg  0, wg  0, wg  0 , wo  0, wo  0, wo  0 , and ww  0, ww  0, ww  0 according to the following table.
G O W G O W G O W
Express the following table similar to the table given in the previous problem.
Phase Mass Mass fraction Solubility or volatility

Gas m gG mgG
wgG  G
mg  mgO  mWg
m gO mgO VsO mg s mgO sG
O O
wgO  O/G
RVg   
mgG  mgO  mWg VsG mgG sG mgG sO
mWg mWg VsW mg s mWg sG
W W
wWg  W /G
RVg   
mgG  mgO  mWg VsG mgG sG mgG sW
Oil moG moG VsG moG sG moG sO
woG  G/O
RSo   
moG  moO VsO moO sO moO sG
moO moO
woO 
moG  moO
moW  0 woW  0
Water mwG mwG VsG mwG sG mwG sW
wwG  G /W
RSw   
mwG  mWw VsW mWw sW mWw sG
mwO  0 wwO  0
mWw mWw
wWw 
mwG  mWw
Then, the following equations are obtained:
   g  o RSoG /O
 R G /W 
   w Sw 
t  Bg Bo Bw 
  krg RG / O k R G /W k  
  K   pg   g g z   So ro  po  o g z   Sw rw  pw   w g z    (27)
  Bg  g Bo o Bw  w  
 g qgG   o qoG   w qwG

 sG
   g RVg
O/G
  
  RVg krg
O /G
   g qg   o qo
G O
  o 
Bo 
 
K  g g  B o o
 p   g  z 
kro
  p   g  z    (28)
t  Bg   Bg  g
 o o  
  sO
   g RVg
W /G

w 
  RVg krg
W /G
   g q g   w qw
G W

t  Bg

Bw 
   
K  g g  B   w w  
 p   g  z 
krw
 p   g  z  (29)
  Bg  g
 w w  
  sW
14. Eqs. 9.138-9.141 can be modified when the fluid and porous matrix are not at thermal equilibrium as the
following. Let To and Ti denote the initial and injection fluid temperatures, T f and Tm denote the fluid and porous-
matrix temperatures, and T R is the external temperature. For the fluid phase, these become:
T T  2T k 2U f 
 f  u f   2f   Tf  TR  ,  f  f ,  f  (30)
t x x  f cf R f c f
The conditions of solution may be selected as the following:
Tf  To ,0  x  L, t  0 (31)
T f
uT f   f  uTi , x  0, t  0 (32)
x
T f
 0, x  L, t  0 (33)
x
For the porous-matrix, these become:
T  2T k 2U 
1    m  1    m 2m   Tm  TR  , m  m ,  f  m (34)
t x m cm R m cm
Tm  To , 0  x  L, t  0 (35)
Tm
 0, x  0, t  0 (36)
x
Tm
 0, x  L, t  0 (37)
x
15. Refer to Chapter 10, Problem 2for the finite-difference solution method given by Eqs. 10-130-10.144. Plot the
numerical solution similar to Fig. 10.1.
16. Refer to Chapter 10, Problem 2for the finite-difference solution method given by Eqs. 10-130-10.144. Plot the
numerical solution similar to Fig. 10.1. However, make modifications for the differences.
17. We first need to linearize these equations. For example, Eq. 9.380 can be rearranged as:
 1   T
   m Sm c pm   w S w c pw     r c pr    r H r  p   r 
     t
p
   m Sm m   w S w w    r H r  p  cr  1  mm H m  mw H w  mr H r
t
m K m  p T p p   2T 1   lt r  T 4U T  Ti   l c  (38)
c pm r r   m r r   lt r 2  r r r 
p r

m   h t
 K p  p  2T   m K m p 1   lt r   T 4U T  Ti   l c p r
  m m m   lt 2   c pm   
 m r  r r  m r r r  r h t
Thus, Eqs. 9.368 and 9.380 can be written, respectively, as:
T p p 2 p
A1  B1  C1  D1 2  E1 (39)
t t r r
T p p T  2T
A2  B2  C2  D2  E2 2  F2 (40)
t t r r r
Note that the coefficient appearing in the above equations are functions of T and p and some include their
T p
derivatives and which are separated for linearization purposes. Therefore, the numerical solution is
t t
obtained iteratively, by first evaluating their values at the previous time values of temperature and pressure, and then
iterating until convergence as described in Chapter 10, Problem 2for the finite-difference solution method given by
Eqs. 10-130-10.144. Plot the numerical solution similar to Fig. 10.1. However, make modifications for the
T p
differences. First, solve these equations analytically for and to obtain their explicit expressions, and then
t t
discretize each using the finite-difference method and then solve these discretized equations simultaneously.
 T   T    2T 

