UROOJ FATIMA

PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT (BS)

ASSIGMENT ON
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO
DR SHAZIA KHALID

REGESTRATION NUM
1427320107

PRESTON UNIVERSITY
Behaviour modification:
Behavior modification refers to the techniques used to try and decrease
or increase a particular type of behavior or reaction. This might sound very
technical, but it's used very frequently by all of us. Parents use this to teach
their children right from wrong. Therapists use it to promote healthy
behaviors in their patients. Animal trainers use it to develop obedience
between a pet and its owner. We even use it in our relationships with
friends and significant others. Our responses to them teach them what we
like and what we don't.
Technique:
The purpose behind behavior modification is not to understand why or how
a particular behavior started. Instead, it only focuses on changing the
behavior, and there are various different methods used to accomplish it.
This includes:

 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Flooding
 Systematic desensitization
 Positive reinforcement is pairing a positive stimulus to a behavior. A
good example of this is when teachers reward their students for
getting a good grade with stickers. Positive reinforcement is also
often used in training dogs. Pairing a click with a good behavior, then
rewarding with a treat, is positive reinforcement.
 Negative reinforcement is the opposite and is the pairing of a
behavior to the removal of a negative stimulus. A child that throws a
tantrum because he or she doesn't want to eat vegetables and has
his or her vegetables taken away would be a good example.
 Punishment is designed to weaken behaviors by pairing an
unpleasant stimulus to a behavior. Receiving a detention for bad
behavior is a good example of a punishment
Flooding involves exposing people to fear-invoking objects or situations
intensely and rapidly. Forcing someone with a fear of snakes to hold one
for 10 minutes would be an example of flooding.
Systematic desensitization is also used to treat phobias and involves
teaching a client to remain calm while focusing on these fears. For
example, someone with an intense fear of bridges might start by looking at
a photo of a bridge, then thinking about standing on a bridge, and
eventually walking over a real bridge.
Procedure,Technique:
A technique is any chemical or physical principle that we can use to study
an analyte. There are many techniques for that we can use to determine
the concentration of lead in drinking water [Fitch, A.; Wang, Y.; Mellican, S.;
Macha, S. Anal. Chem. 1996, 68, 727A–731A]. In graphite furnace atomic
absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS), for example, we first convert aqueous
lead ions into free atoms—a process we call atomization. We then measure
the amount of light absorbed by the free atoms. Thus, GFAAS uses both a
chemical principle (atomization) and a physical principle (absorption of
light).
A method is the application of a technique for a specific analyte in a
specific matrix. As shown in Figure 3.2.13.2.1, the GFAAS method for
determining the concentration of lead in water is different from that for lead
in soil or blood
A procedure is a set of written directions that tell us how to apply a method
to a particular sample, including information on how to collect the sample,
how to handle interferents, and how to validate results. A method may have
several procedures as each analyst or agency adapts it to a specific need.
The American Public Health Agency and the American Society for Testing
Materials publish separate procedures for determining the concentration of
lead in water.
Treated through behavior modification:
Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning is a method based on making an association
between a behavior and consequences of that behavior. The results either
increase or decrease the likelihood of future responses. There are four
types of behavior-consequence relations: positive and negative
punishment and positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement
increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated, and punishment
leads to a reduction in behavior. Negative refers to the removal of a
stimulus, and positive refers to the application of a stimulus.

