d [108][109]

[110]
e P

g
h [1]

The Syrian civil war (Arabic: ‫اﻟﺤﺮب اﻷﻫﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺴﻮرﻳﺔ‬, al-ḥarb al-ʾahlīyah as-sūrīyah) is an ongoing multi-
sided civil war in Syria fought between the Ba'athist Syrian Arab Republic led by Syrian President Bashar al-
Assad, along with domestic and foreign allies, and various domestic and foreign forces opposing both the
Syrian government and each other in varying combinations.[111]

The unrest in Syria, part of a wider wave of the 2011 Arab Spring protests, grew out of discontent with the
Syrian government and escalated to an armed conflict after protests calling for genocide against Alawites and
the expulsion of Christians from Syria to Lebanon[112] , the chant "Alawites to the grave and Christians to
Beirut" has been reported at anti government demonstrations since the earliest days of the
revolution.[113][114][115][116] this chant became almost the official jingle of the civil war [117] . All these
demands as well as the demand of Assad's removal were violently suppressed.[118][119] The war, which began
on 15 March 2011 with major unrest in Damascus and Aleppo,[120] is being fought by several factions: the
Syrian Armed Forces and its international allies, a loose alliance of mostly Sunni opposition rebel groups
(including the Free Syrian Army), Salafi jihadist groups (including al-Nusra Front), the mixed Kurdish-Arab
Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), with a number of
countries in the region and beyond being either directly involved or providing support to one or another faction
(Iran, Russia, Turkey, the United States, as well as others).

Iran, Russia, and Hezbollah support the Syrian Arab Republic and the Syrian Armed Forces militarily, with
Russia conducting airstrikes and other military operations since September 2015. The U.S.-led international
coalition, established in 2014 with the declared purpose of countering ISIL, has conducted airstrikes primarily
against ISIL as well as some against government and pro-government targets. They have also deployed special
forces and artillery units to engage ISIL on the ground. Since 2015, the U.S. has supported the Autonomous
Administration of North and East Syria and its armed wing, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), materially,
financially, and logistically. At different times, the Turkish state has fought the SDF, ISIL, and the Syrian
government since 2016, but also actively supporting the Syrian opposition and occupying large swaths of
northwestern Syria while engaging in significant ground combat. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the
Syrian civil war spilled over into Lebanon as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to
Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil, with ISIL and Al-Nusra also engaging the Lebanese
Army. Furthermore, while officially neutral, Israel has exchanged fire with Hezbollah and Iranian forces,
whose presence in southwestern Syria it views as a threat.[121] It has also carried out repeated strikes in the rest
of Syria since the start of the war, mainly targeting alleged Iranian and Hezbollah militants.[122]

International organizations have criticized virtually all sides involved, including the Ba'athist Syrian
government, ISIL, opposition rebel groups, Russia,[123] Turkey,[124] and the U.S.-led coalition[125] of severe
human rights violations and massacres.[126] The conflict has caused a major refugee crisis. Over the course of
the war, a number of peace initiatives have been launched, including the March 2017 Geneva peace talks on
Syria led by the United Nations, but fighting has continued.[127]
Contents
Background
Assad government
Demographics
Socioeconomic background
Drought
Human rights
Timeline
Belligerents
Syrian factions
Foreign involvement
Spillover
Advanced weaponry and tactics
Destruction of chemical weapons
Cluster bombs
Thermobaric weapons
Anti-tank missiles
Ballistic missiles
Media coverage
ISIL and al-Qaeda executions
International reactions
Sectarian threats
Crime wave
Cultural heritage
Human toll
Refugees
Internally displaced
Casualties
Human rights violations
Epidemics
Humanitarian aid
Return of refugees
Destruction and reconstruction
Peace process and de-escalation zones
Agreement to buffer zone on Turkish border, October 2019
Refugees status
United Nations dispute
Economic sanctions against Syria
US sanctions
Syrian Constitutional Committee
Status of Kurdish autonomous area in Rojava
Depictions
 Films
Documentaries
Video games
See also
Events within Syrian society
Historical aspects
Lists and statistical records
Specific offensives
Peace efforts and civil society groups
History of other local conflicts
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Articles and analyses
Interviews
Supranational government bodies
Human rights bodies
Media

Background

Assad government

The secular Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch government came to power through a coup d'état in 1963. For
several years Syria went through additional coups and changes in leadership,[128] until in March 1971, Hafez
al-Assad, an Alawite, declared himself President. The secular Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant
political authority in what had been a one-party state until the first multi-party election to the People's Council
of Syria was held in 2012.[129] On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which
led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria be a
Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood
and the ulama. The government survived a series of armed revolts by Islamists, mainly members of the
Muslim Brotherhood, from 1976 until 1982.

Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected as President of Syria. Bashar and
his wife Asma, a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain,[130] initially inspired hopes for democratic
reforms; however, according to his critics, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms.[131] President Al-
Assad maintained in 2017 that no 'moderate opposition' to his rule exists, and that all opposition forces are
jihadists intent on destroying his secular leadership; his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are
'linked to the agendas of foreign countries'.[132]

Demographics
The total population in July 2018 was estimated at 19,454,263 people; ethnic groups – approximately Arab
50%, Alawite 15%, Kurd 10%, Levantine 10%, other 15% (includes Druze, Ismaili, Imami, Assyrian,
Turkmen, Armenian); religions – Muslim 87% (official; includes Sunni 74% and Alawi, Ismaili, and Shia
13%), Christian 10% (mainly of Eastern Christian churches[133] – may be smaller as a result of Christians
fleeing the country), Druze 3% and Jewish (few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo).[134]

Socioeconomic background

Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in
his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector,
these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the
government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.[135] In 2010, Syria's
nominal GDP per capita was only $2,834, comparable to Sub-Saharan African countries such as Nigeria and
far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other
developing countries.[136]

The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates.[137] At the start of the war, discontent
against the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.[135]
These included cities with high poverty rates, such as Daraa and Homs, and the poorer districts of large cities.

Drought

This coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and
resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in food prices and a mass migration of farming families to
urban centers.[138] This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million
refugees from the Iraq War.[139] The drought has been linked to anthropogenic global warming.[140][141][142]
Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and it is frequently the target of
military action.[143]

Human rights

The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations.[144]
The rights of free expression, association and assembly were strictly controlled in Syria even before the
uprising.[145] The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than
five people were banned.[146] Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[147] Despite hopes
for democratic change with the 2000 Damascus Spring, Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed
to implement any improvements. A Human Rights Watch report issued just before the beginning of the 2011
uprising stated that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.[148]

Timeline
Protests, civil uprising, and defections (March–July 2011)

Initial armed insurgency (July 2011 – April 2012)

Kofi Annan ceasefire attempt (April–May 2012)

Third phase of the war starts: escalation (2012–2013)

Rise of the Islamist groups (January–September 2014)

US intervention (September 2014 – September 2015)

Russian intervention (September 2015 – March 2016), including first partial ceasefire

Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (December 2016 – April 2017)

Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation Zones (April 2017 –

June 2017)

ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted;

Russian forces permanent (July 2017–Dec. 2017)

Army advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish

intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018)

Douma chemical attack; U.S.-led missile strikes; Southern

Syria offensive (April 2018 – August 2018)

Idlib demilitarization; Trump announces US withdrawal; Iraq Military situation in August 2016
strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018)

ISIL attacks continue; US states conditions of withdrawal; Fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–May
2019)

Demilitarization agreement falls apart; 2019 Northwestern Syria offensive; Northern Syria Buffer
Zone established (May–October 2019)

U.S. forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (October 2019)

Northwestern offensive; Baylun airstrikes; Operation Spring Shield; Daraa clashes; Afrin bombing
(late 2019; 2020)

Belligerents

Syrian factions

There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be
divided in four main groups. First, the Syrian Armed Forces and its allies. Second, the opposition composed
from the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army,[149] the Free Syrian Army and the jihadi Hayat Tahrir al-
Sham.[150] Third, the Kurdish-dominated Syrian Democratic Forces.[151] Fourth, the Islamic State of Iraq and
the Levant.[152] Both the Syrian government and the opposition have received support, militarily and
diplomatically, from foreign countries leading the conflict to often be described as a proxy war.[153]

Foreign involvement

The major parties supporting the Syrian Government are Iran,[154] Russia[155] and the Lebanese Hezbollah.
Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the United States,[156][157]
Turkey,[158] Saudi Arabia,[159] Qatar,[160] Britain, France,[161] Israel,[162] and the Netherlands.[163] Under
the aegis of operation Timber Sycamore and other clandestine activities, CIA operatives and U.S. special
operations troops have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel
fighters at a cost of $1 billion a year since 2012.[164][165] Iraq had
also been involved in supporting the Syrian government, but
mostly against ISIL.[166]

On August 06, 2020, Saad Aljabri, in a complaint filed in a federal

court in the Washington accused Mohammed Bin Salman of
secretly inviting Russia to intervene in Syria at a time when Bashar
al-Assad was close to falling in 2015.[167]
Map of countries surrounding Syria (red)
with military involvement
Spillover
Countries that support the Syrian
government
In June 2014, members of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
Countries that support the Syrian
(ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and took
rebels
control of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the Iraqi Army
Countries that are divided in their
abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government
forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There support
were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the North
Governorate of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the
Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.[168]

Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the Syrian Arab Air Force used
airstrikes targeted against ISIL in Raqqa and al-Hasakah in coordination with the Iraqi government.[169]

Advanced weaponry and tactics

Destruction of chemical weapons

Sarin, mustard agent and chlorine gas have been used during the
conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction,
especially the 2013 Ghouta attacks. A UN fact-finding mission was
requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four Much of Raqqa suffered extensive
cases UN inspectors confirmed the use of sarin gas. [170] In August damage during the battle of Raqqa in
2016, a confidential report by the United Nations and the OPCW June–October 2017
explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al-Assad for dropping
chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in
April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIS for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August
2015.[171]

The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical
attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the destruction of Syria's chemical
weapons began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds in a
"military research site".[172] After the April 2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, the United States launched
its first attack against Syrian government forces.

In June 2019, United States Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense Michael Mulroy stated that the United
States "will respond quickly and appropriately,” if the government uses chemical weapons again. He added
that Bashar al-Assad has done more than any other to destabilize the region by "murdering his own people"
and that both Russia and the Syrian government have shown no concern for the suffering of the Syrian people
creating one of the "worst humanitarian tragedies in history".[173]
On April 15, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons
watchdog, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which claimed that the Syrian air
force used sarin and chlorine for multiple attacks, in 2017. The close allies of Syria, Russia and European
countries debated on the issue, where the claims were dismissed by Moscow and the Europeans called for
accountability for government's actions.[174] The UN Deputy ambassador from Britain, Jonathan Allen stated
that report by OPCW's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) revealed that the Assad government is
responsible for using chemical weapons against its own people, on at least four occasions. The information
was also exposed in two UN-mandated investigations.[175]

Cluster bombs

Syria is not a party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions and does not recognize the ban on the use of
cluster bombs. The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve
Goose, director of the Arms Division at Human Rights Watch said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of
cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs", "The initial
toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long
afterward".[176]

Thermobaric weapons

Russian thermobaric weapons, also known as "fuel-air bombs", have been used by the government side during
the war. On 2 December 2015, The National Interest reported that Russia was deploying the TOS-1 Buratino
multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against
infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas".[177] One Buratino thermobaric rocket launcher "can
obliterate a roughly 200 by 400 metres (660 by 1,310 feet) area with a single salvo".[178] Since 2012, rebels
have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas
occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the Battle of Aleppo and also in Kafr Batna.[179] A panel of
United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs
against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.[180] In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of
napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.[181]

Anti-tank missiles

Several types of anti-tank missiles are in use in Syria. Russia has sent
9M133 Kornet, third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the
Syrian Government whose forces have used them extensively against
armour and other ground targets to fight Jihadists and rebels.[182]
U.S.-made BGM-71 TOW missiles are one of the primary weapons
of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States
and Saudi Arabia.[183] The U.S. has also supplied many Eastern An Army of Glory fighter launches a
European sourced 9K111 Fagot launchers and warheads to Syrian BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile at a
rebel groups under its Timber Sycamore program.[184] Syrian government position during
the 2017 Hama offensive.

Ballistic missiles

In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the Deir ez-Zor area in eastern Syria with Zolfaghar ballistic
missiles fired from western Iran,[185] in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years.[186] According
to Jane's Defence Weekly, the missiles travelled 650–700 kilometres.[185]
Media coverage
The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that
journalists face while in Syria.[187]

ISIL and al-Qaeda executions

On 19 August 2014, American journalist James Foley was executed by ISIL, who said it was in retaliation for
the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by Shabiha militia.[188]
ISIL also threatened to execute Steven Sotloff, who was kidnapped at the Syrian-Turkish border in August
2013.[189] There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national
as well.[190] Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering
the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists.[191] On 22
August 2014, the al-Nusra Front released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah
withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.[192]

International reactions
During the early period of the civil war, The Arab League, European
Union, the United Nations,[193] and many Western governments
quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the
protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free
speech.[194] Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed
support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a
more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government
and protesters. Both the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic
Esther Brimmer (U.S.) speaks at a
Cooperation suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed
United Nations Human Rights
Western-drafted United Nations Security Council resolutions in 2011
Council urgent debate on Syria,
and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with
February 2012
targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against
protestors.[195]

Sectarian threats
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been
closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious
group,[196] an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the
population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. Alawites started to
be threatened and attacked by dominantly Sunni rebel fighting groups
like al-Nusra Front and the FSA since December 2012 (see
Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War#Alawites).

A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed

fighting in the Syrian civil war.[197] In May 2013, SOHR stated that
out of 94,000 killed during the war, at least 41,000 were Map of Syria's ethno-religious
Alawites.[198] composition in 1976
Many Syrian Christians reported that they had fled after they were targeted by the anti-government rebels.[199]
(See: Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War#Christians.)

The Druze community in Syria has been divided by the civil war, and has experienced persecution by Islamist
rebels, ISIL, the government and the government's Hezbollah allies. (See: Sectarianism and minorities in the
Syrian Civil War#Druze.)

As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad
government—have taken over fighting the opposition from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on
a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control
the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as
well"[200]—reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders.[200]
According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, human rights abuses have been committed by the militias
including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians
dead".[200]

Crime wave

As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been
engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of
much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped
functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses
and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters
were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in
Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.[201] Doctors and medical staff treating
injured rebel fighters and civilians in
Local National Defense Forces commanders often engaged "in war Aleppo
profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and organized crime".
NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies,
thefts, kidnappings, and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the
organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.[202]

Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing
international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money
in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower
wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and
engaging in kidnappings.[203] Rebel forces sometimes rely on criminal networks to obtain weapons and
supplies. Black market weapon prices in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the
start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion,
theft, and kidnapping.[203]

Cultural heritage

In January 2018 Turkish air strikes have seriously damaged an ancient Neo-Hittite temple in Syria's Kurdish-
held Afrin region. It was built by the Arameans in the first millennium BC.[204]

As of March 2015, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed
24. Five of the six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Syria have been damaged.[205] Destruction of antiquities
has been caused by shelling, army entrenchment, and looting at various tells, museums, and monuments.[206]
A group called Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat is
monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list
of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support
for the protection and preservation of Syrian archaeology and
architecture.[207]

UNESCO listed all six Syria's World Heritage sites as endangered but
direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the Old
City of Aleppo was heavily damaged during battles being fought
within the district, while Palmyra and Krak des Chevaliers suffered The Temple of Bel in Palmyra, which
minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and was destroyed by ISIL in August
hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, 2015
appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to
have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been
destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.[208]

In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, several sites in Syria were
destroyed by the group as part of a deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites. In Palmyra, the group
destroyed many ancient statues, the Temples of Baalshamin and Bel, many tombs including the Tower of
Elahbel, and part of the Monumental Arch.[209] The 13th-century Palmyra Castle was extensively damaged by
retreating militants during the Palmyra offensive in March 2016.[210] ISIL also destroyed ancient statues in
Raqqa,[211] and a number of churches, including the Armenian Genocide Memorial Church in Deir ez-
Zor.[212]

According to a September 2019 Syrian Network for Human Rights reports more than 120 Christian churches
have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since 2011.[213]

The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at
the P21 Gallery showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.[214]

Human toll
Human toll of the Syrian
Refugees Civil War
3.8 million have been made refugees.[205] As of 2013, 1 in 3 of
Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon
(normally 4.8 million population).[215] Others have fled to Jordan,
Turkey, and Iraq. Turkey has accepted 1,700,000 (2015) Syrian
refugees, half of whom are spread around cities and a dozen camps
placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite Population 21 ±.5: Displaced 6 ±.5,
images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in
Refugee 5.5 ±.5, Casualty 0.5 ±.1
July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs, and Hama were
besieged.[216] In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of (millions)
Syrian refugees had exceeded 3 million.[217] According to the Syrian refugees
Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon By country Turkey, Lebanon,
and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has Jordan, Egypt
caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the
onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Greek Catholic Patriarch Settlements Camps: (Jordan)
Gregorios III Laham says more than 450,000 Syrian Christians have Displaced Syrians
been displaced by the conflict.[218] As of September 2016, the
De- Safe zone
European Union has reported that there are 13.5 million refugees in
need of assistance in the country.[219] Australia is being appealed to escalation
rescue more than 60 women and children stuck in Syria's Al-Hawl Casualties of the war
camp ahead of a potential Turkish invasion.[220]
Crimes Human rights violations,
Massacres, Rape
Internally displaced Return of refugees · Refugees as
weapons · Prosecution of war
The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of
criminals
March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimate 10.9 million Syrians, or almost half
the population, have been displaced.[205] Violence erupted due to the
ongoing crisis in northwest Syria has forced 6,500 children to flee
every day over the last week of January 2020. The recorded count of
displaced children in the area has reached more than 300,000 since
December 2019.[221]

Casualties
Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in
cramped quarters (6 August 2012)
On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been
killed since the civil war began, with UN High Commissioner for
Human Rights Navi Pillay saying "The number of casualties is much
higher than we expected, and is truly shocking".[223] Four months
later, the UN's updated figure for the death toll had reached
80,000.[224] On 13 June 2013, the UN released an updated figure of
people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for
up to the end of April 2013. Navi Pillay, UN high commissioner for
human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty
figure". The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000.[225][226] Some Total deaths over the course of the
areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; conflict in Syria (18 March 2011 – 18
by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in October 2013) based on data from
the city of Homs.[227] the Syrian National Council[222]

One problem has been determining the number of "armed

combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors
as civilians.[228] At least half of those confirmed killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides,
including 52,290 government fighters and 29,080 rebels, with an additional 50,000 unconfirmed combatant
deaths.[95] In addition, UNICEF reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012,[229]
and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons;[230] both of these
reports have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners
are known to have died under torture.[231] In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group SOHR reported
the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300,[232] and in March 2013, opposition sources
stated that over 5,000 children had been killed.[233] In January 2014, a report was released detailing the
systematic killing of more than 11,000 detainees of the Syrian government.[234]

On 20 August 2014, a new U.N. study concluded that at least 191,369 people have died in the Syrian
conflict.[235] The UN thereafter stopped collecting statistics, but a study by the Syrian Centre for Policy
Research released in February 2016 estimated the death toll to be 470,000, with 1.9m wounded (reaching a
total of 11.5% of the entire population either wounded or killed).[236] A report by the pro-opposition SNHR in
2018 mentioned 82000 victims that had been forcibly disappeared by the Syrian government, added to 14.000
confirmed deaths due to torture.[237]
On April 15, 2017 a convoy of buses carrying evacuees from the
besieged Shia towns of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya, which were surrounded
by the Army of Conquest,[238] was attacked by a suicide bomber
west of Aleppo,[239] killing more than 126 people, including at least
80 children.[240]

On January 1, 2020, at least eight civilians, including four children,

were killed in a rocket attack on a school in Idlib by Syrian Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital
government forces, the Syrian Human Rights Observatory (SOHR) in Aleppo, October 2012
said.[241]

In January 2020, UNICEF warned that children were bearing the

brunt of escalating violence in northwestern Syria. More than 500
children were wounded or killed during the first three quarters of
2019, and over 65 children fell victim to the war in December
alone.[242]

Over 380,000 people were killed since the war in Syria started nine
years ago, war monitor Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said on
January 4, 2020. The death toll comprises civilians, government A girl from the Syrian city of
soldiers, militia members and foreign troops.[243] Qamishli who lost her leg during the
Turkish offensive into north-eastern
In an airstrike by Russian forces loyal to the Syrian government, at Syria in October 2019
least five civilians were killed, out of which four belonged to the same
family. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that the
death toll included three children following the attack in the Idlib region on January 18, 2020.[244]

On January 30, 2020, Russian air strikes on a hospital and a bakery killed over 10 civilians in Syria's Idlib
region. Moscow immediately rejected the allegation.[245]

On 23 June 2020, Israeli raids killed seven fighters, including two Syrian in a central province. State media
cited a military official as saying the attack targeted posts in rural areas of Hama province.[246]

Human rights violations

According to various human rights organizations and United Nations,

human rights violations have been committed by both the government
and the rebels, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been
committed by the Syrian government".[247]

According to three international lawyers,[248] Syrian government

officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of Victims of the Ghouta chemical
evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic attack in August 2013
killing" of about 11,000 detainees. Most of the victims were young
men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs
of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution.[249] Experts said this
evidence was more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that had emerged from the then 34-
month crisis.[250]

The UN also reported in 2014 that "siege warfare is employed in a context of egregious human rights and
international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their
acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access of humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut
off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the
government forces: Muadamiyah, Daraya, Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under
siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama.[251][252] In Yarmouk Camp 20,000 residents faced death by
starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and Jabhat al-
Nusra, which prevents food distribution by UNRWA.[251][253] In July 2015, the UN removed Yarmouk from
its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined
to say why it had done so.[254] After intense fighting in April/May 2018, Syrian government forces finally
took the camp, its population now reduced to 100–200.[255]

ISIS forces have been criticized by the UN of using public executions and killing of captives, amputations, and
lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture,
murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian
population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27
August 2014.[256] ISIS also persecuted gay and bisexual men.[257]

Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising
began.[258] An Amnesty International report, published in November 2015, stated the Syrian government has
forcibly disappeared more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian civil war.[259] According to a
report in May 2016 by the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, at least 60,000 people have been killed
since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.[260]

In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an
estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the Saydnaya military prison. They stated the killings began in
2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and
also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at
the highest levels of the Syrian government".[261] Three months later, the United States State Department
stated a crematorium had been identified near the prison. According to the U.S., it was being used to burn
thousands of bodies of those killed by the government's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war
crimes.[262] Amnesty International expressed surprise at the reports about the crematorium, as the photographs
used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have
stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus.[263] The
Syrian government said the reports were not true.