 A1 B1  t   0 C1  r    E2 0   r 2   E1 
 A B   p    D C   p    0 D   2    F  (41)
 2 2   2 2   1  p   2
 t   r   2
 r 
 T    T    2T  
 t   A1 B1    0 C1   r   E2 0   r 2   E1  
1 
        2     (42)

 p   A2 B2    D2 C2   p   0 D1    p   F2  
 t   r   2
  r  
18. This problem can be solved as the following.
(a) Note that the source term m in Eq. 9.390 can be expressed as:
M Mb
Mb
M Mb V M   q
m   b  b q b (43)
Vb t V
Vb t
V M bt   t
Vb Vb
Where M and Mb denote the mass of species and the total mass of bulk porous media, and V and V b denote the
volume of pore space and the total volume of bulk porous media, t is time.
(b) Take partial derivatives of the following solution, given in Eq. 3.393:
1
c  x, t   (44)
(a2 / a1 )  A exp  a1  x   vt  
Where
k 1    k
a1  d  , a2  a (45)
v D 2 v
A>0 is an integration constant that needs to be specified for a given problem. Following Manoranjan and Stauffer
(1996), determine the value of A for c = (-1/2)(a1/a2) when x-  t = 0. The value of the wave speed  is obtained by
solving:
 Dk Dk  q  Dk
2 3  4 2   2  d  a b o    d  0 (46)
 v v  v
c  x, t   a1 vA exp   a1  x   vt  

t  ( a 
/ a1 )  A exp  a1  x   vt  
2
2
c  x, t  a1 A exp  a1  x   vt  
 (47)
x  ( a 
/ a1 )  A exp  a1  x   vt  
2
2
 c  x, t  a A exp  a  x   vt   a A   a A  2  exp  a  x   vt  

2 2
1 1 2 1 1

x (a / a )  A exp a  x   vt 
2 3
2 1 1
Substitute the above derivatives and Eq. 9.392 into Eq. 9.390 to show the analytical solution satisfies this equation.
(c) Prepare a plot of the analytical solution obtained at various times using the given data similar to Fig. X of
Manoranjan and Stauffer (1996).
19. Derive the macroscopic mass balance equations for the single- and multi-phase systems flowing through porous
media applying the control volume approach similar to the derivations given in Sections 5.11 and 9.9. Consider the
control volume element given in Fig. 5.14. Similar to Eq. 5.131, we write a control volume mass balance equation
as:


CV
M   M External   M Internal    n  A   V  CV
CV CV CS t
(48)
where CV and CS refer to the control volume and control surface of the mobile pore fluid, F is the net force vector
acting upon fluid, A is the surface area vector acting outward and normal to the area open for flow, t is time, and 
is the density, v is the velocity vector, and V is the volume of the fluid. Applying Equation (51) in the x-direction for
the control volume shown in Figure 14 yields:
M  xyz External  M  xyz Internal
   nx y z    x   nx y z    x  x   n y xz      n y xz    (49)
y y  y

  nz xy    z   nz xy    z  z   xy z   
t
where ∆x, ∆y and ∆z denote the dimensions of the bulk volume element, and the subscripts indicate the components
in the various Cartesian directions. The other terms appearing in this equation are subsequently described and
elaborated. Dividing Equation (49) by (ΔxΔyΔz) and then taking a limit as the control volume shrinks to the
representative elemental volume (REV) yields:
 M   M     
Limit    Limit     nx     n y     nz     
t  0
 t External t  0
 t Internal x y z t
Let
 M 
r  Limit  
t  0
 t 

r
CV
jb  rExternal  rInternal     n  
t
 
But
nbj  n j f bj  v j f bj  jbj , jbj   Dbj f bj (50)
f bj   j f j   j  j
Hence
nbj  n j  j  j  v j  j  j  jbj , jbj  Dbj  j  j