Positive reinforcement training occurs if behavior is increased by

something applied (generally something pleasant or appealing); negative
reinforcement occurs if behavior is increased by something removed
(generally something unpleasant). In positive reinforcement training, a
reward should be given immediately and consistently until the behavior is
reliably repeated. If the behavior is to be trained on command or cue, a
word or hand signal should then be added before the behavior-reward
sequence. Once learned, behavior can be reinforced on a variable
schedule, so that the period of time or number of responses before the
reward is given is varied. Rewards are used for positive reinforcement, but
a reward is not synonymous with positive reinforcement. A reward is
anything desirable to the pet, from an activity such as petting, walking, or
play, to an item such as a toy, food, chew, or treat. However, unless there
is a clear relationship between the behavior and the reward (timing,
consistency, contiguity), then the reward does not achieve the goal of
positively reinforcing behavior.
Negative reinforcement must not be confused with punishment, because
punishment decreases behaviors and reinforcement increases behaviors.
One example of negative reinforcement is avoidance or escape behavior.
For example, if an animal anticipates an unpleasant outcome (eg, meeting
another dog, veterinary visit), then the aversive outcome will not occur if
the animal retreats. Similarly, if the owner puts pressure on a head halter
until the desired behavior is achieved (eg, sit, back up), the release of
tension is negative reinforcement. One potential consequence of negative
reinforcement is that if a pet’s threats or aggression lead to removal of a
stimulus (eg, dog, delivery person, owner), the behavior is reinforced by
the retreat of the stimulus.
Positive punishment occurs when a behavior decreases when
something is applied (generally something unpleasant), and negative
punishment occurs when a behavior is decreased when something is
removed (generally something pleasant or appealing). In positive
punishment, if behavior does not decrease after the first few applications,
then the punishment is not being appropriately timed or the behavior is too
strongly motivated to be deterred by punishment. Positive punishment
applied by a person (owner, trainer) is intended to cause the pet to
become fearful of repeating the behavior. However, a potential
consequence is that the pet becomes fearful or defensive to the punisher
or to an approaching hand. Relationships with people should always
remain positive! Also, if an unpleasant consequence occurs only when the
owner is present, the behavior may continue in the owner’s absence.
Another problem with positive punishment is that punishment paired with
exposure to a stimulus (barking at cars, meeting other dogs on walks) can
result in a conditioned fear of the stimulus (see above).
Punishment cannot be used to achieve desirable behaviors, only to stop
what is undesirable. If the goal is to make the pet fearful of repeating a
behavior (eg, garbage raiding, taking things from counters, chewing
plants) or to keep the pet away from an area (room, couch, bed), then
environmental punishment or pet-activated punishment (eg, motion
detector alarms or sprays, upside-down carpet runners, aversive tastes,
double-sided tape, or bark-activated sprays) or remote punishment (eg,
spraying water while out of sight, remote-activated alarm or spray) might
be most appropriate. However, before focusing on how to stop what is
undesirable, the owner should first focus on providing a desirable
alternative (eg, where to sleep, where to climb, what to chew).

Negative punishment is the reduction of a behavior by the removal of

something pleasant. For example, if the pet is receiving affection or play
when an undesirable behavior begins (eg, play biting, mouthing,
mounting), the immediate removal of the play or affection will "negatively"
punish the pet. However, unless the pet can determine what behavior
leads to the removal of play, the behavior may actually intensify because
of frustration at not receiving its reward.

Second-order Reinforcers:
Signals that can be used at a distance to convey that the reward is
coming are second-order reinforcers. Commonly used second-order
reinforcers are words (eg, “Good dog!”), clickers, or whistles. By
repeatedly and continuously pairing these with a primary reward such as a
toy or treat, second-order reinforcers can elicit the same response that the
reward would, as long as the pairing is repeatedly maintained. Clicker
training requires frequent practice and excellent timing, but once achieved
the animal can be reinforced each time the desired behavior is observed.
Clicker training is an excellent way to immediately “mark” desirable
responses, gradually shape new or more desirable behaviors (eg, longer,
more relaxed), or associate a positive emotional response with the
stimulus.

Premack Principle:
When a more desirable behavior is made contingent on a less desirable
behavior, the less desirable behavior is more likely to be repeated. Thus,
the more desirable behavior serves as the reinforcer. For example, if a pet
wants to go out or cross the street for its walk, the owner can train a sit-
stay before each of these behaviors. A horse or dog that wants to walk
ahead can be taught that walking on a slack rein or leash will result in this
behavior.