By July 2012, the human rights group Women Under Siege had documented over 100 cases of rape and
sexual assault during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha
and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women, and children, with about 80% of the known
victims being women and girls.[264] A report by the United Nations Human Rights Council states that
"women and girls as young as nine are being sold as slaves to ISIS soldiers who regularly beat them and rape
them, re-sell them, and, if they try to escape, kill them".[265]

On September 11, 2019, the UN investigators said that air strikes conducted by the US-led coalition in Syria
have killed or wounded several civilians, denoting that necessary precautions were not taken leading to
potential war crimes.[266]

In late 2019, as the violence intensified in north-west Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly
kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators.[267] In October 2019,
Amnesty International stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by
Turkish and Turkey-backed Syrian forces who are said to "have displayed a shameful disregard for civilian
life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and unlawful attacks that have
killed and injured civilians".[124]
According to a new report by U.N.-backed investigators into the
Syrian civil war, young girls aged nine and above, have been raped
and inveigled into sexual slavery. While, boys have been put through
torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children
have been attacked by sharp shooters and lured by bargaining chips to
pull out ransoms.[268]

On April 6, 2020, the United Nations published its investigation into

the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. The council in its reports
said, it had examined 6 sites of attacks and concluded that the
Protest in Berlin, showing image of
airstrikes had been carried out by the "Government of Syria and/or its
murdered Syrian-Kurdish politician
allies.” However, the report was criticized for being partial towards
Hevrin Khalaf
Russia and not naming it, despite proper evidence. "The refusal to
explicitly name Russia as a responsible party working alongside the
Syrian government … is deeply disappointing,” the HRW quoted.[269]

On 27 April 2020, the Syrian Network for Human Rights reported continuation of multiple crimes in the
month of March and April in Syria. The rights organization billed that Syrian regime decimated 44 civilians,
including six children, during the unprecedented times of Covid-19. It also said, Syrian forces held captive 156
people, while committing a minimum of four attacks on vital civilian facilities. The report further
recommended that the UN impose sanctions on the Bashar al-Assad regime, if it continues to commit human
rights violation.[270]

On May 8, 2020, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, raised serious concern
that rebel groups, including ISIL terrorist fighters, may be using the COVID-19 pandemic as “an opportunity
to re-group and inflict violence in the country”.[271]

On 21 July 2020, the Syrian government forces carried out an attack and killed two civilians with four Grad
rockets in western al-Bab sub-district.[272]

Epidemics

The World Health Organization has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service. Fighting
makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a
disease risk to countries to which they have fled.[273] 400,000 civilians were isolated by the Siege of Eastern
Ghouta from April 2013 to April 2018, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United
Nations Special Advisor, Jan Egeland, who urged the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also
isolated in the Rukban refugee camp between Syria and Jordan, where humanitarian relief access is difficult
due to the harsh desert conditions. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking
three months between shipments.[274][275]

Formerly rare infectious diseases have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor sanitation and
deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include measles, typhoid,
hepatitis, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping cough and the disfiguring skin disease leishmaniasis.
Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling Poliomyelitis. As of late 2013 doctors and international
public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before
the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to vaccination, sanitation
and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".[276]

In June 2020, the United Nations reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an
even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. As of June 26, a total of
248 people were infected by Covid-19, out of which nine people lost their lives. Restrictions on the
importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing
attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its
population. Syrian communities were additionally facing an unprecedented levels of hunger crisis.[277]

Humanitarian aid

The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by
UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, $6.5 billion worth
of requests of December 2013.[278] The international humanitarian
response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the United Nations
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) in
accordance with General Assembly Resolution 46/182.[279] The
primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian
Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for
US aid to Syrian opposition forces,
US$1.41 billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by
May 2013
the conflict.[280] Official United Nations data on the humanitarian
situation and response is available at an official website managed by
UNOCHA Syria (Amman).[281] UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide
vaccinations and care packages to those in need. Financial information on the response to the SHARP and
assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking
Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission,
United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE, and Norway.[282]

The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the
estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304
were reached with food.[283] USAID and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385 million of
aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency
and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief
supplies.[284] Islamic Relief has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food
parcels.[285]

Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500
and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.[286] Israel supplied aid through Operation Good Neighbor, providing
medical treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in Golan Heights where rebels say that 250 of their
fighters were treated.[287] Israel established two medical centers inside Syria. Israel also delivered heating fuel,
diesel fuel, seven electric generators, water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food, diapers,
shoes and clothing. Syrian refugees in Lebanon make up one quarter of Lebanon's population, mostly
consisting of women and children.[288] In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers
within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.[289]

On April 9, 2020, the UN dispatched 51 truckloads of humanitarian aid to Idlib. The organization said that the
aid would be distributed among civilians stranded in the north-western part of the country.[290]

On April 30, 2020, Human Rights Watch condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction
on the entry of aid supplies.[291] It also demanded the World Health Organization to keep pushing the UN to
allow medical aid and other essentials to reach Syria via the Iraq border crossing, to prevent the spread of
COVID-19 in the war-torn nation. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect
themselves from contracting the COVID-19 virus.[292]

Return of refugees
Another aspect of the post war years will be how to repatriate the millions of refugees. The Syrian government
has put forward a law commonly known as "law 10", which could strip refugees of property, such as damaged
real estate. There are also fears among some refugees that if they return to claim this property they will face
negative consequences, such as forced conscription or prison. The Syrian government has been criticized for
using this law to reward those who have supported the government. However, the government said this
statement was false and has expressed that it wants the return of refugees from Lebanon.[293][294] In
December 2018, it was also reported that the Syrian government has started to seize property under an anti-
terrorism law, which is affecting government opponents negatively, with many losing their property. Some
people's pensions have also been cancelled.[295]

Erdogan said that Turkey expects to resettle about 1 million refugees in the "buffer zone" that it
controls.[296][297][298][299] Erdogan claimed that Turkey had spent billions on approximately five million
refugees now being housed in Turkey; and called for more funding from wealthier nations and from the
EU.[300][301][302][303][304][305] This plan raised concerns amongst Kurds about displacement of existing
communities and groups in that area.

Destruction and reconstruction

United Nations authorities have estimated that the war in Syria has caused destruction reaching to about
$400 billion.[306]

While the war still ongoing, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the
war-torn country on its own. As of July 2018, the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of
US$400 billion. Assad said he is be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the
state treasury.[307] Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria.[308] One year later this seems to be
materializing, Iran and the Syrian government signed a deal where Iran would help rebuild the Syrian energy
grid, which has taken damage to 50% of the grid.[309] International donors have been suggested as one
financier of the reconstruction.[310] As of November 2018, reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already
started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a
need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far
remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas
inhabited by disadvantaged people.[311]

According to a Syrian war monitor, over 120 Churches have been damaged or demolished by all sides in
Syrian war since 2011.[312]

Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia says it will spend $500 million to
modernize Syria's port of Tartus. Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian
Gulf.[313][314] Russia will also contribute to recovery efforts by the UN.[315] Syria awarded oil exploration
contracts to two Russian firms.[316]

Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's "Belt and Road Initiative" designed to
foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide.[317][318]

Peace process and de-escalation zones

During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab
League, the United Nations, and other actors.[319] The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with
what it describes as armed terrorist groups.[320] On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the
UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks[321] that had been agreed on by the International Syria Support Group
(ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks.[322] On 14 March
2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government stated
that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line",
however Syria's President Bashar al-Assad said he hoped peace talks
in Geneva would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a
political process in Syria.[323]

A new round of talks between the Syrian government and some

groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 24, 2017 in Astana,
Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the ceasefire
Syria peace talks in Vienna, 30
agreement brokered in late December 2016.[324] The Astana Process October 2015
talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than
replacement, of the United Nations-led Geneva Process talks.[324] On
4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran, and Turkey signed a
memorandum whereby four "de-escalation zones" in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May
2017.[325][326]

On September 18, 2019, Russia stated the United States and Syrian rebels were obstructing the evacuation
process of a refugee camp in southern Syria.[327]

On September 28, 2019, Syria's top diplomat demanded the foreign forces, including that of US and Turkey,
to immediately leave the country, saying that the Syrian government holds the right to protect its territory in all
possible ways if they remain.[328]

President RT Erdogan said Turkey was left with no choice other than going its own way on Syria 'safe zone'
after deadline to co-jointly establish a "safe zone” with the US in northern Syria expired in September.[329]
The U.S. indicated it will withdraw its forces from northern Syria after Turkey warned of incursion in the
region that could instigate fighting with American-backed Kurds.[330]

Agreement to buffer zone on Turkish border, October 2019

In October 2019, in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian
government in Damascus and the Kurdish-led forces.[331] Russia also negotiated a renewal of a cease-fire
between Kurds and Turkey that was about to expire.[332]

Russia and Turkey made an agreement via the Sochi Agreement of 2019 to set up a Second Northern Syria
Buffer Zone. Syrian President Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also
applied to the Syrian government.[333][334] The SDF stated that they consider themselves as "Syrian and a part
of Syria", adding that they will agree to work with the Syrian Government.[335] The SDF officially announced
their support for the deal on October 27.[336][337][338]

The agreement reportedly included the following terms:[339][340][333][341][342][343]

A buffer zone would be established in Northern Syria. The zone would be around 30 kilometres
(19 mi) deep,[a] stretching from Euphrates River to Tall Abyad and from Ras al-Ayn to the Iraq-
Syria border, but excluding the town of Qamishli, the Kurds' de facto capital.[344]
The buffer zone would be controlled jointly by the Syrian Army and Russian Military Police.
All YPG forces, which constitute the majority of the SDF, must withdraw from the buffer zone
entirely, along with their weapons, within 150 hours from the announcement of the deal. Their
withdrawal would be overseen by Russian Military Police and the Syrian Border Guards, which
would then enter the zone.
Refugees status
A major statement from NGO ACT Alliance found that millions of Syrian refugees remain displaced in
countries around Syria. this includes around 1.5 million refugees in Lebanon. Also the report found that
refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled this year.[345]

Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially with
winter approaching.[346][347]

4,000 people are housed at the Washokani Camp. No organizations are assisting them other than the Kurdish
Red Cross. Numerous camp residents have called for assistance from international groups.[348][349]

Refugees in Northeast Syria report they have received no help from international aid organizations.[350]

On December 30, 2019, over 50 Syrian refugees, including 27 children, were welcomed in Ireland, where
they started afresh in their new temporary homes at the Mosney Accommodation Centre in Co Meath. The
migrant refugees were pre-interviewed by Irish officials under the Irish Refugee Protection Programme
(IRPP).[351]

United Nations dispute

As of December 2019, a diplomatic dispute is occurring at the UN over re-authorization of cross-border aid for
refugees. China and Russia oppose the draft resolution that seeks to re-authorize crossing points in Turkey,
Iraq, and Jordan; China and Russia, as allies of Assad, seek to close the two crossing points in Iraq and Jordan,
and to leave only the two crossing points in Turkey active.[352] The current authorization expires on January
10, 2020.[353]

All of the ten individuals representing the non-permanent members of the Security Council stood in the
corridor outside of the chamber speaking to the press to state that all four crossing points are crucial and must
be renewed.[352]

United Nations official Mark Lowcock is asking the UN to re-authorize cross-border aid to enable aid to
continue to reach refugees in Syria. He says there is no other way to deliver the aid that is needed. He noted
that four million refugees out of the over eleven million refugees who need assistance are being reached
through four specific international crossing points. Lowcock serves as the United Nations Under-Secretary-
General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator and the Head of the United Nations
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.[354]

Russia, aided by China's support, has vetoed the resolution to retain all four border crossings. An alternate
resolution also did not pass.[355][356] The US strongly criticized the vetoes and opposition by Russia and
China.[357][358]

Economic sanctions against Syria

US sanctions

The US Congress has enacted punitive sanctions on the Syrian government for its actions during the Civil
War. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any
companies operating in Syria.[359][360][361][362] US President Donald Trump tried to protect the Turkish
President Erdogan from the effect of such sanctions.[363]
Some activists welcomed this legislation.[364] Some critics contend that these punitive sanctions are likely to
backfire or have unintended consequences; they argue that ordinary Syrian people will have fewer economic
resources due to these sanctions (and will thus need to rely more the Syrian government and its economic allies
and projects) while the sanctions' impact on ruling political elites will be limited.[359][365][366]

Mohammed al-Abdallah, Executive Director of Syria Justice and Accountability Center (SJAC), said that the
sanctions will likely hurt ordinary Syrian people, saying, "it is an almost unsolvable unfeasible equation. If
they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive
the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have
weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means."[367]

Peter Ford, the former UK Ambassador to Syria, said "...going forward, we're seeing more economic warfare.
It seems that the US, having failed to change the regime in Syria by military force or by proxies, is tightening
the economic screws and the main reason why the US is keeping hold of the production facilities in eastern
Syria. So, the economic situation is becoming more and more serious and dire in Syria and it's a major reason
why refugees are not going back."

In June, US Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo announced new economic sanctions on Syria targeting foreign
business relations with the Syian government. Under the Caesar Act, the latest sanctions were to be imposed
on 39 individuals and entities, including Asma al-Assad, wife of the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.[368]

On June 17, 2020, James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement has signalled that the UAE
could soon be hit with sanctions if it pushes ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime, under
Caesar Act.[369]

Syrian Constitutional Committee

In late 2019, a new Syrian Constitutional Committee began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and
to draft a new constitution for Syria.[370][371] This committee comprises about 150 members. It includes
representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups, and countries serving as guarantors of the
process such as e.g. Russia. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government.
50 of the committee members represent the government, and 50 members represent the opposition.[371] It is
unclear if the third round of talks will proceed on a firm schedule, until the Assad government provides its
assent to participate.[371]

In December 2019, the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds,
and called for the self-declared Automnomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in
any new Syrian Constitution. The Kurds are concerned that the independence of their declared Autonomous
Administration of North and East Syria (NES) in Rojava might be severely curtailed.[372]

Status of Kurdish autonomous area in Rojava

The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (NES), also known as Rojava,[b] is a de facto
autonomous region in northeastern Syria.[376][377] The region does not state to pursue full independence but
rather autonomy within a federal and democratic Syria.[378] In July 2016, Constituent Assembly co-chair
Hediya Yousef formulated the region's approach towards Syria as follows:[379]

In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing the
Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution".[380] While the region's administration is not invited to
the Geneva III peace talks on Syria,[381] or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular calls for the region's
inclusion and does to some degree carry the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May
2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.[382][383]

An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but
functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic".[384] In late September 2017, Syria's Foreign Minister said that
Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL is defeated.[385]

Depictions

Films
Ladder to Damascus (2013)
Sniper: Legacy (2014)
Phantom (2015)
The Father (2016)
Insyriated (2017)
Damascus Time (2018)
A Private War (2018)

Documentaries
The Return to Homs (2013)
Red Lines (2014)
Silvered Water, Syria Self-Portrait (2014)
7 Days in Syria (2015)
50 Feet from Syria (2015)
Our War (2016)
Salam Neighbor (2016)
The War Show (2016)
The White Helmets (2016), which won the 2017 Oscar for Best Documentary Short.
The battle for Syria. Sources: TV air footage (video documentary + English subtitles The battle
for Syria (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iAnhGCaG6s) on YouTube, official video
documentary and the official text of the VGTRK).[386]
Syrian diary. Sources: TV air footage (video documentary + English subtitles Syrian diary (http
s://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M5MQZ8azNx0) on YouTube), official video documentary of the
VGTRK.[387]
Last Men in Aleppo (2017), nominated for Best Documentary Feature at the 90th Academy
Awards.
For Sama (2019)
The Cave (2019)

Video games
Endgame: Syria (2012)
1000 Days of Syria (2014)
Syrian Warfare (2017)
 Holy Defence (2018)[388]

See also
Belligerents in the Syrian Civil War

Events within Syrian society

2010s in Syria political history
Cities and towns during the Syrian Civil War
Eastern Syria insurgency
Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian Civil War
Rojava conflict
Timeline of the Syrian Civil War

Historical aspects
Spillover of the Syrian Civil War
Syria chemical weapons program
Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian Civil War
Terrorism in Syria

Lists and statistical records

Casualty recording
Human rights violations during the Syrian Civil War
List of Syrian defectors
List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War
List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Syrian Civil War
List of terrorist incidents in Syria

Specific offensives
Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015) ("Battle of Victory")

Peace efforts and civil society groups

Syrian Civil War ceasefires
Syrian Civil War peace process
Syrian Democratic Council
Syrian diaspora
White Helmets (Syrian Civil War)

History of other local conflicts

Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)
Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)
List of wars involving Syria
Notes
a. Starting from the Syrian-Turkish border and going south into Syria.
b. The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's PYD-led government,
before its usage was dropped in 2016.[373][374][375] Since then, the name is still used by some
locals and international observers.