r     v j  j  j  Dbj  j  j    

jb
CV t

 rjb     Dbj  j  j      v j  j  j    
CV  t
The control-volume equation for the j-phase contained in the representative elementary volume can be
expressed as (Civan, 2010b):

 f j  n j  A j    f jV j    rj (51)
CS t CV
CV
In this equation, the symbols CV and CS denote the control volume and control surface of the j-phase, Aj is the
outward and normal surface area vector for flow, nj is the total flux vector of the property transferred across the
control surfaces, its components are njx, njy, and njz in the x-, y-, and z- Cartesian directions, Vj denotes the volume of
the j-phase, t indicates the time variable, and rj is the amount of property added per unit volume of j-phase.
f jb
   v j f jb       D jb f jb    rjb (52)
t CV
fj  j fj   j j
b j j
Orsimply
f bj   j f j   j  j
Thus, direct substitution yields:
  j  j 
   v j j  j  
t

   D jb   j  j    rjb
CV
 (53)
20. The molar concentration of the methane gas is 6.25x10 -5 moles/cc in a natural gas of density 0.005 g/cc. Thus,
the weight fraction of methane in the natural gas is
c MC 16g/gmol   6.25x10 moles/cc 
-5
w    0.2 (54)
  5x10-3 g/cc
21. One liter of a mixture of sand and water contains 50 g sand. The density of water is 1.0 g/cm3 and that of sand is
2.5 g/cm3. Thus (a) Mass fraction of sand in the mixture is calculated as 50g/(980+50)g= 0.049 because if we take 1
liter = 1000 cc as the basis for our calculation we will have 50g/ 2.5 g/cc = 20 cc sand volume and therefore 1`000-
20 = 980 cc water or 980cc(1.0 g/cc) = 980 g water and (b) Volume fraction of sand in the mixture is calculated as
20cc/1000cc=0.02.
22. The composition of a mixture of methane and propane gases at 1 atmosphere pressure and 25 oC temperature
conditions is given as 80 mol % methane and 20 mol % propane. (a) What is the mass concentration of methane in
the units of kg/m3? (b) What is the mole concentration of propane in the units of kmol/m 3?
23. The geometric average permeability for an anisotropic porous medium having 100, 300, 700 mD permeability
values in the x-, y-, and z-Cartesian directions is calculated as K=(KxKyKz)1/3=(100x200x800)1/3= 252mD.
24. Consider the hydraulic fracture completed in a two-dimensional unit-thick porous medium as shown in Figure
22. The differential material balance equation specially formulated for fluid flowing through the hydraulic fracture is
derived as follows.
1.0wx    t t  1.0wx   t
  ux 1.0w    ux 1.0w  2q y 1.0x   (55)
x x x t
   ux w x    ux w x x  w t t   w t
 Limit  2q y  Limit (56)
x 0 x t 0 t
 
   u x w   2q y   w  (57)
x x
25. Consider figure 9.23 of a porous medium. (a) Derive a differential equation based on the transient-state mass
balance equation written over the control volume for one-dimensional flow occurring in the opposite x-direction
as shown in the figure. For example, we might seek a general cross-sectional area A (x,t) averaged conservation
equation derived for a control volume shown in Fig. 7.
 xAW f t t   xAW f t
  nx A x   nx A x x  m (58)
t
Dividing by x and then taking limit as x, t  0 yields:
  AW f     n A 
x m
Limit (59)
t x x 0 x
For example, for illustration purposes, assume a fluid as a gas. If we substitute
W f   , nx   ux , A  WH  constant, m  W x  Q where R is radius and U is the overall heat transfer coefficient,
then we obtain the following cross-sectional averaged equation of continuity:
  A     ux A
  WQ (60)
t x
Because A is constant,
      ux  WQ WQ Q
    (61)
t x A WH H
Further, for a gas
Mp
 (62)
ZRT
Thus,
 Mp   Mp 
    ux 
 ZRT    ZRT   Q (63)
t x H
Further, Darcy’s law is
K p
ux   (64)
 x
Thus,
 Mp    Mp K p 
    