Overlearning:
Overlearning is the repeated evocation and expression of an already
learned response. It is a phenomenon frequently used in training for
specific events but may be underused in preventing fearful responses in
dogs. Overlearning accomplishes three things: it delays forgetting, it
increases the resistance to extinction, and it increases the probability that
the response will become a “knee-jerk” one, or response of first choice,
when the circumstances are similar.
Shaping:
Shaping works through gradual approximations and allows the animal to
be rewarded initially for any behavior that resembles the desired behavior.
For instance, when teaching a puppy to sit, providing a food reward for a
slight squat will increase the probability that squatting will be repeated.
This squatting behavior is then rewarded only when it more closely
resembles a sit, and finally, when it becomes a true sit. Shaping can also
be used to reward an increase in duration of or progressively more
relaxed behaviors.

Extinction:
The ending of a behavior once all reinforcement is removed is termed
extinction. For example, if people pet a dog that jumps up on them for
attention, the behavior continues; if they stop, the dog will eventually
extinguish its response because the reward is no longer there. However,
any form of intermittent reinforcement—even occasional petting of the dog
in response to its jumping—will prolong the performance of the response.
Valuable rewards, a long history of performance, and intermittent
reinforcement all increase resistance to extinction. Owners also must be
prepared for the intensity of the behavior to initially increase before it is
extinguished. Giving in will make extinction even more difficult as the
animal learns that higher intensity behaviors achieve the desired outcome.

Habituation:
Habituation is a gradual lessening of a response to a stimulus. Usually
this occurs with repeated presentation of a stimulus whereby the animal
learns that it does not signal anything important. For example, horses
placed in a pasture bordering a road may at first run away when traffic
passes but eventually learn to ignore it. Stimuli associated with potentially
adverse consequences are more difficult to extinguish with habituation
than other stimuli. In prey species, responses to sounds associated with
predators would be difficult to habituate, because they have been selected
for and generally are adaptive. If the fear response is too intense, instead
of habituation the animal may become increasingly more fearful of the
stimulus. This is termed sensitization.
If an extended interval has occurred since the time an animal last
experienced a stimulus to which it had habituated, the animal may again
react when reexposed to the stimulus. This is termed spontaneous
recovery.
Flooding:
This is used to treat fears of harmless stimuli by forcing the animal to stay
in the presence of the stimuli until the fear is extinguished. This procedure
is seldom effective and has welfare implications in dogs, because it
initially enhances fear and cannot be stopped until all physiologic and
emotional signs of fear are gone. If done improperly, flooding may
therefore increase problem behaviors. In practice, a controlled level of
flooding is quite often used as a component of behavior modification, in
which the stimulus is presented at a level that is low enough to cause mild
fear and the pet is not removed until it habituates. This can then be
combined with reinforcement, ie, the pet is positively reinforced or the
stimulus removed (negative reinforcement) when the fear response
subsides or abates.

Response Substitution:
This involves the replacement of an undesirable response with a desirable
one. For example, high-value rewards can be used to train desirable
target behaviors that are alternatives to the undesirable behavior.
However, if the behavior is part of the pet’s natural repertoire (eg,
greeting, barking), it can be particularly difficult to train alternative
behaviors. Specific examples of response substitution include training a
dog to sit or lie down as an alternative to jumping up, mounting, or play
biting; or to sit, walk on loose leash, or back up for dogs forging ahead or
running out the door. Training should begin in a variety of environments
where success can be most readily achieved. The desired endpoint for the
new response is for the animal to be quiet and calm. Therefore, the owner
must learn to read the look in the eyes, body posture, facial expressions,
and breathing to be able to gradually shape the desired behavior. Training
could then move to environments with increasing distractions and
locations where the problem is most likely to arise. Alternatively, the pet
might be enticed to engage in a behavior that is incompatible with the
undesirable behavior, eg, teaching the dog to fetch a toy when visitors
arrive instead of jumping up.

To replace the undesirable behavior with one that is desirable, response

substitution can be coupled with desensitization by beginning training with
stimuli of low enough intensity while training the target behaviors (eg,
relaxation) with high-value rewards. However, for pets that are fearful or
anxious, the focus should be on desensitization and counterconditioning
to change the pet’s emotional state rather than the behavioral response .