References
1. References:
Damascus allows Iraq to hit ISIL targets in Syria: State media (https://www.aljazeera.com/n
ews/2018/12/damascus-iraq-hit-isil-targets-syria-state-media-181230172409718.html), Al
Jazeera, Dec 30, 2018.
Assad gives Iraq green light to launch attacks in Syria without approval (https://www.almasd
arnews.com/article/assad-gives-iraq-green-light-to-launch-attacks-in-syria-without-approva
l/), Al-Masdar News, Dec 30, 2018.
Assad Authorizes Iraq to Attack ISIS in Syria (https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/sy
ria/assad-authorizes-iraq-to-attack-isis-in-syria-1.6790471), Haaretz, Dec 30, 2018.
Iraqi jets strike ISIS target in Syria a day after Damascus carte blanche (https://www.thenati
onal.ae/world/mena/iraqi-jets-strike-isis-target-in-syria-a-day-after-damascus-carte-blanche-
1.808058), The National, Dec 31, 2018.
Iraqi Air Force bombs ISIS command meeting in Syria (https://www.almasdarnews.com/artic
le/iraqi-air-force-bombs-isis-command-meeting-in-syria/), Al-Masdar News, Jan 3, 2019.
Iraq’s Air Force will begin bombing ISIS in Syria (https://thenewsrep.com/112235/iraqs-air-f
orce-will-begin-bombing-isis-in-syria/), NewsRep, Jan 1, 2019.
"Iraq conducts first airstrikes against ISIS in Syria" (http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/24/middl
eeast/iraq-conducts-first-airstrikes-against-isis-in-syria/index.html). CNN. 24 February 2017.
2. "Egypt sends forces to Syria for Assad regime" (https://archive.vn/92dsi). aa.com.tr. Anadolu
Agency. 30 July 2020. Archived from the original (https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/egypt-s
ends-forces-to-syria-for-assad-regime/1927275) on 12 August 2020.
3. Finn, William Maclean, Tom (27 November 2016). "Qatar will help Syrian rebels even if Trump
ends U.S. role" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-qatar-idUSKBN13L0X7)
– via www.reuters.com.
4. "Trump ends CIA arms support for anti-Assad Syria rebels: U.S. officials" (https://www.reuters.c
om/article/us-mideast-crisis-usa-syria-idUSKBN1A42KC). Reuters. 19 July 2017.
5. "Victory for Assad looks increasingly likely as world loses interest in Syria" (https://www.thegua
rdian.com/world/2017/aug/31/victory-for-assad-looks-increasingly-likely-as-world-loses-interest
-in-syria). The Guardian. 31 August 2017. "Returning from a summit in the Saudi capital last
week, opposition leaders say they were told directly by the foreign minister, Adel al-Jubeir, that
Riyadh was disengaging."
6. "Britain withdraws last of troops training Syrian rebels as world powers distance themselves
from opposition" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/02/british-troops-halt-training-syria
n-rebels-world-powers-distance/). Daily Telegraph. 2 September 2017.
7. "Hollande confirms French delivery of arms to Syrian rebels" (http://www.enca.com/hollande-co
nfirms-french-delivery-arms-syrian-rebels). AFP. 21 August 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
8. Chivers, C. J.; Schmitt, Eric; Mazzetti, Mark (21 June 2013). "In Turnabout, Syria Rebels Get
Libyan Weapons" (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/22/world/africa/in-a-turnabout-syria-rebels
-get-libyan-weapons.html). The New York Times.
 9. Watson, Ivan; Tuysuz, Gul (29 October 2014). "Meet America's newest allies: Syria's Kurdish
minority" (http://edition.cnn.com/2014/10/29/world/us-newest-allies-syrian-kurds/index.html).
CNN. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
10. A. Jaunger (30 July 2017). "US increases military support to Kurdish-led forces in Syria" (http
s://en.insidesyriamc.com/2017/07/30/us-increases-military-support-to-kurdish-led-forces-in-syri
a/). ARA News. Retrieved 1 January 2018 – via Inside Syria Media Center.
11. Jamie Dettmer (9 June 2016). "France Deploys Special Forces in Syria as IS Loses Ground" (h
ttps://www.voanews.com/a/france-deploys-special-forces-as-is-loses-ground/3368969.html).
VOA. Retrieved 1 January 2018.
12. "U.S.-backed fighters poised to cut key ISIS supply line" (http://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-bac
ked-sdf-fighters-encircle-isis-stronghold-manbij-near-raqqa-syria/). CBS News. 9 June 2016.
Retrieved 7 March 2017.
13. Irish, John (13 November 2013). "Syrian Kurdish leader claims military gains against Islamists"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20131114002747/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/13/us-syr
ia-kurds-idUSBRE9AC14C20131113?irpc=932). Reuters. Archived from the original (https://w
ww.reuters.com/article/2013/11/13/us-syria-kurds-idUSBRE9AC14C20131113?irpc=932) on
14 November 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2017. "Muslim said the PYD had received aid, money
and weapons from the Iraq-based Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of
Kurdistan..."
14. Ranj Alaaldin (16 December 2014). "A Dangerous Rivalry for the Kurds" (https://www.nytimes.c
om/2014/12/17/opinion/a-dangerous-rivalry-for-the-kurds.html?_r=1). The New York Times.
Retrieved 12 April 2017. "Once again, the P.U.K. saw a chance to seize the initiative, by
suggesting that it, rather than the Kurdistan regional government or the K.D.P., was providing
weapons and supplies to the Syrian Kurdish fighters, who belong to a party that has historically
been at odds with the K.D.P."
15. Jack Murphy (23 March 2017). "Did Kurdistan's Counter-Terrorist Group assault the Tabqa Dam
in Syria?" (https://sofrep.com/77726/kurdistans-counter-terrorist-group-assault-taqba-dam-syri
a/). SOFREP. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
16. Alexander Whitcomb (30 October 2014). "Peshmerga advance team in Kobane" (http://www.ru
daw.net/english/middleeast/syria/301020141). Rudaw Media Network. Retrieved 29 March
2017.
17. "France Says Its Airstrikes Hit an ISIS Camp in Syria" (https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/28/wo
rld/europe/france-says-it-has-struck-at-isis-in-syria.html). The New York Times. 28 September
2015.
18. "The UAE has it in for the Muslim Brotherhood" (https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/20
17/2/23/the-uae-has-it-in-for-the-muslim-brotherhood). Al-Araby Al-Jadeed. 22 February 2017.
"Along with their American counterparts, Emirati special forces are said to be training elements
of the opposition. They constitute a kind of Arab guarantee among the Syrian Democratic
Forces – an umbrella group dominated by the Kurds of the PYD, on whom the US are relying to
fight IS on the ground."
19. "Saudi Arabia, UAE send troops to support Kurds in Syria" (https://www.middleeastmonitor.co
m/20181122-saudi-arabia-uae-send-troops-to-support-kurds-in-syria/). Middle East Monitor. 22
November 2018.
20. "Australia to end air strikes in Iraq and Syria, bring Super Hornets home" (https://www.reuters.c
om/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-australia/australia-to-end-air-strikes-in-iraq-and-syria-bring-su
per-hornets-home-idUSKBN1EF324). Reuters. 21 December 2017.
21. Barton, Rosemary (26 November 2015). "Justin Trudeau to pull fighter jets, keep other military
planes in ISIS fight" (http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/government-position-fighter-jets-1.333818
6). CBC News. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
22. Syria-Irak-Yemen-Libya maps (https://twitter.com/Suriyakmaps/status/1245062624779350017)
23. "Leading Syrian regime figures killed in Damascus bomb attack" (https://www.theguardian.com/
world/2012/jul/18/syrian-regime-figures-bomb-attack). The Guardian. July 2012.
24. "Syria defence minister killed in Damascus bomb" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnew
s/middleeast/syria/9408303/Syria-defence-minister-killed-in-Damascus-bomb.html). The Daily
Telegraph. 18 July 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
25. "No sign of Assad after bomb kills kin, rebels close in" (http://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-c
risis-idUSBRE8610SH20120718). Reuters. 25 March 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
26. "Syria Remains Silent on Intelligence Official's Death" (https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/25/w
orld/middleeast/syria-remains-silent-on-intelligence-officials-death.html?_r=0&referrer=). The
New York Times. 24 April 2015.
27. "Syrian military spy chief killed in battle" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/10/to
p-syrian-army-general-killed-battle-20131017182611866437.html). al-Jazeera. 18 October
2013. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
28. (Head of National Defence Forces)"Assad cousin killed in Syria's Latakia" (http://www.aljazeer
a.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/assad-cousin-killed-syria-latakia-
201432320159865701.html). Al Jazeera. 8 October 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
29. "Qasem Soleimani: US kills top Iranian general in Baghdad air strike" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/n
ews/world-middle-east-50979463). The BBC. 3 January 2020.
30. "Iranian comdr. Brigadier General Hossein Hamedani killed by Isis while advising Syrian
regime" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/iranian-commander-brigadier-
general-hossein-hamedani-killed-by-isis-while-advising-syrian-regime-a6687276.html). The
Independent. 8 October 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
31. "Iranian General Is Killed in Syria" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB100014241278873241623
04578302530164834200). The Wall Street Journal. 13 February 2013. Retrieved 31 August
2016.
32. "Obituary: Hezbollah military commander Mustafa Badreddine" (https://www.bbc.com/news/wor
ld-middle-east-36284621). BBC. 14 May 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
33. "Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for Hezbollah fighters' death" (https://www.middleeastmon
itor.com/20150119-hezbollah-fighters-killed-in-al-nusra-front-attack/). Middle East Monitor. 19
January 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
34. "Commander of Hezbollah Freed by Israel Is Killed in Syria" (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/
21/world/middleeast/samir-kuntar-hezbollah-syria-israel.html). BBC. 20 December 2015.
Retrieved 31 August 2016.
35. "Thousands mourn Hezbollah fighter killed in Israeli attack" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-
mideast-crisis-hezbollah/thousands-mourn-hezbollah-fighter-killed-in-israeli-attack-idUSKBN0
KS1LG20150119). Reuters. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
36. "Analysis: Shiite Afghan casualties of the war in Syria" (http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/
2015/03/analysis-shiite-afghan-casualties-of-the-war-in-syria.php). FDD's Long War Journal.
12 March 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
37. "Update 1-Moscow blames 'two-faced U.S. policy' for Russian general's Syria death -RIA" (htt
p://uk.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-syria-russia-casualties/update-1-moscow-blames-two-f
aced-u-s-policy-for-russian-generals-syria-death-ria-idUKL8N1M64IX). Reuter. 25 September
2017.
38. "Body of senior Russian officer killed in Syria delivered to Moscow" (https://www.webcitation.or
g/6hGIQVgZV?url=http://tass.ru/en/defense/873235). TASS. 29 April 2016. Archived from the
original (http://tass.ru/en/defense/873235) on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
39. "Turkish Special Forces: From stopping a coup to the frontline of the ISIL fight" (http://www.hurri
yetdailynews.com/turkish-special-forces-from-stopping-a-coup-to-the-frontline-of-the-isil-fight.as
px?pageID=238&nID=103178&NewsCatID=352). Hürriyet Daily News. 24 August 2016.
40. sitesi, milliyet.com.tr Türkiye'nin lider haber. "Son dakika: Afrin harekatını Korgeneral İsmail
Metin Temel yönetecek!" (http://www.milliyet.com.tr/afrin-harekatini-korgeneral-ismail-gundem-2
593858/). Milliyet. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
41. "Top Syrian rebel commander dies from wounds" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis
-commander-idUSBRE9AH03H20131118). Reuters. 17 November 2013.
42. "Leading Syrian rebel groups form new Islamic Front" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middl
e-east-25053525). BBC. 22 November 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
43. "Suicide bombing kills head of Syrian rebel group" (http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-E
ast/2014/Sep-09/270137-blast-hits-top-meeting-of-islamist-group-in-syria-monitor.ashx). The
Daily Star.
44. "Al Qaeda's chief representative in Syria killed in suicide attack" (http://www.longwarjournal.or
g/archives/2014/02/zawahiris_chief_repr.php). FDD's Long War Journal. 23 February 2014.
45. "Russian raids kill prominent Syrian rebel commander" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/1
2/russian-raids-kill-prominent-syrian-rebel-commander-151225142422180.html). Al Jazeera.
25 December 2015.
46. Nic Robertson & Paul Cruickshank (5 March 2015). "Source: Syrian warplanes kill leaders of
al-Nusra" (http://edition.cnn.com/2015/03/05/middleeast/syria-al-qaeda-strike/). CNN.
47. "Senior Nusra Front commander killed in Syria air strike" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middl
eeast/2015/03/syria-nusra-front-commander-killed-air-strike-150305230517103.html). Al
Jazeera. 6 March 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
48. "Nusra Front spokesman killed by air strike in Syria" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/n
usra-front-spokesman-killed-strike-syria-160404080317702.html). Al Jazeera. 4 April 2016.
49. "Syria's Qaeda spokesman, 20 jihadists dead in strikes: monitor" (https://www.yahoo.com/new
s/syrias-qaeda-spokesman-20-jihadists-dead-strikes-monitor-200452734.html). AFP. 3 April
2016 – via Yahoo!.
50. "Air strike kills top commander of former Nusra group in Syria" (http://news.trust.org/item/20160
908213024-skwoe/). Reuters. 9 September 2016.
51. "Leader of Qaeda Cell in Syria, Muhsin al-Fadhli, Is Killed in Airstrike, U.S. Says" (https://www.
nytimes.com/2015/07/22/world/middleeast/leader-of-qaeda-cell-in-syria-muhsin-al-fadhli-is-kill
ed-in-airstrike-us-says.html). The New York Times. 2 July 2015.
52. Laporta, James; O'Connor, Tom; Jamali, Naveed (26 October 2019). "Trump Approves Special
Ops Raid Targeting ISIS Leader Baghdadi, Military Says He's Dead" (https://www.newsweek.c
om/trump-approves-special-ops-raid-targeting-isis-leader-baghdadi-1467982). Newsweek.
Retrieved 26 October 2019.
53. "ISIS confirms death of senior leader in Syria" (http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2014/02/
isis_confirms_death.php). FDD's Long War Journal. February 2014. Retrieved 16 September
2016.
54. Alessandria Masi (11 November 2014). "If ISIS Leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi Is Killed, Who Is
Caliph Of The Islamic State Group?" (http://www.ibtimes.com/if-isis-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghda
di-killed-who-caliph-islamic-state-group-1721638). International Business Times. Retrieved
11 June 2015.
55. Schmidt, Michael S.; Mazzetti, Mark (25 March 2016). "A Top ISIS Leader Is Killed in an
Airstrike, the Pentagon Says" (https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/26/world/middleeast/abd-al-ra
hman-mustafa-al-qaduli-isis-reported-killed-in-syria.html). The New York Times.
56. Starr, Barbara (14 March 2016). "U.S. assesses ISIS operative Omar al-Shishani is dead" (htt
p://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/14/politics/u-s-confirms-death-of-isis-operative-omar-al-shishani/in
dex.html). CNN.
57. Ryan, Missy (3 July 2015). "U.S. drone strike kills a senior Islamic State militant in Syria" (http
s://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/drone-kills-top-islamic-state-militant-in-syr
ia-a-day-after-brother-was-slain/2015/07/02/7e3a0598-20fc-11e5-bf41-c23f5d3face1_story.htm
l). The Washington Post. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
58. Starr, Barbara; Conlon, Kevin (19 May 2015). "U.S. names ISIS commander killed in raid" (htt
p://www.cnn.com/2015/05/19/us/isis-abu-sayyaf-name/). CNN. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
59. Starr, Barbara; Acosta, Jim (22 August 2015). "U.S.: ISIS No.2 killed in US drone strike in Iraq"
(http://edition.cnn.com/2015/08/21/middleeast/isis-no2-believed-killed/index.html). CNN.
60. Sherlock, Ruth (9 July 2014). "Inside the leadership of Islamic State: how the new 'caliphate' is
run" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10956280/Inside-the-leader
ship-of-Islamic-State-how-the-new-caliphate-is-run.html). The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved
31 August 2016.
61. "Isis: US-trained Tajik special forces chief Gulmurod Khalimov becomes Isis war minister" (htt
p://uk.news.yahoo.com/isis-us-trained-tajik-special-150308829.html). International Business
Times. 6 September 2016 – via Yahoo News.
62. "Top ISIL leaders killed in southern Syria" (https://www.thenational.ae/world/top-isil-leaders-kill
ed-in-southern-syria-1.63750). The National. 9 June 2017.
63. Sands, Phil; Maayeh, Suha web (17 November 2015), "Death of 'ISIL commander' in southern
Syria a blow to the group" (https://www.thenational.ae/world/death-of-isil-commander-in-southe
rn-syria-a-blow-to-the-group-1.79259), The National
64. "The Syrian Democratic Council concludes its work by issuing the final communiqué" (https://w
ww.hawarnews.com/ar/haber/d985d8acd984d8b3-d8b3d988d8b1d98ad8a7-d8a7d984d8afd9
8ad985d982d8b1d8a7d8b7d98ad8a9-d98ad986d987d98a-d8a3d8b9d985d8a7d984-d985d8
a4d8aad985d8b1d987-d8a8d8a5d8b5d8afd8a7d8b1-d8a7d984d8a8d98ad8a7d986-d8a7d98
4d8aed8aad8a7d985d98a-h5024.html). Hawar News Agency. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
65. "New Operation Inherent Resolve commander continues fight against ISIL" (https://www.army.
mil/article/173729/new_operation_inherent_resolve_commander_continues_fight_against_isil)
. Army Worldwide News. 22 August 2016.
66. "Top Syrian Kurdish commander Abu Layla killed by Isis sniper fire" (https://www.independent.c
o.uk/news/world/middle-east/top-syrian-kurdish-commander-abu-layla-killed-by-isis-sniper-fire-
a7066651.html). The Independent. 5 June 2016.
67. Hisham Arafat (31 August 2017). "Senior SDF commander lost his life in Raqqa fighting IS" (htt
p://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/3c865b8b-10cc-4708-868e-33d18cb4968b). Kurdistan 24.
68. "Syria military strength" (http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?co
untry_id=Syria). Global Fire Power. 8 July 2019.
69. "Syria's diminished security forces" (http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Aug-2
8/228953-syrias-diminished-security-forces.ashx). Agence France-Presse. 28 August 2013.
Retrieved 14 May 2014.
70. ISIS’ Iraq offensive could trigger Hezbollah to fill gap left in Syria (http://www.dailystar.com.lb/N
ews/Analysis/2014/Jun-16/260266-isis-iraq-offensive-could-trigger-hezbollah-to-fill-gap-left-in-
syria.ashx) The Daily Star, 16 June 2014
71. Ahmad Shuja Jamal (13 February 2018). "Mission Accomplished? What's Next for Iran's
Afghan Fighters in Syria" (https://warontherocks.com/2018/02/mission-accomplished-whats-ne
xt-irans-afghan-fighters-syria/). War on the Rocks. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
72. "Syrian war widens Sunni-Shia schism as foreign jihadis join fight for shrines" (https://www.the
guardian.com/world/2013/jun/04/syria-islamic-sunni-shia-shrines-volunteers). The Guardian. 4
June 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
73. "Iran 'Foreign Legion' Leads Battle in Syria's North" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/iran-foreign-l
egion-leads-battle-in-syrias-north-1455672481). The Wall Street Journal. 17 February 2016.
74. "Russia's Syria force has reportedly grown to 4,000 people" (http://www.businessinsider.com/ru
ssias-syria-force-has-reportedly-grown-to-4000-people-2015-11). Business Insider.
75. Grove, Thomas (18 December 2015). "Up to Nine Russian Contractors Die in Syria, Experts
Say" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/up-to-nine-russian-contractors-die-in-syria-experts-say-1450
467757). Wall Street Journal.
76. "State-of-the-art technology is giving Assad's army the edge in Syria" (https://www.independen
t.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-civil-war-state-of-the-art-technology-gives-president-assa
d-s-army-the-edge-a6898741.html). 26 February 2016.
77. "Here's The Extremist-To-Moderate Spectrum Of The 100,000 Syrian Rebels" (http://www.busin
essinsider.com/graphic-the-most-accurate-breakdown-of-the-syrian-rebels-2013-9). Business
Insider.
78. "Front to Back" (http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/03/04/islamic_front_isis_syria).
Foreign Policy.
79. Cockburn, Patrick (11 December 2013). "West suspends aid for Islamist rebels in Syria,
underlining their disillusionment with those forces opposed to President Bashar al-Assad" (http
s://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/west-suspends-aid-for-islamist-rebels-in-sy
ria-underlining-their-disillusionment-with-those-forces-opposed-to-president-bashar-alassad-89
98891.html). The Independent.
80. Who are these 70,000 Syrian fighters David Cameron is relying on? (https://www.theguardian.c
om/world/2015/nov/30/70000-syrian-fighters-david-cameron-islamic-state-airstrikes). Retrieved
18 February 2016.
81. Şafak, Yeni (5 January 2017). "8 bin asker emir bekliyor" (http://www.yenisafak.com/dunya/8-bi
n-asker-emir-bekliyor-2591721). Yeni Şafak.
82. "US Assistant Secretary of Defense tells Turkey only ISIS is a target, not Kurds" (http://aranews.
net/2017/01/us-assistant-secretary-of-defense-tells-turkey-only-isis-a-target-not-kurds/). ARA
News. 16 January 2017.
83. "Is Syria's Idlib being groomed as Islamist killing ground?" (http://www.atimes.com/article/syrias
-idlib-groomed-islamist-killing-ground/). Asia Times.
84. "Al Qaeda Is Starting to Swallow the Syrian Opposition" (https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/03/15/a
l-qaeda-is-swallowing-the-syrian-opposition/). Foreign Policy. 15 March 2017.
85. Stewart, Phil (4 September 2018). "Top U.S. general warns against major assault on Syria's
Idlib" (https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-dunford/top-u-s-general-warns-again
st-major-assault-on-syrias-idlib-idUKKCN1LK1JY). Reuters.
86. Rida, Nazeer (30 January 2017). "Syria: Surfacing of 'Hai'at Tahrir al-Sham' Threatens Truce"
(http://english.aawsat.com/2017/01/article55366551/syria-surfacing-haiat-tahrir-al-sham-threate
ns-truce). Asharq Al-Awsat.
87. "IS 'caliphate' defeated but jihadist group remains a threat" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-m
iddle-east-45547595). BBC. 23 March 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
88. Rashid (2018), p. 7.
89. Rashid (2018), p. 16.
90. Rashid (2018), p. 53.
91. "US coalition spokesman: Arabs are leading Manbij campaign, not Kurds" (http://aranews.net/2
016/06/us-coalition-spokesman-arabs-leading-manbij-campaign-not-kurds/). ARA News. 4
June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
92. "US-backed fighters close in on IS Syria bastion" (https://news.yahoo.com/us-backed-syrian-re
bels-advance-bastion-085127312.html). AFP. 6 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
93. Rodi Said (25 August 2017). "U.S.-backed forces to attack Syria's Deir al-Zor soon: SDF
official" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-deiralzor-idUSKCN1B516W).
Reuters.
94. Sisk, Richard (10 November 2019). "Up to 600 Troops Now Set to Remain in Syria Indefinitely,
Top General Says" (https://www.military.com/daily-news/2019/11/10/600-troops-now-set-remain
-syria-indefinitely-top-general-says.html). Military.com.
95. "SOHR 14th Anniversary" (https://www.syriahr.com/en/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/14-y-en.pd
f) (PDF). SOHR. 28 May 2020.
96. "Tantalizing promises of Bashar al- Assad kill more than 11000 fighters of his forces during 5
months" (http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=8103). SOHR. 17 December 2014. Retrieved
15 December 2016.
97. "On Balance, Hezbollah Has Benefited from the Syrian Conflict" (http://www.soufangroup.com/i
ntelbrief-on-balance-hezbollah-has-benefited-from-the-syrian-conflict/). The Soufan Group.
Retrieved 17 September 2018.
98. "Syria Daily: Russia Acknowledges Deaths of 3 Troops" (https://eaworldview.com/2019/03/syri
a-daily-russia-acknowledges-deaths-of-3-troops/). 26 March 2019.
99. 151–201 killed (2015-17),[1] (https://www.thedailybeast.com/a-russian-blackwater-putins-secret
-soldiers-in-ukraine-and-syria)[2] (https://www.inopressa.ru/article/14Dec2017/spiegel/vagner0
1.html)[3] (https://news.vtomske.ru/news/150657-eshche-odin-dobrovolec-iz-tomskoi-oblasti-po
gib-v-sirii) 14–64 killed (Battle of Khasham, Feb. 2018),[4] (https://www.pravda.ru/news/world/1
371126-troshev/)[5] (https://ssu.gov.ua/en/news/1/category/2/view/5693#.NTRLLcQI.dpbs) 18
killed (May 2018-June 2019),[6] (https://www.yahoo.com/news/26-syria-regime-9-russia-fighters
-killed-attack-113110297.html)[7] (https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2018/11/06/six-russian-me
rcenaries-killed-syria-blast-reports-a63403)[8] (https://www.uawire.org/russian-officer-killed-in-s
yria)[9] (https://dostup1.ru/society/Dobrovolets-iz-Chelyabinska-pogib-v-Sirii-podorvavshis-na-
mine_114812.html)[10] (http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=125124)[11] (https://meduza.io/en/featur
e/2019/07/29/three-russian-mercenaries-are-killed-in-syria-and-they-re-not-from-the-pmc-you-v
e-heard-of) total of 183–283 reported dead
00. "IRGC Strategist Hassan Abbasi Praises Iranian Parents Who Handed Over Their
Oppositionist Children For Execution: Educating People To This Level Is The Pinnacle Of The
Islamic Republic's Achievement; Adds: 2,300 Iranians Have Been Killed In Syria War" (https://
www.memri.org/reports/irgc-strategist-hassan-abbasi-praises-iranian-parents-who-handed-over
-their-oppositionist). MEMRI.
01. 30) ‫ ﻣﺤﺮر اﻟﺪرر‬,‫ اﻟﺸﺎﻣﻴﺔ‬August 2017). "‫"ﻋﻤﻴﺪ إﻳﺮاﻧﻲ ﻳﻜﺸﻒ ﻋﻦ إﺣﺼﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻋﺪاد ﻗﺘﻠﻰ ﺑﻼده ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮرﻳﺎ‬
(https://eldorar.com/node/114111). ‫اﻟﺪرر اﻟﺸﺎﻣﻴﺔ‬. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
02. 72 killed in Operation Euphrates Shield, 61–96 killed in Operation Olive Branch, 67–81 killed
in Idlib buffer zone, 16 killed in Operation Peace Spring, 11–17 killed in post-OPS operations, 1
killed in post-OES operations, total of 228–283 reported killed (for more details see here)
03. Wladimir van Wilgenburg. "SDF says over 11,000 of its forces killed in fight against the Islamic
State" (http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/0dafe596-6536-49d7-8e23-e52821742ae9).
Kurdistan24. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190330095030/http://www.kurdistan24.n
et/en/news/0dafe596-6536-49d7-8e23-e52821742ae9) from the original on 30 March 2019.
Retrieved 23 March 2019.
04. 2017 Balance Sheet of War – Syrian Democratic Forces (https://www.ypgrojava.org/2017-Bala
nce-Sheet-of-War-%E2%80%93-Syrian-Democratic-Forces)
Results of battles and resistance of YPG throughout 2018 (https://www.ypgrojava.org/Results-o
f-battles-and-resistance-of-YPG-throughout-2018)
SDF balance sheet of war and resistance for 2019 (https://anfenglish.com/rojava-syria/sdf-bala
nce-sheet-of-war-and-resistance-for-2019-40551)
05. "Pilot killed as U.S. F-16 crashes in Jordan" (http://www.f-16.net/f-16-news-article4910.html).
"Jordan pilot murder: Islamic State deploys asymmetry of fear" (https://www.bbc.com/news/worl
d-middle-east-31129416). BBC News. 4 February 2015.
"US service member killed in Syria identified as 22-year-old from Georgia" (http://abcnews.go.c
om/International/us-service-member-killed-accident-syria/story?id=47658836). ABC News. 27
May 2017.
"US identifies American service member killed by IED in Syria" (https://abcnews.go.com/Intern
ational/coalition-personnel-killed-ied-syria/story?id=54118440). ABC News. 27 May 2017.
"French soldier killed in Iraq-Syria military zone, Élysée Palace says" (https://www.france24.co
m/en/20170923-french-soldier-killed-iraq-syria-military-zone). France24. 27 May 2017.
"4 Americans among those killed in Syria attack claimed by ISIS" (https://edition.cnn.com/2019/
01/16/politics/syria-attack-us-patrolled-city/index.html). CNN. 27 May 2017.
"Mystery surrounds the killing of a US soldier in the countryside of Ayn al-Arab (Kobani) amid
accusations against Turkey of targeting him" (http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=126569l). Syrian
Observatory of Human Rights. 2 May 2019.
"US service member killed in Syria identified as 22-year-old from Georgia" (http://abcnews.go.c
om/International/us-service-member-killed-accident-syria/story?id=47658836). ABC News. 27
May 2017.
"Army identifies U.S. soldier killed in Syria" (https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2020/jan/
25/army-identifies-antonio-moore-soldier-killed-syria/). The Washington Times. 27 January
2020.
"Pentagon identifies US soldier killed in Syria" (https://thehill.com/policy/defense/508654-penta
gon-identifies-us-soldier-killed-in-syria). The Hill. 23 July 2020.
06. "Violations Documenting Center" (http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/home). Violations
Documenting Center. 23 February 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
07. (UNHCR), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "UNHCR Syria Regional
Refugee Response" (http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php).
08. Thomas Gibbons-Neff (16 September 2016). "U.S. Special Operations forces begin new role
alongside Turkish troops in Syria" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/
09/16/u-s-special-operations-forces-begin-new-role-alongside-turkish-troops-in-syria/). The
Washington Post. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
09. Andrew Tilghman (16 November 2016). "U.S. halts military support for Turkey's fight in key
Islamic State town" (http://www.militarytimes.com/articles/us-halts-military-support-for-turkeys-fi
ght-in-key-islamic-state-town). Military Times. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
10. Fadel, Leith (27 September 2016). "US Coalition knew they were bombing the Syrian Army in
Deir Ezzor" (https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/us-coalition-knew-bombing-syrian-army-dei
r-ezzor/).
11. "Syria's civil war explained from the beginning" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/syria-
civil-war-explained-160505084119966.html). Al Jazeera. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20170430014912/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/syria-civil-war-explained-1605050
84119966.html) from the original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
12. "Alevis to the grave, Christians to Beirut' is still a common slogan" (http://www.agos.com.tr/en/ar
ticle/16756/alevis-to-the-grave-christians-to-beirut-is-still-a-common-slogan). Agos. 17 October
2016. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
13. Anderson, Tim (2020). Axis of Resistance: Towards an Independent Middle East.
Clarity_Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-1949762167.
14. "Christians Under Attack From Anti-Government Protesters in Syria" (https://www.christianpost.
com/news/christians-under-attack-from-anti-government-protestors-in-syria.html).
The_Christian_Post. 5 May 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
15. "Syrian Christians Threatened by Salafi Protestors" (https://www.persecution.org/2011/05/05/sy
rian-christians-attacked-threatened-by-anti-government-protestors/).
International_Christian_Concern. 4 May 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
16. "Genocide Alert , The Syrian Arab Republic" (http://genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/201
3/08/Syria-Genocide-Alert-May-2013.pdf) (PDF). Gregory_Stanton#Genocide_Watch. 1 May
2013. Retrieved 18 November 2020. "Calls for genocide against religious minorities from rebel
leaders in Syria are numerous and frequent , the chant "Alawites to the grave and Christians to
Beirut" has been reported at anti government demonstrations since the earliest days of the
revolution."
17. "Die slowly, Christian dog" (https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/-die-slowly-christian-dog-).
The_Spectator. 27 October 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
18. "Syria: The story of the conflict" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868). BBC
News. 11 March 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180622052951/https://www.bb
c.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868) from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved
21 June 2018.
19. "Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protestors in Several Cities" (https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/2
6/world/middleeast/26syria.html). The New York Times. 25 March 2011. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20180621011638/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syri
a.html) from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
20. "Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-
middle-east-12749674). BBC News. 15 March 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
80721134738/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674) from the original on 21
July 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
21. "U.S.-Russian ceasefire deal holding in southwest Syria" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mi
deast-crisis-syria/u-s-russian-ceasefire-takes-effect-in-southwest-syria-idUSKBN19U08D).
Reuters. 9 July 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180921113246/https://www.reut
ers.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria/u-s-russian-ceasefire-takes-effect-in-southwest-syria-idU
SKBN19U08D) from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
22. Death toll in alleged Israeli strikes near Damascus up to 23 fighters — monitor (https://www.tim
esofisrael.com/death-toll-in-alleged-israeli-strikes-near-damascus-up-to-23-fighters-monitor/),
Times of Israel
23. "Russia accused of war crimes in Syria at UN security council session" (https://www.theguardia
n.com/world/2016/sep/25/russia-accused-war-crimes-syria-un-security-council-aleppo). The
Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190401192517/https://www.theguardian.co
m/world/2016/sep/25/russia-accused-war-crimes-syria-un-security-council-aleppo) from the
original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
24. "Damning evidence of war crimes by Turkish forces and allies in Syria" (https://www.amnesty.or
g/en/latest/news/2019/10/syria-damning-evidence-of-war-crimes-and-other-violations-by-turkis
h-forces-and-their-allies/). Amnesty International. 18 October 2019.
25. Dewan, Angela; McGann, Hillary (5 June 2018). "US-led strikes on Raqqa may amount to war
crimes, Amnesty says" (https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/05/middleeast/us-led-coalition-raqqa-war
-crimes-intl/index.html). CNN. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180605205903/https://w
ww.cnn.com/2018/06/05/middleeast/us-led-coalition-raqqa-war-crimes-intl/index.html) from the
original on 5 June 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
26. Hubbard, Anne Barnard, Ben; Fisher, Ian (15 April 2017). "As Atrocities Mount in Syria, Justice
Seems Out of Reach" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/15/world/middleeast/syria-bashar-al-a
ssad-evidence.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017051719
2038/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/15/world/middleeast/syria-bashar-al-assad-evidence.ht
ml) from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
27. Lundgren, Magnus (2016). "Mediation in Syria: Initiatives, strategies, and obstacles, 2011–
2016" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303312425). Contemporary Security Policy.
37 (2): 283–298. doi:10.1080/13523260.2016.1192377 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13523260.2
016.1192377). S2CID 156447200 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156447200).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000757/https://www.researchgate.net/publicati
on/303312425_Mediation_in_Syria_Initiatives_strategies_and_obstacles_2011-2016) from the
original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
28. Wilson, Scott (25 April 2011). "Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20110429193035/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_
syria26.html). The Seattle Times. Archived from the original (http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/h
tml/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html) on 29 April 2011.
29. "Assad says Syria 'able' to get out of crisis" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/0
5/2012524113941282101.html). Al Jazeera. 25 May 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20120607214248/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/20125241139412821
01.html) from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
30. Golovnina, Maria (19 March 2012). "Asma al Assad, a "desert rose" crushed by Syria's strife" (h
ttps://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/19/us-syria-asma-idUSBRE82I0MB20120319). Reuters.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130923084401/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/0
3/19/us-syria-asma-idUSBRE82I0MB20120319) from the original on 23 September 2013.
Retrieved 8 August 2013.
31. Liam Stack; J. David Goodman (1 April 2011). "Syrian Protesters Clash With Security Forces"
(https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/middleeast/02syria.html). The New York Times.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130513035056/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/w
orld/middleeast/02syria.html) from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
32. "President Bashar al-Assad interview with Croatian newspaper Vecernji List" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20170413073030/https://leakofnations.com/president-bashar-al-assad-interview-wit
h-croatian-newspaper-vecernji-list-syrian-civil-war/). leakofnations.com. Archived from the
original (https://leakofnations.com/president-bashar-al-assad-interview-with-croatian-newspape
r-vecernji-list-syrian-civil-war/) on 13 April 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
33. "Syria" (https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm). U.S. Department of State.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190722104603/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/
2006/71432.htm) from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
34. "The World Factbook: Syria" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181221085009/https://www.cia.go
v/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html). CIA Library. Archived from the original
(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html) on 21 December
2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
35. "Rebels in Syria's largest city of Aleppo mostly poor, pious and from rural backgrounds" (http://
www.foxnews.com/world/2012/10/16/rebels-in-syria-largest-city-aleppo-mostly-poor-pious-and-
from-rural/). Fox News Channel. Associated Press. 16 October 2012. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20121207232408/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/10/16/rebels-in-syria-largest
-city-aleppo-mostly-poor-pious-and-from-rural/) from the original on 7 December 2012.
Retrieved 28 January 2013.
36. "Syria GDP per Capita [2002 - 2020] [Data & Charts]" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017121413
0246/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/syria/gdp-per-capita). www.ceicdata.com. Archived
from the original (https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/syria/gdp-per-capita) on 14 December
2017. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
37. "Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions" (http://journalistsres
ource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/). Journalist's
Resource. 11 August 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120614153453/http://journ
alistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/) from
the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
38. Kelley, C. P., Mohtadi, S., Cane, M. A., Seager, R., & Kushnir, Y. (2015). Syria had also received
in the same period around 1.5 million refugees from Iraq. By 2011, Syria was facing steep rises
in the prices of commodities and a clear deterioration in the national standard of living.
39. Fountain, Henry (2 March 2015). "Researchers Link Syrian Conflict to a Drought Made Worse
by Climate Change" (https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-confli
ct-to-drought-caused-by-climate-change.html). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://
www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170425175902/htt
ps://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-conflict-to-drought-caused-by
-climate-change.html) from the original on 25 April 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
40. Kelley, Colin P.; Mohtadi, Shahrzad; Cane, Mark A.; Seager, Richard; Kushnir, Yochanan (17
March 2015). "Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian
drought" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180830231854/http://www.pnas.org/content/112/11/32
41). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (11): 3241–3246.
Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3241K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..112.3241K).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1421533112 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1421533112). PMC 4371967
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4371967). PMID 25733898 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/25733898). Archived from the original (http://www.pnas.org/content/112/11/3241)
on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
41. "Syria: Climate Change, Drought and Social Unrest" (https://climateandsecurity.org/2012/02/29/
syria-climate-change-drought-and-social-unrest/). The Center for Climate & Security. 29
February 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170414205011/https://climateandsecu
rity.org/2012/02/29/syria-climate-change-drought-and-social-unrest/) from the original on 14
April 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
42. Gleick, Peter H. (1 July 2014). "Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Conflict in Syria".
Weather, Climate, and Society. 6 (3): 331–340. doi:10.1175/wcas-d-13-00059.1 (https://doi.org/
10.1175%2Fwcas-d-13-00059.1).
43. "Aleppo water supply cut as Syria fighting rages" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east
-19533112). BBC News. 8 September 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201707301
14347/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-19533112) from the original on 30 July
2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
44. "World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010" (https://www.hrw.org/world-repor
t-2010) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161118110333/https://www.hrw.org/world-repo
rt-2010) 18 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 555.
45. Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004 (https://books.google.com/?id=OZ3a4
M_oZccC), Human Rights Watch 2005. ISBN 1-56432-331-5.
46. "Syria's Assad vows to lift emergency law by next week" (https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/
04/16/us-syria-idUSTRE72N2MC20110416). Reuters. 16 April 2011. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20140102192245/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/16/us-syria-idUSTRE72
N2MC20110416) from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
47. "Syria" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120228221417/http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/region
s/middle-east-north-africa/syria). Amnesty International. 2009. Archived from the original (http://r
eport2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria) on 28 February 2012.
Retrieved 1 February 2012.
48. Black, Ian (16 July 2010). "Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says" (h
ttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad). The
Guardian. London. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160813034407/https://www.thegua
rdian.com/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad) from the original on 13
August 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
49. Khalil Ashawi (13 August 2018). "Syrian rebels build an army with Turkish help, face
challenges" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-force/syrian-rebels-build-an
-army-with-turkish-help-face-challenges-idUSKBN1KX05Y). Reuters. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20180813014157/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-force/syr
ian-rebels-build-an-army-with-turkish-help-face-challenges-idUSKBN1KX05Y) from the
original on 13 August 2018.
50. Kim Sengupta (12 May 2015). "Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist
extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mi
ddle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassa
d-jihadists-10242747.html). The Independent. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150513
214636/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-ara
bia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html) from the
original on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
51. "Trump to Arm Syrian Kurds, Even as Turkey Strongly Objects" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/
05/09/us/politics/trump-kurds-syria-army.html). New York Times. 9 May 2017. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170510000916/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/us/politics/trump-k
urds-syria-army.html) from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
52. "ISIS reportedly massacres dozens in Syrian village" (https://www.cbsnews.com/news/isis-kills-
40-mabuja-village-central-syria-including-women-children/). CBS News. Associated Press. 31
March 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134248/https://www.cbsnews.co
m/news/isis-kills-40-mabuja-village-central-syria-including-women-children/) from the original
on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
53. Germany, SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg (11 October 2016). "Battle for Aleppo: How Syria
Became the New Global War" (http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-war-became-con
flict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html). Der Spiegel. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20170405173520/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-war-became-conf
lict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html) from the original on 5 April 2017.
Retrieved 4 April 2017. "Syria has become a proxy war between the US and Russia"
O'Connor, Tom (31 March 2017). "Iran's military leader tells U.S. to get out of Persian Gulf" (htt
p://www.newsweek.com/iran-military-us-get-out-persian-gulf-577231). Newsweek. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20170405074950/http://www.newsweek.com/iran-military-us-get-out-
persian-gulf-577231) from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017. "The Gulf Arab
faction, especially Saudi Arabia, has been engaged in a proxy war of regional influence with
Iran"
54. "Iran Spends Billions to Prop Up Assad" (http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-06-09/ir
an-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad). Bloomberg. 9 June 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20160426104705/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-06-09/iran-spends-billio
ns-to-prop-up-assad) from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
55. Louisa Loveluck, and Roland Oliphant, "Russia transporting militia groups fighting Islamic
State to frontlines in Syria" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/119