 ZRT    ZRT  x   Q (65)
t x H
p  po , 0  x  L, t  0 (66)
Where po denotes the initial gas pressure.
(b) The boundary condition for pressure if the injection rate into the porous medium is constant q inj at the injection
boundary of the reservoir as shown.
qinj qinj K p
ux    , x  0, t  0 (67)
A WH  x
(c) The boundary condition for pressure if the production rate from the porous medium is constant q prod at the
production boundary of the porous medium as shown
q prod q prod K p
ux    , x  L, t  0 (68).
A WH  x
26. Consider a gas and condensate two-phase fluid system having 60% gas saturation by volume. The density of the
gas is 125 kg/m3 and that of the liquid condensate is 750 kg/m3. The mass fraction of the liquid condensate is
given by
 o So 750  0.4 
wc    0.8 (69)
 g S g  o So 125  0.6   750  0.4 
Chapter 10 Suspended Particulate Transport in Porous Media
1. Refer to Civan (2010c) for derivation of the equations for the one-dimensional case involving laboratory core
tests by expressing the equations of the non-isothermal deep-bed filtration model presented in this chapter.
2. Develop a computer program for the numerical solution scheme presented in the problem statement according to
Civan (2010c), carry out parametric sensitivity studies by varying the values of the parameters of the one-
dimensional non-isothermal deep-bed filtration model in a core plug. First, check your program by solving the
problem with the parameter values used in Civan (2010c) which is described in Chapter 10 of the book.
3. Consider Eqs. 10.109, 10.110, 10.115, and 10.116 given as:
uj    j dL dt (70)
uj    j dL dt (71)
  
u  u   u j   u j  Ni j

ij

ij

ij

ij (72)
where
ui j   i j u j (73)
Applying to the large particles depositing over the cake surface for i  p1 , j  f ,  f  1.0 ,  f  1   s ,
 p1 f   p1 , and  p1 f  0 , and q p1 f  0 we obtain the following expression:
 
dL u p1 f  N p1 f
 (74)
dt  p1
4. Consider Eqs. 10.109, 10.110, 10.115, and 10.116 given as:
uj    j dL dt (75)

u j   dL dt

j (76)
  
u  u   u j   u j  Ni j

ij

ij

ij

ij (77)
where
ui j   i j u j (78)
Applying to the small particles for i  p2 , j  f ,   1.0 ,   1   , 

f

f

s

p2 f  
p2 ,  p 2 f   p 2 , and N p 2 f  0 ,
we obtain the following expression:
dL u p 2 f  u p 2 f
  (79)
d t  p 2   p 2 1   s 
5. The solution method is well-described in Tien et al (1997) used the applied pressure vs. time given in Fig. 7 and
the cumulative filtrate volume vs. time given in Fig13 as a substitute for experimental data in order to illustrate
the method of estimating the model parameters from experimental data. The filter cake problem is simulated by
numerically solving Eqs. 10.77, 90-94, 98-101, 106, 107, and 128, simultaneously. Assume a linear pressure
p
variation (profile) over the filter cake thickness,  constant .
x
Note Eqs. 10.90 and 10.91:
 s 2    s 2 
 u   N p2s  N (80)
 t  x  s 2 
 u
1   s   p 2 f   p 2 f  N p 2 f   N (81)
t x
Solve differential equations Eqs. 10.101 and 10.102 for  s :
 s   
x
 s    s k  p   1   s  N
 
t 
 ul

f
x 0

o
Ndx
 x  x   x

(82)
ps  0,  s   so , x  L  t  (83)
Solve differential equations Eqs. 10.128 and 10.129 for L:
L
o  k  p  k  p
 Ndx (84)
dL
 o s o     
dt s     x  L    x O o
L  0, t  0 (85)
Tien et al (1997) obtained the numerical solutions for typical constant rate and constant pressure filtration by using
the parameter values given as the following:  so = 0.27,  = 0.49,  = 0.09, pa = 1200 Pa, ko = 3.5x10-15 m2,  =
0.001 Pa.s, po = 9.0x105 Pa, qlm = 2.0x10-5 m3/m2.s, co = 0.2, to = 0.1 s, R = 100 m-1,  ' = 5.0, 1 = 30,  2 = 1.0, n2o
= 0.05, lo = 0, 10, and 100. Check your results against the predicted cake thickness and applied slurry pressure for
constant rate filtration shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. Do the same for the predicted cake thickness and
cumulative filtrate volume are given in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively, for constant pressure filtration. Determine the
parameters of the model to minimize the difference between the measured filtration data and those predicted by the
above model. For this purpose, Tien et al (1997) define an objective function as:
J    fi m  fi p 
N 2
(86)
i
in which i  1, 2, , N denote the data points, and f i m and fi p are the measured and predicted values, respectively,
of a measurable quantity, such as the slurry application pressure necessary to maintain a constant filtration rate or
the cumulative filtrate volume for constant pressure slurry applications. The best estimates of the model parameters
obtained by an optimization method to minimize the objective function given by Eq. (86) were determined to be
very close to the assumed parameter values given above which were used to generate the numerical solutions,
substituted for experimental data. Carry out a similar exercise to determine the best estimate values of the
parameters.
Chapter 11 Transport in Heterogeneous Porous Media
1. Refer to Moench, (1984) for solution to determine the shape factor expression to replace Eq.11.25 when the
Cauchy type boundary condition given by Eq. 10.14 is applied.
2. Refer to Moench, (1984) for solution to determine the shape factor expressions to replace Eqs. 11.33 and
11.34 when the Cauchy type boundary condition given by Eq. 11.14 is applied.
3. The total volumetric flow across a matrix block is determined using Eq.11.24, given as:
q   m  pm  p f 
K
(87)

Where
Km   Kmx Kmy Kmz 
13
(88)
And the shape factor is given by Eq.11.34 as:
  
  2t 
 
 2 l 0 m0 n 0
AB exp   B 
m cm 
  (89)
Km      2t 
  A exp   B 
m cm 
l 0 m 0 n 0 
Where Eqs. 11.30 and 31 give:
1
A (90)
 2l  1  2m  1  2n  1
2 2 2
And
K mx K my K
2 
B 2l  1  2  2m  1  mz  2n  1
2 2 2
(91)
a b c2
4. Refer to Lim and Aziz (1995) for derivation of the expression for the shape factor for an infinite long
cylindrical shape matrix block of radius R using the formulation given below.
p 1 1   pm 
m cm m  K m , 0  r  R, t  0
r r  r 
r (92)
t 
pm  pi , 0  r  R, t  0 (93)
pm  p f , r  R, t  0 (94)
Show that
pm  pi 4 
1   K t
2
 1  2  2 exp   n m  (95)
p f  pi R n 1  n  m cm 
where  n : n = 1, 2, … are obtained as the roots of the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero, given by
J o  R n   0 . Using only the first term in the summation, confirm that the shape factor is given by  = 18.17/L2.
5. Refer to Lim and Aziz (1995) for derivation of the expression for the shape factor for a spherical shape
matrix block of radius R using the formulation given below.
p 1 1   p 
m cm m  K m 2  r 2 m  , 0  r  R, t  0 (96)
t  r r  r 
pm  pi , 0  r  R, t  0 (97)
pm  p f , r  R, t  0 (98)
Show that
pm  pi 6  1   2 n2 K mt 
 1  2  2 exp   2 
(99)
p f  pi  n 1 n  m cm R 
Using only the first term in the summation, confirm that the shape factor is given by  = 25.67/L2.
6. Refer to Lim and Aziz (1995) to estimate how accurately a cylindrical block would approximate a matrix
block formed in between two parallel fractures for determination of the shape factor.
Cylinder block volume = Matrix block volume
 R 2 H  L2 H
The radies of equivalent volume cylinder:
L (100)
R  0.564 L

H  height of cylinder and matrix
L  length of side of square base
7. Refer to Lim and Aziz (1995) to estimate how accurately a spherical block would approximate a
rectangular matrix block for determination of the shape factor.
Sphere block volume = Cubic matrix block volume
4
 R 3  L3
3
The radius of equivalent volume sphere: (101)
13
 3 
R  L  0.621L
 4 
L  length of side of cube
8. Applying the Laplace transformation, derive an analytical solution for the model of de Swaan (1990) given
by Eqs. 11.41-44. The following reference presents the analytical solution of the similar equation using Laplace
transformation: Kazemi, H., Gilman, J.R., and Elsharkawy, A.M., Analytical and Numerical Solution of Oil
Recovery from Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Using Empirical Transfer Functions, Paper SPE 19849, presented at
the 1989 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, TX, Oc. 8-11. Unfortunately, this paper is
nolonger available at the Society of Petroleum Engineers Onepetro system. Consider Eqs. 90-92 for fw = Sw:
S S t
S  t   
v w  w  b  e  l t   w d
x t 0