99694/Russia-transporting-militia-groups-fighting-Islamic-State-to-frontlines-in-Syria.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190223184909/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worl
dnews/middleeast/syria/11999694/Russia-transporting-militia-groups-fighting-Islamic-State-to-f
rontlines-in-Syria.html) 23 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Telegraph 17 Nov 2015
56. "Syrian rebels: US sends more arms against Iran threat" (https://www.aljazeera.com/news/201
7/05/syrian-rebels-sends-arms-iran-threat-170531014459877.html). al-Jazeera. 31 May 2017.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001856/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/
05/syrian-rebels-sends-arms-iran-threat-170531014459877.html) from the original on 24
February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
57. "Donald Trump ends covert CIA aid to Syrian rebels in 'win' for Russia" (https://www.telegraph.
co.uk/news/2017/07/20/donald-trump-ends-us-programme-supporting-syrian-rebels-fighting/).
The Independent. 20 July 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001747/http
s://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/20/donald-trump-ends-us-programme-supporting-syrian
-rebels-fighting/) from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
58. Weiss, Michael (22 May 2012). "Syrian rebels say Turkey is arming and training them" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20160305014329/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/10015
9613/syrian-rebels-say-turkey-is-arming-and-training-them/). The Telegraph. London. Archived
from the original (http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/100159613/syrian-rebels-say
-turkey-is-arming-and-training-them/) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
59. "Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against
the Assad regime" (http://www.businessinsider.com/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10).
Business Insider. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151022064328/http://www.businessi
nsider.com/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10) from the original on 22 October 2015.
Retrieved 21 October 2015.
60. Roula Khalaf & Abigail Fielding Smith (16 May 2013). "Qatar bankrolls Syrian revolt with cash
and arms" (https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html).
Financial Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130607043508/http://www.ft.com/cm
s/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html) from the original on 7 June 2013.
Retrieved 3 June 2013.(subscription required)
61. Memmott, Mark (13 November 2013). "As Talks Continue, CIA Gets Some Weapons To Syrian
Rebels" (https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/09/13/222020019/as-talks-continue-cia-ge
ts-some-weapons-to-syrian-rebels). NPR. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131214043
535/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/09/13/222020019/as-talks-continue-cia-gets-so
me-weapons-to-syrian-rebels) from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 10 December
2013.
62. "IDF chief finally acknowledges that Israel supplied weapons to Syrian rebels" (https://www.tim
esofisrael.com/idf-chief-acknowledges-long-claimed-weapons-supply-to-syrian-rebels/). The
Times of Israel. 14 January 2019.
63. "Dutch govt under fire for Syria opposition support" (https://web.archive.org/web/201902010131
42/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/dutch-govt-under-fire-for-syria-opposition-support/ar
-BBN9CXc). MSN. 11 September 2018. Archived from the original (https://www.msn.com/en-us/
news/world/dutch-govt-under-fire-for-syria-opposition-support/ar-BBN9CXc) on 1 February
2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
64. "U.S. has secretly provided arms training to Syria rebels since 2012" (https://articles.latimes.co
m/2013/jun/21/world/la-fg-cia-syria-20130622). Los Angeles Times. 21 June 2013. Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20151122020932/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jun/21/world/la-fg-c
ia-syria-20130622) from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
65. "Secret CIA effort in Syria faces large funding cut" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/nati
onal-security/lawmakers-move-to-curb-1-billion-cia-program-to-train-syrian-rebels/2015/06/12/b
0f45a9e-1114-11e5-adec-e82f8395c032_story.html). The Washington Post. 12 June 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190507132500/https://www.washingtonpost.com/worl
d/national-security/lawmakers-move-to-curb-1-billion-cia-program-to-train-syrian-rebels/2015/0
6/12/b0f45a9e-1114-11e5-adec-e82f8395c032_story.html) from the original on 7 May 2019.
Retrieved 3 October 2015.
66. "Iraq bombs ISIS 'operations room' in Syria" (https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/
2018/08/16/Iraq-bombs-ISIS-operations-room-in-Syria.html). Al Arabiya English. 16 August
2018. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
67. "Saudi strongman 'encouraged' Russia intervention in Syria, lawsuit claims" (https://www.thegu
ardian.com/world/2020/aug/16/saudi-strongman-encouraged-russia-syria-intervention-lawsuit-c
laims). The Guardian. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
68. Cave, Damien (24 August 2012). "Syrian War Plays Out Along a Street in Lebanon" (https://ww
w.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.ht
ml). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170215044851/http://www.
nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.html)
from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
69. "Syria pounds ISIS bases in coordination with Iraq" (http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-E
ast/2014/Jun-15/260207-syria-pounds-isis-bases-in-coordination-with-iraq.ashx). The Daily
Star Newspaper – Lebanon. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150318032519/http://ww
w.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Jun-15/260207-syria-pounds-isis-bases-in-coordina
tion-with-iraq.ashx) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
70. "Facts About Sarin" (http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sarin/basics/facts.asp). Centers for Disease
Control. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20030414181911/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/s
arin/basics/facts.asp) from the original on 14 April 2003. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
71. Syria Used Chlorine in Bombs Against Civilians, Report Says (https://www.nytimes.com/2016/0
8/25/world/middleeast/syria-used-chlorine-in-bombs-against-civilians-report-says.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170422005553/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/25/
world/middleeast/syria-used-chlorine-in-bombs-against-civilians-report-says.html) 22 April
2017 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, Rick Gladstone, 24 August 2016.
Retrieved 25 August 2016.
72. Louisa Loveluck (9 May 2015). "UN inspectors find undeclared sarin-linked chemicals at
Syrian military site" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/
UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-linked-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html). The
Telegraph. London. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150518135811/http://www.telegra
ph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-link
ed-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html) from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 9 May
2015.
73. Carey, Glen. "U.S. Warns Syrian Forces Against Chemical Weapons in Idlib Fight" (https://ww
w.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-07/u-s-warns-syrian-forces-against-chemical-weapon
s-in-idlib-fight). www.bloomberg.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190608161831/
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-07/u-s-warns-syrian-forces-against-chemica
l-weapons-in-idlib-fight) from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
74. "Russia Clashes With Europeans Over Report on Syria Chemical Weapons Attacks" (https://ti
me.com/5822236/russia-syria-chemical-weapons-latamneh/). TIME. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
75. "Security Council briefing on Syria's use of Chemical Weapons" (https://www.gov.uk/governme
nt/speeches/security-council-briefing-on-syrias-use-of-chemical-weapons). GOV.UK. Retrieved
15 April 2020.
76. "Syria: Mounting Casualties from Cluster Munitions" (https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/16/syri
a-mounting-casualties-cluster-munitions). Human Rights Watch. 16 March 2013. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20161205135559/https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/16/syria-mountin
g-casualties-cluster-munitions) from the original on 5 December 2016. Retrieved 4 December
2016.
77. "Russia's Lethal Thermobaric Rocket Launchers: A Game Changer in Syria?" (http://nationalint
erest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria-14493). The
National Interest. 2 December 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161015203357/ht
tp://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launchers-coming-syria
-14493) from the original on 15 October 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
78. Dave Majumdar (2 December 2015). "Russia's Lethal Thermobaric Rocket Launchers: A Game
Changer in Syria?" (http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-l
aunchers-coming-syria-14493). The National Interest. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
161015203357/http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/russias-lethal-thermobaric-rocket-launc
hers-coming-syria-14493) from the original on 15 October 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
79. Syria rebels say Assad using 'mass-killing weapons' in Aleppo – Israel News, Ynetnews (http://
www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4266902,00.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20130712054611/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4266902,00.html) 12 July 2013 at
the Wayback Machine. Ynetnews.com (20 June 1995).
80. Cumming-Bruce, Nick (4 June 2013). "U.N. Panel Reports Increasing Brutality by Both Sides in
Syria" (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/middleeast/un-panel-reports-increasing-brut
ality-by-both-sides-in-syria.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0170225081427/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/middleeast/un-panel-reports-increa
sing-brutality-by-both-sides-in-syria.html) from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved
25 February 2017.
81. "Syria crisis: Incendiary bomb victims 'like the walking dead' " (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worl
d-23892594). BBC News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150407051917/http://www.b
bc.co.uk/news/world-23892594) from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
82. "Russia Delivers Kornet Anti-Tank Guided Missiles To Syria" (http://www.defenseworld.net/new
s/13790/Russia_Delivers_Kornet_Anti_Tank_Guided_Missiles_To_Syria). 20 August 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150824185345/http://www.defenseworld.net/news/137
90/Russia_Delivers_Kornet_Anti_Tank_Guided_Missiles_To_Syria) from the original on 24
August 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
83. "Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against
the Assad regime – Business Insider" (http://www.businessinsider.sg/syria-rebels-and-tow-miss
iles-2015-10/). Business Insider. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160215180526/http://
www.businessinsider.sg/syria-rebels-and-tow-missiles-2015-10/) from the original on 15
February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
84. Jeremy Binnie, Neil Gibson (8 April 2016). "US arms shipment to Syrian rebels detailed" (http://
www.janes.com/article/59374/us-arms-shipment-to-syrian-rebels-detailed). Jane's Defence
Weekly. IHS. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161205081205/http://www.janes.com/arti
cle/59374/us-arms-shipment-to-syrian-rebels-detailed) from the original on 5 December 2016.
Retrieved 3 December 2016.
85. "Iran says it hit targets in Syria with Zolfaghar ballistic missiles – Jane's 360" (http://www.janes.
com/article/71519/iran-says-it-hit-targets-in-syria-with-zolfaghar-ballistic-missiles). janes.com.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170619123538/http://www.janes.com/article/71519/ira
n-says-it-hit-targets-in-syria-with-zolfaghar-ballistic-missiles) from the original on 19 June 2017.
Retrieved 19 June 2017.
"Iran's Revolutionary Guard strikes Syria for Tehran attacks" (https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/18/
irans-revolutionary-guard-strikes-syria-for-tehran-attacks.html). CNBC. 18 June 2017. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170622173300/http://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/18/irans-revolutio
nary-guard-strikes-syria-for-tehran-attacks.html) from the original on 22 June 2017. Retrieved
15 September 2017.
86. Cohen, Gili (18 June 2017). "Iran Fires at Militants in Syria in First Use of Mid-range Missiles in
30 Years" (http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/iran/1.796422). Haaretz. Reuters,
Associated Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170618203414/http://www.haaretz.
com/middle-east-news/iran/1.796422) from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 18 June
2017.
87. "Syria's war may be the most documented ever. And yet, we know so little" (https://www.pri.org/
stories/2016-12-19/syrias-war-may-be-most-documented-ever-and-yet-we-know-so-little). PRI.
19 December 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170304115121/https://www.pri.or
g/stories/2016-12-19/syrias-war-may-be-most-documented-ever-and-yet-we-know-so-little)
from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
"Five years in Syria: History's most documented war" (http://www.haaretz.com/st/c/prod/eng/20
16/news/03/syria/). Haaretz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170312052613/http://ww
w.haaretz.com/st/c/prod/eng/2016/news/03/syria/) from the original on 12 March 2017.
Retrieved 4 March 2017.
88. Curt Nickisch (3 May 2013). "N.H. Family: Missing Journalist James Foley In Syrian Prison" (htt
p://www.wbur.org/2013/05/03/foley-family-syrian-prison). WBUR. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20141006105946/http://www.wbur.org/2013/05/03/foley-family-syrian-prison) from the
original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
89. Polly Mosendz. "ISIL Beheads American Photojournalist James Foley" (http://www.thewire.co
m/global/2014/08/isil-beheads-photojournalist-james-wright-foley/378802/). The Wire. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140928073108/http://www.thewire.com/global/2014/08/isil-behe
ads-photojournalist-james-wright-foley/378802/) from the original on 28 September 2014.
Retrieved 2 October 2014.
90. Martin Chulov. "Islamic State militants seize four more foreign hostages in Syria" (https://www.t
heguardian.com/world/2014/aug/20/islamic-state-isis-foreign-hostages-syria-aleppo?CMP=twt
_gu). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141009035842/http://www.thegua
rdian.com/world/2014/aug/20/islamic-state-isis-foreign-hostages-syria-aleppo?CMP=twt_gu)
from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
91. "James Foley's killers pose many threats to local, international journalists" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20140821181102/https://cpj.org/2014/08/james-foleys-killers-pose-many-threats-to-loc
al-in.php). Committee to Protect Journalists. 20 August 2014. Archived from the original (http://
www.cpj.org/2014/08/james-foleys-killers-pose-many-threats-to-local-in.php) on 21 August
2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
92. "Captured soldiers: They will kill us, if Hezbollah remains in Syria" (http://www.dailystar.com.lb/
News/Lebanon-News/2014/Aug-23/268253-captured-soldiers-they-will-kill-us-if-hezbollah-rem
ains-in-syria.ashx). The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20141006142104/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Aug-23/268253-ca
ptured-soldiers-they-will-kill-us-if-hezbollah-remains-in-syria.ashx) from the original on 6
October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
93. "UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/20
11/03/2011318231622114396.html). Al Jazeera. 18 March 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20120130034801/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201131823162
2114396.html) from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
94. "Minister Cannon Condemns Ongoing Violence in Yemen, Bahrain and Syria" (http://www.inter
national.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2011/113.aspx?lang=eng). Foreign Affairs, Trade
and Development Canada. 21 March 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015062613
0505/http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2011/113.aspx?lang=eng)
from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
95. "China and Russia veto UN resolution condemning Syria" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-
middle-east-15177114). BBC. 5 October 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018093
0172947/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15177114) from the original on 30
September 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
96. Behari, Elad (23 December 2011). "Syria: Sunnis Threatening to Massacre Minority Alawites"
(http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/151013). Arutz Sheva. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20120110110322/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/1
51013) from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
97. Sherlock, Ruth (7 April 2015). "In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-
Assad" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war
-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html). The Daily Telegraph. London.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150407102223/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/world
news/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-
al-Assad.html) from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
98. Karouny, Mariam (14 May 2013). "Syria Death Toll Likely As High As 120,000, Group Says" (htt
ps://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/14/us-syria-crisis-deaths-idUSBRE94D0L420130514).
Reuters. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131013022620/http://www.reuters.com/articl
e/2013/05/14/us-syria-crisis-deaths-idUSBRE94D0L420130514) from the original on 13
October 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
99. Dettmet, Jamie (19 November 2013). "Syria's Christians Flee Kidnappings, Rape, Executions"
(http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/11/19/syria-s-christians-flee-kidnappings-rape-exe
cutions.html). The Daily Beast. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131119224625/http://w
ww.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/11/19/syria-s-christians-flee-kidnappings-rape-executions.
html) from the original on 19 November 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2013.
00. Nelson, Lara (18 November 2015). "The Shia jihad and the death of Syria's army" (http://www.
middleeasteye.net/columns/shia-jihad-and-death-syria-s-army-1508759016). Middle East Eye.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161114052109/http://www.middleeasteye.net/column
s/shia-jihad-and-death-syria-s-army-1508759016) from the original on 14 November 2016.
Retrieved 11 October 2016. "Without the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and
Lebanese Hezbollah the army could not stand up. [For example, in "the largest and most
important military force for Assad in southern Syria" – Division 9,] Seventy percent of the troops
... are Iranian troops or Lebanese Hezbollah, the rest are shabiha. Only two to three percent are
regular Syrian soldiers."
01. Cave, Damein (9 August 2012). "Crime Wave Engulfs Syria as Its Cities Reel From War" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/middleeast/crime-wave-engulfs-syria-as-its-cities-reel-fr
om-war.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120813235006/ht
tp://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/middleeast/crime-wave-engulfs-syria-as-its-cities-reel-f
rom-war.html) from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
02. Kozak, Christopher (26 May 2015). "The Regime's Military Capabilities: Part 1" (http://iswsyria.
blogspot.co.uk/2015/05/the-regimes-military-capabilities-part-1.html). ISW. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150527120304/http://iswsyria.blogspot.co.uk/2015/05/the-regimes-military
-capabilities-part-1.html) from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2015. "Local NDF
commanders often engage in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and
organized crime. NDF members have been implicated in waves of murders, robberies, thefts,
kidnappings, and extortions throughout regime-held parts of Syria since the formation of the
organization in 2013."
03. Asher, Berman. "Criminalization of the Syrian Conflict" (http://www.understandingwar.org/articl
e/criminalization-syrian-conflict). Institute for the Study of War. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20121018102104/http://understandingwar.org/article/criminalization-syrian-conflict) from
the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
04. "Turkish strikes 'damage ancient temple' " (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42858
265). BBC News. 29 January 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180129222239/htt
p://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42858265) from the original on 29 January 2018.
Retrieved 30 January 2018.
05. Al Rifai, Diana; Haddad, Mohammed (17 March 2015). "What's left of Syria?" (http://www.aljaze
era.com/indepth/interactive/2015/03/left-syria-150317133753354.html). Al Jazeera. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20150320054413/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/201
5/03/left-syria-150317133753354.html) from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 21 March
2015.
06. Cunliffe, Emma. "Damage to the Soul: Syria's cultural heritage in conflict" (http://ghn.globalherit
agefund.com/uploads/documents/document_2107.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0120710192645/http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_2107.pdf)
10 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Durham University and the Global Heritage Fund. 1
May 2012.
07. Fisk, Robert. "Syria's ancient treasures pulverised" (https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/com
mentators/fisk/robert-fisk-syrias-ancient-treasures-pulverised-8007768.html) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20150310174644/http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/fisk/r
obert-fisk-syrias-ancient-treasures-pulverised-8007768.html) 10 March 2015 at the Wayback
Machine. The Independent. 5 August 2012.
08. Barnard, Anne (16 April 2014). "Syrian War Takes Heavy Toll at a Crossroad of Cultures" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/world/middleeast/syrian-war-takes-heavy-toll-at-a-crossroad-
of-cultures.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2014041723524
7/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/world/middleeast/syrian-war-takes-heavy-toll-at-a-crossr
oad-of-cultures.html) from the original on 17 April 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
09. "Palmyra's Temple of Bel destroyed, says UN" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-
34111092). BBC News. 1 September 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015090300
5143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34111092) from the original on 3
September 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
10. Said, H.; Raslan, Rasha; Sabbagh, Hazem (26 March 2016). "Palmyra Castle partially
damaged due to ISIS acts, plans to restore it to its former glory" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
160327133431/http://sana.sy/en/?p=72903). Syrian Arab News Agency. Archived from the
original (http://sana.sy/en/?p=72903) on 27 March 2016.
11. "Threats to Cultural Heritage in Iraq and Syria" (https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/0
9/232028.htm). US Department of State. 23 September 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170121130323/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/232028.htm) from the
original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
12. Hayrumyan, Naira (24 September 2014). "Middle East Terror: Memory of Armenian Genocide
victims targeted by ISIS militants" (http://www.armenianow.com/commentary/analysis/57070/ar
menia_church_syria_isis_aram_catholicos). ArmeniaNow. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20150905144120/http://www.armenianow.com/commentary/analysis/57070/armenia_churc
h_syria_isis_aram_catholicos) from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 3 September
2015.
13. "Report: Over 120 Syrian churches damaged by war since 2011" (http://www.hurriyetdailynews.
com/report-over-120-syrian-churches-damaged-by-war-since-2011-146451). 10 September
2019. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190915161623/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.co
m/report-over-120-syrian-churches-damaged-by-war-since-2011-146451) from the original on
15 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
14. David Batty (22 June 2013). "Syrian art smuggled from the midst of civil war to show in London"
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/22/syria-art-smuggled-exhibition-london-uk). The
Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161118114601/https://www.theguardian.co
m/world/2013/jun/22/syria-art-smuggled-exhibition-london-uk) from the original on 18
November 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
15. "Syrian Refugees in Lebanon (https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/09/05/world/middleea
st/Syrian-Refugees-in-Lebanon.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160722035626/
http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/09/05/world/middleeast/Syrian-Refugees-in-Lebanon.
html) 22 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine," The New York Times, 5 September 2013
16. "Syrian refugee camps in Turkish territory tracked by satellite" (http://www.astrium-geo.com/en/
4807-syrian-refugee-camps-in-turkish-territory-interactive-web-report). Astrium-geo.com.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141006120725/http://www.astrium-geo.com/en/4807-s
yrian-refugee-camps-in-turkish-territory-interactive-web-report) from the original on 6 October
2014. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
17. "Syrian refugees top 3 million, half of all Syrians displaced: U.N." (https://www.reuters.com/artic
le/2014/08/29/us-syria-crisis-refugees-idUSKBN0GT0AX20140829) Reuters. 29 August 2014.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131448/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/0
8/29/us-syria-crisis-refugees-idUSKBN0GT0AX20140829) from the original on 6 October 2014.
Retrieved 2 October 2014.
18. "Syrian Civil War Causes One-Third of Country's Christians to Flee Their Homes (http://www.al
gemeiner.com/2013/10/18/syrian-civil-war-causes-one-third-of-country%E2%80%99s-christian
s-to-flee-their-homes/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140912195403/http://www.alge
meiner.com/2013/10/18/syrian-civil-war-causes-one-third-of-country%E2%80%99s-christians-t
o-flee-their-homes/) 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine". The Algemeiner Journal. 18
October 2013.
19. "Syrian Refugees" (http://syrianrefugees.eu/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151109
061848/http://syrianrefugees.eu/) from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 13 January
2017.
20. "Fears for dozens of Australian children in refugee camps in Syria" (https://www.dailytelegraph.
com.au/news/national/fears-for-dozens-of-australian-children-in-refugee-camps-in-syria/video/a
0faaf3c066348655efc81b476cb269a). Daily Telegraph. 8 October 2019. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20191008132940/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/national/fears-for-d
ozens-of-australian-children-in-refugee-camps-in-syria/video/a0faaf3c066348655efc81b476cb
269a) from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2019.
21. "Children bearing the brunt of latest escalation in Syrian civil war" (https://localnews8.com/new
s/2020/02/02/children-bearing-the-brunt-of-last-escalation-in-syrian-civil-war/). Local News 8.
CNN. 2 February 2020. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
22. "Syrian Martyrs ‫( "ﺷﻬﺪاء ﺳﻮرﻳﺔ‬https://web.archive.org/web/20160404195534/http://www.syrians
huhada.com/?lang=en&). Archived from the original (http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&) on
4 April 2016.
23. "U.N.'s Syria death toll jumps dramatically to 60,000-plus" (http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/02/worl
d/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html). CNN. 3 January 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20130128123934/http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/02/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html)
from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
24. "Syria death toll at least 93,000, says UN" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-2288
6730). BBC News. 13 June 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180831134623/http
s://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22886730) from the original on 31 August 2018.
Retrieved 21 June 2018.
25. "More than 2,000 killed in Syria since Ramadan began" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130904
081753/http://www.timesofoman.com/News/Article-20325.aspx). Times of Oman. 25 July 2013.
Archived from the original (http://www.timesofoman.com/News/Article-20325.aspx) on 4
September 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
26. McDonnell, Patrick J. (13 June 2013). "U.N. says Syria death toll has likely surpassed 100,000"
(https://latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-death-toll-20130613,0,2953708.sto
ry). Los Angeles Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130712040500/http://www.lati
mes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-death-toll-20130613,0,2953708.story) from
the original on 12 July 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
27. "Syria crisis: Solidarity amid suffering in Homs" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east
-21228039). BBC. 29 January 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130129014319/ht
tp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21228039) from the original on 29 January 2013.
Retrieved 29 January 2013.
28. Enders, David (6 November 2012). "Deaths in Syria down from peak; army casualties
outpacing rebels' " (https://web.archive.org/web/20121113181246/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/
2012/11/06/173808/deaths-in-syria-down-from-peak.html). Archived from the original (http://ww
w.mcclatchydc.com/2012/11/06/173808/deaths-in-syria-down-from-peak.html) on 13 November
2012. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
29. "400 children killed in Syria unrest" (http://www.arabnews.com/node/405908). Arab News.
Geneva. 8 February 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121030115934/http://www
6.arabnews.com/node/405908) from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 28 January
2013.
30. Peralta, Eyder (3 February 2012). "Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained,
Tortured Children: The Two-Way" (https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/14634649
0/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children). NPR. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20150427232713/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346
490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children) from the original on 27
April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
31. Fahim, Kareem (5 January 2012). "Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says" (htt
ps://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-gr
oup-says.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130513032839/
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-
group-says.html) from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
32. "Fighting Continues in Syria" (http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/160978).
Arutz Sheva. 16 October 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121018001122/http://w
ww.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/160978) from the original on 18 October 2012.
Retrieved 25 October 2012.
33. "Statistics for the number of martyrs" (http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/home). Violations
Documentation Center in Syria. 3 June 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130303
155835/http://www.vdc-sy.org/index.php/en/home) from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved
26 August 2014.
34. Ian Black, Middle East editor. "Syrian regime document trove shows evidence of 'industrial
scale' killing of detainees" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/evidence-industrial
-scale-killing-syria-war-crimes?view=desktop). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20140203161117/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/evidence-industrial-sc
ale-killing-syria-war-crimes?view=desktop) from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved
21 May 2014.
35. Laura Smith-Spark, CNN (22 August 2014). "More than 191,000 dead in Syria conflict, U.N.
finds" (http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/22/world/meast/syria-conflict/index.html?hpt=imi_c2).
CNN. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150411102510/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/2
2/world/meast/syria-conflict/index.html?hpt=imi_c2) from the original on 11 April 2015.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
36. Black, Ian (11 February 2016). "Report on Syria conflict finds 11.5% of population killed or
injured" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/11/report-on-syria-conflict-finds-115-of-p
opulation-killed-or-injured). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160211082
555/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/11/report-on-syria-conflict-finds-115-of-populati
on-killed-or-injured) from the original on 11 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
37. "By Acknowledging the Death of 836 Forcibly-Disappeared Syrians at its hands, the Syrian
Regime Convicts itself, yet the Security Council Does Nothing" (http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/
english/By_Acknowledging_the_Death_of_836_Forcibly_Disappeared_Syrians_at_its_hands
_the_Syrian_Regime_Convicts_itself_en.pdf) (PDF). sn4hr.org. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20190701110829/http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/By_Acknowledging_the_Deat
h_of_836_Forcibly_Disappeared_Syrians_at_its_hands_the_Syrian_Regime_Convicts_itself_
en.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019. "Approximately 82,000
Forcibly Disappeared and 14,000 Died due to Torture at the hands of the Syrian Regime"
38. Lizzie Dearden (12 January 2016). "Madaya: The two other Syrian villages where 20,000
people have been starving under rebel siege" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/midd
le-east/madaya-the-two-other-syrian-villages-where-20000-people-have-been-starving-under-r
ebel-siege-a6807941.html). The Independent.
39. "Syria war: Huge bomb kills dozens of evacuees in Syria" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-m
iddle-east-39609288). BBC News. 15 April 2017.
40. " 'A new horror': 80 children among those slaughtered in suicide attack on refugee convoy" (htt
p://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-04-17/syrian-bus-bombing-kills-at-least-80-children/8447104).
ABC News. 17 April 2017.
41. "Four Syrian children killed in New Year's Day attack on school" (https://www.aljazeera.com/ne
ws/2020/01/syrian-children-killed-year-day-attack-school-200101152952912.html).
www.aljazeera.com. 1 January 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
42. "Children in Syria bearing brunt of intensifying violence, UNICEF" (https://www.infomigrants.ne
t/en/post/21848/children-in-syria-bearing-brunt-of-intensifying-violence-unicef). InfoMigrants. 2
January 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
43. Naquin, Leora (4 January 2020). "The death toll in Syria has exceeded 380,000 in almost nine
years: Monitor" (https://www.livemint.com/news/world/syria-death-toll-tops-380-000-in-almost-ni
ne-year-war-monitor-11578143112160.html). Technoea News. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
44. France-Press, Agence (18 January 2020). "Russia strike kill five civilians in northwest Syria" (h
ttps://www.brecorder.com/2020/01/18/562799/russia-strike-kill-five-civilians-in-northwest-syria/).
Business Recorder. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
45. "At Least 10 Civilians Reported Killed In Syria Air Strikes; Russia Denies Involvement" (https://
www.rferl.org/a/civilians-killed-in-syria-air-strikes-russia-denies-involvement/30406882.html).
RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
46. "Seven killed in Israeli strikes on Syria - monitor" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middl
e_east/syria-reports-israeli-raids-on-central-south-military-posts/2020/06/24/5b9184de-b5db-11
ea-9a1d-d3db1cbe07ce_story.html). The Washingtonpost. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
47. "UN must refer Syria war crimes to ICC: Amnesty" (https://web.archive.org/web/201308161939
17/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130313/un-must-refer-syria-war-crimes-icc-am
nesty). GlobalPost. Archived from the original (http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/13
0313/un-must-refer-syria-war-crimes-icc-amnesty) on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 20 March
2014.
48. Sir Desmond de Silva QC, former chief prosecutor of the special court for Sierra Leone, Sir
Geoffrey Nice QC, the former lead prosecutor of former Yugoslavian president Slobodan
Milošević, and Professor David Crane, who indicted President Charles Taylor of Liberia at the
Sierra Leone court
49. "foreignaffairs.house.gov" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141006083709/http://foreignaffairs.ho
use.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos). Archived from the original (http://foreignaffa
irs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved
2 October 2014.
50. "EXCLUSIVE: Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime" (http://edition.cnn.c
om/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/). CNN. 21 January 2014. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20140122155626/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-
photos-amanpour/) from the original on 22 January 2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
51. "Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic" (h
ttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-6
5_en.doc). 12 February 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140521155230/http://w
ww.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-65_en.
doc) from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
52. "UN decries use of sieges, starvation in Syrian military strategy | The New Age Online" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20150713014155/http://www.thenewage.co.za/120337-1020-53-UN_decr
ies_use_of_sieges_starvation_in_Syrian_military_strategy). The New Age. South Africa. 5
March 2014. Archived from the original (http://www.thenewage.co.za/120337-1020-53-UN_decr
ies_use_of_sieges_starvation_in_Syrian_military_strategy) on 13 July 2015. Retrieved
20 March 2014.
53. "Yarmouk update: Nusra's apparent return complicates UNRWA's hopes for food program" (htt
p://www.miamiherald.com/2014/03/03/3971810/yarmouk-update-nusras-apparent.html). 3
March 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140306193840/http://www.miamiherald.c
om/2014/03/03/3971810/yarmouk-update-nusras-apparent.html) from the original on 6 March
2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
54. Dyke, Joe (24 July 2015). "Yarmouk camp no longer besieged, UN rules" (http://www.irinnews.
org/report/101781/yarmouk-camp-no-longer-besieged-un-rules). IRIN. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20150727021032/http://www.irinnews.org/report/101781/yarmouk-camp-no-longe
r-besieged-un-rules) from the original on 27 July 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
55. Syrian cleric condemns 'flagrant looting' after regime captured Yarmouk (https://www.alaraby.c
o.uk/english/news/2018/5/23/syrian-cleric-condemns-flagrant-looting-after-regime-captured-yar
mouk) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180726233511/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/engli
sh/news/2018/5/23/syrian-cleric-condemns-flagrant-looting-after-regime-captured-yarmouk) 26
July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Al-Araby 24 May 2018
56. "Syria and Isis committing war crimes, says UN" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/
27/syria-isis-war-crimes-united-nations-un). The Guardian. 27 August 2014. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20140828220905/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/27/syria-isis
-war-crimes-united-nations-un) from the original on 28 August 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
57. "Under ISIS: Where Being Gay Is Punished by Death" (https://abcnews.go.com/International/isi
s-gay-punished-death/story?id=39826182). ABC News. 13 June 2016.
58. "syrias disappeared" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-29653526). BBC News.
11 November 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141111153912/http://www.bbc.co.
uk/news/world-middle-east-29653526) from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved
11 November 2014.
59. Loveluck, Louisa (5 November 2015). "Amnesty accuses Syrian regime of 'disappearing' tens
of thousands" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11976494/Amne
sty-accuses-Syrian-regime-of-disappearing-tens-of-thousands.html). The Daily Telegraph.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160427133904/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/world
news/middleeast/syria/11976494/Amnesty-accuses-Syrian-regime-of-disappearing-tens-of-tho
usands.html) from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2016.
60. Monitor: 60,000 dead in Syria government jails (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/tens-th
ousands-die-syria-government-prisons-160521173306410.html) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20160522125646/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/tens-thousands-die-syria-g
overnment-prisons-160521173306410.html) 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Al Jazeera
61. "Syria: 13,000 secretly hanged in Saydnaya military prison – shocking new report" (https://ww
w.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/syria-13000-secretly-hanged-saydnaya-military-prison-shocki
ng-new-report). Amnesty International. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017022204323
2/https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/syria-13000-secretly-hanged-saydnaya-military-pr
ison-shocking-new-report) from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
62. "US accuses Syria of killing thousands of prisoners and burning the dead bodies in large
crematorium outside Damascus" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-accuses-syria-of-
killing-thousands-of-prisoners-and-burning-the-dead-bodies-in-large-crematorium-outside-dam
ascus/2017/05/15/7cf95c30-3985-11e7-a59b-26e0451a96fd_story.html). The Washington
Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181219162710/https://www.washingtonpost.co
m/politics/us-accuses-syria-of-killing-thousands-of-prisoners-and-burning-the-dead-bodies-in-l
arge-crematorium-outside-damascus/2017/05/15/7cf95c30-3985-11e7-a59b-26e0451a96fd_st
ory.html) from the original on 19 December 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
Harris, Gardiner (15 May 2017). "Syria Prison Crematory Is Hiding Mass Executions, U.S.
Says" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-crematory.ht
ml). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170515221921/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/
world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-crematory.html) from the original on 15 May 2017.
Retrieved 15 May 2017.
63. Barnard, Gardiner Harris, Anne; Gladstone, Rick (15 May 2017). "Syrian Crematory Is Hiding
Mass Killings of Prisoners, U.S. Says" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/
syria-assad-prison-crematory.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20170515221921/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/world/middleeast/syria-assad-prison-
crematory.html) from the original on 15 May 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
64. "The ultimate assault: Charting Syria's use of rape to terrorize its people" (http://www.womenun
dersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/the-ultimate-assault-charting-syrias-use-of-rape-to-terrorize-its-p
eople). Women Under Siege. 11 July 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2012071502
0015/http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/the-ultimate-assault-charting-syrias-u
se-of-rape-to-terrorize-its-people) from the original on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
65. Chapman, Michael W. (7 October 2016). "ISIS Genocide of Yazidis: 'Girls As Young as 9 Were
Raped, As Were Pregnant Women' " (http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/michael-w-chapma
n/isis-genocide-yazidis-girls-young-9-were-raped-were-pregnant-women). CNS News.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191024125526/https://www.cnsnews.com/news/articl
e/michael-w-chapman/isis-genocide-yazidis-girls-young-9-were-raped-were-pregnant-women)
from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
66. Nebehay, Stephanie (11 September 2019). "UN investigators point to Syria war crimes" (https://
www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/6381058/un-investigators-point-to-syria-war-crimes/).
Newcastle Herald. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191019104703/https://www.newca
stleherald.com.au/story/6381058/un-investigators-point-to-syria-war-crimes/) from the original
on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
67. "Women, children in Syria continue to be kept in inhumane conditions: UN report" (https://www.
devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/666763-women-children-in-syria-continue-to-be-kept-in-inh
umane-conditions-un-report). Devdiscourse. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201910191
04702/https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/666763-women-children-in-syria-contin
ue-to-be-kept-in-inhumane-conditions-un-report) from the original on 19 October 2019.
Retrieved 11 September 2019.
68. Press, JAMEY KEATEN Associated (16 January 2020). "UN report lays out agonies faced by
Syrian children amid war" (https://local12.com/news/nation-world/un-report-lays-out-agonies-fa
ced-by-syrian-children-amid-war). WKRC. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
69. The Guardian inquiry stops short of directly blaming Russia over Idlib attacks
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/07/un-inquiry-stops-short-of-directly-blaming-
russia-over-idlib-attacks-syriatitle=UN inquiry stops short of directly blaming Russia over Idlib