where (102)
u V l
v ,b 
f f
subject to the initial and boundary conditions given by:
Sw  0 , 0  x  L , t  0 (103)
Sw  1.0 , x  0 , t  0 (104)
Applying Laplace transformation yields:
dS  b 
v w   1   sS w (105)
dx  s  l 
subject to the condition given by:
1
S w  0, s   (106)
s
Thus, Eqs. (105) and (106) give:
S w  x, s   1   sS w
1   s 
  exp     exp   s 
 s  s  l 
1  l  
  exp      exp   s 
 s  s  l  
1  l  
 exp      exp    exp   s 
s  s  l 
s l 1  l  
 exp      exp    exp   s 
 s sl  s  l 
 l  1  l  
 exp     1   exp    exp   s 
 s sl  s  l 
 l  
 exp     1   G  s  l   exp   s 
 s  
 l 
 exp     G  s  l  exp   s   G  s  l  exp   s  
 s 
where
x

v
  b (107)
Note that
1  l 
Gs  l  exp   (108)
sl  sl 
An inverse Laplace of Eq.(108) yields:

G  t   exp  lt  I o 2 lt  (109)
Note that
 
 
t
1
L1  G  s  l     exp  l  I o 2 l d
s  
Thus (110)
1 
 
t
L1  G  s  l  exp   s     exp  l      I o 2 l     d ,  
s  
Consequently, an inverse Laplace of Eq.(108) yields:
 t

S w  x, t   e   e  l  t   I o  2 l  t      l  e  l    I o  2 l      d  ,
   (111)
t 
9. Prepare the plots of the analytical solutions given by deSwaan (1978) and Kazemi et al (1989) using q =
168 ft3/day, L = 1,000 ft, l = 0.01 and 0.1 day-1, R = 0.08, f = 0.001 for 5, 10, 100, 300, 450, and 600 days as a
function of distance. Compare the results.
Eqs. 11.93-96 are given as the following::
deSwaan (1978) analytical solution is given by:
Sw, n  x, t   0 , t   (112)

S w, n  x, t   1  e  l t    e  I o  2 l  t     d , t   (113)
 
0
Kazemi et al (1989) analytical solution is given by:
  l  t   t

S w , n  x, t   e I o  2 l  t      l  e   I o  2 l      d  ,
  l  
e     (114)
  
t 
where I o is modified Bessel’s function of the zero type, and
  x f u ,   V l  f (115)
Note the Bessel function is given by:
2
   x 2 k 
Io  x   1     (116)
k 1 
 k ! 
The integral term can be evaluated using a numerical integration method such as the trapezoidal rule. However, a
better method is the following. Let
t
I o  2 l      d \
 l   
f0   e
 

Then,
df
 e  l    I o  2 l      (117)
d  
subject to the conditions
f  0,  
f  f o ,  t
Alternatively
Let
 '   
Then,
df
 e  l I o  2 l ' 
'
(118)
d '  
subject to the conditions
f  0, '  0
f  f o , '  t  
We can integrate this equation accuratelt using a Runge-Kutta numerical integration method. Thus, Kazemi et al
(1989) analytical solution is evaluated as:

Sw, n  x, t   e  e l t   I o 2 l  t      l fo ,
   t  (119)
A similar approach is taken for the deSwaan analytical solution. Both analytical solutions will give the same
result, as they should.
10. Prepare plots of the short- and long-time saturation profiles at different times for Examples A and B
mentioned in this chapter. For small times, plot the approximate analytical solution given by Eq. 11.110 as:
 x E (  1) 
Sw, n  xD , tD   1  D 1
 E 2
 