attacks (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/07/un-inquiry-stops-short-of-directly-blami
ng-russia-over-idlib-attacks-syriatitle=UN) Check |url= value (help). Retrieved 7 April 2020.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
70. "Assad regime violence continues despite coronavirus" (https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/a
ssad-regime-violence-continues-despite-coronavirus/1820593). Anadolu Agency. Retrieved
27 April 2020.
71. "Syria violence 'a ticking time-bomb that must not be ignored': UN human rights chief" (https://n
ews.un.org/en/story/2020/05/1063562). UN News. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
72. "Syria: Assad regime attack kills 2 civilians in al-Bab" (https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syr
ia-assad-regime-attack-kills-2-civilians-in-al-bab/1917153). Anadolu Agency. Retrieved 21 July
2020.
73. "WHO warns of Syria disease threat" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-22766084). BBC. 4
June 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180930214050/https://www.bbc.co.uk/new
s/health-22766084) from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
74. United Nations. (9 November 2017). "Syrian conflict has now lasted longer than World War II –
UN humanitarian envoy". UN News Centre website (http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?Ne
wsID=58062) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171211233433/http://www.un.org/apps/
news/story.asp?NewsID=58062) 11 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10
December 2017.
75. "Rukban camp in Syria receives first aid in three months" (https://www.aljazeera.com/news/201
9/02/rukban-camp-syria-receives-aid-3-months-190207175321262.html). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20190321014358/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/rukban-camp-syri
a-receives-aid-3-months-190207175321262.html) from the original on 21 March 2019.
Retrieved 17 March 2019.
76. Sparrow, Annie (20 February 2014). "Syria's Polio Epidemic: The Suppressed Truth" (http://ww
w.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/feb/20/syrias-polio-epidemic-suppressed-truth/?insrc=hp
ma). New York Review. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140125214019/http://www.ny
books.com/articles/archives/2014/feb/20/syrias-polio-epidemic-suppressed-truth/?insrc=hpma)
from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 23 January 2014. "Even before the uprising, in
areas considered politically unsympathetic like Deir Ezzor, the government stopped
maintaining sanitation and safe-water services, and began withholding routine immunizations
for preventable childhood diseases. Once the war began, the government started ruthless
attacks on civilians in opposition-held areas, forcing millions to seek refuge in filthy, crowded,
and cold conditions."
77. "Syrians 'face unprecedented hunger amid impending COVID crisis' " (https://news.un.org/en/st
ory/2020/06/1067252). UN News. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
78. "UN launches biggest humanitarian appeal, fearing deepening of Syrian crisis" (http://reliefwe
b.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/un-launches-biggest-humanitarian-appeal-fearing-deepening-s
yrian-crisis). ReliefWeb. 16 December 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201602011
35117/http://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/un-launches-biggest-humanitarian-appeal-
fearing-deepening-syrian-crisis) from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
79. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 182 session 46 Strengthening of the
coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations on 19 December
1991
80. United Nations, Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) (http://reliefweb.int/re
port/syrian-arab-republic/revised-syria-humanitarian-assistance-response-plan-sharp-january)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130916000153/http://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-re
public/revised-syria-humanitarian-assistance-response-plan-sharp-january) 16 September
2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
81. "Syrian Arab Republic" (http://syria.unocha.org/). United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131109203428/http://sy
ria.unocha.org/) from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
82. UNOCHA. "Syrian Arab Republic – Civil Unrest 2013" (https://web.archive.org/web/201301212
10732/http://fts.unocha.org/pageloader.aspx?page=emerg-emergencyDetails&emergID=1630
3). Financial Tracking Service. Archived from the original (http://fts.unocha.org/pageloader.asp
x?page=emerg-emergencyDetails&emergID=16303) on 21 January 2013. Retrieved
19 September 2015.
83. "Syria crisis 'worsening' amid humanitarian funding shortfall, warns top UN relief official" (http
s://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=50436). UN News Centre. 26 March 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150724002123/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.as
p?NewsID=50436) from the original on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
84. "USAID/SYRIA" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130502071344/http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-
do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/where-we-work/syria). Archived from the
original (http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/
where-we-work/syria) on 2 May 2013.
85. "SYRIAN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF" (http://www.irusa.org/emergencies/syrian-humanitarian-re
lief/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130424123556/http://www.irusa.org/emergencie
s/syrian-humanitarian-relief/) from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
86. "Iran sending tonnes of flour daily to Syria: report" (https://web.archive.org/web/201303060123
57/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130303/iran-sending-tonnes-flour-daily-syria-r
eport). Agence France-Presse. 3 March 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.globalpost.
com/dispatch/news/afp/130303/iran-sending-tonnes-flour-daily-syria-report) on 6 March 2013.
87. "Revealed: how Syrian rebels seek medical help from an unlikely source in Israel" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20140219201141/http://www.thenational.ae/world/revealed-how-syrian-rebels-
seek-medical-help-from-an-unlikely-source-in-israel). 12 January 2014. Archived from the
original (http://www.thenational.ae/world/revealed-how-syrian-rebels-seek-medical-help-from-a
n-unlikely-source-in-israel) on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
88. "Humanitarian aid convoy departs to help Syrian refugees" (http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aTyp
e=haber&ArticleID=107584). 27 April 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2013051318
4120/http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=107584) from the original on 13
May 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
89. "Scores of families leave besieged Aleppo under Russia-Damascus plan" (https://www.reuters.
com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN10A0IM). Reuters. 30 July 2016. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20160803211733/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-
syria-aleppo-idUSKCN10A0IM) from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
90. "UN sends humanitarian aid to Idlib, NW Syria" (https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/un-sends
-humanitarian-aid-to-idlib-nw-syria/1780581). Anadolu Agency. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
91. "Syria: Aid Restrictions Hinder Covid-19 Response" (https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/28/syri
a-aid-restrictions-hinder-covid-19-response). Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
92. "WHO Should Stand By Appeal for Cross-Border Aid to Syria" (https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/
04/30/who-should-stand-appeal-cross-border-aid-syria). Human Rights Watch. Retrieved
30 April 2020.
93. Chulov, Martin (26 April 2018). "10m Syrians at risk of forfeiting homes under new property law"
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/26/10m-syrians-at-risk-of-forfeiting-homes-under-
new-property-law). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021708/http
s://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/26/10m-syrians-at-risk-of-forfeiting-homes-under-new
-property-law) from the original on 25 June 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
94. "Syria wants its citizens in Lebanon to return, help rebuild" (http://www.foxnews.com/world/201
8/06/04/syria-wants-its-citizens-in-lebanon-to-return-help-rebuild.html). 4 June 2018. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20180624232804/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2018/06/04/syria
-wants-its-citizens-in-lebanon-to-return-help-rebuild.html) from the original on 24 June 2018.
Retrieved 2 July 2018.
95. "Syrian state seizes opponents' property, rights activists say" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us
-mideast-crisis-syria-property-idUSKBN1OB0H3). 12 December 2018. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20181220230542/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-propert
y-idUSKBN1OB0H3) from the original on 20 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018 –
via www.reuters.com.
96. Erdogan says world cares more about Syria's oil than its children (https://wsau.com/news/articl
es/2019/dec/17/erdogan-urges-resettling-of-one-million-refugees-in-northern-syria-peace-zone/
967200/?refer-section=world) Tuesday, December 17, 2019.
97. Erdogan urges resettling of 1 million refugees in northern Syria (https://www.aljazeera.com/new
s/2019/12/erdogan-urges-resettling-1-million-refugees-northern-syria-191217100317971.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191217145212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/
12/erdogan-urges-resettling-1-million-refugees-northern-syria-191217100317971.html) 17
December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Turkish president says formula needed to allow
refugees to return on a voluntary basis but in 'short period of time'.
98. Migrant arrivals in Europe from Turkey nearly double in 2019 (https://www.dw.com/en/migrant-a
rrivals-in-europe-from-turkey-nearly-double-in-2019/a-51702064) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20191217170029/https://www.dw.com/en/migrant-arrivals-in-europe-from-turkey-nearl
y-double-in-2019/a-51702064) 17 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. According to a
confidential EU report, 70,000 migrants have crossed from Turkey to the EU this year. The
numbers raise questions about whether an EU-Turkey refugee deal is unravelling.
99. Turkish President Erdoğan calls for resettlement of 1M refugees in northern Syria (https://thehill.
com/policy/international/europe/474863-turkeys-erdogan-calls-for-resettlement-of-1m-refugees-
in-northern) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020607/https://thehill.com/policy/in
ternational/europe/474863-turkeys-erdogan-calls-for-resettlement-of-1m-refugees-in-northern)
18 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine BY MARTY JOHNSON - 12/17/19.
00. Lack of refugee aid forced Turkey into Syria operation: Erdogan (https://www.channelnewsasia.
com/news/world/lack-refugee-aid-forced-turkey-syria-operation-erdogan-12191402) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020301/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/l
ack-refugee-aid-forced-turkey-syria-operation-erdogan-12191402) 18 December 2019 at the
Wayback Machine, 17 Dec 2019.
01. Erdoğan: Return of Syrian refugees as crucial as fight against terrorism (https://www.dailysaba
h.com/diplomacy/2019/12/17/erdogan-return-of-syrian-refugees-as-crucial-as-fight-against-terro
rism) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020459/https://www.dailysabah.com/dipl
omacy/2019/12/17/erdogan-return-of-syrian-refugees-as-crucial-as-fight-against-terrorism) 18
December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Daily Sabah with AFP, Instanbul, December 17,
2019.
02. Erdogan renews call for 'safe zone' support as Syrians return (https://www.al-monitor.com/puls
e/originals/2019/12/erdogan-renew-call-safe-zone-syria.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20191218020658/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/erdogan-renew-call-
safe-zone-syria.html) 18 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Ayla Jean Yackley
December 17, 2019.
03. Turkey says EU should increase funding of Syrian refugees beyond $6.6bn pledged (https://ww
w.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-says-eu-should-increase-funding-syrian-refugees-beyond-66
bn-pledged) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191217170022/https://www.middleeastey
e.net/news/turkey-says-eu-should-increase-funding-syrian-refugees-beyond-66bn-pledged) 17
December 2019 at the Wayback Machine.EU funds support 3.5 million Syrian refugees in
Turkey, as Syria's civil war has killed hundreds of thousands and pushed millions from their
homes.
04. Migrant wave calls EU-Turkey deal into question - report (https://ahvalnews.com/migrants/migra
nt-wave-calls-eu-turkey-deal-question-report) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191217
170029/https://ahvalnews.com/migrants/migrant-wave-calls-eu-turkey-deal-question-report) 17
December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Dec 17 2019 The number of migrants crossing from
Turkey into Europe doubled in 2019 to 70,000, raising questions about whether the 2016 EU-
Turkey migrant deal is still effective, Deutsche Welle reported, citing a confidential EU report.
05. Turkish official says EU should boost funding of Syrian refugees (https://www.middleeastmonito
r.com/20191215-turkish-official-says-eu-should-boost-funding-of-syrian-refugees/) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20191218020459/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20191215-turki
sh-official-says-eu-should-boost-funding-of-syrian-refugees/) 18 December 2019 at the
Wayback Machine December 15, 2019.
06. "Sanctions On Damascus And Tehran Have Led To Serious Fuel Shortages In Syria" (https://e
n.radiofarda.com/a/sanctions-on-damascus-and-tehran-have-led-to-serious-fuel-shortages-in-s
yria/29880330.html). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190414223031/https://en.radiofar
da.com/a/sanctions-on-damascus-and-tehran-have-led-to-serious-fuel-shortages-in-syria/2988
0330.html) from the original on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
07. "Syrians will reconstruct country after war themselves, Assad says" (http://tass.com/world/1010
788). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180627192505/http://tass.com/world/1010788)
from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
08. Pike, John. "Iran will remain on Syria side in post-war reconstruction: VP" (https://www.globalse
curity.org/wmd/library/news/syria/2018/syria-180619-presstv02.htm). globalsecurity.org.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021550/https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/lib
rary/news/syria/2018/syria-180619-presstv02.htm) from the original on 25 June 2018. Retrieved
2 July 2018.
09. "Archived copy" (https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iran-syria-electricity/iran-strikes-initial-deal-to-
rebuild-syrian-power-grid-idUKKBN1XC07L). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191102
122614/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iran-syria-electricity/iran-strikes-initial-deal-to-rebuild-s
yrian-power-grid-idUKKBN1XC07L) from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved
2 November 2019.
10. Sayigh, Yezid. "Reconstructing Syria: The need to break the mould" (https://www.aljazeera.co
m/indepth/opinion/2016/06/reconstructing-syria-break-mold-160614080700416.html). Al
Jazeera. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021554/https://www.aljazeera.com/in
depth/opinion/2016/06/reconstructing-syria-break-mold-160614080700416.html) from the
original on 25 June 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
11. " "Upon land soaked with the blood": on the architects planning the reconstruction of Syria –
CityMetric" (https://www.citymetric.com/fabric/upon-land-soaked-blood-architects-planning-reco
nstruction-syria-4298). www.citymetric.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018121522
3511/https://www.citymetric.com/fabric/upon-land-soaked-blood-architects-planning-reconstruct
ion-syria-4298) from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
12. "Report: Over 120 churches damaged war in Syria since 2011" (https://www.citynews1130.co
m/2019/09/09/report-over-120-churches-damaged-war-in-syria-since-2011/).
www.citynews1130.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190921075911/https://www.c
itynews1130.com/2019/09/09/report-over-120-churches-damaged-war-in-syria-since-2011/)
from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
13. Russia to modernize Syria port, build railway across Syria to Persian Gulf (https://www.timesofi
srael.com/russia-to-modernize-syria-port-build-railway-across-syria-to-persian-gulf/) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20191218144315/https://www.timesofisrael.com/russia-to-moderni
ze-syria-port-build-railway-across-syria-to-persian-gulf/) 18 December 2019 at the Wayback
Machine. Major commercial projects could potentially make it easier for Tehran to increase its
influence in Israel's northeastern neighbor.
14. "UPDATE 1-Russia to invest $500 mln in Syrian port, build grain hub -Interfax - Reuters" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191218142152/https://www.reuters.com/article/syria-security-russia-
grains/update-1-russia-to-invest-500-mln-in-syrian-port-build-grain-hub-interfax-idUSL8N28R3
2J). 18 December 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.reuters.com/article/syria-securit
y-russia-grains/update-1-russia-to-invest-500-mln-in-syrian-port-build-grain-hub-interfax-idUSL
8N28R32J) on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
15. "5 Russian-Syrian Projects Announced This Week - The Moscow Times" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20191218142118/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/12/18/5-russian-syrian-projec
ts-announced-this-week-a68655). 18 December 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.t
hemoscowtimes.com/2019/12/18/5-russian-syrian-projects-announced-this-week-a68655) on
18 December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
16. "Syria hands oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms - Oil & Gas 360" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20191218143018/https://www.oilandgas360.com/syria-hands-oil-exploration-contrac
ts-to-two-russian-firms/). 18 December 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.oilandgas3
60.com/syria-hands-oil-exploration-contracts-to-two-russian-firms/) on 18 December 2019.
Retrieved 15 January 2020.
17. "Syria in 'serious dialogue' with China about joining Belt and Road initiative, says Assad" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191217125043/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/12/16/syria-
serious-dialogue-china-joining-belt-road-initiative-says/). 17 December 2019. Archived from the
original (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/12/16/syria-serious-dialogue-china-joining-bel
t-road-initiative-says/) on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
18. "Syria Reaches Out To Join China's Belt & Road Initiative, December 17, 2019Posted bySilk
Road Briefing" (https://www.silkroadbriefing.com/news/2019/12/17/syria-reaches-join-chinas-b
elt-road-initiative/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191218142838/https://www.silkroa
dbriefing.com/news/2019/12/17/syria-reaches-join-chinas-belt-road-initiative/) from the original
on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
19. Lundgren, Magnus (2016). "Mediation in Syria: initiatives, strategies, and obstacles, 2011–
2016" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303312425). Contemporary Security Policy.
37 (2): 273–288. doi:10.1080/13523260.2016.1192377 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13523260.2
016.1192377). S2CID 156447200 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156447200).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000757/https://www.researchgate.net/publicati
on/303312425_Mediation_in_Syria_Initiatives_strategies_and_obstacles_2011-2016) from the
original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
20. "Syria's Assad says he will not negotiate with armed groups" (https://www.reuters.com/article/u
s-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0TU2F920151211). Reuters. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170421124913/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKBN0TU2F9
20151211) from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
"Assad's priority to defeat 'terrorism' before elections: Russian lawmaker" (https://www.reuters.c
om/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-election-idUSKCN0SJ05R20151025). Reuters. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20170224201836/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syri
a-election-idUSKCN0SJ05R20151025) from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved
2 July 2017.
21. "U.N. announces start of Syria peace talks as government troops advance" (https://www.reuter
s.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VA2OT). Reuters. 1 February 2016. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20160201232558/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-
syria-idUSKCN0VA2OT) from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
22. "Envoy suspended Syria talks over Russian escalation: U.N. official" (https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-idUSKCN0VC2U7). Reuters. 3 February 2016. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20160205005150/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria
-un-idUSKCN0VC2U7) from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
23. "Syria's Assad says hopes Geneva talks lead to concrete results: Kremlin" (https://www.reuters.
com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-russia-idUSKCN0WG24T). Reuters. 14 March 2016.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170215045646/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mide
ast-crisis-syria-assad-russia-idUSKCN0WG24T) from the original on 15 February 2017.
Retrieved 2 July 2017.
"Syria talks to tackle Bashar al-Assad's presidency" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/03/s
yria-talks-tackle-bashar-al-assad-presidency-160313090906103.html). Al Jazeera. Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20160315183154/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/03/syria-talks
-tackle-bashar-al-assad-presidency-160313090906103.html) from the original on 15 March
2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
24. "Russian negotiator positive after 'birth' of Astana Syria" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mid
east-crisis-syria-russia-idUSKBN15820K). Reuters. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
70215042019/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-idUSKBN15820K)
from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
25. РФ, Турция и Иран подписали меморандум о создании в Сирии зон деэскалации (http://w
ww.interfax.ru/world/561157) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170623161919/http://ww
w.interfax.ru/world/561157) 23 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine Interfax, 4 May 2017.
26. "Russia, Turkey and Iran continue cooperation on de-escalation zones in Syria" (http://tass.co
m/world/953004). TASS. 23 June 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017062513170
8/http://tass.com/world/953004) from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
27. "Russia accuses US, Syria rebels of blocking refugee evacuation" (http://www.jordantimes.co
m/news/region/russia-accuses-us-syria-rebels-blocking-refugee-evacuation). Jordan Times. 18
September 2019. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190919182324/http://jordantimes.co
m/news/region/russia-accuses-us-syria-rebels-blocking-refugee-evacuation) from the original
on 19 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
28. Batrawy, Aya (29 September 2019). "Syria demands US, Turkish forces withdraw" (https://www.
newcastleherald.com.au/story/6411303/syria-demands-us-turkish-forces-withdraw/). Newcastle
Herald. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190929135050/https://www.newcastleherald.c
om.au/story/6411303/syria-demands-us-turkish-forces-withdraw/) from the original on 29
September 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
29. "Turkey to strengthen efforts for Syria safe zone, says Security Council" (https://ahvalnews.com/
turkey-defence/turkey-strengthen-efforts-syria-safe-zone-says-security-council). Ahval.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191001135727/https://ahvalnews.com/turkey-defence/
turkey-strengthen-efforts-syria-safe-zone-says-security-council) from the original on 1 October
2019. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
30. "US Avoids War With Turkey as Trump Pulls Troops Out of Syria" (https://moneymaven.io/misht
alk/economics/us-avoids-war-with-turkey-as-trump-pulls-troops-out-of-syria-5zYYLH8dQEmrvy
ZuU5KFbg/). Mish Talk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191007142609/https://money
maven.io/mishtalk/economics/us-avoids-war-with-turkey-as-trump-pulls-troops-out-of-syria-5zY
YLH8dQEmrvyZuU5KFbg/) from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
31. Russia calls Turkey's invasion of north Syria 'unacceptable.' (https://www.irishtimes.com/news/
world/middle-east/russia-calls-turkey-s-invasion-of-north-syria-unacceptable-1.4051499)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191022143750/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/worl
d/middle-east/russia-calls-turkey-s-invasion-of-north-syria-unacceptable-1.4051499) 22
October 2019 at the Wayback Machine Strongest words yet from Assad-supporting Moscow
heaps pressure on Ankara. Tue, Oct 15, 2019,Henry Foy, Laura Pitel, Chloe Cornish
32. "THE NEW MIDDLE EAST: U.S. MILITARY, RUSSIA'S DIPLOMACY AND CHINA'S MONEY,
BY TOM O'CONNOR ON 10/22/19" (https://www.newsweek.com/new-mideast-us-russia-china-
1465846). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191127212746/https://www.newsweek.co
m/new-mideast-us-russia-china-1465846) from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved
18 December 2019.
33. "Russia deploys troops to Turkey-Syria border" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-
50152235). 23 October 2019. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191211112121/https://w
ww.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50152235) from the original on 11 December 2019.
Retrieved 24 October 2019.
34. Turkey and Russia agree on deal over buffer zone in northern Syria (https://www.theguardian.c
om/world/2019/oct/22/turkey-and-russia-agree-deal-over-buffer-zone-in-northern-syria)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191214115348/https://www.theguardian.com/world/20
19/oct/22/turkey-and-russia-agree-deal-over-buffer-zone-in-northern-syria) 14 December 2019
at the Wayback Machine. Erdoğan hails agreement with Putin in which Kurdish fighters will be
moved from border area. guardian.com.
35. "Kurdish Reaction To Turkey-Russia Deal To Patrol Northern Syria" (https://www.npr.org/2019/1
0/23/772557773/kurdish-reaction-to-turkey-russia-deal-to-patrol-northern-syria). NPR.org.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191106112818/https://www.npr.org/2019/10/23/77255
7773/kurdish-reaction-to-turkey-russia-deal-to-patrol-northern-syria) from the original on 6
November 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
36. "SDF Agrees to Sochi Deal for Northern Syria" (https://syrianobserver.com/EN/news/53885/sdf-
agrees-to-sochi-deal-for-northern-syria.html). The Syrian Observer. 28 October 2019. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20191105093347/https://syrianobserver.com/EN/news/53885/sdf-
agrees-to-sochi-deal-for-northern-syria.html) from the original on 5 November 2019. Retrieved
28 October 2019.
37. Staff, Editorial (28 October 2019). "Syrian Kurds say pulling out from entire length of Turkey
border" (https://ekurd.net/syrian-kurds-say-pulling-2019-10-28). Kurd Net - Ekurd.net Daily
News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191209050826/https://ekurd.net/syrian-kurds-s
ay-pulling-2019-10-28) from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
38. Turkey and Russia redraw the map in northeast Syria (https://mondediplo.com/2019/11/02turke
y) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191223160415/https://mondediplo.com/2019/11/02t
urkey) 23 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. With Operation Peace Spring, Turkey has
gained control of part of northeast Syria, creating a buffer zone against Kurdish-led forces
where it will be able to settle one million Syrian refugees. The Sochi agreement with Russia
confirms Turkey's influence over the border zone, and may allow Assad's government to regain
control of land held until now by the Kurds. Nov. 2019.
39. Fahim, Kareem; DeYoung. "Russia and Turkey reach deal to push Kurdish forces out of zone in
northern Syria" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/turkeys-erdogan-meets-wi
th-putin-in-russia-to-discuss-syrian-operation/2019/10/22/764abcea-f43f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82
dbb_story.html). Washington Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191212022648/http
s://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/turkeys-erdogan-meets-with-putin-in-russia-to-
discuss-syrian-operation/2019/10/22/764abcea-f43f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html) from
the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
40. Fraser, Suzan; AP, Vladimir Isachenkov |. "Russia, Turkey seal power in northeast Syria with
new accord" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/german-defense-minister-propose
s-security-zone-for-syria/2019/10/22/19af90b8-f49f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html).
Washington Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191024130353/https://www.washin
gtonpost.com/world/europe/german-defense-minister-proposes-security-zone-for-syria/2019/1
0/22/19af90b8-f49f-11e9-b2d2-1f37c9d82dbb_story.html) from the original on 24 October 2019.
Retrieved 24 October 2019.
41. EDT, Tom O'Connor On 10/23/19 at 11:49 AM (23 October 2019). "Russia shows off new Syria
map, sends troops to border after its deal with Turkey" (https://www.newsweek.com/russia-syria
-map-troops-deal-turkey-1467252). Newsweek. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019112
5191513/https://www.newsweek.com/russia-syria-map-troops-deal-turkey-1467252) from the
original on 25 November 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
42. Soylu, Ragıp (22 October 2019). "LATEST — Here is the complete text of Turkish, Russian
agreement on Northern Syria, that pushed YPG 30km from Turkish, Syria
borderpic.twitter.com/jwiOurbfa3" (https://twitter.com/ragipsoylu/status/1186692319703130119).
@ragipsoylu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191127024059/https://twitter.com/ragips
oylu/status/1186692319703130119) from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved
24 October 2019.
43. The Sochi Agreement And Its Implications (https://lobelog.com/the-sochi-agreement-and-its-im
plications/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191210185003/https://lobelog.com/the-soc
hi-agreement-and-its-implications/) 10 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine OCTOBER
25, 2019.
44. "Turkey v Syria's Kurds: The short, medium and long story" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-m
iddle-east-49963649). BBC News. 23 October 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2020. Contains
an explanatory map of the buffer zone.
45. "ACT Alliance Call for Action: Jordan, Syria and Lebanon (18 December 2019) REPORTfrom
ACT AlliancePublished on 18 Dec 2019" (https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/act-all
iance-call-action-jordan-syria-and-lebanon-18-december-2019). Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20191218143247/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/act-alliance-call-action
-jordan-syria-and-lebanon-18-december-2019) from the original on 18 December 2019.
Retrieved 18 December 2019.
46. Winter threatens the IDPs in the Washokani Camp (https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/w
inter-threatens-the-idps-in-the-washokani-camp-39991) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20191211032029/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/winter-threatens-the-idps-in-the-wa
shokani-camp-39991) 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine.For the displaced people in
northern and eastern Syria, winter is a torture: many set up for those seeking shelter have
already collapsed due to rain and wind. Almost all international aid organisations are watching
the misery. ANF HESEKÊ Tuesday, 10 Dec 2019.
47. Residents in northeast Syria brace for winter as oil smugglers thrive (https://www.al-monitor.co
m/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-oil-smuggling-hyena-sdf-deir-ezzor-tankers.html) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191219144104/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/
syria-oil-smuggling-hyena-sdf-deir-ezzor-tankers.html) 19 December 2019 at the Wayback
Machine, by Dan Wilkofsky December 18, 2019.
48. Over 3500 refugees accommodated in the Washokani camp (https://anfenglishmobile.com/roja
va-syria/over-3500-refugees-accommodated-in-the-washokani-camp-39924) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20191211162619/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/over-3500-ref
ugees-accommodated-in-the-washokani-camp-39924) 11 December 2019 at the Wayback
Machine. The Washokani camp, set up by the autonomous administration of North-East Syria
near Hesekê, now hosts 3566 people who have fled the Turkish occupation troops in
Serêkaniyê. ANF HESEKÊ Saturday, 7 Dec 2019.
49. No help for people displaced by the Turkish invasion (https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syri
a/no-help-for-people-displaced-by-the-turkish-invasion-39771) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20191211162755/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/no-help-for-people-displace
d-by-the-turkish-invasion-39771) 11 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. More than 2,500
people now live in the northern Syrian camp Washokani who had to flee due to the Turkish
occupation war. No help has arrived from international organisations yet. ANF HESEKE
Sunday, 1 Dec 2019.
50. Ignorance of aid organisations exacerbates the situation of IDPs (https://anfenglishmobile.com/r
ojava-syria/ignorance-of-aid-organisations-exacerbates-the-situation-of-idps-39283) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162618/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/ignora
nce-of-aid-organisations-exacerbates-the-situation-of-idps-39283) 11 December 2019 at the
Wayback Machine Hundreds of thousands have fled home due to the attacks of the AKP
government and its gangs on Northern Syria. The living conditions of the refugees are being
exacerbated by the ignorance of international aid organisations. ANF HESEKE Wednesday, 13
Nov 2019.
51. AM, Allison Bray-31 December 2019 02:30. "Fifty Syrian refugees promised the warmest of
Irish welcomes" (https://www.herald.ie/news/fifty-syrian-refugees-promised-the-warmest-of-irish
-welcomes-38823817.html). Herald.ie. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
52. "Clash at UN Security Council over cross-border aid for Syria | Russia News | Al Jazeera" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191219144720/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/19121906
4903066.html). 19 December 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.aljazeera.com/new
s/2019/12/191219064903066.html) on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
53. "Syria, January 2020 Monthly Forecast : Security Council Report" (https://www.securitycouncilr
eport.org/monthly-forecast/2020-01/syria-15.php). www.securitycouncilreport.org. Retrieved
15 January 2020.
54. "UN: Ability to Get Lifesaving Aid to 4 Million Syrians at Risk| Voice of America - English" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191219142307/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/un-ability-get
-lifesaving-aid-4-million-syrians-risk). 19 December 2019. Archived from the original (https://ww
w.voanews.com/middle-east/un-ability-get-lifesaving-aid-4-million-syrians-risk) on 19
December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
55. "Russia, backed by China, casts 14th U.N. veto on Syria to block cross-border aid - Reuters" (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20191223150638/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-u
n/russia-backed-by-china-casts-14th-u-n-veto-on-syria-to-block-cross-border-aid-idUSKBN1YO
23V). 23 December 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-s
ecurity-un/russia-backed-by-china-casts-14th-u-n-veto-on-syria-to-block-cross-border-aid-idUS
KBN1YO23V) on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
56. "UN defeats rival resolutions to keep Syria cross-border aid" (https://web.archive.org/web/2019
1223150640/https://apnews.com/e3d23c9f8ecdb2a146b55f3464d15660). 23 December 2019.
Archived from the original (https://apnews.com/e3d23c9f8ecdb2a146b55f3464d15660) on 23
December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
57. US slams China, Russia veto on humanitarian aid to Syria (https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-
crisis/2019/12/22/us-slams-china-russia-veto-on-humanitarian-aid-to-syria) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20191223151013/https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2019/12/22/us-sl
ams-china-russia-veto-on-humanitarian-aid-to-syria) 23 December 2019 at the Wayback
Machine. Daily Sabah with AFP, Instanbul, December 22, 2019.
58. Russia, China block extension of cross-borderhumanitarian aid for millions of Syrians (https://w
ww.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2019/12/21/russia-china-block-extension-of-syria-cross-border-
aid) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191224023758/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/
news/2019/12/21/russia-china-block-extension-of-syria-cross-border-aid) 24 December 2019 at
the Wayback Machine, alaraby.co.uk
59. Mansour, Aiman (26 December 2019). "Could Congress' latest Syria sanctions bill backfire?" (h
ttps://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-sanctions-caesar-bill-economy-depend
ency-iran.html). Al-Monitor. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
60. "U.S. Adds Bevy of Sanctions in Defense Authorization Law | Kharon" (https://brief.kharon.com/
updates/us-adds-bevy-of-sanctions-in-defense-authorization-law/). brief.kharon.com. Retrieved
15 January 2020.
61. EST, Tom O'Connor On 12/17/19 at 1:17 PM (17 December 2019). "Syria prepares for a major
offensive as the U.S. votes for new sanctions on Assad, Russia and Iran" (https://www.newswe
ek.com/syria-prepares-massive-offensive-us-votes-new-sanctions-assad-russia-iran-1477752).
Newsweek. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
62. "What's the 'Caesar Act' in Trump's $738bn defence policy bill?" (http://www.middleeasteye.net/
news/whats-caesar-act-donald-trumps-738bn-defence-policy-bill). Middle East Eye. Retrieved
17 January 2020.
63. "Trump administration lays out case against Senate bill that would levy Turkey sanctions" (http
s://www.axios.com/trump-congress-turkey-sanctions-russia-aab99e82-0df8-4575-968c-923f6cf
50fc9.html). Axios. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
64. "US Congress approves bill to impose sweeping sanctions against Syrian government" (http://
www.middleeasteye.net/news/us-congress-approves-measure-sweeping-sanctions-against-syr
ian-government). Middle East Eye. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
65. Oula A. Alrifai (29 December 2019). "Assad is growing stronger under Trump's nonexistent
Syria policy" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/12/29/assad-is-growing-stronger
-under-trumps-nonexistent-syria-policy/). Washington Post.
66. Angus McDowall (4 September 2018). "Long reach of U.S. sanctions hits Syria reconstruction"
(https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-sanctions-idUSKCN1LI06Z). Reuters.
67. "Caesar Act: economic chokehold to adjust political behavior" (https://english.enabbaladi.net/ar
chives/2019/12/caesar-act-economic-chokehold-to-adjust-political-behavior/). Enab Baladi. 25
December 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
68. "Syria war: New US sanctions target Assad government's foreign backers" (https://www.bbc.co
m/news/world-middle-east-53076994). BBC News. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
69. "Special Representative for Syria Engagement James Jeffrey On Syria Caesar Act
Designations" (https://www.state.gov/special-representative-for-syria-engagement-james-jeffrey
-on-syria-caesar-act-designations/). United States Department of States. Retrieved 17 June
2020.
70. Russia-backed Syria constitution talks begin in Geneva (https://www.theguardian.com/world/20
19/oct/30/russia-backed-syria-constitution-talks-begin-in-geneva) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20191226003513/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/30/russia-backed-syria
-constitution-talks-begin-in-geneva) 26 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Patrick
Wintour, Wed 30 Oct 2019.
71. Regime continues to violate Sochi deal amid diplomatic efforts for political solution in Syria (htt
ps://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2019/12/10/regime-continues-to-violate-sochi-deal-amid
-diplomatic-efforts-for-political-solution-in-syria) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019121
0230504/https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2019/12/10/regime-continues-to-violate-soc
hi-deal-amid-diplomatic-efforts-for-political-solution-in-syria) 10 December 2019 at the
Wayback Machine. Daily Sabah, Instanbul, December 10, 2019.
72. EU condemns Turkey again while sticking to its position on the Kurdish administration in north-
east Syria (https://www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/eu-affairs/84361/eu-condemns-turkey-agai
n-while-sticking-to-its-position-on-the-kurdish-administration-in-north-east-syria/) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191218020920/https://www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/eu-affairs/8
4361/eu-condemns-turkey-again-while-sticking-to-its-position-on-the-kurdish-administration-in-
north-east-syria/) 18 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Tuesday, 17 December 2019.
73. Lister (2015), p. 154.
74. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), p. 89.
75. " 'Rojava' no longer exists, 'Northern Syria' adopted instead" (https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/ne
ws/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-Rojava--no-longer-exists---Northern-Syria--adopte
d-instead-). Kurdistan24. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191114141412/https://www.k
urdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-rojava--no-longer-exists---nort
hern-syria--adopted-instead-) from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 19 December
2019.
76. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. 11, 95.
77. Zabad (2017), pp. 219, 228.
78. "ANALYSIS: 'This is a new Syria, not a new Kurdistan' " (http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/a
nalysis-kurds-syria-rojava-1925945786). MiddleEastEye. 21 March 2016. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180922211744/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-kurds-syria-
rojava-1925945786) from the original on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
79. "Syrian Kurdish Official to Sputnik: 'We Won't Allow Dismemberment of Syria' " (http://sputnikne
ws.com/middleeast/20160712/1042855292/syrian-kurds-do-not-want-fragmentation.html).
Sputnis News. 12 July 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160818061324/http://spu
tniknews.com/middleeast/20160712/1042855292/syrian-kurds-do-not-want-fragmentation.html)
from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
80. "KRG: Elections in Jazira are Not Acceptable" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150316122001/h
ttp://basnews.com/en/news/2015/03/14/krg-elections-in-jazira-are-not-acceptable/). Basnews.
14 March 2015. Archived from the original (http://basnews.com/en/news/2015/03/14/krg-electio
ns-in-jazira-are-not-acceptable/) on 16 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
81. "Syrian Kurds point finger at Western-backed opposition" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mi
deast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUSKCN0YE2NI). Reuters. 23 May 2016. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20190402083032/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUS
KCN0YE2NI) from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
82. "Russia finishes draft for new Syria constitution" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016080709205
4/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567021-russia-finishes-draft-for-new-syria-constit
ution-report). Now.MMedia/Al-Akhbar. 24 May 2016. Archived from the original (https://now.mm
edia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567021-russia-finishes-draft-for-new-syria-constitution-report) on 7
August 2016.
83. "Syria rejects Russian proposal for Kurdish federation" (http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/origina
ls/2016/10/turkey-russia-mediates-between-kurds-and-assad.html). Al-Monitor. 24 October
2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191223143954/https://www.al-monitor.com/puls
e/originals/2016/10/turkey-russia-mediates-between-kurds-and-assad.html) from the original on
23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
84. Sam Heller (30 June 2017). "The Signal in Syria's Noise" (https://warontherocks.com/2017/06/t
he-signal-in-syrias-noise/). warontherocks.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017063
0154243/https://warontherocks.com/2017/06/the-signal-in-syrias-noise/) from the original on 30
June 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
85. "Syria to consider granting Kurds greater autonomy" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/s
yria-granting-kurds-greater-autonomy-170926121821968.html). Al Jazeera. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20171228052604/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/syria-granting-k
urds-greater-autonomy-170926121821968.html) from the original on 28 December 2017.
Retrieved 25 April 2018.
86. "п▓п╣я│я┌п╦.Ru: п▒п╦я┌п╡п╟ п╥п╟ п║п╦я─п╦я▌: п╡п╥пЁп╩я▐п╢ я│ п╩п╦п╫п╦п╦
я└я─п╬п╫я┌п╟" (http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=908640). Vesti.ru. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
87. "п▓п╣я│я┌п╦.Ru: "п║п╦я─п╦п╧я│п╨п╦п╧ п╢п╫п╣п╡п╫п╦п╨". п╓п╦п╩я▄п╪
п░п╫п╟я│я┌п╟я│п╦п╦ п÷п╬п©п╬п╡п╬п╧" (http://www.vesti.ru/videos?vid=475233).
Vesti.ru. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
88. "New Video Game Lets You Kill ISIS While Fighting as Hezbollah in Syria and Lebanon" (htt
p://www.newsweek.com/new-video-game-lets-you-kill-isis-hezbollah-fighting-syria-lebanon-81
6978). Newsweek. 23 February 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180227071523/
http://www.newsweek.com/new-video-game-lets-you-kill-isis-hezbollah-fighting-syria-lebanon-
816978) from the original on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2018.