1  e E2 tD  xD   H  tD  xD  , tD  0 (120)
For large times, plot the approximate analytical solution given by Eqs. 11.117-120 as:
1  b (axD  tD )  4 ab2 x  b (axD  tD )  
S w, n ( xD , t D )  erfc  e D
erfc   (121)
2
  t D   t D  

where erfc ( y ) is the complementary error function with argument y. The parameters a and b are given by:
1
a and b (122)
2 v
where  is the effective diffusivity. Letting 3   and then  2   yields the single-term transfer-function
result of by Rasmussen and Civan (1998).
When the argument of the second error function is very large, the value of the error function is exponentially
small. Some computer software packages may set the error function erfc(y) identically equal to zero when y is large
enough. This may cause some error in numerical calculations when xD is also large enough for the exponential
multiplying term exp(4ab2xD) to compensate for the smallness of the error function. It is thus useful to use a two-
term asymptotic expansion for erfc(y) when y is large and express the second term as
4 ab2 xD
 b( axD  t D )  tD
e erfc  
 tD   b( axD  t D )
(123)
 tD   b ( axD  t D ) 2 
2
1  2b 2 ( ax  t ) 2  exp   
 D D   tD 
Therefore, we obtain the following solution at the bulk wave front xD = tD/a for large tD:
t  1 1  1 
S w, n  D , t D   1  1  2   (124)
a  2  2b  t D  8b t D  
You will obtain the results similar to Figures 11.13 and 11.15.
11. Consider a parallelepiped shape matrix block which is separated from the surrounding matrix blocks by
means of natural fractures. The equation describing the variation of the dimensionless average oil concentration with
dimensionless time inside the matrix block is given by the following equation:
RF (T )  1  C (T ) (125)
K dC dT
  (126)
L2 C
Where
σ: Shapefactor = 0.5
K: Average permeability = 100mD
L: Averagedimension of matrix block = 1.0 m
C: Dimensionless averageconcentration of oilin matrix block
Co : Initial value of the dimensionless averageconcentration of oilin matrix block = 1.0
T: Dimensionless time
The analytical solution is obtained as:
T
K C dC
  dT  
0 L2 1.0 C
K
T  ln C (127)
 L2
  L2 
C  exp   T
 K 
(a) The dimensionless time required for the average oil concentration to decrease to one-half of its initial value in the
matrix block is calculated as the following:
The initial value is:
C  1.0
When C  0.5
K
T  ln C
 L2
 2
1D 
100mD 1cm2  1m 
 1.0133x108 D  100cm  1000mD 
   ln  0.5 
 0.5 1m  
2
 
 
 
13
2 x10
 ln  0.5 
1.0133
 1.4 x1013 (dimensionless time) (128)
(b) How much a dimensionless time is required for the recovery factor value to attain a value of 0.75, calculated by
the following equation?
RF (T )  1  C (T )
  L2 
C  exp   T
 K 
Thus
K
T  ln 1  RF 
 L2
K
  2 ln 1  RF 
L (129)
 2 
 
2
100mD 1cm 1m 1D 
 1.0133x108 D  100cm  1000mD 
   ln 1.  0.75 
 0.5 1m  
2
 
 
 
2 x1013
 ln  0.25 
1.0133
 2.7 x1013 (dimensionless time)
12. The following set of equations describes the pressure depression in a matrix block because of decrease of
pressure in the surrounding fracture medium.
  1 

 D  K   (130)
 t K 
Subject to the conditions of solution, given by:
  f 
  K     n   u  n  K s   , x  L / 2, K s  skin coefficient (131)
 bs 
 
  K   n  0, x  0 (132)
Express the pseudo-pressure function  in terms of the fluid pressure p using the following truncated Taylor series:
 
p
=
p
  dp    p     p  p 
b b (133)
b
(a) Write down the simplified forms of these equations if steady-state condition and one dimensional flow in the x-
direction are considered.
d  1 d 
0D  K
dx  K dx 
But K  K  constant, thus (134)
d 2
0
dx 2
Subject to the conditions of solution, given by:
d   f 
K  Ks  ,x  L / 2 (135)
dx  bs 
d
 0, x  0 (136)
dx
 
p
=
p
  dp    p     p  p 
b b
b (137)

  p  pb  ,  pb   0

(b) What is the general analytic solution of the one-dimensional model under steady-state conditions obtained
without the application of the boundary conditions? Assume a slightly compressible fluid and constant viscosity and
the permeability of the matrix is constant and isotropic.
d 2
0 2
dx
The analytical solution is:
  C1  C2 x
But

  p  pb 

Then (138)

   p  pb   C1  C2 x

But for sligltly compressible fluid
  b exp c  p  pb  
Then,
b
  p  pb  exp c  p  pb    C1  C2 x

(c) What is the specific analytic solution of the one-dimensional model under steady-state conditions obtained from
the general solution after the application of the boundary conditions?
d
 0, x  0
dx
gives
b (139)
  p  pb  exp c  p  pb   C1  C2 x

d
 C2  0
dx
d   f 
K  Ks  , x  L / 2
dx  bs 
d
 C2  0
dx
Thus
d   f 
K  0  Ks  
dx  bs 
or
  f (140)
But
b
  p  pb  exp c  p  pb   C1


 f  b  p f  pb  exp c  p f  pb    C1

Thus
p  pf
13. The oil recovery becomes higher for water flooding of a water-wet reservoir when the contact angle is
higher.
14. The oil recovery becomes lower for water flooding of a water-wet reservoir when the spacing between the
natural fractures is larger.

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SOLUTION MANUAL FOR EXERCISE PROBLEMS

Porous Media Transport Phenomena Solution Manual

Chapter 2 Transport Properties of Porous Media

3. The permeability of porous rock decreases when it is heated if it is externally confined.

Carman (1937) Ladd (1990) Koch&Sangani

Table 2 Correlation by Civan (2002d)

5. The data of Carnahan (1990) is used to verify the analytic expressions.

t,scaled K/Komeas logymeas

0.5 Couvreur et al. (2001)

Note Eq. 3.57 is

Thus, comparing these equations we can derive Eq. 3.58 as:

2. If incorrectly we implemented a decomposition rule as

Show that the former is incorrect because it leads to (Gray, 1975)

3. Prove Eqs. 3.43 –3.49 ar given by Lunardini (1991) as:

Eq. 3.47 is the same as Eq. 3.38, that is fj gj  fj gj  fˆj gˆ j .

Eq. 3.48 is the same as Eq. 3.39 that is

Eq. 3.49 is the same as Eq. 3.41 that is

For a single phase fluid,

5. Begin with Eq. 3.72:

Where we have by Eqs. 3.67-3.70:

Where I is a unit tensor.

Initial system Step 1 Eliminate L

Thus, the dimensionless variables/parameters/groups are:

Initial system Step 1 Eliminate L Step 2

Thus, the dimensionless parameters/groups are the following:

Initial Step 1 Eliminate L Step 2 Eliminate Step 3 Eliminate T

Combining the above derived dimensionless groups yields:

Initial Step 1 Eliminate Step 2 Eliminate L Step 3 Eliminate T

Therefore, the dimensionless groups are:

Initial system Step 1 Eliminate F

Then, the differential forms are:

3. Eq. 5.164 is:

Hint: Substituting m  q according to Das yields:

15. Consider Eq.5.51:

 c  c  pt   u p  1   u   1 D     c  c  p    D   c  c  p   r

Consider the Darcy’s law for horizontal flow, given by:

Step 1: Given t, Calculate

Step 2: assume a Sw value

write this eqn. for an average final water saturation

Step 7: Oil Recovery Calculations

0.27 0.0 0.775 ∞ ∞ ∞

.31 0.019 0.688 37 .. 0.55

0.37 0.044 0.513 12 .. 1.04

Injection time, days Selected Sw values Distance from the

Swe Sw Np (106 bbls) Rfo t (days)

 2S  9S 18S  11S   6t   u    S  S  x

We can write these in a compact form as:

For i = 2, 3, ….., N-1and j = 2,3,4….M-1

or to avoid division by zero (159)

For all points, i = 2,3,…N-1 and j = 2,3,4…N-1, next guess is:

b. Apply Eqs. 7.234-7.237 on page 214 but replace  with p.

The pore fluid directional velocities are given by:

13. The reservoir pressure equation is given by:

For i = 2, 3, ….., N-1and j = 2,3,4….M-1

or to avoid division by zero (198)

For all points, i = 2,3,…N-1 and j = 2,3,4…N-1, next guess is:

Pi , j 1  Pi , j 1    Pi 1, j  2 Pi , j  Pi 1, j  , i  1, 2,...k  1; j  1 (205)

ab w exp  bS w 

Only for a strongly fluid 1-wet system,