Further reading
Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution?".
International Affairs. 88 (1): 95–113. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x (https://doi.org/10.1
111%2Fj.1468-2346.2012.01059.x).
International Crisis Group (13 July 2011). "Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East
(VII): The Syrian Regimes Slow-Motion Suicide" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011072509593
0/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%
20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20M
iddle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf)
(PDF). Middle East/North Africa Report (109). Archived from the original (http://www.crisisgrou
p.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/10
9%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20V
II%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf) (PDF) on 25 July
2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
Landis, Joshua (2012). "The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to
Survive to 2013". Middle East Policy. 19 (1): 72–84. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2012.00524.x).
Lawson, Fred Haley, ed. (1 February 2010). Demystifying Syria (http://www.themontrealreview.
com/2009/Demystifying-Syria.php). Saqi. ISBN 978-0-86356-654-7.
Rashdan, Abdelrahman. Syrians Crushed in a Complex International Game. (https://www.acad
emia.edu/19669603/Syrians_Crushed_in_a_Complex_International_Game) OnIslam.net. 21
March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
Van Dam, Nikolaos (15 July 2011). The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under
Asad and the Ba'ath Party (http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-struggle-for-power-in-
Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-760-5.
van Dam, Nikolaos (2017). Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=MARsDgAAQBAJ). I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78672-248-5.
Malek, Alia (2017). The Home That Was Our Country: A Memoir of Syria (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=GnT8sgEACAAJ). PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-56858-532-1.
Pearlman, Wendy (2017). We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices from Syria (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=5BoGDQAAQBAJ). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-265445-8.
Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East (https://archive.org/
details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig). New York: Penguin Press. pp. 212–261 (https://archive.org/
details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig/page/212). ISBN 978-1-59420-111-0.
Ziadeh, Radwan (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations
and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-434-5.
Cordesman, Anthony "Failed State Wars" in Syria and Iraq (III): Stability and Conflict in Syria (h
ttp://csis.org/files/publication/160302_Syria_Iraq_ISIS_III-Syria.pdf) Center for Strategic and
International Studies. 2 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
Maher Baker (2019), ‫اﻟﺴﻮرﻳﻮن ﺑﻜﻠﻤﺎت‬, Smashwords, ISBN 9780463442647, OL 27249735M (ht
tps://openlibrary.org/books/OL27249735M)

External links
Articles and analyses
Turkey Pitches Plan to Settle 1 Million Refugees in Northern Syria. (https://foreignpolicy.com/20
19/12/18/turkey-pitches-plan-settle-1-million-refugees-northern-syria-erdogan-kurds/)
Questions arise as to whether Erdogan's $26 billion megaproject is intended to clear his border
of Kurds. By Colum Lynch, Lara Seligman December 18, 2019, Foreign Policy magazine.
The Dirty War on Syria: Washington, Regime Change and Resistance (https://www.mideastdisc
ourse.com/2019/10/11/the-dirty-war-on-syria-washington-regime-change-and-resistance/)

Interviews
Fox News exclusive interview with Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad (https://wayback.archive-
it.org/all/20161205135549/http://nation.foxnews.com/2013/09/18/fox-news-exclusive-interview-
syrian-president-bashar-al-assad), Fox News, 18 September 2013
"Interview with Bashar Assad: 'In the End, a Lie Is a Lie' " (http://www.presidentassad.net/index.
php?option=com_content&view=category&id=307&Itemid=468), Der Spiegel, 7 October 2013
President Bashar al-Assad's interview (http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/spiegel-intervi
ew-with-syrian-president-bashar-assad-a-926456.html) with Agence France Presse (AFP), 20
January 2014
A discussion of the causes of the civil war (http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_articl
e=1017) at the United Nations University for Peace
First ever broadcast interview with Jabhat al Nusra founder Abu Mohammed al-Joulani (http://w
ww.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/12/al-qaeda-leader-syria-speaks-al-jazeera-2013121
8155917935989.html)

Supranational government bodies

FAO – Syria crisis (http://www.fao.org/emergencies/crisis/syria/en/)

Human rights bodies

The ICRC in Syria (http://www.icrc.org/eng/where-we-work/middle-east/syria/index.jsp),
International Committee of the Red Cross

Media
Syria's war (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-17258397) at BBC News
Syrian uprising: A year in turmoil (https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/world/syrian-
uprising-one-year-of-bloodshed/index.html) at The Washington Post
Syria Pulse (http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/syria-pulse) collected news and commentary at Al
Monitor
Latest Syria developments (https://web.archive.org/web/20160320165721/https://now.mmedia.
me/lb/en/Now-Syria/latest_syria_developments) at NOW News
Syria collected news and commentary (https://www.theguardian.com/) at The Guardian
Syria (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/syria/index.html)
collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Syria news, all the latest and breaking Syria news (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnew
s/middleeast/syria/) at The Daily Telegraph
 Syria (http://www.aljazeera.com/topics/country/syria.html) collected coverage at Al Jazeera
English
Syria (http://www.intelligenceonline.com/search/search.aspx?keywords=Syria) collected news
at Intelligence Online
Interactive Map of the Syrian civil war (https://syriancivilwarmap.com/)
Syria Deeply (https://www.newsdeeply.com/syria) at News Deeply
Maps of Europe and Syrian civil war (omniatlas.com) (http://omniatlas.com/maps/europe/20151
007/)

Template:Navboxes

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&oldid=989499735"

This page was last edited on 19 November 2020, at 09:52 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.